An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology 193515 John D. Winter Department of Geology Whitman College ic Prentice Hall Upper Saddle Rives, New Jersey 07458Library of Congress Cataloging a-Peblction Data ‘Winter, Joba D. John DuNane) ‘An introdection to igneous and metamorphic petrology/ty Job D. Winter. pon. Includes bibliographical elerences ad inde ISBNo-13-240542-0 1 Rosks,Tgneous. 2. Rocks. Metamorphic, Title, ‘QE W735 2001 $82 421 000195 Senior editor: Patrick Lynch ‘Senior markting manager Chie Henry Prodostion editor Pine Tee Composion ‘Assistant managing edor: Beth Sturia ‘Ant director Jayne Conte (Cover design: Bruce Keser Cover phot: Kennan Harvey Manuttturing manager: Trudy Psion Manufacturing buyer: Michae Bell Assist editor Amanda Griffith [About the cover: Waddington ira net cined agmatt Marginal toa granite, {Ne consists of metamorphed country rock shot rough by granite ening (©2001 Prentice-Hall fe, Upper Sede River, New Jersey 01458 All rights eserved. No pat of his book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means ‘without permission ia writing fom the publisher. Prine nthe Une States of America woestesagzy TSeN 0-23-2u0342-0 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Avstalia Py Limited, Sidney Prentice-Hall Cana lnc, Toronto Prentice Hall Hispancamerzana,S, A. Merico Prentice Holl of Inia Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice Hall of Japen,, Tokyo. Pearson Education Asia Pe. Li, uitorePrence-fall do Bras, Lda Rio de Janeiro sf 13 AUG 2001This effort is dedicated to the faculty and my fellow graduate students at the University of Washington in the early 1970's. They made geology interesting, and ofien downright fun. It is also dedicated to my wife, Deborah, and all the families deprived by those who attempt to write a book.Brief Contents Preface xvi Part! Igneous Petrology 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15, Chapter 16 Chapter 17, Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Part It Metamorphic Petrology 409 Chapter 21 Chagter 22, Chapter 23, Chapter 24 ‘Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Appendix A: “Appendix B Appendix C: References ‘Some Fundamental Concepts 2 Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks 17 Textures of igneous Rocks 27 Igneous Structures and Field Relationships 46 An Introduction to Thesmodynamics 75 The Phase Rule and One- and Two-Component Systems 84 Systems with More than Two Components 105 ‘Chemical Petrology |: Major and Minor Elements 128 Chemical Petrology ll: Trace Elements and Isotopes 155 Generation of Basaltic Magmas 181 Diversification of Magmas 200 Layered Mafic Intrusions 219 Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism 242 ‘Oceanic intraplate Volcanism 260 Continental Flood Basalts 277 Subduction-Related Igneous Activity Part I Island Arcs 293, Subduction-Related igneous Activity Part I: Continental Arcs 316. Granitoid Rocks 343, Continental Alkaline Magmatisin 362 ‘Anorthosites 401 An Introduction to Metamorphism 10 ‘A Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 433 Structures and Textures of Metamorphic Rocks 440 Stable Mineral Assemblages in Metamorphic Rocks 477 ‘Metamorphic Facies and Metamorphosed Mafic Rocks 496 Metamorphic Reactions 513 Thermodynamics of Metamorphic Reactions 535 Metamorphism of Pelitc Sediments. 362 ‘Metamorphism of Calcareous and Ultramatic Rocks 586 ‘Metamorphic Fluids, Mass Transpor and Metasomatism 606 Units and Constants : ‘Abbreviations and Acronyms The CIPW Norm 581Contents Preface xvii Part! Igneous Petrology 1 Chapter 1 Some Fundamental Concepts 2 Introduction 2 The Earth's interior 4 Origin ofthe Solar System and the Earth 6 Differentiation of the Earth 7 How Do We Know All Thist 8 Meteorites 10 Pressure and Temperature Variations with Depth 12 1.7.1 The Pressure Gradient 12 1.7.2. The Temperature Gradient 13 1.8 Magma Generation inthe Earth 14 Suggested Further Readings 15 “4 2 3 He Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Compositional Terms 17 213 - The lUGS Clasication 18 2:31 Caleuatons and Pioting 18 25.2 Phanertc Rocks 71 233. Modifying Terms 22 234 Maficand Ulamalic Rocks 22 24 Aphanitic Rocks 22 2.5, Pyroclastic Rocks 25 Suggested Further Readings 26 Textures of Igneous Rocks 27 3.1 Primary Textures (Crystal@Melt Interactions) 27 3.1.1 Rates of Nucleation, Growth, and Diffusion 28 3.1.2 Nucleation at Preferred Sites 29 3.1.3. Compositional Zoning 31 3.1.4 Crysiallization Sequence 32 3.1.5. Magmatic Reaction and Resorption 34Contents Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 3.1.6 Differential Movement of Crystals and Melt 34 3.1.7 Cumulate Textures 34 3.1.8 Primary Twinning 35 3.1.9 Voleanic Textures 36 3.1.10. Pyrociastic Textures 38 3.2 Secondary Textures: Post-Magmatic Changes 38 3.2.1 Polymorphic Transformation 39 3.2.2 Secondary Twinning 40 3.2.3 Exsolution 40 3.2.4 Seconciary Reactions and Replacement 41 3.2.5 Deformation 45 3.3 AGlossary of Igneous Textural Terms 45 ‘Suggested Further Readings 45 Igneous Structures and Field Relationships 46 4.1 Exttusive, or Volcanic, Processes, Products, and Landforms 46 4.1.1 Properties of Magma and Eruptive Styles 46 4.1.2 Central Vent Landforms 48 44.3. Fissure Eruptions 52 41.4 Lava Flow Features 53 4.1.5 Pytoclastic Deposits 56 4.2. Intrusive, or Plutonic, Processes and Bodies 59 4.2.1 Tabular Intrusive Bodies 59 4.2.2 Non-Tabular Intrusive Bodies 62 42:3 Contact Relationships of Plutons 64 4.2.4 Timing of Intrusion 66 42.5 Depthof intrusion 66 42.6 Multiple Injection and Zoned Plutons 68 .7 The Process of Magma Rise and Emplacement, and the “Room Problem” 68 4.3. Hydrothermal Systems 72 Suggested Further Readings 73 ‘An Introduction to Thermodynamics 75 5. Energy 75 52 Gibbs Free Energy 76 5.3. Gibbs Free Energy for a Phase 77 5.3.1 Variations inthe Gibbs Free Energy for a Phase with Pressure and Temperature 78 5.4 Gibbs Free Energy fora Reaction 79 5.4.1 Variation inthe Gibbs Free Energy for a Reaction with Pressure and Temperature 80 5.4.2 The Equilibrium State 81 5.4.3 Thermodynamic Fvaluation of Phase Diagrams 82 Suggested Further Readings 83 Problems 83 The Phase Rule and One- and Two-Component Systems 84 6.1 Introduction: Melting Behavior of Natural Magmas 84 6.2 Phase Equilibrium and the Phase Rule 86 6.3 Application of the Phase Rule to the H,O System 87 6.4 One-Component Systems 90ssure and Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Contents 6.5 Two-Component (Binary) Systems 92 6.5.1 Binary Systems with Complete Solid Solution 92 6.5.2 Binary Eutectic Systems 95 65.3 Binary Peritectic Systems 98 6.5.4 The Alkali Feldspar System 102 Suggested Further Readings 104 Problems 104 Systems with More than Two Components 105 7.1. Three-Component (Ternary) Systems _ 105 7.1.1 Ternary Eutectic Systems 105 7.1.2 Temary Peritectic Systems 109 7.1.3 Temary Systems with Solid Solution 110 7.2. Systems with More than Three Components 115 7.3 Reaction Series 117 7.4 The Effects of Pressure on Melting Behavior 119 7.5. The Effects of Fluids on Melting Behavior 120 75.1 The Effects of HO 120 75.2 The fffects of CO, 126 Suggested Further Readings 127 Problems 127 Chemical Petrology I: Major and Minor Elements 128, 8.1 Analytical Methods 128 8.2 Analytical Results 132 8.3 Major and Minor Elements in the Crust 133 84 Notmative Minerals 135 8.5. Variation Diagrams 136 85.1 Bivariate Plots 136 8.5.2 Triangular Plots: The AFM Diagram 140 ‘8.6 Using Variation Diagrams to Model Magmatic Evolution 140 8.6.1 Pearce Element Ratios (PER) 140 8.6.2. Graphical and Mathematical Models of Magmatic Evolution 142 8.7 Magma Series 146 Suggested Further Readings 151 Problems 152 ‘Chemical Petrology Il: Trace Elements and Isotopes 155 9.1. Element Distribution 155 9.2. Models for Solid-Melt Processes 157 9.2.1 Batch Melting 157 9.2.2. Rayleigh Fractionation 160 9.3 The Rare Earth Elements: A Special Group of Trace Elements 160 94 Spider Diagrams 163 9.5. Application of Trace Elements to lgneous Systems 164 9.6 Geochemical Criteria for Discriminating Between Tectonic Environments 166 9.7, Isotopes 167 9.7.1 Stable Isotopes 168 9.7.2_ Radioactive and Radiogenic Isotopes 169, Suggested Further Readings 178 Problems 179x Contents Chapter 10 Generation of Basaltic Magmas 181 10.1 Petrology of the Mantle 182 10.2 Melting of the Mantle 185 10.2.1. Raising the Temperature 185 102.2 Lowering the Pressure 186 10.2.3 Adding Volatiles 186 10.2.4 A Brief Summary of Mantle Melting 188 10.3 Generation of Basalts from a Chemically Uniform Mantle 189 10.4 Primary Magmas 192 10.5 AChemically Heterogeneous Mantle Model 194 Suggested Further Readings 198 . Chapter 11. Diversification of Magmas 200 11.1. Partial Melting 200 11.2 Magmatic Differentiation 202 11.2.1 Fractional Crystallization 202 11.2.2 Volatile Transport 207 112.3. Liquid Immiscibility 208, 11.3. Magma Mixing 210 114 Assimilation 211 11.5 Boundary Layers, In Situ Crystallization, and Compositional Convection 214 11.6 Mixed Processes. 