A New History of Indo Pakistan by K Ali PDF

| by K. ALL. maicat) Formerly Professor and Head of the Department of History, Daulatpur B.L. College. PAKISTAN BOOK CENTRE a Floor Hashmi Trust Building, New Urdu Bazar, Karachi. a danPART It ‘ MEDIEVAL INDO-PAKISTAN BOOK T THE MUSLIM CONQUEST AND THE ‘DELHI SULTANATE CHAPTER . I. Condition of Indo-Pakistan on the eve of Arab Conquest of Sind a ss 135 IL. Arab Conquest of Sind si vieeta I, The House of Ghazni 2. cy ey 154 IV. ‘The House of Ghur ue i + 168 VY. The Early Turkish Empire of Delhi . =. 479 VI. ‘The Khalji Dynasty) £0 4. 009 VIE Whe Tuhgluq Dynasty .. + 226 VI. The Sayyid and Lodi Dinssties > ies 253 TX. Minor Sultanates of Northern and ‘Southern India 4. < =» 269 X. Administration, Society ane Culture uncer the Delhi Sultanate “ sey THE CSS POINT) Yes We Can Do It! : wwew.css.theazkp.com www.facebook.com/thecsspointa One Of Ihe Math teatons a Wed SUCCESS “has Uret Teh: Ot AL TK A) Sinct h/Steto-— “Orc hae 7 BRE net Gert raul 4 CHAPTER I © CONDITION OF INDO-PAKISTAN ON THE EVE OF ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND | Political Condition The Indo-Pakistan sub-continent presented a chequered picture of warring dynasties and of smail kingdoms hostile to one another on the eve of Arab invasion. ‘During the first half of the 7th Century A.D. when the successors of Prophet Muhammad (sm.) were rapidly subjugating the neighbouring countries, Harsha Vardhan of Qanauj was laying the foundation of a yreat empire in north-west India,’ On the death of Harsha ‘Wardhan, the last great Hindu ruler, his empire had fallen to pieces, follow. ed hy a scramble among the petty princes for supremacy in the land. Political confusion of the worst type prevailed in this part of more than 50 years, Want at The remaining part of the country Was parcelled out ay among many independent monarchs of varying de- §tees of power and prestige, There was no central government in the country. All these states enjoved complete independence and sovereignty, The int- portant states may be enumerated under the heads; (a) States in Northern India and (b) States in Southern India or the Deccan,) States in Northern India Afghanistan had been a part of Indo-Pakistan and remained so till the end of the 9th century A.D. Tt was then that a Brahman dynasty founded by Lalliya was established and this new dynasty was called by Muslim historians as the Hindushahi kingdom. It is not possible to. say who was the ruler of this.kingdom in the early years of the Sth century Afghnita when Sind was invaded by the Arabs. But there js no doubt whatsoever that the Hindushahi kingdom of Afghanistan was an important independent Hindu kingdom at that time, :136 Kashmir ‘Nepal and ‘Quaau} HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN i i i dent kingdom Sashmir had become an indepen i det DaaABBaeeU leak of the Korkol. dynasty in ise ath century AD, On the éve of Arab inv ser Sind Chandrapida, the grandson of Ei ae dhan, was the ruler of ne Sere ae iC Gon i Muktipida i i. powerful king was pee Ee ee sor of Chandrapida. He ay : ae is said to have con fhe eae a j, Dardistan and Kabul. Yasoverms: Tae defeated and killed at his hands. independent states | and Assam had become indepe atc ties sie deat of Harsha Vardhan. Eee. or remoteness they did not play any important p: the beginning of the 8th century. i kingdom of Qanauj was the most important king : eae in the beginning of the Sth ee AD. Yasoverman was the ruler of this pea is was under Yasoverman that Qanauj was ae fe Te ee A eae auton, Uenne uler and a su . ae fie the Pte of Qanauj extended from fie layas in the north to the Narbada in ve ee ae from Bengal in the east to Thaneswar ae na west, Yasoverman was @ contemporary Ss ne nf Sind, Later on, he was defeated an: Lalitaditya of Kashmir. i a province in West Pakistan, was once a ster Boihes empire, But after his nee it Ree eame independent ie Mie Sue ee eet e ies of the Sudra dynasty was e oe a ee minister of Sind set aside the Sudra ru ea i dynasty of his own. He was succ' le tye orea cranden On the eve of deh i vasion, Dahir, the son of Chacha was ru BERN Sind. His kingdom included Daibul, Nate a Brahmanabad and Alor. Alor was the capital ee Himself a Brahman, Dahir had passed a Bee pare measures against his Buddhist’ subjects ani Measures rendered the king very unpopular among © thi Iped the is Buddhist subjects who welcomed and he i piety ae Mu ei Qasim against their own. king, TEVE OF ARAB CONQUEST OF sinD On the death of Sasanka, ruler of Bengal and contemporary: to Harsha, there was anarchy in the pro- “ince, It was ‘sometime in the first halt of the 8ih ‘century ALD. that the people placed a person named “Gopal on the throne of Bengal. The dynasty found~ ed by Gopal is called the Pala dynasty. It was under the Palas that Bengal witnessed peace and prospe- wity. The Pala dynasty continued to rule up to the 12th century when it was supplanted by the Sen dy- hasty. E Malwa, with its capital at Ujjain was ruled bya ‘Pratihara dynasty of the Rajputs. The sway of the Pratiharas extended also to. Marwar, Broach and ther neighbouring territories, The Pratiharas under Nagabhatta 1 became so powerful that they could -alse defeat the Arabs and recover their lost territories When the latter under the leadership of J, unay'd swept over the western part of the Pratihara dominion, Un- -der Nagabhatta 1 and his successors, Malwa became a very powerful and prosperous state, States in Southern India The kingdom of Pallavas with its headquarters at Kanchi was the most important kingdom in the south. In the 6th century A.D. Sinhavishnu was the ‘powerful king of this kingdom, He is said to have annexed the Chola country and defeated all his southern neighbours, Including the king of Ceylon. In the beginning of the 8th century A.D. a serious con- Tlict was going on between the Pallavas and the Che- lukyas in which the latter ultimately came out victorious and established their rule in Kanchi. ‘Thus * while the Arabs were conquerin Sind, the Chaluk- vas were ousting the Pallavas from the kingdom of Kanchi, In the sixth century the Chalukyas emerged asa power in the Decean. Pulakesin was the greatest king of the Chalukya dynasty. In 681, Vinayaditya, son of Vikramaditya came to the throne. He was succeeded by Vinayaditya (696-733 A. D.\ who conquered Kanthi from the Pallava king. He was ruling on the eve of Arab conquest of Sind. Bengal +The Pallavas The Chalukyes138 ISTORY OF IN! - | HISTO! IF INDO-PAKISTAN EVE OF ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND 139 Pandya, In the Far South, there were threo important onomic Conditi Chola & Kingdoms, namely, the Pandya, the Chola and the erase tt . i Chera Chera, ‘These states were often in conflict with one © The economic condition of the people was, on Kingdom another and their territories were in a state of flux.” the whole, very sound, for the country was extreme- ly prosperous: People were well-of and free from ‘want. Agriculture formed the main occupation of So! ‘the people. The country saw the growth of indus- %% 9" ‘try. Bengal and Gujarat were famous for manufac- eee - ture and export of cotton textile goods, But the til- Jers of the soil had to work hard for their bread,’ a the upper class people rolled in luxury and _Religious Condition . There were threé religions, namely, Bud _Jainism and Hinduism prevalent in ah on the eve of Arab conquest, Jainism was not a popular Teligion and Buddhism was on the decline, Hindu- dsm was the most important religion of the people Latte dn the land, Most of the kings were Hindus and they meets ‘would take measures for the patronage of Hinduism. The priestly class of Brahmins «ho occupied a very important position in the society exploited the mas- ses. Regarding their power and position Prof. Habib says, “The Brahmins deliberately kept the people in Hinduism & aa state of ignorance, The less scrupulous Brahmins te) pres not only earned their livelihood but established their suthority by preying upon the wealmess and fears of the multitude.” The Brahmanical revival and its ag- ‘gressive measures created animosity among the Bud- dhists who, in order to avoid the Hindu rulers, wel- eomed the Arab invaders of Sind. ; ‘ It is quite clear from the above discussion that on the eve of Arab conquest there was no paramount authority in the country which could check effective~ ly the Arab conquest of Sind. The lack of political unity favoured the Arabs to conquer this country, ‘Administrative Condition c "The king was the head of administration he, _to all intents and purposes, was a dictator. He rt ined all le; ative, executive, judicial ai tary” i‘ Aowers in his person. ingship was generally here— The Aine ditary, but the example of Gopal of the Pala dynasty oi Bengal and Nandi Warman of the Pallava of Kanchi illustrates that sometimes the otable elements of the king wi country. } : [There were ministers to help and advise the king | in the discharge of his kingly duties but the king was not_bound to aeept their advice. The Rae of ministers depended upon the circumstances and re~ Ministers] uirements a the Situation/ The names of the important ministers were Sandlilvigrahikas (Minister | in charge of War and Pease), Askshapataladhikarita (Minister of Reeords),! Amaya (Minister of Fin-— ance), Sumant (Minister of Foreign’ Affairs) and Rajapurohit (Minister of Religious Affairs). The empire was divided into many provinces. The head of a province was called Uparika whose chief duty was to maintain peace and order in the — province, to enforce the orders of the king and to Jead expeditions when ordered. A province was divided into districts called Vatsayas. A Vaishya was ~Bicial Condition In the beginning of the 8th century AD. society 7 administered by the diftrict officer called Vaishya= twas divided into four main castes—the Brahi _—— ee pat, Village was the lowest unit of administration ‘the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudegs. Each caste where the administrative functions were performed ‘did not strictly adhere to its own functions. There by the headman and se Panchayat. The chief source” ‘of income of the State wes land revenue, Trib from vassal chiefs, duties of excise and marche'-di were other sources of Income, ‘were Brahmins who were working as warriors and Four anc ‘the Kshatriyas working as merchants, Likewise certain Vaishyas and Sudras were acting as rulers, In most cases people married within their castes and inter-caste marriages were very rare. Poligamy wasPosition of women HISTORY GF INDO-PAKISTAN ised in the society, but women were not allow= ee a Pena ithe. Untouchability was ir vogue. The practice of Saii was becoming popular among the ruling families. Most of the people were: vegetarians and they abstained from taking even onions and garlic, There were schools. ee ce ae oe ue ‘the education of the people. - Geer Nalanda in Behar and Valabhi in Wes- tern India were. the most famous educational institu~ tions in the country. There was a Sanskrit college at Dhar in Malwa and another at Ajmer. Besides. the Vedas and Shastras, other subjects, such as science, astronomy and medicine were taught im these universities and colleges. 7 °@ : =e = a awed Relewertins 5 a ge CHAPTER II | THE ABAB CONQUEST OF SIND Rise of Islam ee The rise of Islam is, perhaps, the most amazing event in the history of the world. Islam came as a beacon light to oppressed humanity and raised the then world, especially Arabia, from the depth of degradation to a place of culture and civilization. The founder of Islam was Frophet Muhammad (sm;) who completely changed the intellectual oul- if $7) ACDyinthe-nobh Jook (bia. eran respectable Quraish (sm.) Tost his | Hig"early irdship and troubles due to economic difficulties, co ot receive edu- eation. From his early life, Muhammad (sm,) was €@ man of noble character and Generous disposition, His, honesty of purpose and truthfulness earned for + him the title of a/-amin, “the trusted one.” When aoe he was 25, he married Khadijah, a lady of 40 and Presber this marriage removed his financial embarrassment for the time being, . At the age of forty (610 A.D.) he received the divine revelation and began to Preach Islam to the misguided people, A storm of Opposition came and mountain after, mountain of troubles stood in his way, He had to leave the land of his birth and seek shelter at Madinah, But there, too, he was not allowed fo live pqacefully: He had , to fight a series of battles with his enemies and at‘. last he triumphed over them. ‘The teachings of the: Prophet brought a mighty change in the lives of the Arabs. Within a span of 23 years, he transformed the barbarous and impious Arabs into a civilised and religious nation, Hefore his death almost the whole of Arabia came within the fold of Islam, On the demise of the Prophet, the expansion of isla “as not stopped. His followers and successors142 HISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN inspired by the doctrines of the new religion carried the banner of Islam to the different parts of the world, They soon became the masters of a vast empire comprising Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Persia, z The famous historian Gibbon says, “At the close of the first century of the Hijrat, the Khalifahs ‘were the potent and absolute monarchs of the globe,” Expansion of lam after she Prophet Early relation with Indo-Pakistan After the conquest of Persia, the Muslims turned their attention to the east. Long before the ad- vent.of Islam to Arabia, the Arabs used to visitethe territories of the eastern coast for trade and comr merce, So it wes quite natural for the sons of the desert to be attracted to the rich soil of India. Dure ing the Khilafat of Umar I, the first attempt was made by the Muslims to come to India, but it ended in failure, In consideration of the dangers and difficulties involved in distant adventures, the Khalifah stopped further expedition. In the time of Uthman, — the third Khalifah of Islam, another expedition w: sent under Abdullah ibn A’mr who conquered Sistan” and then advanced towards Makran (modern Be=" luchistan). .He even conquered a portion of Sind, but he, however, did mot consider it worthwhile to annex the arid lands of Sind, During the Khilafat of ‘Ali and Mu’awiya, several expeditions were dertaken none of which resulted in a permanent 5 cess, The arms of the Muslims remained inactly for the next few years. But with the coming of Umayyad ah, al-Walid to power, there ed a new rin the history of Islam. His mous general, Musa ibn Nusayr subjugated the wh of North Africa while his lieutenant, Tarig, cong ed Spain, In the east Quiaibah carried the ba of Islam far into Central Asia, It was at that that circumstances led the Muslims to the co of Sind. | Early attempts hy the Muslims to come 0 Causes of the invasion of Sind Tt has been stated that the Arabs hed cast 1H eyes on the rich soil of India long before they @ | fused to do anythin ail who also failed Pxpedition under Muhammad ‘bin Qasim 6.3. ALiip L Be Soh center i : THE ARAB CONQUEST OF 3IND oer S WENO Suey Peewee quered it, But in the beginning of the 8th cent the Indians compelled them o sete ha course, there were other factors behind it, : During the Persian expeditions, h : » the ruler of pg sent their legions to help the Perine ane He Muslims and thereby they incurred the disples- ree the Muslims, _The Umayyad Khalifah, al- eens ee Helis) Hn Yusuf as the governer Provinces. It was during t! = norship of Hajjaj that some of the Ae eee erossed the border into Sin: i id and were giv, by Dahir, the king of Sind. When Hajiaj ve Ve Seats A, 143 Medp mw the Fersians again we Mudlizns his territory to India, The obstinacy and refusal of Dahir to return the Arab refugees were a : A Good aut ae fo conquer Sind. Buena eae 1s invasion was the plunder of ae pirates near Daibul, a ae in Se mech yh GD eager of fu Aue ied in Ceylon and value able presents sent by the King of Ceylon rie Khe ! or. Hajjaj sent a letter to Da» © punish the culprits and restore e captives. But Raja Dahir re- i on the ground that the pirates’ the presents and th Mgainst Daibul under the com: Mit without’ success, artes He was soon followed by to achieve success, ay Ae Hajjaj bin Yusuf was deeply mortified at these c n-law, Muh asim, ane young general marched ie Pai Fae a Hl a Makran towards Sind, On his way ne i. din y the governor of Makran who gave him fnlak, andl Meds hatpect i144 Au rte HISTORY OF INDO- PAKISTAN THE ARAB CONQUEST OF sIND ‘ ' . “Dad fe" additional force, Besides the Arab troops, Muham- Death of Muhammad bin Qasim a mad bin Qasim had the fortune of enlisting under his | Muhammad bin Qasim met his tragic end in the _ banner a good number of Jats and Meds who were Prime of his life in 715 AD, Wis death checked the The Arabs displeased with the Hindu government for mal< further progress of the Arab arms. There is a dif- reached treatment towards them. The Arabs reached Daibul + ference of opinion about the death of the conqueror Diibwl, 772 in 712 AD, The town was well-protected by the of Sind. The version of his final end as Biven. by Dike e Brahmins} and the Rajputs. A battle was fought oné group of authors reads Ike a romanticinte Y pe ; ‘between the Hindus and the Muslims in which the is said that the two daughters of Dahir, Surya Devi 5H da former were defeated and a large booty fell into the and Parmal Devi, were sent to the Khalifah as pre- Rabcs ch THe LEE : sents, They. informed the Khalifah that Qasim hed ‘After Daibul, Muhammad bin Qasim proceeded SH oe bem before sending them to him. At towards Nirun, near modern Hyderabad, and obtein- » - a ee lifah became annoyed and ordered ie Inhsbiaas ed the submission of its inhabitants. He then march- i ¢ put to death, When the order was carried out, ef Nuun ed to Shewan and from Shewan to Sisam. The ine i = daughters of Dahir told the Khalifah that they Shewat © habitants of these places submitted to him without ad invented the story in onder to take revenge on aed strong resistance. But the Muslims had to face a him, for their father and relatives had been killed Bin Qaim. serious opposition at Rawar where all the Hindus ae course of fighting with him, On hearing this nlong with their king had posted themselves to meet a. ane Ehalifah ordered both the sisters to he tied the enemy, The Hindus fought gallantly, but fate to the tails of horses and dragged on until they died. - was against them. Dahir fell-fighting and with the | a ter a detailed study of the subject, it is found that death of the king, the Hindus fled from the field, u are is no truth in the story and it can be safely're- Defeat of Dahir’s wife and son todk shelter in the fortress of te | a8 4 piece of fiction, Other writers ascribe Dahir Rawar and defended it to the last ; but when the fall Sul eath to political reasons. ‘The new Khalifah | : of the fortress became imminent, she and her hand- wlayman was an arch enemy of Hajjaj bin Yusuf maids cast themselves on & funeral pyre to escape pe Muhammad bin Qasim being his cousin and son- possible dishonour at the hands of the Muslims. “in-law fell a victim to his wrath. He was arrested é * 5 - and sent to Mesopotamia where che was tortured to bm, Flushed with victory, Muhammad bin Qasim death. Thus ended the bright career of th at advanced to Brahmanabad where people soon sub- hero who had laid the foundation of Moslin: ere mitted to him, After the capture of Brahmanabad, the sub-continent, rule in he organised the administration of Lower Sind and ‘ itori The militas d th int : lacing governors in the conquered territories he set ary and the administrative success of bik tee ee which was defended by a son of Dahir Mier bin @asim forms one of the most bril. called by the Muslim historians, ‘Fufi.” Alor was soon nb chapters in the history of the Muslim rulers of brought under the sway of the Muslims. He then led 4 Sea He was a born leader and a man of his army against Multan, the last strong-hold of the wae eas He was a poet, a patriot, a states- Chance, Hindus. On his way to Multan, he captured the town 7 4 and an accomplished administrator. ‘His ten- of Mubom- of Sika, The Hindus offered battle in afl open field | eae HORTESS VE figure, his dauntless courage and ™! bin at Multan, but they were defeated and routed by 7 a © bravery, his brilliant victiories' in battles and °""" the Arabs. With the capture of Multan the whele | ¥ ens of administration and lastly his sudden of Dahir’s dominion fell to the Muslims. The ban- a ae end make the story of his short and illus- ner of Islam was thus hoisted on the soil of Indo- 7 feo ife one of the romances of history’, He was Pakistan in 712 AD. strong against opponents and tender-hearted to his Mulun, *\ oraWDirunity smong the Indians & aunpoptla- any of ‘Dabir Supetlority “of the Amb army Able grneralship Kalinjar Gwillor Cause of anackien SomnathHISTORY OF INDO- PAKISTAN Somnath” says Dr, M, Nazim, “is one of the greatest feats of military adventure in the history of Islam.” (17) The last expedition (1027) was undertaken against the Jats who had molested the Muslim army on its return journey from Somnath. The Jats were defeated and many of them were put to death. a Nature and Motives of Mahmud’s Invasions ‘Different: a about the motives of Mahmud - eae (ac may Sultan Mahmud made seventeen expeditions into Indo-Fakistan and conquered a number of places in the sub-continent, But he‘did not establish his rule over them or annex any part of the conquered territories except the Punjab. What then was the ob- + ject of his military expeditions? Various opinions have been expressed by the historians about the motives of Sultan Mahmud’s invasions. Some say that Mahmud was the greatest champion of Islam whose main motive in invading this country was to preach Islam by breaking the idols and desecrating the temples: There are others who hold that his chief motive was to loot the wealth of Indo-Pakistan. He was a raider-in-chief who, in order to satisty his thirst for wealth, “came, burnt, killed, plundered, captured and went away.” Still there are others _ who think and maintain that Mahmud was a great military general and conqueror and it was his ambition that brought him to this sub-continent, Thus there are different views about the motives of Mah- ynud's invasions and these views may briefly be dis- cussed here. - A) Religious motive. There are writers who are of ‘@pinion that the chief object of Mahmud’s Indian jnvasion was to crush idolatry and spread Islam, ‘According to them, Mahmud had been especially engaged by Khalifeh Qadir Billah of Baghdad to undertake the task of spreading Islam in India and Mahmud in his repeated invasions tried to plant Islam in India, He destroyed the great Hindu temples of Nagarkot, Somnath and other places and compelled thousands of Hindus including many Rajas to embrace Islam. This view of the historians cannot be accepted in the face of facts. The age of Holy War was over THE HOUSE OF GHAZNT - Jong ago. The idea of the propagation’ “eased to be considered aa ae at ‘ts sovereign at the time of Sultan Mahmud. “The non religious character of his expeditions” will be obyis bates Gee who has grasped the salient features os nie ec to read a religious mo- Mahmud was not a predcher, but a gre: qitee He was a pious Muslim but he te tn : ‘a igion on others. Islam sanctions neither venue a ism. ae plundering motives of the invader. ie ome Rajas are said to have embraced Islam, but: ey did so most probably as a political shift to. 65- sone the fury of the conqueror and returned {o their a 48 soon ashe had turned his back on them.”*" is a different thing if a Hindu Raja and his follow- 159 ‘The age of Mahmod ‘at none religioay in characet ers embraced Islam either for fear of defeat or for oben enjoying privileges under Islam. “His retigi uy was based on toleration and though Ceiba aa slam, he maintained a large body of Hindu troo and there is no reason to believe that enveriee was .@ eondition of their services.”+ The Hindu qoiers fought shoulder to shoulder with the Mus- ims against the common enemy. Had it been a Holy War, it would not have been possible for them to ep oealiay their co-religionists, According to M. El P ye) “It ismmowhere asserted that he ever put oF a lu te death except in battle or in the storm Rhee ort. Mahmud M™massacred a good number of ee He in Persia and almost all his Central Asian he harassed the Wade Renee of eae Sit 2 jas of India, he did not eee Muslim sovereigns of Iran and ‘Transo- Under his benign gove: i j - complete religions fect he eee aah eae quarters in Ghazni where they Hips erty to perform their religious rites and cere- yo Prot M: Habib, Sulten Medimud of Cheeni Br M. Nazim, Life and Tires of Sultan Mahmud f Sir W. Haig, Cambridge Hinoty. of India, Vol. an § Dr M, Nazim Life and Timer of Sulten Mehmed, His anny ‘of a Large bedy of Hinda fe160 Religions Liberty: granted to the Hindur Charge of invading India on religious ground was baseless HISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN monies. The Hindus were appointed to highly responsible posts and the names of Tilak Rei, Hazari Rai and Sonai stand out prominently in the military history of Ghazni, He also instituted 9 college anda market at Ghazni for the propagation of Hindu culture and Sanskrit works. If he was a fanatic, how could it be possible for him to do these things ? Mahmud, of course, destroyed some of the temples of the Hindus. This destruction of Hindu ter- ples was-a-part of his military programme, for the - temples were the repositories of accumulated wealth. There are certain writers who blame Mahmud. for 4wanton destruction of temples.” But they have for- gotten that it was only during war that the temples were destroyed. He never destroyed any temple in peace time nor any temple suffered desecration at his hands, 'f he had not been aware of its riches. He was not actuated by a desire to punish the idola~ tors nor to spread. the faith of Islam. The famous historian al-Beruni who ‘was an eye-witness says, phe treasures were accumulated in the temples by the bounty of the pious Hindus who had grown rich by selling their surplus produce to foreign merchants.” These sacred places were regarded -as in- violate and some times even. monarchs kept huge wealth in the safe custody at these temples. Accord ing to Dr. Iswari Prasad, “The temples of India. * which Mahmud raided were store-houses of “enor- mous and untold wealth and also some of these were political centres.” Hence, the view of the cri+ tics that Mahmud invaded India again and again to preach Islam by breaking the jdols and desecrating the temples is historically wrong and psychological- ly untrue. Political motive, According to some historians ‘Mahmud’s motive in invading India was to satis- fy his ambition of-conquest and to extend his ero- pire to this country. There is no doubt that Mah- nud was an ambitious man and it was but natural for him to cherish the idea of extending his empire to the east, This idea arose out of necessity. Tho North-West Frontier of India occupies a strategic position and its occupation is of vital importance To THE HOUSE OF GHAZNI ¢ iy Heer ef Kabul and Afghanistan. It may 6 sem ore : ere that Jaypal, the king of the Hindus Ghamiig om of the Punjab, viewed the rise of the eee Power with great alarm and it was he ieee Taco ae dust the time of Sabuike ecu uunili the hands of Sabuktigin, the soup Heron See t ; led and when Mahmud ascended the throne, he took up the issue, His an g ine motive was to establi eee poe empire and for this, he iailyae 3 ae Se and consolidation in the west. aaa Mahmud remained satisfied with the nee ee the Punjab and some other abe sara neae ae Multan. These places formed th = is defence in the east and south. het His Indian invasion was one of political rather than - religious Interest, J; i ioe In addition to the oce ae ane Eeaee in the interest of Rano < Race Fee of the terms of the treaty by the Hind i Ute n of allegiance to the Si iF aon pevel in the form of help to his a te Ce of his Indian allies iby rthide fee i eeieitati the rebellion of the linn Sertaiete hmud to invade Indo-Pakisian Economie motive, Prof. Habib, the al motive of Mahmud's Vasion *h@ real ti f d's. in: of India was econ lid wer 01 eae of oh and not religious, Mahmud Thdia might have attracted him to. th ie mee 1 ehormous money aa Fa bead against his Contrel Asi it can be Smee into'o great empire, Hens, eine that the real motives of Make nm invasio: tal sed ot Ree were economic-cum-politi- ds own country. rely plunders rians of India According to §, M. Jaffar and ahd the: fabnious wealth of E, 161 Tnvasions of India arose out ‘of political necessity162 Wau Mab- aud 3 raider? erat of Mahmud’s Success 7) Disensions of the Hia- dat _ Old me- P) thods of warfare a) Unity of } the Muslims (& J) of Mahmud \ Genetalship ~ IY, a > Results of Mahmud’s Invasions HISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN more as a raider than as a conqueror. But his conquests in the other direction and those in the sub-con= tinent, though the latter had left little permanent result, speak positively of Mahmud as‘a great cong~ ueror, He fully realised the importance of wealth in attaining political power and when India offered him that chance, he availed himself of it, The money which he took from India was properly spent for the improvement of the capital. But one thing seems to be certain, His frequent raids must have caused hardship to the population of the north-wes= tern part of this sub-continent, The Hindus: were numerically superior to the ‘Muslims, but they could not stand unitedly against the invaders. ‘Whenever a confederacy was organised, i¢s members often fell ous among themselves” and thus failed and paralysed the plans of the Jea- ders. These dissensions and mutual jealousies of the Hindus contributed greatly to the success ‘of the Muslims. Secondly, the Hindus followed the old _ methods of warfare. Their absolute dependence on unwieldly war elephants, which proved immobile and dangerous to-fight against the well-trained cavalry leaders, offered the Muslims