217 11.7 Tectonic-Igneous Associations 218 Suggested Further Readings 218 Problems 216 ‘Chapter 12 Layered Mafic Intrusions 219 12.1 Igneous Layering 219 12.2. Examples of Layered Mafic Intrusions | 221 12.2.1 The Bushveld Complex 221 : 12.2.2 The Stillwater Complex 225 12.213 The Skaergid Intrusion 228 12.3. The Processes of Crysallization, Differentiation, and Layering in LMIs 232 12.3.1 Crystal Settling 233 123.2 Recharge and Magma Mixing 233, 12.3.3 Oscillations Across the Cotectic 234 12.3.4 Compaction 234 12.3.5 In Situ Crystallization and Convection 234 123.6 Preferred Nucleation and Crystallization 236 123.7 Density Currents 236 12.3.8 Combined Processes 239 124 Conclusion 241 Suggested Further Readings 241 ‘Chapter 13. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism 242 1341. Volcanism at Constructive Plate Boundaries 242, 13.2 The Mid-Ocean Ridges 242 13.3 Structure of the Oceanic Crust and Upper Mantle 245 13.4 MORE Petrography and Major Element Chemisty "247 13.5 MORB Trace Element and isotope Chemisty 251 : 13.6 Petrogenesis of Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts 253 Suggested Further Readings 259 Problems 259. ection 214 . Mis 32 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Contents xk Oceanic Intraplate Volcanism 260 14.1. Intraplate Volcanic Activity 260 14.2 Types of O1B Magmas 262 14.3 OIB Petrography and Major Element Chemistry 263, 14.4 OIB Trace Element Chemistry 267 145 OIB Isotope Chemistry 269 14.5.1 Srand Nd isotopes 269 14.5.2 Ph Isotopes 270 146 Petrogenesis of O1Bs 274 Suggested Further Readings 276 Continental Flood Basalts 277 15.1. The Tectonic Setting of CFBs 277 15.2. The Columbia River Basalts 279 15.2.1 The Setting of the Columbia River Basalt Group 279 15.2.2 CRBG Petvography and Major Element Chemistry | 281 15.2.3 CRBG Trace Element Chemistry 262 15.2.4 CRBG Isotope Chemistry 285 15.2.5 _Petrogenesis of the Columbia River Basalts 286 15.3 Other Continental Flood Basalt Provinces 288 15.4 Petrogencsis of Continental Flood Basalts 290 Suggested Further Readings 292 Subduction-Related tgneous Activity Part I: Island Arcs 293, 16.1 Island Are Volcanism 294 162 Island Arc Voleanic Rocks and Magma Series 296 16.3 Major Element Chemistry of Island Arcs 298 164 Spatial and Temporal Variations in Island Arcs 302 165 Petrography of Island Arc Volcanies 302 166 Island Arc Trace Element Geochemistry 304 167 Island Arc Isotopes 307 16.8 Petrogencsis of Island Arc Magmas 309 Suggested Further Readings 315 Subduction-Related Igneous Activity Part ll: Continental Arcs 316 17.1 Introduction 316 17.2 The Volcanic Andes of South America 317 17.2.1. Petrology and Geochemistry ofthe Andean Voleanics 318 17.2.2. Petrogenesis of Andean Volcanic Rocks 323 17.3 The Cascades of the Western United States 326 174 Plutonic Belts of Continental Ares 330 17.4.1. Geochemistry of the Peruvian Coastal Batholith 333 17.42 Volcanic/Plutonic Equivalence 335 17.43 Across-Axis Batholith Variations 336 17.5 Petrogenesis of Continental Arc Magmas 340 Suggested Further Readings 342 Granitoid Rocks 343 18.1 Petrography of Granitoids 343, 182 Granitoid Chemistry 345 183 Crustal Melting 346wh Contents 18.4 Granitoid Classification 349 18.4.1. The S-LA-M Classification of Granitoids 350 18.4.2 _A Classification of Granitoids Based on Tectonic Setting 352 18.5 Chemical Discrimination of Tectonic Granitoids 358 18.6 The Role of the Mantle in Granitoid Genesis 359) 18.7 Origin of the Continental Crust 360 188 Conclusion 361 Suggested Further Readings 361 Chapter 19 Continental Alkaline Magmatism 362 19.1 Continental Rif-Associated Alkaline Magmatism 364 19.1.1 The East African Rift System 364 19.1.2 Magma Series of the East African Rift 365 19.1.3 Chemistry of East Aitican Rift Volcanics 366 19.1.4 Isotopic and Trace Element Characteristics of East Aftican Rift Magmas 366 19.1.5 Mantle Enrichment and Heterogeneity Beneath the East African Rit 369 19.1.6 Trends in East Aftican Rift Magmatism | 371 19.1.7 Magma Evolution in the East African Rift 371 19.1.8 A Model for East African Rift Magmatism 373, 192, Cyonatter 275 aT Comite Clsiiaton and Mineralogy 375 19.2.2 Carbonatite Occurrences 375 19.2.3. Field Characteristics of Carbonatites 376 19.2.4 Carbonatite Chemistry 378 19.2.5 The Origin of Carbonatites 378 19.2.6 The Natrocarbonatite Problem 385, 19.2.7 The Source of Volatiles in the Mantle 386 19.3 Highly Potassic Rocks 386 (9.3.1 Lamproites 387 193.2 JAmprophyres 390 : 19.3.3 “Kimberltes 392 19.4 Mantle Metasomatism and Mantle Xenoliths 398 Suggested Further Readings 399 | Chapter 20. Andthotes 401 20.1. Archean Anorthosies 401 20.1.1 Pttology and Geochemistry of Archean Anorthosis 401 20.1.2. The Parent Liquid of archean Anortostes "403, ' 201.3 Peiogensis of Archean Anorhosites 402 20.2 Proterozoic Anorthosites 403 2021 Petology and Geochemisty of Proterozoic Anorthosites 404 20.2.2 The Parent Liquid of Proterozoic Anothostes 408 20.23 Perogenesis of Proerozoie Anothosite Mass 405 20.3. Lunar Anorhostes 406 Sorgested Further Readings 407 Part Il Metamorphic Petrology 409 Chapter 21 An Introduction to Metamorphism 410 211 The Limits of Metamorphism 410 21.2 Metamorphic Agents and Changes 412 . 21.2.1 Temperature 412352 vRift Mrican Chapter 22 Chapter 23 401 Chapter 24 Contents xt 222 Pressure 413 21.23 Deviatoric Stess 414 21.24 Metamorphic Fluids 415 The Types of Metamorphism 417 213.1 Contact Metamorphism 418 21.3.2 Regional Metamorphism 421 21.3.3 Fault-Zone and impact Metamor ‘The Progressive Nature of Metamorphism 421 Types of Protolth 422 Some Examples of Metamorphism 422 21.6.1 Orogenic Regional Metamoxphism of the Scotish Highlands 423 Regional Burial Metamorphism, Otago, New Zealand 425 Paired Orogenic Metarmorphic Belts ofapan 427 ‘Contact Metamorphism of Pelitic Rocks in the Skiddaw Aureole, United Kingdom 428 Contact Metamorphism and Skarn Formation at Crestmore, California, USA 430 Suggested Further Readings 432 213 42 21.6.2 2163 2164 21.65 ‘A Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 22.1. Foliated and Lineated Rocks 433, 22.2 Non-Foliated and Non-Lineated Rocks 22.3 Specific Metamorphic Rock Types 435 22.4 Additional Modifying Terms 435 22.5 High-Strain Rocks 436 Suggested Further Readings 439 433 435, Structures and Textures of Metamorphic Rocks 440 23.1 23.2 23 The Protesses of Deformation, Recovery, and Recrystallization 440 “Textures of Contact Metamarphism 445 High-Strain Metamorphic Textures 449 23.3.1. Shear Sense Indicators 451 Regional Orogenic Metamorphic Textures 453 23.4.1 Tectonites,Foliations, and Lineations 23.42 Mechanisms of Tectonite Development 23.4.3 Gneissose Structure and Layers 458 23.4.4 Other Regional Metamorphic Textures 450 23.4.5 Deformation vs. Metamorphic Mineral Growth 460 23.4.6 _ Analysis of Polydeformed and Polymetamoxphosed! Rocks 23.5 Ceystallographically Controlled Inclusions 471 23.6 Replacement Textures and Reaction Rims 472 Suggested Further Readings 476 23.4 454 456 467 Stable Mineral Assemblages in Metamorphic Rocks 477 24.1 24.2 243 Equilbvium Mineral Assomblages 477 The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems Chemographic Diagrams 481 24.3.1. Common Chemographic Diagrams for Metamorphic Rocks 24.3.2 