a chance to inflict a crushing blow on them in-the field. Thirdly, the Muslims had better organisation, discipline and cohesion, The tedchings of Islém made them united” under their leader against the common enemy. ‘They gave battle to the enemy with courage and energy. Their enthusiasm was further heightened by the prospect of wealth and the love of adventure; Last- to those causes Tiust be added the generalship of Sultan Mahmud whose tactics and diplomacy in bat- _ties ensured more than anything the success of the Muslims. , © {thas been said that Sultan Mahmud made se=| venteen expeditions into India and conquered a num= ber af places, Almost the whole of Northern India. felt the weight of his arms. But if his Indian expe Indian society, THE HOUSE OF GHAZNI ditions are analysed one by one, it wil the readers that the results of his eae a. pelpienent ‘The only permanent result of his se- ventesn expeditions was the conquest of the Pun- Jab “Many places were conquered, but a lew were -7 yo ape annexed to the empire of Ghazni. Af- A bia is demise, only a portion of the Punjab, Sind Sateen Ba of the adjoining provinces, such as~ Zuewtie inte out of he vase ¢ result of his invasions soon. pi. wore off. Sultan Mahmud could not establish ee ean ie conquered places, The Rajputs, who reuh a his a se countries efter the Sultan’s departure, %veatex | feet Bel their rule in Northern India except Pedisoas pe ae which eventually opened the gates to. the Bunjab way the net result of his seventies eos 2 esult of hii - Pee Hens andin consideration of this versed nen e called an Indian sovereign in a limited sense. e But the effects of the invasions of Sultan Mah- mud in the political, mic Hf e Andis _cannet 56 denied, Geol ie ee Me Be the wi or the future conquest of In- Be y the Muslims. The success of Sultan Mah- mu seers the weakness of the: Indian political . ; mee systems and established the superiori+ heavy drai ayo Bun aene cue the Hindus ‘in the art of a eat i ine and devotion to duty? | Eeonomical.) welt, i i Be ect peut 4 heavy as eee se ® ed wealth, While it dis geet much poorer, it contributed fron ba reat) = Beecrur of Ghazni and enabled Sie Sete cm as S schemes of war and peace. | turally 2 fa etre invasions brought the civilization te. oe and the Muslims into close contact : ae mutual exchange. of ideas and thoughis _™ burt ee te conqueror and the conquered. “In th Se fea a luslim warriors ‘and warlords came Mi Loa Saints and savants who permeated the nk of cuibe Promulgated Isiam i panied oe Reiter cr Iga slam in India and won 58a Rin crs converts.” ..Though conversion to Islam Bia c aa Hee a the motives of Sultan Mah- ; eeieion (nai et the future progress of llaw in eae ae gh it eurd a164 ‘His death, 3030 “As a eoldier wand general | OHISTORY OF INDO PAKISTAN As 6 result of ceaseless activity, Mahmud fell ill in 1027 and eventually his. weakness confined shim to bed, He died in-1030 A.D. at Ghazni at the age of sixty. Estimate of Sultan Mahmud. Syltan Mahmud is one of the greatest personali- * ties in the annals of Indo-Pakistan. HisIndlan cams. paigns form a brilliant record of his achievements as a soldier and general. According to Stanley Lanepoole, Mahmud was a “great soldier and a man of infinite courage and indefatizable energy:of ming and body.” He led seventeen expeditions into In+ - * dia but there was not a single occasion when he suf-, , fered e defeat, He had to face the combined forces of the Rajas of India and on every occasion he defeated them all. Mahmud was a very cautious and intrepid military general, According to S.M. Jaffar, ~ “Wehmud was endowed with a genius of war. He was a scientific general. skilful in plenninggand tho- rough in: execution.” He would make fullest pre-~_ parations and plans before undertaking any invasion. During a reign of 32 years, he “conquered many places and extended his empire over the whole of the country now known as Afghanistan, the greater part of Persia, Transoxiana and the Punjab. It was no small achievement to “develop a small mountain principality of Ghazni into a large and prosperous empire by sheer force of arms.” He was a born leader of man and a mighty conqueror, He never shrank from war ; rather he took delight in it. His military exploits in the east effaced the glories of Alexander's conquest from the minds of many. His army consisted of heterogeneous elements such as Arabs, Afghanis, Turks and Hindus but he showed wonderful ability in welding together these ele- ‘ments into a powerful and invineible unit. As a conqueror, his purpose was to achieve fame and glory and he had achieved it. Mahmud was not only a soldier and yeneral, ‘but also a great empire-builder, It has been allep- ed that he paid no attention to the building up of dy ne {ee THE HOUSE OF GHAZNI * ye empire. This view of the critics is not correct, 4im Was to conguer the entire territory of his pone Gnd to destroy their power and he was cer- ae iy Successful in achieving this object. The hos. He neighbouring chiefs were duly punished ‘and Te Epeged Bs others who were friendly and loyei a ‘His rule was so firmly established ty the waar that his family was able to take she, ‘er at ‘ore after their departure from Ghazni, He found 165 As an empird 10 bilder Gharni a petty kingdosy but’he turned ¢ into avast ~ empire, Before him, no Arab and Tur’ : 2 h Se et neh fitiar tae fee wiper ae eee le was the first of the Muslim which ee opened helgates of India to his eo-religio- Tndia from North-West Frontier - Asa ruler, Mahmud was. just, firm ard eee aa We do not know the exact System of his ad- ee eres nee ee doubt that it was “a well. r : well-conducted government,” : aed i empire into provinces, each under cae ae fe exercised strict supervision over the ad. ae stration of the provinces, so that the governors adid A aes Ae People, Mahmud was portions § for his administration o. 6 arta Out justice to all irrespective ee fi Rae rank and. station. Even his own sons and re- 5, Were not spared from ‘the laws of the Sha- "lat, if they committed offence, Uthi, his court historian hails him “as the 0 Blorious lord v1 Won between the ee = “he v7 80 i eae at the boasting and Oppression was wi eee to some histerians, Sulian Mahmug oe a i pmuctive genius nor a far-sighted eel n. nepoole says, “We hear of no laws fs ee or methods of government that sprai bd Bee ae initiative, Outward order and secacily oe 4 he attempted to attain in his unwieldy an pies © organise and to consolidate was not in his me,” Dr. Ishwari Prasad corrobordtes this vi : when he says that the i wae fuge agglomerator of people who could not be held ee i Asa miler ‘Cridcsm of Ohmud a a rulerHISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN, in check only by Argus-eyed Sultan.” That was why his empire crumbled to pieces after his death. This view of the historians is not correct accor= ding to C. V. Vaidya. There are no records to dis- approve the staterient “that it was a well-organised and well-conducted government.” The reason why” the empire fell was not the incapability of Mahmud to organise and consolidate, It was rather due ty the weakness and incapability of Mahmud’s: succes~ sors who lacked the qualities of generalship end. statesmanship, ‘The chief work that has immortalised Mahmud’s: name was his patronage of learning and literature. Himsel? a poet and a scholar he appreciated the: works of art and patronised learning. According: to Lanepoole, ‘From the cities of Oxus and the shores of the Caspian, from Persia and Khurasan, he pressed into his service the lights of oriental letters.” His lavish generosity drew around him a galaxy of eminent poets and scholars among whom al-Beruni, Firdausi, Unsari and Uthi deserve special mention. Firdausi, “the Homer of the East” was the court: poet of Mahmud. He wrote the famous Shalinamah, which is one of the best pieces of literature. He invited scholats and collected literary works from alf parts of the world, He founded a university ab Ghazni and endowed it with a great librery and, museum. He beautified his capital with noble buildings and mosques, Sultan Mahmud was kind and just to his subjects and shared in their joys and sorrows, He was the embodiment of toleration. He allowed the Hin~ dus to perform their religious duties with the ut- most freedom. He appointed many Hindus to high. _ posts in the State. He was a pious Muslim who ob- served all the injunctions of Islam in his daily life, but he never foreed religion on others. He knew- the Quran by heart and possessed sufficient know- ledge of the Hadith: A great leader of men, a just. tuler, a gifted soldier, a dispenser of justice and a: patron of letters, he deserves to be ranked as the greatest king of his age and one of the greatest per— sonalities of the world, THE HOUSE OF GHAZNI Successors of Sultan Mahmud The successors of Sultan Mahmud ruled for more than 150 years at Ghazni, but none of them are worthy of special mention, The death of Mahmud was followed by a war of succession between his two sons. Mas'ud and Muhammad. The former gained the upper hand and the latter was blinded and imprisoned. Mas’ud was generous, brave and courteous, He was also famous for his patronage of learning, But he could not cope with the growing pressure of the Saljug Turks who defeated him in a battle near Merv. His blinded brother, Muhammad, was again placed on the throne by the army. Muhammad entrusted the government to his son, Ahmad, who murdered his uncle, Mas'ud, in prison. Mas’ud’s son, Mau- dood avenged his father’s death without any mercy and the whole family of Muhammad was extirpated. Maudood diced after a troublesome rule of nine years. After his death, the throne of Ghazni was occupied by a number of weak rulers, who were un- able to resist the Saljugs. The Saljuqs played a very considerable part in the overthrow of the Ghazna- vid empire. The Jong struggle between the Ghaznavids and the Saljugs gave the chiefs of Ghur an opportunity of reviving their power.* The later Ghaznavid rulers entered inte a fratriciddl war with ihe Ghuri chiefs. Bahram Shah, one of the descendants of Sultan Mahmud, planted the seed of blood-feud which bore its fruit during the time of his grand: Son, Khusrau Malik, With the defeat of Khusrau Malik at the hands of Muhammad bin Sam, the Hotise of Ghazni and then the sovereignty of India Passed into the hands of the Ghurl chiefs. Process of disintegration. Bega Internal & external caue sex weakened the power of the empire Blood-frud with the Ghurl chicftains war the immediste causeEnily ‘history of the Ghurids Be thet pradval rhe to Pewee CHAPTER IV ay HE HOUSE OF GHUR Rise of the Ghurids ‘The principality of Ghur lay in the hills between Ghazniand Herat. It was conquered by Sul- tan Mahmud in 1010 A.D, Since then it was a tribu- tory province of the Ghaznavid Empire, The Ghue rids had faithfully fought and served under the ban- per of Sultan Mahmud. But during the reigns of his successors, they became indifferent in their allegiance to the Ghaznavid Sultans. The matter took a serious turn when Qutbuddin, one of the chiefs of Ghur, was put to death by Bahram, a descendant of Sultan Mahmud. Saifuddin, a brother of the murdered chief, became furious at this. He marched against Bahram and drove him out of Ghazni, Bah- ram soon came back, defeated Saifuddin and killed him. When Alauddin heard of the fate of his brother, he vowed to punish the Sultan of Ghazni. He attacked Bahram and put him to flight. He sacked the city and “for seven days the massacre raged in full fury.’ Many of ‘the splendid buildings of Ghazni were destroyed and most of its inhabitanis killed. This act of Alauddin earned for him the title of Jahansa= (world-burner), Khusrau Shah, the son and successor of Bahram, made an unsuccessful et- tempt to recover the prestige of his house. He was succeeded by his son Khusrau Malik, who was defeated and killed in 1191 A.D, by Muhammad bin Sam. j On the death of Alaiddin, his son Saifuddin came to power, but he was soon Killed in a battle against the Ghuzé Turks. The nobles raised Ghi- yasuddin, nephew of Alauddin, to the vacant throne. Ghiyasuddin occupied’ Ghazni which had fallen in- to the hands of the Ghuzz Turks during the reign of Khusrau Shah. He appointed his brother, Muham~ mad bin Sam, to the government of the new pro- THE HOUSE OF GHUR: -vince and conferred upon him the title, Shihabud- «lin. ‘The two brethers maintained perfect cordial!- ty in their political and personal relations,’ Until his death, Ghiyasuddin enjoyed the devotion and lo- qyalty of his brother and as a mark of affection for SShihabuddin, he allowed him complete freedom. of his activities. At the time of accession to the throne, ‘Muhammad assumed the title of Muizzuddin instead -of Shihabuddin, “Cohdition of India on the eve of Muslim Conquest * The political condition of the sub-continent at ‘the time of Muhammad Ghuri’s invasion was i no "way better than that which Mahmud of Ghazni found -on the eve of his invasion. The whole country was -divided into a‘number of independent States which "were in a state of internecine warfare, There was ‘no central controlling authority and this made the ‘condition of India worse confused, Besides the ‘Muslim provinces, there were Rajput kingdoms in other parts of India. “Muslim States (i) The Punjab. Ever since its annexation by ‘Mahmud the Punjab had been a part under the Ghaznavid rule. At the time of Muhammad Ghuri’s invasion Khusrau Malik, a weak and pleasure-lov- ing king,. was its’ruler and it was under hit that the Ghaznavid kingdom had been reduced in size and strength. (ii) Multan and Sind. Sultan Mahmud had -conquered Multan and Sind, but they had become independent by the time of Ghuri’s invasion, Mul- tan was under Karmithian dynasty and Sind under 4 local tribe named Sumras. Rajput Kingdoms The most powerful Rajput clans which ruled ~over northern India at the time of Ghuri’s invasion were as follows: i ()) The Chauhan Kingdom of Delhi and Ajmer, “One of the most powerful Rajput Kingdoms was 169 Muhanetnad bun Sain entrusted with the new province umber of indepen+ dent States170 Hostiliry ‘beowecn Tei Chand Pritiviral Failure in Cenwal Avia Ghuzrevid’ from Ghazni took shelter in HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN ‘ . eee huis kingdom of Delhi and Ajmer. Prithy By ae on the ruler of this Kingdom. He: was often in conflict with the neighbouring sae ii) The Gaharwars.ct Rathors of Qanauj. Jai Sane eae the ruler of Cane oe a ae . He was an inveterate a) Sranhen who had sory en aw ee ‘ ter, As a result, the or Fr 1 aa er iat Prithviraj Chauhan in his fight against the Ghuri chief. 5 Hi t and An- iii) The Chalukya kingdom of Gujra' nee. Bhim Dev of Chalukya dynasty was: the powerful ruler of this important kingdom. (iv) The Chandel kingdom of Bunielinoat rt mardi Deva of Chandéla dynasty was the r ye of Bundelkhand which included Kalinjar, Jhansi, Ajst Ghar, ete, : i i to its weal The Pala kingdom of Bihar. Due ate ‘ike ‘Kumar Pala (1126-30) and Madan say (1130-50), the Palas were left to rule over only some territories of Bihar, (vi) The Sena kingdom of Bengal. ReatoN Sena was the ruler of Bengal at the time of Ghuri’s. invasion, Indian Campaigns of Muhammad Ghuri known mizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam, better rt in. ne as Muhammad Set Oe mut iin 1173. He-was an ambit eh with the love of conquest and Diet Bee established himself at Ghazni, he nee a tion to the fertile plains of the sub-eonl inent. ‘There were several factors which led ee mad Ghuri to direct his arms towards tae Sn ly, the Ghurids wanted to establish an eee : eee their successive defeats at the hands of a ae oe Khawarizm forced them to give up t e is founding an empire in Central Asia and théy i turhed their attention towards India, Seco : ye the Ghaznavids who were defeated and ous the Punjab. They be-~ — THE HOUSE OF GHUR came So strong in the country that their very pre- sence was regarded as a source of future troubles ‘to the Ghurids. Hence the destruction of the Ghaz- navid power in the Punjab demanded the immediate attention of the Ghuri king. Lastly, India was divided into many warring States and there was ho political unity in the country. Muhammad Ghuri found in the disunited condition of India a brillant prospect of his success. The first invasion of Muhammad Ghuri was ‘directed against Multan which was at that time ruled by the Karamathians, He captured the city and appointed his own governor there, From Mul- tan he proceeded to Uch in Sind ‘which wes captured after sometime by the aid of Allah.’ In 1178, Muhammad Ghuri led an, expedition against Anhil- wara, capital of Gujrat but he was defeated by Bhim II, the Vaghela king of Anhilwara, Finding it impossible to conquer India through Sind and Multan, Muhammad Ghuri thought of conquering the Punjab which was the key to Hindustan, In 1179, he invaded Peshawar and captured it. He then ted his expedition to the Punjab and occupied Sialkot which became his base against Khus- Tau Malik, the last ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty, After a few years of war, Khusrau Malik was captured and imprisoned in Ghur. The Punjab was then annexed to his empire and the Ghaznavid rule in West Pakistan came to an end, 71 Divunited condition of India Conquest of Mulua and Uch 7 (0175-76) Unmccess= ful atempe on Gujrat Conquest of the Punjab After the fall of the Ghaznavids, Muhammad : Ghuri had to face the opposition of the Rajputs, The rapid success of Muhammad Ghuri alarmed Prithviraj, the Chauhan ruler of Delh! and Ajmer, Ne gathered a big force which, according to Ferish- ta, included 2,00,000 horses and 200 elephants and ™marched against the Ghuri. chief. In 1191 A.D. both the armies met in the field of Tarain near Thaneswar and a battle was fought in which the Muslims. were defeated and routed, But Muham- mad Ghuri did not lose heart at this failure. i Having organised a strong army, Muhammad Ghuri invaded India in 1192 A.D, He, with a force of 1,20,000 cavalry, reached a place near Tarain and First battle of Taran (t1gt)Second batile of Tanin G52) Ympertance of the second bate nf Tanin Conquest of Meerut, Koil and Delbi (1193-04) Expedition agninst: Jai Chand of Oanauj HISEORY OF INDO=PAKISTAN @, Prithviraj appealed to the Raj~ Ses i him against iby ule fece said that as many as 150 Rajput prince i te rene of the Raja of Qanauj lent ae help sad Prithviraj’s forces, according to Ce eee came to 5,00,000 horses and 9,000 elephants. ne i mad Ghuri adopted a new tactics of attac! Be ae divided his army ae oe A ee is : ivision to engage @ Rajputs at on i oer toes aurers ae resting. The division ve further ordered to pretend or feign fight na sometime of fighting. The battle started in the ie rie field of Terain and the Rajputs fought ne but the new tactics of Muhammad Ghuri proved ni be too strong for them. Prithviraj tried to r A away from the battle fleld but he was captured an ut to death. : The second battle of Tarain is one of the decisive battles in the history of Indo-Pakistan, It was the decisive victory of the Muslims over the com- *pined forces of the Rajputs. Accerding to V. A. ith, “The second battle of Tarain In 1192 may be eae the decisive contest which assured the ultimate success of the Muhammadan attack on Hin- dustan.” It shattered the suy~ macy of the. Raj- puts and established the Muslim empire in Indo- Pakistan. The victory at Tarain really laid the foundation ‘of Musiim rule in the sub-continent. 3 the second battle of Tarain, Muhamma ditt shored to Ghazni and his trusted lieuten~ ant, Qutbuddin Aibak was entrusted with the charge of his conquered territdries. Aibal was se man of military ability and political insight, consolidated and extended the conquests of his: master. He soon conquered Meerut, Koil (modern Aligarh) and Delhi. He made Delhi the capital of the empire (1194) thinking that Lahore was. too far from his new possessions, ; 6 In 1194 A.D. Muhammad Ghuri again came to India, in order to subdue Jai Chand of Qanauj, the mortal enemy of Prithviraj. Qutbuddin joined his master with his force. Jai Chand met the combined, forces of his enemy and was defeated in a battle at Wik MOUSE OF GitR Chandwar, The Victorious army then proceeded to Benares and captured it, According to Prof, §, R. Sharma, “The fall of Jai Chand at Chandwar made Muhammad the master of the political as weil as the réligious capitals of Hindustan, Qanauj and Benares.” . On the departure of Muhammad Ghuri io Ghazni, his able viceroy Qutbuddin Aibak continued the work of conquest. In 1196 A.D, he captured Gwalior and then marched against Bhim Deva of Anhilwara. He conquered Anhilwara in Gujrat (1198) which had successfully resisted the Muslim arms under Muhammad. Ghuri in 1178, In 1202, Qutbuddin Aibak invaded Kalinjar. which was the military capital of Parmardi Deva, the Chandela king of Bundelkhand. The Chandelas offered a strong resistance to the Muslims but ulti. mately they were defeated and the fort of Kalin- jar fell into the hands of the Muslims. Mahoba and Balpi were next conquered. Thus, all the important places of Northern India were brought under the control of the Muslims by Qutbuddin, While Qutbuddin Aibak was bringing Northern Qutbuddin, was extending the Turkish supremacy over Eastern India. Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji was an outstanding figure in the history of Bengal. In his early life, he tried but failed to se- eure a job both in Ghazni and Delhi, He at last took service under Malik Husamuddin Ughulbak, the commander of the Benares and Oudh divisions tind was assigned the villages of Bhapawat and Bhiuli, Here he was able to collect a number of his tribesmen and with their help, Bakhtiyar Khalji captured Udantapuri, the capital of Bihar which Was then ruled by the Pala kings. He brought this Fonquest under the governmeht of Delhj and with the permission of Qutbuddin, he invaded Bengal. He Mmarched towards Nadia, the capital of Bengal, with | uch rapidity that only 18 horsemen could keep pace With him. He. was so bold that he did not hesitate to Taunch an attack with this small force, On hearing 173 Conquest of Gwalior & Anhil- wara Conquest of Ritiahir Conquest of Bihar and Bengal by Bakhuyar KholjiSe SG Mahone Sea ee Ree HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN THE HOUSE OF GHUR 17 5 174 i 7; ee ate Indian army in Tespect of military ruse ie tnfeee or Me Te u is political unit: ee India, at that time, was o Betas Pe eee parts of the country were ruled by indivi. ¢ ‘ie rulers who did not combine to put up a united bith Pe Gefence against the invaders in moment of nati ‘al Poa crisis, At ig true that the Rajputs were good wie poe I uy ae dissensions among the Rajput chiefs He atte he way of, making a common cause with biaactte in danger against the enemy. The arm: me pe was based on an out-worn céneepuany te wee and ill-equipped army could not military dunia arent Bee Sa nent, indus did not “a 2 ines in touch with the atest dene Deftcr of Be Pera tity reanisation and method of fight. military system, Dr. HAblbutlahy cove ee ee age TNE i oes is cE Bee ait military system was that fe ay Bey to ing on the issue of a single battle. They did Ge” Th aerenes of ecg es, & baile and leology consti| fap for the suecess of the Mains aie Hy and roca” nee is a religion of equal- db | ‘The idea of brot ‘ Pn ve pmeng the Muslims and thepaien pe - a et 5 oulder | against their enemies, Tho ieol oe ce et on the other hand the Bae } obstai ii i Wifferent castes against te eee a? é¢he news of his attack, Lakshman Sen who was taking his meals, fled away by a back-door and took shelter at Vikrampur near Sonargaon. Bengal was captured and the seat of government was transfer= red te Lakhnauti or Gaur, The successful conquests of Bihar and Bengal emboldened Bakhtiyar Khalji who decided to invade Tibet, In 1206 he undertook his Tibet expedition and marched from. Devkot (in Dinajpur) with 10,000 horsemen, But his ate tempt ultimately ended in failure. On his return journey to Devkot most of his soldiers were lost and he died at Devkot in 1206 A.D. : Atter the death of his elder brother, Ghiyasud- . din, in 1208, Muhammad Ghuri became the undis- puted ruler of Ghazni, Ghur and Delhi. But his posi+ tion was soon endangered by some revolts and in- surrections, In 1204, he attacked the Shah of Kha- warizm in Central Asia, but was badly defeated. The Sultan with great difficulty escaped. As soon tee Sekine as this disaster was noised abroad, the forces of con= rd cha fusion began to work. The majority of the gover= tndangered ors in various provinces revolted and declared The gates of Ghazni and by revolts themselves independent. Multan were closed against the Sultan, But the most dangerous of these rebellions was that of the Kho- khars who created trouble in the Punjab. Muham- mad Ghuri along with his able lieutenant, Qutbud- din marched to India, suppressed the rebellions - everywhere, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Kho- ¥ khars and regained Multan and Ghazni. ‘But he did His cael, not live long to enjoy the fruits of his labour. He » 7206 ae treacherously assassinated in 1208 by a fanatic of the Khokhar tribe when he was going to Ghazni from Lahore and stayed at Damik (in Jhelum dis- trict). Petimate of Muhammad Ghuri eee Ghuri was a great politician and a een a tesman, He fully realised the rotten a: en a of India and therefore decided to rae ap eens Kingdom here, Sultan Mah- Nature of rs ee a Permanent conquests in India, Churi’s ae ee ¢ ered and then returned to his own ‘oPavet ee oan 's Indian expeditions left no perman C a Thess he of the conquest of the ayab. , of Muhamm, i i . was quite different, He es aie Causes of Muslim Success ‘ 3 ‘A curious student might well enquire about the Better mij. CAUSES Of Muslim success at the time of Mahmud of tary tech Ghazni as well as of Muhammad Ghuri. According nique of the to the British writers of Indian history such as ‘Muslims Elphinstone, Lanepoole and V, A. Smith, the success of the Muslims was due to the fact that they wereAimed at permanent _conquest in India ‘The founder of the Mu ae Reniarka- able figure in Indotake history. HISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN His first and fore- was to found a permanent Muslim empire me eae he furnished during his life time ell the resources required for the maintenance of this Ns pire, He trained wnder his guidance a number a able administrators who amply justified his confidence and trust. Qutbuddin Aibak was left in charge of the conquest of India after the battle of Tarain and he completed the task with reputation, ahora the life of Muhammad Ghuri came to a tragic onus the traditions established by him were ae under his able, successors, the Turkish slaves who ruled after him. He lives in history not as a ae conqueror, but as an empire-builder. eae Ghuri is, therefore, justly called the founder of the Muslim Empire in Indo-Pakistan. ark Muhammad Ghuri was one of the most remar. 7 able figures in Medieval India. He was a eA ni courage, enterprise and spirit, He had to fight agains the Hindu States incessantly for several sents Bp during this period he showed extraordinary coo! ay and perseverance. It was no small eredit for Be {hat he, with limited resources, was able to establi a large empire ‘which extended from Ae to Bengal,’ Like other rulers of Indo-Pakistan, was interested in learning and literature and scholars like Fakhruddin Razi enjoyed his patronage. He was a man of action, full of life and energy and un- failing resources. He was ‘a God-fearing and ie sovereign’ who was well-known for his sympathy: and kindness to his subjects. and consolidated his conquests. Mahmud ma between Muhammad Ghuri and Sul j and Sultan ae a th wo important personalities of this sub-continen! ae the medieval age. Both i ae and Mahmud were enterprising soldiers and inv ed India time and again. A eareful and close sc tiny of their respective achievements and ee shows that they resembled each other in more a one respect and differed in many respects. he Mahmud was far more a great general than Mu) ah mad Ghuri and the military, career of the for Muhammad Ghuri ' THE HOUSE OF GHUR was far more brilliant than that of the latter, Mah- mud led as many as seventeen expeditions to Hind and never suffered a reverse, But Muhammad Ghuri was an ordinary soldier and suffered many defeats in India. He was defeated by Bhim Dev of Anhil- wara (Gujrat) in 1178 A.D, In the first battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.) he suffered a miserable defeat at the hands of Prithviraj Chauhan, Such defeats are never heard of during the career of Sultan Mahmud. Moreover, even the victories of Muhammad Ghuri, whatever he had, were mostly due to his lieutenants like Qutbuddin Aibak and Ikhtivaruddin Muham- mad bin Bakhtiyar Khaiji, As a railitary general, Mu- hammad Ghuri was practically no match for Sultan Mahmud. Secondly, as regards their attitude towards the invasions of this-country, Muhammad Ghuri was greater than Mahmud, The former has been called the founder of the Muslim empire in Tndia, Muham- mad Ghuri took great care in consolidating his conquests, He clearly saw the political disunity and weakness of Rajput India and wanted to found a Muslim empire there. With this end in view he took a different policy from that of Mahmud. His Wolidation, He rendered a great service to the cause of Islam in the sub-continent. The invasions of Mah- Mud are also regarded as preat services to the cause ‘ef Islam, But his role in this respect is not so impor- font as that of Muhammad Ghuri. He invaded India either to collect the wealth of the Hindu temples or 16 chastise the disaffected Hindu Rajas, With the @xception of the Punjab, his invasions did not leave any permanent result. He invaded this country not for the purpose of establishing an empire there, but for the enlargement of his Central Asian empire, Thirdly, both Mahmud and Muharnamad Ghur} were eat statesmen and they were guided by reason an Wircumstances. The former realised that it was m: ssible for him to found an empire both in Central ia and India and so he did not try to annex his Ponquered places in the sub-continent: to his domi- Mons. He built up the Ghazni empire and en- Wiehed it with the wealth of India. Muhammad “Ghuri also realised the impossibility of building up AW As general and! soldiers As founders | of Mustim | crapite Penguest went hand in hand with the work of con- L£———~" As waramen /178 As patrons of art and {earning # HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN an empire in Central Asia in the face of the Kha- warizm opposition. ¢ to India with the object of establishing a permanent empire there and the political condition of the coun~ try favoured his design and facilitated his task. As statesmen, both were successful in their objects Lastly, Mahmud was a great patron of art and Jearn- ing, while Muhammad Ghuri was a mere soldier anc politician, The former had gathered a large number of poets and scholars in his court . like al-Beruni, Uthi and Ferdausi. He also built “Celestial. Bride”, -Masiid of Ghani, He had a library, a ee any Ghazni. Muhammad : mand many buildings in G f Ghurl, on the atten hand, showed little interest in art and learning. He might have shown generosity to learned men, as Ferishta gays, but he did not evince so keen 8m interest in art and letters as Mak- nid did. It is in this context that Lanepoole con- siders Muhammad Ghuri an abscure figure when compared to Sultan Mahmud, Hence he turned his attention 4 iy, “e CHAPTER V ¥ te. : penn TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHI (12061290) : Introduction The Early Turkish Empire, which lasted from. 1206 to 1290 A.D. is popularly known to the students of history as the ‘Slave Dynasty’ and it is sometimes known as the Pathan or Afghan dynasty.