Projections in Chemographic Diagrams 487 243.3. J. 8. Thompson's AKFM Diagram 491 24.3.4 Choosing the Appropriate Compatibility Diagram 493 Suggested Further Readings 495 t 478 483Contents Chapter 25, Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 ‘Metamorphic Facies and Metamorphosed Mafic Rocks 496 25.1 Metamorphic Facies 496 25.2 Facies Series 499 25.3 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 500 25.3.1. Mafic Assemblages at Low Grades $01 25.3.2 Malic Assemblages of the Medium F/T Series: Greenschist, Amphibo- litejand Granulite Facies 502 25.3.3 Matic Assemblages of the Low P/T Series: Abite-Epidote Homnfels, Homnblende Horfels, Pyroxene Homfels, and Sanidinite Facies 506 25.3.4 Mafic Assemblages ofthe High P/T Series: Blueschist and Eclogite Facies 506 25.4 Pressure-Temperature-Time (P-T-) Paths 508 Suggested Further Readings 512 Metamorphic Reactions 513 26.1 Phase Transformations 513 26.2 Exsolution Reactions 515 26.3 Solid-Solid Net-Transfer Reactions 515 264 Devolatilization Reactions 515 26.5 Continuous Reactions 521 26.6 lon Exchange Reactions 522 26.7 Oxidation/Reduction Reactions 523 26.8 Reactions Involving Dissolved Species 524 26.9 Reactions and Chemographics: A Geometric Approach 524 26.10. Phase Diagrams far Multicomponent Systems that Involve Several Reactions 526 26.11 Petrogenetic Grids 530 26.12 Reaction Mechanisms 531 ‘Suggested Further Readings 533 Problems 534 jons 535, ‘Thermodynamics of Metamorphic Rea 27.1 Calculating the Location of a Reaction Equilibrium Curve on a Phase Diagram 535 27.2. Gas Phases 537 27.3. Compositional Variation 538 27.4 Geathermobarometry 543 27.4.1 The Gamnet-Biotite Exchange Geothermometer 544 27.4.2 The GASP Continuous Net-Transfer Geobarometer 548 27.4.3 Application of Geothermobarometry to Rocks 549 27.4.4 Calculating P-T-t Paths from Zoned Crystals $52 27.4.5 Sources of Error in Geothermobarometry 553 27.4.6 Precision and Accuracy in Geothermobarometry 555 27.5 Sources of Data and Programs 559 Suggested Further Readings 559 Problems 560 Metamorphism of Pelitic Sediments. 562 28.1. Diagenesis and Low-Grade Metamorphism of Pelites 562 28.2 Medium P/T Metamorphism of Pelites: The Bartovian Sequente 563 262.1. TheChlotite Zone 563 2822 TheBiotte Zone 564Contents xv 28.2.3 The Garnet Zone 567 282.4 The Staurolite Zone 569 282.5 The Kyanite Zone 573 28.2.6 Thesillimanite Zone 574 28.2.7 Changes Above the Kyanite -»Sillimarite lsograd. 574 Saohil 283. Low P/T Metamorphism of Pelites 575 ee 28.4 Partial Melting of Metapelites 579 + Homfels, 28.5. Migmatites 581 7 28.6 High P/T Metamorphism of Pelites 582 Suggested Further Readings 584 id Eclogite Problems 584 Chapter 29 Metamorphism of Calcareous and Ultramatic Rocks 586 29.1. Metamorphism of Caleareous Rocks 586 29.1.1 Contact Metamorphism of Siliceous Dolostones 587 29.1.2 Regional Metamorphism of Siliceaus Dolostones 593 29.1.3 Fluid infiltration in Calcic Rocks 594 29.1.4 Metamorphism of Calc Silicate Rocks 596 28.2 Metamorphism of Uliramafic Rocks 599 29.2.1. Regional Metamorphism of Ulamafic Rocks inthe CMS-H System 599 29.2.2 The Effect of Other Components 603 29.2.3. The Effect of CO, 603 Suggested Further Readings 605 Problems 605 _ ‘Chapter 30 Metamorphic Fluids, Mass Transport, and Metasomatism 606 30.1 Metamorphic Fluids 605 30.1.1 The Nature of Metamorphic Fluids 607 30.1.2 The Role of Fluids in Metamorphism 610 . 30.2 Metasomatism 611 30.2.1 Metasomatic Processes 611 30.22 J.B. Thompson's Metasomatic Column 614 Phase ® 30.2.3 Changes Associated with Metasomatism 619 30.3.4 Examples of Metasomatism: Ultramafics 622 30.3.5 Examples of Metasomatism: Caleareous Skamns 627 30.3.6 Quantitative Models and Experiments of Metasomatism 634 Suggested Further Readings 635 548 ‘Appendix: The CIPW Norm 636 References 644 Index 687 cePreface “This tenis designed for sein advanced undergraduate or early graduate courses in igneous and metamorphic petrology. The book is extensive enough to be used in Eeparategneous and metamorphic courses, but use it for a one-semester combined course by selecting from the avalable chapters. The nature of geological invest- tations has largely shaped the approach that I follow. Geology is often plagued by the problem of inacces- sibility. Geological observers really sce only a tiny frac- tion ofthe rocks that compose the Earth. Uplift and erosion exposes some deep-seated rocks, whereas oth- fr are delivered as xenoliths in magma, bt their exact place of origin is vague at best. AS a result, a large pro- portion of our information about the Earth is indirect, coming from melts of subsurlace material, geophysical studies, or experiments conducted at elevated temperae tures and pressures. “The problem of inaccessibility has x temporal aspect aswell. Most Earth processes are exceedingly slow. Asa result, we seldom are blessed with the opportunity of ob- serving even surface processes strats that lend them- selves to ready interpretation (volcanism is a rare exception for petrologists). In most other sciences, the- ‘ries can be tested by experiment In geology, a8 a rule, ‘ur experiment has rn tits present sate and is impos. sible to reproduce. Our common technique i to observe the results and infer what the experiment was. Most of ‘our work is thus inferential and deductive, Rather than being repulsed by this aspect of our work, I believe most geologists are attracted by i ‘The nature of how geology is practiced has changed Acamaticaly in recent years. Early geologists worked strictly in the observational and deductive fashion de- seribed above. The body of knowledge resulting fom the painstaking accumulation of data observable with the naked eye or under a light microscope is impressive, and ‘most ofthe theories conceming how the Earth works that were developed by the mid-20th century are still considered valid today atleast in broad terms, Modern post-war technology, however, has provided geologists with the means to study the Earth using techniques bor- rowed from our colleagues in the fields of physics and chemistry. We have mapped and sampled much of the ‘ocean basins; we have probed the mantle using variations in gravity and seismic waves, we can perform chemical analyses of rocks and minerals quickly and with high pre- cision; we can also study natural and synthetic specimens at elevated temperatures and pressures in the laboratory to approximate the conditions at which many rocks formed within the Earth. These and other techniques, combined with theoretical models and computing power, have opened new areas of research and have permitted us to learn more about the materials and processes of the Earth’ interior. These moder techniques have been in- strumental in the development of plate tectonic theory, the encompassing paradigm that guides much present ge- logic thought. Given the limitations of inaccessibility mentioned above, it is impressive how much we have earned about our planet. Modern petrology, because it addresses processes that occur hidden from view deep within the Earth, must rely heavily on data other than simple observation, In the pages that follow I shall attempt to explain the techniques employed, and the resulting insights they pro- vide into the creation of the igneous and metamorphic racks now found at the surface of the Earth. The reader should be aware, however, that the results of our inves~ tigations, however impressive and consistent they may appear, are still based in large part on indirect evidence and inferential reasoning. I'm sure that the many re- searchers whose painstaking work we shall review would join me in urging a healthy skepticism lest we become ‘00 dogmatic in our perspective. Ideas and theories are always in a state of flux. Many of today’s ideas may be discarded tomorrow as new information becomes avai able andior other ideas take their place. Certainly petrol- ‘ogy is not exempt from this pracess. fo, it would be far too dull to pursue.vill Preface ‘The term petrology comes from the Greek peira (rock) and fogos (explanation), and means the study of rocks and the processes that produce them. Such study