* It is generally believed that the dynasty derives its name from Qutbuddin who was originally a slave, There is no doubt that some of the rulers of the Early Tur- Kish Empire had been, at the beginning of their careers, slaves, But it is also true that a slave is:no longer a slave when he is manumitted by his master and no slave could ascend a throne unless he had obtained a letter of manumission from. his master, Quibuddin Aibak got a letter of freedom from the nephew and successor of his royal master. Iltut mish and Balban were also ‘manumitted by the! masters before their accession to the.throne, So it js clear ‘that none of these’rulers was a slave, Whel they were slaves, they Were not rulers and when they were rulers, they were not slaves. Besides, the successors of Iltutmish were not slaves but the Sul- tan’s own sons and daughter, With the exception of three rulers, almost all the Sultans had royal blood in their veins and hence it will be wrong to include them in the rank of slaves. 2 © The early Sultan: Afghans from Turkistan and -Fakhruddin of © author of the Niskut Namah says, shapurs “No slave bought at @ price has ever become a king except among the Turks.” Tt is also to be rement- Bere here that all the Sultans did not belong to one * Dé A. By Habibullah calls i the ‘Mailoke dynasty in bis book, “The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India," ‘Slave Dynasty’ is misnomer No slave ascended the throne~ ntess he got ‘manurnissioa from his* master Early Sultans were Turks and not Afghans ,Eorly Tite ‘As Very of Mubem- mad Ghari (1192-1206) As Sulian of Dethi HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN ily or dynasty, The accession of Qutbuddin, Il- eras and Balban to the throne of Delhi, has established this fact that Islam makes no distinction between master and servant. The road to power is open to talent and in this respect Islam has proved that a slave of to-day may be a king of to-morrow provided that he possesses merit, intelligence, sagacity and skill. Sultan Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-10) Sultan Muhammad Ghuri had left no male issue and so his empire was divided among his Tur- kish slaves who were trained up in the art of warfare and administration, Of all the slaves of Muhammad Ghuri, Qutbud- din Aibak played the most important role in the history of Indo-Pakistan, Qutbuddin ‘Was purchased early in life by Qazi Fakhruddin Kufl of Nishapur who gave him the best education and most efficient training. After the death of the Qazi, he was sold to a merchant who brought him to Ghazni where he was bought by Sultan’ Muhammad Ghuri, By his devotion and service, he soon endeared himself to his master who raised him to the position of Amir Akhur (Lord of the stables), He accompanied the Sultan during his Indian expeditions and 2s a genc- ral, he made a deep impression tipon the mind of the Sultan, After the second battle of Tarain, Muham- mad Ghuri left him in charge of the Indian possessions. Qutbuddin fully justified the confidence placed in him by his master. Within a short time, he extended the territory of the empire by capturing Hans, Meerut, Delhi, Ranthambar, Koil and ieoau He had also due share’in the conquest of Benares, Kalinjar and Mahoba, Bengal and Bihar were conquered by his lieutenant, Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khalji, The credit for this conquest goes to Qutbud- din, E On the assassination of Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam, his nephew Ghiyasuddin Mahmud, who succeeded him as Sultan of Ghur, bestowed the title of Sultan on Qutbuddin and sent him a canopy of State along with a letter of manumission. Qut= THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHI buddin proceeded to Lahore and there ascended the throne in 1208 A.D, After the ceremony was over, the Sultan réturned to Delhi. He soon came into conflict with the rival chief Tajuddin Yalduz who ‘with a view to conquering the Punjab, drove its Bov- Yalduz in a battle and forced him to fiee to ‘Kuhistan. ‘Quibuddin became so powerful that the Khutha-was read and coing struck in his name, But he co c hot enjoy the fruits of his labours for Jong. He suddenly died on November, 1210 A.D, when playing Changan (polo) and was buried. at Lahore. Estimate of Quibuddin Aibak Qutbuddin was the first independent Sultan who Jaid the foundation of Muslim rule in Indo-Pakistan, A, great warrior, a man of infinite courage and inde- fatigable energy of mind and body, Qutbuddin stands 45 a prominent figure among the rulers who rose through sheer merit and efforts to the position of power and glory. The author of the Tarikh-i-Fakhe Puddin Mubarak Shah” says, “His valour, bravery and enterprise.are such that if Rustam were: alive, owe is nen pride in having been his Hajib ambertian).” luring & period of 20 years he Svarran the whofe of Northern India from the Indus to the Ganges and from the Himala as down to the Vindya range, His conquests lo-Pakistan ‘were wider, real and far more permanent than any of his pr ssors. On his accession to the throne he took great pains in establishing peace and ftranquili- ty throughout his dominions and strengthened his Position by matrimonial relation with the royal chiefs who were also slaves like him, He married the sister of Tajuddin Yalduz and gave hig sister in Marriage to Qubacha and his daughter to Itutmish, Qutbuddin was a 800d administrator, Hasan un-Nizami, author of Taj-ul-Ma'‘athir says, “The Sultan dispensed even-handed justice tosthe people and exerted himself to Promote the peace and pros- verity of the realm,” “During his reign of peace and Eransquility,” says the same author, “treasury requir- 2d no guard, the folk needed no shepherd so much ‘ror and. teok possession of the city. He defeated’ 181 Defeat of Tajuddin Yalduz Fist indee pendent Sultan of Delhi He strengthened his Potitien by metrinvonad reladon ‘Goad ad. Mhinistraroe182 Generous and pious Patran of letters ancl: architecture Af Sultan Shamsuddin Ututmish (1211—36) Ebily Carecr HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN that the wolf and sheep drank water side by side out of the same pond, The yery mention of thieves and theft was out of question,” Qutbuddin was the second Hatem whose generosity is praised by all his- “torians who style him as ‘Lokhbakksha because “his gifts were bestowed in hundreds of thousands.” He was an ardent follower of Islam and took interest in its propagation. But he was never guilty of perse- cution of the Hindus. “The Hindus were treated with kindness, though the Sultan like a mighty figh- ter in the way of God captured thousands as slaves during his wars,” says Dr, Iswariprasad. Many Hindus were employed in his army and in the revenue administration. The Ulema and thewlearned were held in the highest esteem, Sultan Qutbuddin ‘was a patron of letters, had a cultured court and a society of educated men. Two mosques built by him—one at Delhi and the other at Ajmer speak of his devotion to Islam and Jove of art and architecture. Brave and capable, just and generous, Quibuddin was one of the great pioneers of Muslim conquest of Indo-Pakistan. Aram Shak “On the death of Qutbuddin Aibak, the nobles raised Aram Shah, who was neither son nor brother to the Sultan, to the throne of Delhi. But the new ‘ Sultan soon proved himself quite inefficient and unpopular. The nobles then invited Iltutmish, the son- in-law of Qutbuddin and the governor of Badaun, to ascend the throne. Iltutmish aecepted the invita— tion and defeated Aram Shah in a battle near Delhi. Ttutmish ascended the throne of Delhi in i211. He belonged to the renowned Ilbari tribe in Turkis- tan, His intelligence, sagacity and handsome appearance excited the jealousy of his brothers who! sold him into slavery in infancy, Iltutmish received his early education and training in the cultured family of the Chief Justice of Bokhara. He was first purchased by one Jamaluddin who brought him to Ghazni, when Qutbuddin, the Viceroy of Delhi, the “Than to fail or felter in the face of these dificultics, -, CAEP = ag THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHI bought him at a high price’ The Viceroy was so much pleased with his loyalty and capability that he soon made hin the governor of Badaun and gave his own daughter in marriage to him. Iltutmish had helped Sultan Muhammad Ghuri in quelling the rebellion of the turbulent Khokhar tribe of the Punjab and in recognition of his service he was manumitted by his master at the Sultan's order, On his accession tothe throne, Iltutmish found himself confronted with innumerable dangers and Se the a eee Aight agent Tajuddin Yal- duz, th azni, and Nasiruddin Qubacha of Sind, who were asserting their independence. ATi bin Mardan Khalji, the governor Bengal, had thrown off his allegiance ta Delhi after the death of Qutbuddin Afbak, Besides, the Hindu princes and chiefs were seething with discontent at their loss of independence, -To add to these troubles, some of the Qutbi ami pressed their reseniment against ihutmish, But the Sultan was not the He devoted himself to the task of establishing his authority in right earnest and with firm determina- Hon. } ‘Titutmnish first took a strong action against those Qutbi nobles who had revolted against him and refused to recognise his sovereignty. He marched against them near Delhi and brotght the whole of the principality of Delhi under his control. But the Safely of the empire depended upon ihe suppression of the rival chiefs and he now turned his attention towards them. Tajuddin Yalduz, a slave of Mu- hammad Ghuri became the ruler of Ghazni after the death of the master. He, being driven from Ghazni by the Shah of Khwerizm in 224, came to Lahore and occupied the Punjab; He wanted to establish his independent power and even to assert his autho- vity over the Sultan, So Itutmish was obliged to ‘wage war against him. Yalduz was defeated in the field of Tarain (1216) and was imprisoned in the fort of Badaun where he ultimately breathed his Jast, After the overthrow of Yalduz, Iltutmish determined to take action against Nasiruddin Qubacha who had Difiailties on his secession, ‘Action against Qutbi nobles 183 Yalduz defeated and imprisoned Expedition ‘Spainst Qubscha184 ‘The Mon- ‘gol menace Invasion! of Chingiz. Khan and its resules ‘Conquest of Bengal and ‘Bihar HISTORY OF INDO: PAKISTAN occupied Lahore, but he was expelled from that city by Iltutmish in 1217. His power was finally crushed in 1228, In 1221, a new and o most terrible danger threat= ened the Sultan of Delhi. The Mongols under their leader, Chingiz Khan, came down from their mountain steppes in Central Asia, ravaged and devastated the countries that came in thelr way. They had no regard for human life and committed atrocities even without any provocation. The first Muslim state which felt the weight of the Mongo] attack was that of Khwarizm Shah who was discorhfitted and tool shelter in Astrabad, His eldest son, Jalaluddin Shah fied to Hindusthan, took refuge in Lahore and sent an envoy to. Iitutmish to beg for an asylum in his dominions, Iltutmish feared the Mongol hordes and_ in order to save his empire from their attack refused diplomatically to give him shelter in the dominion saying that the climate of Delhi would not suit him, ‘Thereupon Khwarizm Shah cnlered into an alliance with the Khokhars and with the help of these new + allies he attacked Nasiruddin Qubacha and defeated him. Shortly afterwards he went to Persia where he was eventually murdered by a fanatic. The heat of India became intolerable to the Mongols who after plundering Sind and Western Punjab retired to their own lands, Thus India was saved from the hand of one of the most savage and ferocious raiders known to history. : Freed from the rival chiefs and the Mongol menace, Titutmish started a series of conquests. He first turned his attention to Bengal where Ghiyasud- din Khalji had declared independence and assumed the royal title. In 1223, lMtutmish led a vast army against him. Ghiyasuddin Khalji offered his submission without fighting, renounced the royal title, acknowledged the authority of the Sultan of Delhi and paid him tributes. But as seon as the Sul- fan returned to Delhi, Ghiyasuddin re-asserted his independence, attacked Bihar and éxpelled its governor, Nasiruddin Mahmud, the on of the Sultan and governor of Qudh, invaded Bengal and captured it, Bengal was made over to him THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHI dn’ 1228, Iltutmish marched against Nasiruddin Qu- ‘bacha, the governor of Uch and Multan and defeated abn near Bhakkar. he while Qubacha was run- ming «away to save his life, i eee Seiad s » he was accidentally In-1229, Tltutmish received a robe of honour and -5 patent of investiture from the Khalifah of Baghdad who had recognised him as the Sultan of India. _ fitter consolidating his position at home, Iltut- tmish turned against the Rajput Rajas who had re+ volted and recaptured their lost kingdoms during the weak rule of Aram Shah, Meanwhile, Itutmish had recaptured Ranthambar in 1226 A.D. and a year dater it was followed by the capture of Mandawar in the Siwalik hills, In 1281 A.D, he attacked Gwa- ‘ior, besieged the fort for eleven months and at last defeated its ruler, Mangal Dev, He next marched against Malwa and easily conquered the towns of Bhilsa and Ujjain in 1234 