includes description and classification of cocks. as well ‘as interpretation oftheir origin, Petrology is subdivided into the study of the three major rock types: sedimen- tary, igneous, and metamorphic. At the undergraduate level in most colleges and universities, sedimentary petrology is taught as a scparate course, usually with stratigraphy. Igneous and metamorphic petrotogy are ‘commonly combined, due to the similar and pri ‘combined igneous'metamorphic course or two separate ones. Inthe interest of brevity, I will henceforth use the term “petrology” to mean the study of igneous and meta- ‘morphic rocks and processes. I hope not to offend sedi- mentary petrologists by this, but it would prove burdensome to continually redraw the distinction, 1 shall concentrate on the processes and principles in. volved in the generation of igneous and metamorphic rocks, rather than dwell upon lists of details to be mem- rized. Certainly facts are important (afterall they com- pose the data upon which the interpretations are based), but when students concentrate on the processes of geo! ‘ogy, and the processes by which we investigate them, they get a deeper understanding, more lasting know|- edge, and develop skills that will prove valuable beyond the classroom. ‘As mentioned above, modern petrology borrows heavily rom the fields of chemistry and physics. Indeed, the student taking a petrology course should have com- pleted a year of chemistry, and at least high school physics. Calculus, too, would help, but is not required. Some students, who were attracted to geology for its field bias, are initially put off by the more rigorous chemical and theoretical aspect of petrology. { intend this text to give students some exposure tothe application of chem. ical and physical principles to geological problems, and Thope that some practice will give them confidence in using quantitative techniques. At the same time, I do not want to 50 burden them that they lose the perspective that this is ¢ course in geology, not chemistry, physics, or ‘computer science. We must bear in mind that the Earth itself the true proving ground for all the ideas we deal with, Even the most elegant models, theories, and ex- perimental results, if not manifested in the rocks in the field, are useless (and probably wrong as well). All textbooks need to balance brevity, breadth, and depth. Whole books are dedicated to such subjects as thermodynamics, trace elements, isotopes, basalts, or ‘even specialized subjects as kimberlites, lamproites, or ‘mantle metasomatism. When distilling this sea of wis- dom to an introductory or survey ievel, vast amounts of ‘material must necessarily be abbreviated or left out. Of ‘course itis up to the author to decide what isto be se- lected. We each have our own areas of interest, resulting, in a somewhat biased coverage. To those who object to the light coverage I give (0 some subjects and my overindulgence in others, | apologize. The coverage here is not intended to replace more specialized classes and deeper levels of inquiry for those proceeding on to grad- uate studies in petrology. There is no attempt to develop theoretical techniques, such as thermodynamies or trace clements from first principles. Rather, enough back- ground is given for a degree of competence with using the techniques, but the direction is clearly toward appli cation, We gain from our more general perspective a broad overview of the Earth as a dynamic system that produces a variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks in a wide range of settings. We will not only learn about these various settings and the processes that operate there, but we will develop the skills necessary to evalu- ate and understand them. Once again, I urge you to be critical as you progress through this text. Ask yourself if the evidence presented to support an assertion is ade- quate. This texts different from texts only 10 years old. ‘We might all wonder what interpretations will change in ‘text published 10 years from now. Following the traditional approach, Ihave divided the book into an igneous section and a metamorphic section, Each begins with an introductory chapter, followed by a ‘chapter on the description and classification of appro- priate rock types and a chapter on the development and interpretation of textures. The chapters on classification and textures are intended as a laboratory supplement, ‘and not for lecture-discussion. I have tried to explain ‘most petrologic terms as they are presented, but you will invariably run across terms with which you are unfamil- jar. I usually place a new term in bold typeface. If you forget aterm, it can usually be found in the index, but a dictionary of geological terms is also a good companion. ‘The inside front cover lists the mineral abbreviations and acronyms that I commonly use. ‘Chapter 4 is a review of the field relationships of i ‘neous rocks, It is relatively simple and intended to sup- ply @ background for the more detailed concepts to follow. Students may simply read it on their own, Chap- ters 5 through 9 are the most intensive chapters, in which develop the theoretical and chemical concepts that will be needed to study igneous systems. By the time many students reach Chapter 9 they may fear that they are in the wrong course, or worse, the wrong major! Fortu- nately things slow down after this, and are oriented more toward application of the techniques to real rocks. Chap- ter 10 addresses the generation of basaltic magma in the mantle, and Chapter 11 deals with the evolution of such ‘magmas once they are created. Chapters 12-20 explore the common igneous associations, using the techniques developed in Chapters 5-9 10 develop models for th genesis. Few combined igneous-metamorphic petrology comm rocks. riggro cafe incom Tot Thang roduc intend unfam notim tound To proce: ume impor rather ‘mous casion eee ounte presen the pe deepe: give stsst, resulting bho object to cts and my werage here classes and pongo grad- sttodevelop nies or trace rough back- with using ward appli: erspective a system that hic rocks in learn about that operate ary to evalu. ge you to be ak yourself if rtion is ade- 10 years old. ‘illchange in divided the ‘pie section llowed by a on of appro- lopment and classification supplement, +4 to explain \sbutyou will ‘are fanfamil- seface. If you 2 index, but a Scomphion eviations and onships of ig- mnded to sup- concepts to wwown, Chap- oters, in which septs that will ae time many at they are in ‘najor! Fortu- oriented more rocks. Chap- magma in the tution of such 12-20 explore hhe techniques ‘dels for their dhie petrology ‘eourses have the time to explore all of the igncous asso- Gations covered in Chapters 12-20, and instructors will ‘commonly choose among their favorites. Students can the others on their own, or refer to them later if the need arises. One cap also get a decent review of these ‘chapters by reading the final section in each, which dis- ‘cusses # petrogenctic model, The models, however, are ‘based on the petrological and chemical data developed in the chapter, so many of the conclusions will have to be taken on faith. I teach a year-long mineralogy petrol: ‘ogy sequence, and have found it advantageous to cover ‘Chapters 5. 