AD, His last campaign was undertaken against Banian in 1235, but he had to abandon it on account of illness, Before his death the Sultan was pressed by his courtiers to nominate a successor to the future throne and he mentioned the name of his daughter, Raziya ‘who was a better candidate for the exalted office ee his surviving sons. The Sultan died in April, Estimate of Sultan Niutmish When Iitutmish ascended the throne, the Turkish Mation was sore beset, the country was full of rivals and hostile chiefs, and the rebellious nobles and the Vanquished Rajas and Ranas were threatening the’ ‘Was most critical and Iltuimish, by his foresight, energy and military skill, proved Rimselt equal tol the Situation. With an iron hand he suppressed the Tebellious nobles, crushed the power of the rivals ‘existence of the Sultanate of Delhi, The cu] 185 Tall of Qubocha Tavestiture by the Khahfah Copwure of Ranthambar ond Mandawar Conquest uf Gwalise and Malwa Nomination ef Raziya as Euccessor Real foun: der of the Early Tur= kish Empue like Yalduz and Qubacha and recovered the lost Pro- © vinees, He secured the Sultanate of Delhi diploma- Heally from the Mongol invasion by eens vot their invasion. Had the rival chiefs and the Rajput princes been successful in their plans and designs the empire of Hindustan would have been lost and186 Valour and bravery of Ttwtmish Adminis« tative sya tem of Tituumish Tatraduc- tion’ oF Arabic einige TISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN: the Muslim rule in India would not have been po3s- sible. To him belongs the credit of having saved the infant Muslim empire in the sub-continent from being nipped in the bud. He not only saved the empire and rescued his people from danger, but also added the provinces of Sind and Malwa to the dorni- nions of his master: In this he had not, as Qutbifd- din had, the moral and material support of a great empire, What he accomplished, he accomplished by hirnsef in the face of troubles and dangers. In consideration of his contributions to the growth of Mus- lim rule in India, Iltutmish may rightly be called the: real founder of the Sultanate of Delhi, Brave and courageous, Iltutmish never hesitated to meet the enemy in the open field. In the suppression of the Gakkhars he displayed a great feat of valour and bravery. His fighting spirit, material vi- gour, physical strength and dashing courage combined with statesmanlike qualities and diplomatic moves placed him on the peak of glory and renow.). He clearly understood his position and decided that his policy must be steady consolidation rather then expansion. He took every step towards the consolidation of his empire. It was he who consolidated the conquest of Muhammad Ghuri and “gave the new born Turkish empire in India a cohesion which it had not found under Qutbuddin.” Titutmish was a geod ruler,. He laid the foundation ‘of an organised administrative system, Be- fore him, the administrative machinery of the empire was ill-organised, With the help of Muhammad Junaydi and Fakhrul Mulk Asmi, departments were set-up at the centre and regular records began to be kept. According to LH. Qureshi, Ututmish “gave benign and sound administration to the hitherto disorganised and dismembered empire.” He also had A great sense of justice and atcording to Ibn Batuta, he had fixed a chain and bell in his palace so that the aggrieved persons may not have any. difficulty in ap- proaching the Sultan for justice.” Htutmish built a college at Delhi: Roads were constructed and jungles were cut down in his time. He was the first Muslim ruler who introduced a purely Arabic. coin- He adopted the silver ‘anka, the ancestor of age. THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OP DELHI ‘the modern rupee weighing 175 grains as the stand: ard coin. The extraordinary dexterity with which he reorganised the state, administered justice and systematised civil and military departments and, above all, his kingly honour gave him a remarkable place in the history of India, Sultan Itutmish surpassed almost all other Sul- » dans of Delhi in his fitness as-a king and in excel- 1 Qutb Minar-at Delhi #84 man, The contemporary historian, Min- Ut-Sitaj says, “Never was a sovereign so virtu- Kind-hearted and reverent towards the learned the divines that sat uyon the throne of Delhi.” sied of outstanding abilities, intellect and high His’ place in history188 Excelled all the Sul- tans: of Dethi-ns a King ara a ian Petron of Hetters: sti) ‘architecture @ Difficulties ‘On acres sion Teestoration of order in the country HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN moral character, Itutmish proved to be a just, ge- herous and sagacious ruler. He was a pious Mus- dim and spent huge sums of money on charitable purposes. In spite of his military pre-occupation, Iltutmish established schools and colleges in the em— pire, He was also a great patron of letters. The poets, scholars and divines of foreign countries ad= orned his court, and made his eapitel a centre of learning and culture, His reign is marked by great achievements in arts and architecture, He was a freat builder and the famous Qutb Minar at Delhi which was completed by him in 1231-32 A.D. stand as an imperishable testimony to his greatness, q magnificent mosque built by him at Ajmer testifies. to his love of architecture, The reign of Itutmish forms the climax of Turkish rule in, Indo-Pakistan and he may justly be regarded as the greatest ruler” of the Early Turkish Empire of Delhi, Ruknuddin Firaz (234 —3 4 The nobles disregarded the nomination of the hard in the office an fate Bulla and talked Ruknuedln Firuz, the eldest He a ee tanned towards the cap- son of Iltutmish, to the throne. But the new Sultan Matched towards Da married Rarira soon proved worthless and incapable and was re- Wed along with the Queen b Bah © was de~ defeated placed hy his able sister Raziya. Ruknuddin and th by na eis troo his mother, Shah Turkan, were thrown into prison. i Hindu robbers Sultana Raziva (1236-—40) The throne of Delhi was. not a bed of roses, On | her accession Raziy, rounded davigers and difficulties. Muhammad Junaydi, Wazit of the empire, and some of the provincial go-_ vernors could not reconcile themselves to the rule of a woman and formed a conspiracy against her. But by her courage and superior diplomacy she soon overpowered the enemies and restored orde ‘ throughout the dominion, “From Lakhnauti to De- i di a patron of the . bal and Damrilah all the maliks and amirs tendere rotector of her ee ‘ obedience and submission,” says Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ss. She was en- en Atier Victory over the rebellious maliks, Raziya ress ih a king, but she tored order in Bengal. The rulers of Bengal and Sex and so in the estima- Uch voluntarily offered their submission. 1 es were worthless.’* Raziya was not, however, allowed to enjoy al peaceful reign. She ignored the opinion of orthodox THE FARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELI Muslims by casting off femal ! © garments Blusion of the ‘Zenana,’ She fea anes oe ins hel public business jn open "Darbar, But chaiga eee gee Pepoant against her was thet she asics Be oat yssinian, named Jalaluddin Yagut, zis She proceeded to punish hag me oe snd Et into the eunedy oe Aine . iy e sinjan chie; was h Beetles Taised Behram Shah, the Moin ie throne, Altunia was not pleased with the re. mranm Shah (1240—42) ° The new Sultan, Bay; i Hike Rulenuddin’, His rel Shah was a worthless en saw the growing in-190 Weak ruler Masud, = grandion of Ttutmish Balban as the prime minister of Nasiraddia Mahinud 4 Belban was discharged but brought back w his post_again HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN fluence of the nobles who were known as the ‘Forty’. During his reign the Mongols invaded the Punjab, sacked Lahore and laid the city waste, The king wag too weak to take steps against them. The ‘Forty’ besieged him in the White Fort at Delhi and put him to death. The nobles then placed Masud, a grand-son of Titutmish on the throne, but the new king proved to be worse than the previous ruler. The ‘Forty’ soon. dethroned him and raised his uncle Nasiruddin Mah- mud to the throne. : Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-66) Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud was an amiable and pious king who led the life of a saint. He left the affairs of the State in the hands of Ghiyasuddin Bal- ban who was a Turkish slave of Itutmish. Balban amply’ justified his choice and proved a capable general and statesman, He was honoured with the ti-) tle of Ulugh Khan by the Sultan. When the Mon-— gols made their appearance in 1246 on. the frontier of India he crossed the Ravi, ravaged the Jud and Jhelum (hills) and suppressed the Khokhars and other tribes of the Salt Range. The turbulent Hind - chiefs of the Doab were also subdued and repressed and the power of the Mewatis was crushed, The victories over the Mongols and the refrac= tory Hindu chiefs enhanced the prestige and influ- ence of Balban and two months later he was raised to the vost of lieutenant (Naibul Mulk) of the kingdom, His cousin, Sher Khan was appointed gove: nor of Multan, But when a charge of nepotism w: brought agéinst him by Ima uddin: Reihan, a Jcish noble, the former was dis Harged from his pos! Raihan's arrogance soon displeased the Turkish ni bles and Balban was again brought back to hig pres vious post and position, On his return to pow! Halhan tried to crush the power of his opponent Qutlugh Khan who rose in revolt in Oudh was sup pressed. Towards the close of this reign an €nvos of Halagu Khan, the grandson of Chingiz Kha came to the court of Delhi. He was to cordially ceived that the Mongols. were completely ov whelmed. : : THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELI Nasiruddin Mahmud died of 20 years, He was just, nee au God-fearing. He was a Patron of learn- bi! a the learned, He had no servant and. his 'e had to cook with her own hands. It is said that he earned his liveli} the Cee is livelihood by sewing caps and copying in 1266 after a reign Generous, compassionate, Ceuen Balban (1260-86) — Slave ead: In the prime of youth Balb, an Ww i ake Monee who sold him as a dee Kine? mt fate ae oh ce Jamaluddin Basti ‘ e ‘with other slaves, Broglie ie oe Shamsuddin Iitutmish the Turkish slaves. Balban belonged to the slaves of Ttutmish, ealled le te oe ees sy re a Khasdar (king’s personal aitandaul) mt e st tan, But by dint of merit and ability, he pre by degrees to higher positions and ranks, till he i eine the Prime Minister of Sultan Nasiruddin ahmud who married his daughter in 1249 AD, As e pene Minister, he played an important role in : F, Q eee ae Delhi Sultanate. The reign of Na- mas imu ea fact, the history of his acti- Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud had no no mak ag so he nominated his Prime Minister and Gee E ay as his successor. After the death of the 5 , n, Balban who was then an old man of sixty, ae ended the 1] 1 i AG hale hone in 1266, with the title of Ghiyasud- On his accession Balban was f c conir vi Bere ee ties. The whole country ed cee ik Be mn with an atmosphere of “unprecedented ay a 2 Ce Sees peyote in different : e lawless Renee, Breat troubles. The Mae we oe Repree invade India through the North-West et re refractory tribes like Mewatis who wel : nding menace to the rule of Balkan. Above all, purchased the whole lot of Delhi end Sultan’ Simple and pious Early Efe Accestion of BatbanHISTORY OF INDO-PAEISTAN people due to the weakness of the successors of Ttut- mish had lost all fear of government and authority. In this respect Ziauddin Barani says, “Fear of the foverning power, which is the basis of all good goy- ernment, and the source of the glory and splendour of all states, had departed from the hearts of all men, and the country had fallen into a wretched condition.” A strong hand was the need of the hour and Balban rose to the, occasion. Re-organisation of Central Government Balban, on his accession, embarked upon a policy of reorganising the Central Government and for this purpose several measures were adopted, i The first task of Balban was to restore the authority and prestige of the Sultanate which had been shaken by the weakness of his predecessors. In order to exalt kingly office and inspire awe and rever- ence amongst the people for the king, he maintained a strict and splendid court after the manner of the old Persian kings and introduced Persian etiquette and ceremonies. Such was his sense of kingly dignity that his court became an austere assembly where jest and laughter were seldom heard. He al« ‘ways appeared in full dress even before his private servants. It was a at achievement for Balban to raise the authority and prestige of the Sultanate. Balban fully realised that the stability of his government depended upon a strong and efficient army. He reorganised the whole army on a firm basis. Since the time of Qutbuddin Aibak and Iltutmish, Turkish soldiers were granted lands in lieu of their military service. The successors of these soldiers continued to hold these lands though they did not render any service to the State. All the lands held by old men, ‘women and orphans were taken over from them and they were given pensions for their living. But the lands of some of the jagirdars were restored, when Fakhruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi appealed to the Sultan to do so on their behalf, Balban increased the military personnel and placed the cavalry and the infantry, both old and new, under the command of experienced and trusted officers, Thus, he built up THEVEARLY TURKISH, EMPIRE OF DELI 4 strong and efficient army. It was due to thi ; is that Balban was able to Suppress the internal rebellions and face the external danger Successfully, Balban hada strong and well-organised spy sy: tem. His spies acted.as the channels of Hi Maieoen, @overnors and commanders. ‘The spies the activities of the sons of the Sultan If the sie failed to report any ‘misconduct of the officers or nobles, they were severely dealt with, Balban was very strict in the administrati dustice. He did not show any partiality pasaoas own kith and | About his justice Dr. Ishwart Prasad remarks, “So great was the dread of Sultan’s inexorable justice that no one dared to ill-treat his servants and slaves.” When a complaint was made that Malik Barbag, a big Jagirdar of Badaun, killed One of his servants, Balban ordered him to be put to death, The news-writer who failed to report this act of injustice to the Sultan, was also executed at the Same time. Similarly Haibat Khan, fief-holder of Oudh who murdered'a man in a fit of drunkenness ‘Was ordered to be flogged ‘for his faults, Measures for the suppression of rebels and robbers Having resorted the rayol ai thorit; nised the internal Ramttinteaiion eens ae gees applied pees to the task of suppres. é lawlessness of the Hin s lim governors and Amirs, een ae The hilly people of Mewat (Al kn the Mewatis whom Balban as Pine Minute ia innocent. They carried their raids i of the capital, According to Oe iwett ceot ‘So great was their sudacity that the Western Gate ©f Metropolis had to be closed at the time of after- noon prayer and even the garb of a mendicant was 193 Spy system: Adminis: ton of justice Sappressiom Mewatis194 Suppression of the Deab« anturgeaw Jnsurgents of Katebar seriously desit with Destruction of the power of the Shamui pables or “For” is RY OF INDO-PAKISTAN ‘ THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELI 4 - no protection against their high handedness,” Bal- Balban’s Mongol Pelicy ban with the help of a large army inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Mewatis. The jungles where they used to take shelter after looting were cleaned. Police out-posts were sct up at strategic places to prevent-further troubles. Thousands of them were pursued and put to death, Thus Balban by his iron hand succeeded in crushing these turbulent. hilly - tribes. Next, Balban turned to the turbulent Hindus of the Doab who had rendered the roads and highways between Delhi and Bengal very unsafe, The Sultan proceeded personally to crush the lawless elements and captured their strong-holds in Kampil, Patiali and Bhojpur. Many robbers were arrested and put to death, To check further disturbances he constructed forts in those places. As a result of these strong measures, order and sectirity were restored throughout the region, While the Sultan was busy in the Doab, the Hin- dus of the territeries of Katehar (Rohilkhand) dis- turbed, the peace of the empire by open rebellion. They were seriously dealt with and henceforth no breach of peace was heard of in the vicinity of Delhi. Having crushed’ various rebellions and lawless Hindu elements, Balban turned to the Shamsi slaves who were jealous of his rise to power and were making a conspiracy to overthrow him. Since the time of Iltutmish and his successors, they had enjoyed liberal” grants of Jand and had become very powerful. Balban’ wiewed their activities with great alarm and decided to crush their power. He took several measures against.jhem. He confiscated the jagirs of the no-, bles who rendered no military services. He also prohibited matrimonial alliances among them and punished the offenders with great severity. Many powerful nobles like Barbag, Amir Khan were put to death for their offences. Sher Khan, cousin of th Sultan and member of the ‘Forty" was poisoned death for his suspicious conduct. Thus, Balba » silenced and subdued all those with a strong han: who stood or were likely to stand in his way. ‘Though Balben was taking steps to make his government firm and strong, he did not fail to save the North-Western Frontier against the Mongol attacks. The threat of the Mongol attacks at the gatcs of Delhi was chiefly responsible for moulding the do- mestic and foreign policy of Balban. Balban fully realised the gravity of the Mongol invasion and so he, in order to check the advance of expansion in the sub-continent, His foreign policy ‘was moulded by the fear of the Mongol invasion, When some of the influential nobles pointed out to him that the former Sultans, Qutbuddin and Ttut- mish, had followed an aggressive policy of expansion of the Muslim empire in Indo-Pakistan, the Sultan replied, “Circumstances have changed considerably, During the time of Qutbuddin and Iltutmish, the Mongol menace was not so sharp and terrible, Buz mow the power of the Mongols has increased tremen:- dously, They have established themselves in Ghazni and Transoxiana and Halagu has subdued Iraq and _ Seeupied Baghdad. The Mongols have heard of the Wealth of India ‘and they have set their hearts upon ®onquering and plundering it. They are playing a "Waiting game and they are waiting for the opportu- fiity of my departure on some distant campaign to ‘Shter my territory and ravage the whole Doab.” Thus, ‘We find that the fear of the Mongol invasions had a Profound effect In shaping the policy of Balban who “hever left the capital lest Delhi should be exposed 1 Mongol attacks and might have shared the fate of Baghdad. Balban defeated the Mongols on many occasions while he was under Bahram Shah and Nasiruddi ‘Mahntud. Now as a king he-adopted strong mea- “Wires for the defence of his empire from the Mongo! “Masions: His measures were as follows + (1) The Sultan would not lead an: expeditior. ‘to distant lands for the purpose of conaher As far fi possible he would remain in the capital to keep @ vigilant watch over the North-Western Frontier. 195 the Mongols, abstained from following the policy of . Balban's foreign poli- ¢y, moulded by the fear the Mongol invasion196 Rel of ‘Balban's measures Suppression of Tugtuil Khan's revolt in, Benge! HISTORY OF INDO-PARISTAN (2) The Sultan reorganised the army on an efficient basis. All old officers and soldiers who were unfit for fighting were dismissed. Good weapons and arms were supplied to the soldiers. (3) All the old forts of the frontier region were reconstructed and many new forts were built at Strategic stations. {4) Samana, Multan and Dipalpur were made into a frontier province and it was placed under able and efficient governors. Fora Jong time, his cousin, Sher Khan who was in.charge of the important frontier province of Multan-Dipalpur “had been a great Barrier to the imroads of the Mongols.” After his death, Balban appointed his able and worthy son, Prince Muhammad, the governor of Multan, who fully justified the confidence of his father by resist~ ing the Mongol invaders. At the same time his second son Bughra Khan was placed in charge of Samana and Sunam, Balban's measures against the Mongols were very «successful, ‘The success of his frontier defence policy was amply illustrated when the Mongols invaded In- dia in 1279, This time they were completely defeated and routed by the combined forces of Prince Muham- mad of Multan, Bughra Khan of Samana and Malik Mubarak of Delhi. Thus the Mongol advance was successfully checked for the time being. Rebellion in Bengal Balban had to face a most formidable rebellion headed by Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal (1279). The old age of the Sultan and his occupation with the Mongols cn the north-west frontier perhaps encouraged Tughril to raise the standard of revolt. He assumed the title of Mughisuddin, struck coins and cased the Khutba to be read in his name, The Sultan sent Amir Khan against Bengal, but he was defeated. Balban became furious at this and put the incompetent general to death. Another army was sent to Bengal under the command of Malik Terghi, but this expedition, too, shared the same fate. The Sultan then took the field in person and his son, Bughra Khan accompanied him in this expedition. _ dn the history of Medieval India, THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHI 197 On the epproach of the Sultan, Tughril fled away to the jungles of Jajnagar (East Bengal), The Sultan now determined to stay there till Tughril was arrest- ted and put to death: At last Tughril was captured and beheaded. All his relations and friends were ve Seeae ie moe The Sultan appointed his a mda son Bughra an as a governor returned to Delhi 2 sare ont Tn 1285, the Mongols under Tamar again «a.va- ded the Punjab and Prince Muhammad latte mach against them alone, because Bughra Khan had been transferred to Bengal. The Prince repulsed the in- Pevth of vaders but he was suddenly attacked by the Mongols Pais who slew him.in an ambush on the Lahore-Dipalpur : border. In spite of all this Balban kept the Sultanate of Delhi safe from the Mongol invasion. The death of Prince Muhammad gave a ih shock to the old Sultan and it hastened hin aaa bee. ban wanted to nominate Bughra Khan as his succes praerias Sor, but the Jatter’s unwillingness to accept the res- ponsibility of kingship compelled him to, nominate his grandson, Kai Khusrau. The Sultan died in 1287 after a reign of about 22 years, Estimate of Balban Ghiyasuddin Balban deserves a prominent place a When he ascen the throne, the dignity of the State had pie ay and the kingdom was faced with serious Brees _ due to the arrogance of the nobles, the subordinations of the Hindu chiefs and the repBated Thvasions of the Mongols, ‘A strong dictator like Ghiyasuddin Balban was the need of the hour,’ He boldly faced the situation, crushed the power of rebel Bubjects and unruly tribes and defended the North« esiern Frontier against the Mongols, ‘By a policy i ‘blood and iron’ he established peace and order on WW distracted empire. “Out of chaos and vision of minent destruction, Balban had evolved order and Oe wi prosperity and the People welcomed the new regime * Sheerfully,” says Dr. Aziz Ahmed, He infiitica ¢,cil Such punishment on the aisturbers of peace that none mea ould have the courage to defy his order and the a His achie ments198 * Mainten- ance splendid court ‘and exclusion of low-born ‘People » from high ofbecs Taternall consolids tion wai the key.” pute of Baltan'’s policy HISTORY OF TNDO-PARISTAN enforced in the land. ' The Sultan enlianeed the dignity of the kingly office and matntained a splendid court where jest and laughter were strictly forbidden, “Ghivasuddin Balban decorated the court and palace after the manner of the kings of Persia and attached much’ importance to the pomp and-glory of the court and | of the riding progession,” says Ziauddin Barani. He" appointed meh of high birth ahd hoble lineage to responsible offices and. considered Jow-birth to be Breat disqualification for pwblic office, His sense kingly dignity ‘was so great that. he alvrays apes in full dress even betore hip private attendants a avoided the company of his officers and servants. Balban's reign was.cne ¢! struggle against, internal troubles and external \ of his empire on aes oy Mongol sttacks and the problems which we: expected to arise. out of fhe new conquests. devoted his attention ‘towards the organisation of dominion rather then expansich. Internal eonsoli tion was the key-note of Balban’s policy. A man ment of four duties, namely, (i) ta protect re! and to execute the provisions of the Shariat; (ii) check immoral arid sinful actions - (iii) to appoint: pious and noble men to olfices and (iv) to administer justice and equity. He once declared, “All that F ean do is to orush the cruelties of the cruel and see that all persons aré equal before the law. glory of the Staté rests upon a rule which makes its subjects loyal and disciplined, but does not ma the rich prosperous or the indigent happy—a caus of sedition and rebellion.” his death. Secondly, THE EARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELI Balban was gifted with many rare virtues and talents, He was a Sultan who ‘gave himself up to worship, fasting’ and nightly prayers,’ Badauni says, "He assiduously-attended all congregational prayers and was never without ablutions.” He used to visit the tombs of saints and scholars on every Friday. Though eruel and ruthless in his methods of punishments, he was considered the most merciful, enlightened and generous ruler of his time, He was an impartial judge and administered an even-handed justice throughout the length and breadth of -his empire, He was also a patron of letters and extended his patronage to the famous poet Amir Khusrau, the “Parrot of India”, 1 In spite of many good qualities of head and heart Balban was partly responsible for the fall of the Early Turkish Empire, Firstly, the Sultan was the fountain-head of administration. He was absolute in all affairs of the State and there was no check on Nis power. His government was no doubt a highly Organised dictatorship in which the power of the nobles was curtailed. So long as the strong “personality of Balban was there, they did not dare to defy his authority. But the demise of the Sultan ; pee them an opportunity to raise their heads as he d left no strong: successors to stand to his theory Which was mainly based upon force. He failed to ealise that the doctrine of force could not survive Balban had no idea of ®dministrative re-organisation. There was neither Btrong local government nor any good method of land revenue upon which depended the prosperity Of the empire. So, Balban’s lack of administrative ability was uo less a factor of the disintegration of the future empire, Lastly, the exclusion of the Tndians from the administration of the State was a Serious blunder on the part of an Indian emperor, Tt caused great discontent among the native Muslims find the immediate result of this racialism and Narrow policy was the Khalji Revolution «which eerily brought the rule of the dynasty to an 199 Cruel to the’ unruly apd kind to the poor Patron of Fetters Critic Establish: ment of die- ttorship depended upon the ability of reigning. Sulnn ‘Latk of administrative re-organisa- ton Exclusion of the Indians from offices .200 His acces- IUSTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN Kaigubad (1287-89) On the death of Prince Muhammad, Balban designated his second son Bughra Khan as his successor. But he refused to accept the great respon- sibility of the State and went over to his province ‘ of Bengal, So, the nobles after the death of Balban sion, 1287 ised Kaiqubad, the son of Bughra Khan, to the ore in 1287, Kaiqubad had been brought up GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE TURKISH SULTANS Qutbuddin Aibak (1206—10) ! * an Shah Danghter -!