6, and 7 (which may be considered transi- tional between mineralogy and petrology) in the fall in mineralogy, leaving more time to do petrology during the second semester. ‘The metamorphic section is shorter than the igneous section, because there are not as many specific tectonic assoeiations, The approach I follow is to consider meta- morphic rocks as chemical systems at equilibrium, man- ifested as stable mineral assemblages. The mineral assemblages vary both spatially and temporally due to variations in pressure, temperature, composition, and the nature of associated fluids, Changes in mineral assem blage are achieved by chemical reactions, and are con- trolled by these variables just mentioned. Qualitative approaches to assessing the equilibria are developed in Chapters 24-26. Chapter 27 addresses the quantitative approach, using thermodynamics and geothermobarom- ctry. Chapters 28 and 29 apply the techniques to specific common rock types: pelites, carbonates, and ultramafic rocks. Finally, Chapter 30 explores metasomatism. Less rigorous courses, of ones that run short of time, can drop (Chapters 27 and 30 without rendering the other chapters incomprehensible. often make references in the text to other sections and figures where a concept, approach, or technique is in- troduced or developed more fully. These references are intended to asist the reader, should a concept be slightly unfamiliar, or if more information is desired, They do snot imply that the reader must follow their lead in order to understand the discussion at hand. To give students a better understanding of the processes and principles involved, I have integrated a runiber of problems into the text. The problems are an important part of the text, and working through them, rather than simply scanning them, will make an enor- mous difference in the student's understanding, The oc- casional problem integrated into the reading as a “worked example” should be done at the time it is en ‘countered, as itis intended to illustrate the concept being presented, Problems at the end of a chapter are intended as review, and to bring together the material discussed in the particular chapter. Problems not only provide a deeper understanding of the principles involved, they give students some practice at data analysis and the tools Protace xix that geologists commonly employ. Many problems ean be done with just a hand calculator, but most would be done more efficiently with a computer, and some require one. Spreadsheets and other computer programs permit us quickly to get past the drudgery of handling moderate to large amounts of data or creating graphs, and into the more interesting aspects of interpreting the results. The ability to use a computer, and particularly a spreadsheet, is necessary for all science students. On my Web page (http:/www.whitman.edu/geology/) you can download ‘a number of files supplementary to this text. Included is a brief introduction to the use of Excel® (Fxeel.doc, a Word for Windows document) If you are not familiar with the use of a spreadsheet, I suggest you read this and try the exercise as soon as you can. Also on the Web site are some programs and data compilations for a number of the problems. Other problems will assume that par-’ ticular petrologic programs are available in a campus computer. Among these are the following: IgPet® which is a program for manipulating and displaying, chemical data for igneous rocks; TWO®, THERMOCALC®, and SUPCRT® which are thermodynamic databases that cal- culate mineral equilibria at elevated temperatures and pressures. THERMOBAROMETRY®, calculates pres- sures and/or temperatures of equilibrium from mincral compositions. A list of those programs and pertinent in- formation for heir acquisition is on the web site. Of course, the basic law of computers must be kept in mind Tobe uscful, the data must be representative, relatively complete, and of good quality. Computers can output beautifully crafted diagrams that ean make even wrong data look deceptively good. Finally, a word on units. I have used SI (Systéme In ternational) units throughout the text. Although most petrologists are more familiar with calories and bars for ‘energy and pressure, respectively, the ST units are grad- ually becoming the norm. think it best that you get your exposure to these units as early as possible, because I have an awful time with them after so many years think- ing in kilobars and calories. Caleutations are also easier, because the units are standardized. The only deviation that I shall make from the strict SI terminology isto com- monly refer to temperature in degrees Celsius, rather than in Kelvins, but this is only a difference with regard to reference, and not the magnitude of the units them- selves. The Appendix lists the units and prefixes used. Please 1o0k at this list as soon as possible for a general familiarity, and particalarly for the prefixes of magn tude, so that you will be able to interpret such common terms as Ma (million years), or GPa (billion pascals pres- sre), Because minerals commonly have Jong names, and are mentioned so often, at times I shall abbreviate the names in the text and on figures. The inside front cover lists the mineral abbreviations and several of the other acronyms that petrologists commonly employ. t= Preface If you have any comments, questions, corrections, or ‘suggestions for future editions, please let me know. My e-mail address is winterj@whitman.edu. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. No text is an individual endeavor. My deepest gratitude {goes to those workers whose efforts inthe field and lab- oratory I have summarized in what follows. Special thanks to colleagues and students who have reviewed early drafts and corrected errors or helped refine my thinking when it was muddled or in error. 1 owe more than I can say to the generosity of Bernard Evans, Frank ‘Spear, Spencer Cotkin, Rick Conrey, John Brady, and Jack Cheney, who reviewed substantial portions of the text with great care and patience, Many thanks also to colleagues who unselfishly reviewed and commented on individual chapters: Stu McCallum, Roger Mitchell, John Gittins, William Scott, Jack Rice, Barrie Clark, Paul ‘Mobr, Lawford Anderson, Tracy Vallier, Bill Bonnis- chen, and Andrew Wulf. Also thanks to Bill Bonnichsen, University of Idaho/tdaho Geological Survey; Spencer Cotkin, University of Iinois at Urbana-Champaign: }.T. Cheney, Amherst College; and Bernard Evans, Univer. sity of Washington for their review. Iam also very grate- fal to Amy Kushner and Cora Heid for their efforts in hhandling copyright permissions, ajob for someone more organized than myself, John D. Winter Whitman Collegecre hm Part | ce Igneous Petrology} | | Chapter 1 Some Fundamental Concepts In this initial chapter, 1 will generalize and set the stage for the more detailed chapters to come. After a brief in- troduction to igneous rocks, I will atempt to organize cu approach tothe subject of igneous petrology. Next, because magmas are created by the melting of material at depth, we will look in the broadest sense at the ‘makeup and internal structure of the Earth, followed by 4 summary of current theories on how it got that way. Finally, we wil review in a very gencral sens the mode of occurrence ofthe commortjgncous rocks. It will be assumed that you, the student, ae familiar with the most brsic concepts, such as the distinction between volcanic, plutonic, and pyroclastic igneous rocks, ete, You may Want to briefly review the chapter on igneous rocks and processes inthe text from your introductory geology course, 2st wll efesh your memory and provide an ini tial “big picture” as we proceed to refine the ideas. Re- viewing a chapter on plate tectonies would also help in this regard. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Igneous petrology is the study of melts (magma) and the rocks that crystallize from them. Origin by crystalliza- tion from a melt seems a simple enough criterion for con- sidering a rock to be igneous. But we can only rarely ‘observe the formation of igneous rocks directly, and then ‘only for some surface lavas. We must therefore develop a separate set of observational criteria for determining that a rock is indeed of igneous origin. Such criteria will be developed further later on, but, by way of introduc- tion, they include: 1) Field criteria. Intrusive igneous bodies commonly ‘crosscut the “country rocks” into which they intrude, thereby truncating external structures, such as bedding oF foliation. They may also exhibit some types of contact, effects. When developed, a narrow, fine-grained chilled ‘margin (or “chill zone”) within the igneous body mar- in, or localized baking of the country rocks, are good indicators of an igneous origin for plutonic bodies. In ad- dition, we have come to associate certain specific forms of rack bodies with an igneous origin. For example, a strato-volcano, a pahoehoe flow, a sll or Iaecolith, etc, have become associated with igneous processes, either by directly observing an igneous event, or by applying some of the criteria above. Field aspects of igneous racks vill be discussed further in Chapter 4, 2) Textural criteria, Petrography is the branch of petrology that deals with microscopic examination of thin Sections, eu from rock samples and ground dow to 0.03: mm thickness so they readily transmit light. By observ- ing igneous rocks under the petrographic microscope, we Ihave come to associate a specific interlocking texture ‘with slow crystallization from a melt (Figure 1-1). When exystals are forming in a cooling melt, they usually de- velop a near-perfect crystal form, as the melt provides no obstruction to the preferred crystal shape. As the melt continues to cool, and more crystals form, they eventu- ally begin to interfere with one another, and intergrow. “The resulting interlocking texture shows interpenetrating crystals, much lke a jigsaw puzale, As wil be discussed in Chapter 3, the relative development of erystal form, in- clusions, and interpenetration can commonly be used to infer the sequence in which different mineral species erys- talized. Rapid cooling and solidification of a melt may result in another characteristic texture: glassy texture. When a melt solidifies too fast for ordered crystal structures to form, the result is @ non-crystalline solid, or plas. Glass ‘steadily recognized under the petrographic microscope by ts isotropic optical character. Because liquids cannot sustain substantial directional stresses, foliations rarely develop. A common textural criterion for distinguishing an igneous from a high-grade metamorphic crystalline rockin hand specimen is thus ‘based om the isotropic texture (random orientation ofs,are good ‘dies Inad- ‘oie forms example, a solith ete, sses, either >y applying, aeons rocks » branch of aon of own 0 005- By ober rowope,me Singtenture TB When “tually de ait ist iheyeventir dinero ‘ponetaing edd Slform ie Iyteusedto (apis ens It may result ture, When a structures to sr glass. Glass, te microscope al directional ‘mon textural vahigh-grade -cimen is thus orientation of Figure 1-1 Interlocking texture ina granodiorite, From Bard (1886). Copyright © by permission Kluwer Academic Publish- clongated crystal) of the former. One must use caution, however, when applying this eriterion, as some igneous processes, such as crystal setting and magmatic flow, ean. produce mineral alignments and foliations in igneous tocks. Pyroclastic deposits (those resulting from explosive eruptions) can perhaps be the most dfffeult to recognize as igneous. Usually the magmatic portion has solidified and cooled considerably before being deposited along ‘with a significant portion of pulverized pre-existing rocks caught in the explosion, The actual deposition of pyro- clastic material is in large part a sedimentary process, and hence the difficulty in recognition. In fact there is some debate among geologists as to whether pyroclas- tics should be considered igneous or sedimentary. They are igneous in the sense that nearly all of the material ‘crystallized from a melt, even though a proportion may hhave been earlier volcanic deposits. This is the “pyro” part. They are sedimentary as well, in the sense that they represent solid particles deposited by a fluid medium: air, or sometimes water. This is the “clastic” part. Some ‘geologists have wisely suggested that we avoid this hope- less debate by considering pyroclastics to be igneous ‘going up, and sedimentary coming down! In Chapter 3, we will discuss igneous textures in more detail, including both those seen in hand specimen, and ‘those seen in thin section with the aid ofthe petrographic ‘microscope. AS we initially consider the study of igneous rocks and processes, pethaps we should first consider what ‘Some Fundamenial Concepts 3 exactly itis that we want to know. The types of very “broad-brush" questions that we Would expect to have ‘answered might include the following: How are melts ‘generated? What is melted, and where? What is pro- duced by this melting? How do the mets 40 produced crystallize to igneous rocks, and what provesses accom ‘pany this erysallization? fa what way(s) do the liquid and sold portions evolve during the process of melting ‘or crystallization? Does the large variety of igneous rock ‘compositions now found at the Earth’s surface result from different soutces of melts, or can it be attributed 10 variations in the processes of melting and crystallization? Is there a relationship between igneous rock type and tectonic setting? If so, what controls this? Finally we might ask, “What do we need to know to assess these?" In other words, what background and proach does a good modern petrologist need? I would suggest the following as imperative background: 1. A petrologist needs experience looking at rocks ‘and textures. One cannot begin to study rocks ‘without knowing how to recognize, describe, or- ganize, and analyze them. 2. Experimental data (of synthetic and natural sam ples) are also necessary. We can best understand the generation and crystallization of melts by recreating these processes in the laboratory, sim ulating the conditions found at depth, and ana- Iyaing the results 3. Some theory is also required, so we can organize and understand the experimental results better ‘and apply those results beyond the exact compo sitions and conditions of the experiments. A bit ‘of chemistry, including major elements, trace ele- ments, and isotopes necessary, as is some ther modynamics. As we shall see, these techniques also help us characterize rocks and evaluate source regions and evolutionary processes. 4, Wealso need a knowledge of what comprises the Earth's interior and the physical conditions that cexist there. Melts are created deeper than we can directly observe. If we want (o know what is melted and how, we must review what is known about the Earth's interior, and how the constituents and conditions vary with tectonic setting, 5. Finally, we need some practical experience with ‘igneous activity. A literature-based survey of the more common igneous rocks and processes in na- ture provide a framework forall of the above, and give a more complete picture. hope that we will acquire the requisite skills and ex- perience in the chapters that follow. Although it would4 Chapter ppethaps be preferable to develop each of the above skills sequentially this is not practical, and may be impossible, 4s they are integrated in the scientific process. The stu- aching petrol 1a those con- ar system, and we can make he simplest ex- ating physical nature of the confidence we ¢ is consistent ranies, gravity, {stent with our ure and make uation of these book. The sce- yemation, how= layering of the theginal result ‘These data are | address in the se the products ‘now with some slogic concerns, ent. We have vill never do so hese materials. re far different + surface, What ed composition Fw ‘ean accurately use that, plus Earth, to calcu: fe density. This which make up ‘ty ofthe Earth Log (Abundance In C1 Chonde Meteor ® Some Fundamental Concepts 9 tooth” nature of the curve. This is in accordance with the “Oddo-Harkins rule,” which says that atoms with even ‘numbers are more stable, and hence more abundant than ‘their odd-numbered neighbors. ‘We must assume that the elements that comprise the Earth are among the more common elements in Figure 1-6. For example, Fe, and to a lesser extent Mg and Ni, are much more abundant in the solar system than in the Earth’s crust, s0 we might infer that these elements are ‘concentrated elsewhere in the Earth, Fe is also dense cenough to satisfy the Earth's high density requirement. In other words, using the data in Figure 1-6 as a starting point to mode! a planet with an average density of 5.52 g/em® should lead us in the direction of the concentra tions in Figure 1-5. Of course the process is complicated by such inhomogeneities as the radial differentia- tion of the solar nebula, and density variations and phase changes associated with increasing pressure in the Earth, ‘Seismic studies place further constraints on the mate~ rials that constitute the Earth. The velocities of P and S ‘waves in various materials at elevated pressures and tem- peratures can be measured in the laboratory and com- pared to seismic velocities within the Earth, as determined from earthquakes or manmade explosions (Figure 1-3). In addition, reflection and refraction of seis- mic waves at discontinuities within the Earth provide di- rect evidence for the Earth’s internal structure and the depths of the discontinuities that subdivide it into crust mantle, outer core, and inner core, as well as other more detailed features. Finally, although we haven't visited the mantle or core for samples, we have had samples delivered to us at the surface (or so we believe). We will learn more about rely easy to ob- position of the hh But the den- 23.0g/m’. The tion of material olished by com- . 07H ‘Atomic Number (2) Figure 1-6 Estimated abundances of the elements in the salar nebula (atoms per 10° Si atoms). After Anders and Grevesse (1989). Copyright © with permission from Elsevier Selene.10 Chaptert mantle samples in Chapters 10 and 19, but there are a number of rocks found atthe surface that we believe 10 ‘be of mantle origin. In many ative and fossil subduction zones, livers of oceanic crust and underlying mantle are incorporated into the accretionary prism. Thickening of the prism, followed by uplift and erosion, exposes the mantle-ype rocks. Xenoliths of presumed mantle mate- rial are occasionally carried to the surface ia some basalis. Deeper mantle material is believed to come to the surface as xenoliths in diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes (Section 19.3.3). The vast majority of samples found {nall ofthese situations ae olivine-and pyroxene-richul- tramaficrocks. When many of these samples are partially melted in the laboratory, they produce melis similar to natural lavas that we believe to be mantle-derived. Because ofits great density and depth, nota single sample ofthe Earths core has reached the surface. How: ever, we do believe that pieces ofthe core of other plan- etesimals have reached Farth in the form of some meteorites. We wil briefly discuss meteoritesin the next section, as they are quite varied, and provide important information about the composition of the Earth and solar system, 1.6 METEORITES Meteorites are solid extraterrestrial objects that strike the surface of the Earth after surviving passage through the atmosphere. Most of them are believed to be frag- ments derived from collisions of larger bodies, princi- pally from the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They are very important, because many are believed to represent arrested early-to-intermediate stages in the development of the solar nebula that have not undergone subsequent alteration or differentiation like the Barth. They thus provide valuable clues to the ‘make-up and development of the solar system, Mete- orites have been classified in a number of ways. Table 1-1 is a simplified classification, in which T have com- bined several subclasses to give a general indication of the more important types and the percentages of cach from observed falls. Trons (Figure 1-7b) are composed principally of a metallic Fe-Nialloy, stones are composed of silicate min- crals, and stony-irons (Figure 1~7a) contain subequal amounts of each. Because stones look much like terres- trial rocks, they are commonly not recognized as mete- orites, so irons (quickly recognizable by their density) tend to dominate museum collections. When we consider only specimens collected after an observed fall, hawever, stones comprise 94% of meteoric abundance. Iron me- teorites are believed *9 be fragments of the core of some terrestrial planets that have undergone differentiation into concentrations of silicate, sulfide, and metallic liq uid, in the manner discussed above for the Earth. These ‘Table 1-1. Simplified Classification of Meteorites Gass Subclass Hof Falls % of Fall rons All 2 5 ‘Stonyirons All ° 1 Ashondntes |__SNCS - : Stones — = Cuoney [SaPbomaccous 3566 Others aT ‘er Seas an Do 198) ‘meteorites contain portions of siderophile (Fe-Ni alloy) and chalcophile (segregations of troilite: FeS) phases ‘The Fe-Ni alloy is composed of two phases, Kamactite and tacnite, which have exsolved from a single, ho- mogenous phase as it cooled. The two phases are com- monly intergown in a crosschatched pattern of ‘exsolution lamellae called “Widmanstitten texture” (Fig- ure 1-7b). Stony-irons are similar to irons, but include a significant proportion of the silicate (lithophile) segre- gation mixed in, Allirons and stony-irons are considered “differemiated” meteorites, because they come from larger bodies that underwent some degree of chemical gradient in about 0.03, roundoff, wet. A repre. 35 glem?,re- on (1981). 1, Cooling. Heat developed carly in the history of the Earth from the processes of accretion and gravitational differentiation described in Section 1.4 has been gradually escaping since that time. ‘This set up an initial temperature gradient once the planet solidified and began to cool. Some con- tinued gravitational partitioning of iron in the inner core may contribute some heat as well. 2, Heat generated by the decay of radioactive iso- topes. For reasons that will be discussed in Chap- ters 8 and 9, most of the more radioactive ‘elements are concentrated in the continental crust. Radioactive decay produces 30 to 50% of the heat that reaches the surface. Once generated, heat is transferred from hotter to colder regions by any of four processes, depending on the nature of the material involved in the transfer: 1, Ifa material is sufftciently transparent or translu- cent, heat can be transferred by radiation. Radi tion is the movement of particles/waves, such as Tight or the infrared part of the spectrum, through another medium. This is the principal way a lamp loses heat, or how the Earth loses heat from its surface into space. It is also the Way we receive ‘heat energy from the sun, Heat transfer by radia- tion is not possible within the solid Earth except possibly at great depth, where silicate minerals may become hot enough to lose some of their ‘opacity to infrared radiation, 2. If the material is opaque and rigi transferred through conduction. This involves the transfer of kinetic energy (mostly vibrational) from hotter atoms to cooler ones. Heat conduc- tion is fairly efficient for metals, in which electrons ‘are free to migrate. This is why you can burn your- self if you handle an iron bar that has one end a fire. Conduction is poor for silicate minerals. 3. Ifthe material is more ductile, and can be moved, heat may be transferred much more efficiently by convection, In the broadest sense, convection is Some Fundamental Concepts 13 the movement of material due to density differ- ences caused by thermal or compositional varia- tions. For the present purposes, we shall consider the type of convection that involves the expansion ‘of a material as it heats, followed by the rise of ‘that material due to its gain in buoyancy. This con- vvection explains why it is hotter directly above a candle flame than beside it. The air is heated, it expands, and rises because itis now lighter than the air around it. The same thing can happen to ductile rocks or liquids. Convection may involve flow in asingle direction, in whieh case the moved hot material will accumulate at the top ofthe due. {ile portion of the system (or a cooled density cur- rent will accumulate at the bottom). Convection ‘may also occur in & cyclic motion, typically in a closed cell above a localized heat source. In such convection cell the heated material rises and ‘moves laterally as it cools and is pushed aside by later convective matter. As the upper portions of the system heat up, the material pushed to the margin is cooler and sinks toward the heat source where it becomes heated and the eycle continues. 