- Mtutmish | | Te Ruldiidain Raziya Bahrara Nasiruddin Firuz Shah , Mahmud i ; Alauddin Masud Ghiyasuddin Balban j | | Prince Muhammad Bughra Khan | Kai-Khusrau iqubad Kaimurs under sterii discipline and his. tutors taught him ) ‘the polite arts and manly exercise, and never per= : Ealqubad’s mitted him to do an improper act,’ But after ascend manne ing the throne his wisdom and restraint disappeare w adminis- ed and he gave himself up to pleasure, He left the miseh entire administration of the State in the hands of his Prime Minister, Nizamuddin. The Sultan's neg- ‘ligence to the State affairs and the arrogance of the minister demoralised the government and created _ THE BARLY TURKISH EMPIRE OF DELHT disorder and confusion throughout the empire. ‘Nizamuddin was an ambitious man who wanted (s remove the Sultan from the throne of Delhi, .All these things reached the ears of Bughra Khan who came to Delhi to meet his son, An interview was arranged between father and son on the banks of the Gogra in 1288. He advised his Son to refrain ‘from dissipation and to remove Nizamuddin fron, his offce. The minister was soon poisoned to death, Khalji Revolution The court of Delhi was then divided matnly into two parties—the Turkish party and the Khalji party, ‘The Khaljis, under Malik Firuz who held the office of the Arizi-Mamaluk (muster-master) after the murder of Nizamuddin were gaining strength day by day. They .won over to their side several Turkish “maliks' and ‘amirs’, The elevation of the Khalji Chiet offended most of the Turkish nobles, who finding no hope of the recovery of the Sultan from the Attack of paralysis, placed his three-year old son, 201 Removal, of Shonenddin Sains son of Rai, qubad, placed 0 the throne Kaimurs on the throne of Delhi in’ 1289, Malik *b Piruz Khalji was alarmed at this and with the help of the Turkish nobles he entered the capital, seized ‘the person of the infant King and proclaimed himself to be the Sultan of Delhi with the title of Jalal- uddin in 1290. Thus the Early Turkish Empire came to an end, ae : Review of the Early. Turkish Rule The rule of the Early Turkish Sultans covered 8 period of 84 years (1206-1290), During this period, eleven Sultans ruled successively in Indo-Pakistan. ‘Of the Sultans, Qutbuddin; Iltutmish and Balban were the prominent and the most successful, The names of Raziya and Nasiruddin may be inclu- ‘ded in the list of reputed rulers, But the reigns of ‘the rest.of the Sultans deserve no mention here. ‘The first and foremost achievement of the Early ‘Turkish Sultans was the consolidation of Muslim rule in Northern India, The authority of the Sultans was established over the United Provinces of Agra Stlian of Delhi Some of the Sultans . were able and sfhdent Achieve. ments of the Sultans202 Unification of North- em India & chucking of the Mons | Bol inrosds” Avere the main achieve- mens Tatrons of art and architeccare HISTORY OF INDO=PARISTAN and Oudh, Bihar, Gwalior, Sind and some parts of © Rajputana and Central India. The control of the Punjab was not secure as it was occasionally threat- ened by the Mongols. The rulers of Bengal were mostly inclined to remain independent of their control and many of them defied the authority of the Sultans. Balban had reduced Bengal to submission. The checking of the Mongols was the next impor- ‘tant achievement of the Early Turkish Sultans, The Mongols made inroads into the territory of Indo- Pakistan; but they were successfully driven away by Balban. The Sultan was the supreme authority — of the State and though he ruled like a despot, his despotism was limited by the Law of Shariat, The Sultans were liberal and tolerant to their subjects irrespective of caste and creed. Their contribution in the domain of architecture and literature was no less important. Some of the Sultans were Uberal patrons of arts. and architecture, On the whole, the rule of the Early Turkish Sultans was just and humane. : —— CHAPTER VI THE KHALI DYNASTY (1290-1320): The recent researches have established the fact that the Khaljis were one of the numerous tribes of the Turkish race ; but Ziauddin Barani and others have erroneously described: them us Afghans on account of their long stav in Afghanistan. Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296) Jalaluddin Khalji at the age of 75 ascended the throne in the palace of Kileghiri in 1290, The no-_ bles and the people of the elty (Dethi) were at first Reece hos indifferent to the succession of the Khalji and that |i} tose ‘was why the new Sultan did not go into the capi- jn Filoghirt tal. “The excellence of. his character, his justice, | Senerosity and devotion gradually removed the | aversion of the people” ahd thus all accepted him as their ruler, ‘ > Tn the second year of his reign Malik Chajju, nephew of Balban and governor of Kara revolted against him. With the help of other nobles, he defeated and captured Malik Chajju. The Sultan pardoned him and treated him with unusual kindness find tenderness, This liberality towards the captive Malik * Chajju revolted. but wes defeated displeased the Khalji nobles who whispered to each other that the Sultan was unfit as a ruler. The military history of Jalauddin Khalji is not worth men- Uoning. He made two unsuccessful attempts to re- Sapture the fort of Ranthambor. He turned away from ‘the capture of the fort with the thought that the Siefe would cost more human lives than that’ the dort was worth, : Jalaluddin Khalji showed an unusual strictness in the case of Sidi Maula who arrived in Indo-Pak- istan during his reign. Sidi Maula was a disciple of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar of Pakpattan, He was accused of conspiracy with the Turkish nobles against the Sultan. ' “Unsuceess- ful artempe to capture Rantham- Execution of Sidi Maula206 ‘Under the accursed oTarghi, 1303 Under Ali Beg and Taraq, . 1394, Additional forces raed HISTORY OF IMDO-PARISTAN THE KHALI DYNASTY head of a considerable force regched the neighbour- hood of Delhi.” Hegdrding the importance of this raid Ziauddin Barani says, “If Targhi had remained another month upon the Jammu, the panic would have reached such a height that a general flight would have taken place and Delhi would have been lost.” Fortunately the Mongols suddenly raised the siege and retreated towards their own country. In 1804, Ali Beg, a descendant of Chengiz and Tartaq led a force of the Mongols of 30:40 thousand horses and advanced up to Amroha. The Mongols were again put to death, In 1306, the Mongols under Kabk fell upon Multan and plundered the country, Tughlug Ghazi met and defeated them with great slaughter on the bank of the Indus, The last Mon- gol invasion took place in 1307-8 when a chieftain named Igbalmand crossed the Indus. But he was defeated and killed. These successive reverses and the measures adopted by the Sultan frightened the’ Mongols so much that they did not attack the eountry so Jong as Alauddin was on the throne, number of followers and thereby jeopardised the Peace and ‘safety of the ene Balban and Alauddin adopted drastic and: defensive mea- Sures against the Mongols, the throne of Delhi weuld have been lost, Effects of Mongol invasions Under Alauddin Khalji, the Mongol had far-reaching consequences, ike eae ce did not stop his policy of conquering other Indian kingdoms in the face of Mongol invasions, but he followed his frontier policy. It was because of constant fear of the Mongols that Alauddin had to keep a standing army and when as a result of his Successful frontier policy, the danger from the Mongois disappeared, the same army was utilized and this enabled him to, conquer Northern India end distant lands in the South, Secondly, the Mon- Rol invasions profoundly affected the revenue licy of the Sultan, He‘ needed money to po- ; Birong and efficient army in order to sulceeastriie =e ; ; fice the Mongol attacks) The math obj es Alauddin’s measures against Mongol invasions revenue policy was to ineresse th object of his Alauddin Khalji was not satisfied by merely @ the finance of the punishing the Mongols, He, like Balban, took some defensive measures to guard the north-west frontier of his dominion. He ordered all the old forts o Delhi to be repaired and the new ones to be set uj on the route of the Mongols. New workshops wert also erected to manufacture improved types of weapons to fight against the Mongols. The most capa= ble and trusted officers were placed in charge of the frontier defences. Ghazi Malik was appointed +! Governor of the Punjab in 1305 and he was able to check the Mongol invasions. Additional forces were raised and powerfu? :tmies were stationed at Dis palpur, Samana and jiultan, Balban and Alauddin Ehalji will be rememe bered in the history of Indo-Pakistan for their w! frontier policy, Thev saved Delhi from the clut of one of the most dangerous enemies of human ch vilisation, The Mongols made incessant and free quent raids on India with their ever-increasing " house-tax, Gtazing,tax, ete i Mivasions determined the nite Wddin Khalji, He had raised a large army to mect the Mongol invasions but he found it aifficalt to meet their expenses. So in order to enable the sol- oo fo make a good living with meagre salaries, ie brought about a scheme of economic reforms. He ed prices of everything at a cheap rate, controlled “Upply of grain and enforced his Measures very strictly, Fourthly, Alauddin's successes Against the Mongols established and Strengthened his position Bund created awe and respect among the people for the Sultan. Lastly, the Mongol invasions determin: @d tho nature of his administration, As he had al- me to keep a bigsforce to check the Mongol inva- Hons and was often oeeupied in fighting against them, ‘ls government became 4 Brotien. More or less a military des- )State. With this Purpose he imposed taxes like A 207 Army . imaintiined Yo check the Mongol in- - vadions was ‘elpfol to the Sulun for conquest ‘Revenuo reforms determined by "the Mongot Invasion Portion of the Sulua atrength- ‘ened Nature of als gor. determined208 Conquet of Gujrat, n297 1099—1303 ‘to take the life of the Sultan. Not once but twice HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN Conquest of Northern Indo-Pakistan The reign of Alauddin Khalji witnessed not only the suppression of the Mongols but also the rapid expansion of the Muslim dominion over different parts of India. According to Wolseley Haig, with his reign began ‘the imperial period of the Sultanate of Delhi’, In 1297, the Sultan sent an expedition to Gujrat under his brother Ulugh Khan and his min-» ister Nasrat Khan. Raja Karan of Gujrat was dis- comfitted and his wife Kamala Devi was captured, but she with hervdughter Devala Devi fled to Deo- gir. An immense booty fell into the hands of the: victors. It was. in this campaign that Malik Kafurl who later played the most important role in the his+; tory of Indo-Pakistan was captured. Gujrat was. permanently annexed to the empire. Ranthambor’ ‘was recovered by the Rajputs during the weak successors of Iltutmish and was then held by the Raj- put chief Hamir Deva. The Raja incurred the dis- pleasure of Alauddin by giving shelter to some of the discontented “New Musalmans”. In 1299, the Sultan sent an army under the command of Ulugh 7 and Nasrat Khan. The latter died of a oun . .ved in a ‘seige operation and Ulugh Khan wa forced to fall back upon Jhain. Alauddin personally marched towards Ranthambor and captured it in 1299-1301 with great difficulty. It was during the siege of Ranthambor that the Sultan had to face a series of revolts raised by his sister’s sons, Umar Khan and Akat Khan, Haji Maula and the “New Mu- salmans.” All these revolts were ruthlessly crushed, The “New Musalmans” were a source of danger and ‘trouble to the Sultanate. They revolted over the’distribution of booty and harassed the army, when it was returning from the conauest of Gujrat, ‘They had also supported Akat Khan in his attempt the Sultan pardoned them, But they could not be connived at the third time when the “New Musal- mans” hatched a conspiracy to murder the Sultan. The conspiracy was dis overed and a general order: was issued for their massacre, “The. number of deaths” according tc Barani, “were twenty to thirty THE KHAI sf LT, DYNASTY 200 thousand,’ “Aiter these punishments,” says the same author, “breaches of peace were never heard of in ALAUDDIN’S EMPIREDES v7) eto if 7 ey BAY OF. BENGAL ARABIAN » SEA », ‘On the capture of Ranthambor, the Sultan march- cipure of fd against Chitor which he captured in a short time. Chin: he Government of Chitor was entrusted to Prince 1302—1303210 Other conquests \ Conquest af Deoriy, 13061907, Conquest of Warangal, 4209—1510 Capture of Dwartsmue dra in, 1310 HISTORY OF INDO-PAKISTAN Khizr Khan, The story that Alauddin led the expedition to Chitor in order to capture Padmini is not mentioned in the contemporary works and hence it is a late invention of the hostile eritles. Th 1305, the Sultan sent an army to Malwa. Malwa was captured and annexed to the empire, The victory was followed by the eenguest of Ujjain, Man- dur, Dhar and Chandari. Thus by the end of 1905, almost the whole of Northern India came under the sway of Alauddin Khalji. Conquests in the Deccan The arms of Alauddin Khalji were not ‘confine! to Northern India only, He extended his empire to the Deccan. In 1306, Malik Kafur who was fitted out for the Deccan expeditions marched against Ram Chendra of Deogir who hau fur the lust three years tailed to send his tribute to Delhi and had piven shelter to Karan, the ex-king of Gujrat, The Raja was defeated and submitted to him. Devala Devi, daughter of Raja Karan, was captured and married to Khizr Khan, son of the Sultan. Tn 1809, Malik Kafur directed his expedition against the Kakatiya Raja of Warrangal in Telin- gunge. Raja Pratap Rudra Deva II offered u strung resistance ; but after a prolonged siege he was com- pelle’ fo sue for peace. Kafur returned ta Delhi with the laurel of victory in. 1310. This success stimulated his ambition and Ala- uddin now resolved to extend the limits of his em- ‘pire to the farthest extremities of the Deccan. Dwarsamudra and Mabar still remained outside the pale of his empire. He sent his army against Dwar- samudra under the leadership of Malik Kafur who took Vira Balloula TH, the Hojsala Taja of Dwarsa- mudra, by surprise and forced him to surrender. Having conquered and subdued the Hoysala Kinge dom of Dwarsamudra he proceeded towards the country of Mabar, A fratricidal war between the two brothers, Sundra Pandya and Vira Pandya, had weakened the kingdom of Pandvas, Vira Pandya, who had captured the throne of his father and was ruling, fled away from his capital on hearing of the THE KMALI DYNASTY approach of the Muslimis, Malik Kafur entered Ma- dura without any opposition and found it deserted. He returned to Delhi in October, 1311 with immense wealth, qn 1218, Malik Kafur led-a punitive expedition against Sankaradeva who had defied the royal authority and ceased to pay the customary tribute, The whole of Maharastra was ravaged and the Yadava prince was defeated and killed. Thus the whole of Southern India now lay at the feet of Kafur, Motives of his Deccan policy Alauddin Khelji’s Decean policy of eonguests: was dictated by political as well as economic reasons, Politically, Deccan was then as before divided into a number of kingdoms and there was no unity among the Deccan rulers who were jealous of one another. This political condition inspired the Sultan to push his arms into the South. Moreover, the Decean was a rich country, The main object of his Deccan campaigns was to exact wealth from the Deccan, Even before his accession he had invaded Deogir and had taken away a huge amount of wealth, So when he beeame the Sultan, he sent Malik Kafur to invade the Deccan Kingdoms with instructions to accept, as term of surrender, jewels and treasures, us economic motives of the Sultan played an important part in‘the Deccan conquest, Nature of his Deccan Policy AJauddin Khalji’s Deccan policy was. quite different from that of the North where he followed a policy of annexation, He tonquered almost the whole of Northern India and placed them under efficient governors. He also established his suze tainty in the Deccan, but the kingdoms of the Dec« can were not annexed te the empire of Delhi, He allowed the rulers of the Deccan to retain their Kingdoms on condition that they would acknow- Jedge the supremacy of the Sultan and pay him a yearly tribute, So his policy of the Deccan was not annexation but subjugation as vassal states of the Déelhi* Sultanate. He fully realised that it would 211 Conquest of Madera ‘Late expe. ditsn of Malik Kafur againit Ssakara- deva His policy dina by political and scotior mic reasons.Poucuion aot wealth & sarength of his
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