4. Advection is similar to convection, but involves the transfer of heat with rocks that are otherwise in motion. For example, if a hot region at depth is uplifted by tectonism, induced flow, or erosion and isostatic rebound, heat rises physically (al- though passively) with the rocks. Convection may work well in the liquid core and in the somewhat fluid asthenospheric mantle, and may be responsible for the high heat flows measured at mid- ocean ridges. Itis also a primary method of heat transfer in hydrothermal systems above magma bodies or within the upper oceanic crust, where water is free to circulate above hot rock material. Beyond these areas, however, conduction and advection are the only available meth- ods of heat transfer. ‘The transfer of heat is a very important concept in petrology, s it controls the processes of metamorphism, melting, and crystallization, as well as the mechanical properties of Earth materials. Several petrologic proc ‘esses, [rom explosive volcanism to lava flows and pluton ‘emplacement, are critically dependent upon maintain- ing a heat budget. ‘Heat flow is relatively high in newly generated oceanic crust and in orogenic areas, where magma is rising by convection and/or advection to shallower depths. How- ‘ever, this high heat flow settles down to a “steady-state” conductive pattern after about 180 Ma in the oceanic lithosphere (away from the Fidge), and after about 800, Ma in the continents (Sclater et al. 1980). The mathe- ‘matical models are more complex than we care to deal14 Chapter with but are based on conductive models fit to the mea- sured near-surface values of heat flow. Because of the concentration of radioactive elements in the continental ‘rust, we can expect the continental geotherm to be greater than the oceanie geotherm, but the two should converge at grcates depths in the mantle (below the zones of radioactive element concentration). Estimates ‘of the steady-state heat flow from the mantle range from 25 t0 38 mWim? beneath the oceans fo 21 to 34 mWim? beneath the continents. Heat flow is commonly measured in heat flow units (HFU), for which 1 HFU = 41.84 mWim The steady-state geotherms (calculated by Selater et al, 1980) are shown in Figure 1-9. There is a range for ‘each, based on the upper and lower heat flow estimates. Note that the geotherm is higher for the continents than for the oceans, but there is some overlap between the two, resulting from the uncertainty in near-surface heat- flow ranges. The differences are restricted to the crust and uppermost mantle, and the oceanic and continental curves converge by about 150 to 200 km. The gradients continue to steepen with depth. Below about 200 to 250 Temperature (°C) 0200 400 "ep eH0" 1000 1200 ‘0 los | 20 so Ea & 3 5 i a i bo 2 0) 25 20| 100 ae 130 oa ais a 800 od et Figure 1-9 Estimated ranges of oceanic (hatched) and conti- rental (solid) steady-state geotherms to a depth of 100 km (the approximate base of the lithosphere) using upper and lower limits based on heat flows measured neer the surface. After Selater eta, (1980). km mantle convection results in a near adiabatic (con- stant heat content) heat flow and a geothermal gradient of approximately 0.3°C/km (10°C/GPa). The gradicnt ‘becomes nearly vertical in the metalic core, where the thermal conductivity and convection (in the liquid por- tion atleast) increases. Heat transfer is also important when we consider the cooling of @ body of magma. The rate at which a body cools depends upon a number of variables, including the size, shape, and orientation of the body; the existence of «fluid inthe surroundings to aid in convective heat trans- ‘er; and the type, initial temperature, and permeability of the country rocks. An example of heat models applied to a cooling magma body will be discussed in Sec~ tion 21.3.1. 1.8. MAGMA GENERATION IN THE EARTH With this preamble we might next address the probtem cof magma generation. Petrogenesis is « good general {erm in igneous petrotogy for the generation of magma and the various methods of ivcrsifcaion of such mag- ‘mas to produce igneous rocks. Most magmas originate bby melting inthe Earth's mantle, but some show evidence of atleast a partial crustal component, Plate tectonics plays a major role in the generation of several magma types, but ote types seem to result from processes at greater depths inthe mantle than are influenced directly by plate tectonics Figure 10s avery generalized sun rary ofthe principal types of magmas and thir geolog setting. We will study the processes and products in mivch tore detail in Chapters 1310 20, “The most voluminous igneous activity occurs at di vergent plate boundaries, Of these, mid-ocean ridges (l- cation 1, Figure 1-10) are the most common (Chapter 13). Beneath the ridge, the shallow mantle undergoes partial melting and the resulting basaltic magma rises and crystallizes to produce the oceanic crus. Ifa diver gent boundary is initiated beneath a continent (Loca tion 2), a similar process takes place. The resulting ‘magmatism, particulary atthe early stages of continen- tal rifting, is commonly alkaline, and typically shows evidence of contamination by the thick continental crust (Chapter 19). If the rift continues to develop, oceanic crust will eventually be created inthe gap that forms be- tween the separating continental fragments. The result willbe @ new ocean basin and igneous activity similar to location 1 “The oceanic plate created at mid-occan ridges moves laterally and eventually is subducted beneath a cont- nental or another oceanic plate. Melting als takes place at these subduction zones. The number of possible sources of magma in subduction zones is far more mu- merous than at ridges, and may include various compo- nents of mantle, subducted rust, or subducted a8 sedi but ao subdu: island rental (Cop fich th sont theswliabatic (con- ‘mal gradient The gradient re, where the velig id por- ive heat trans. ermeability of rodels applied assed in Sec TH s the problem good general ion of magma Alate tectonics everal magma 1 processes at tenced directly neralized sum- | their geologic ‘oducts in much ° y occurs at di cean ridges (lo- 'mon (@hapter atle undergoes ie magma rises rust. Ifa diver oatinent (loca~ ‘The resulting ,es of continen- velop, oceanic: p that forms be- ents. The result sxivity similar to an ridges moves ‘eneath a conti- also takes place ber of possible is far more mi various compo- ‘or subducted * Some Fundamental Concepts 15 Figure 1:10 Generalized cross section illustrating magma generation and plate tectonic setting sediments. The types of magmas produced are corre- spondingly more variable than for divergent boundaries, bbut andesites are the most common. If oceanic erust is subducted beneath oceanic crust (location 3), a voleanie island arc forms (Chapter 16). If oceanie erust is sub- ducted bencath a continental edge (location 4), a conti- nntal arc forms along the “active” continental margin (Chapter 17). A continental arcis generally more silica rich than is an oveanie arc. Platons are also more com- ron in continental ares, either because the melts rise to the surface less efficiently through the lighter continen tal crust, or because uplift and erosion is greater in the continents and exposes deeper material A different, and slower, type of plate divergence typ- ically takes place behind the voleanic arc associated with subduction (location 5), Most geologists believe some sortof “back-arc” extension is a natural consequence of subduction, probably created by frictional drag associ- ated with the subducting plate. Such drag pulls down part ‘of the overlying mantle, requiring replenishment from behind and below. Back-arc magmatism is similar to mid- ‘ocean ridge volcanism. Indeed, a ridge also forms here, and oceanic crust is ereated and spreads laterally from it. Back-are spreading, however, is slower, voleanism is tore irregular and less voluminous, and the erust ere- ated is commonly thinner than in the oceans. At times, rifting occurs behind a continental arc, and the volcanic Portion separates from the continent as a marginal sca forms by back-arc spreading. Such a process i believed to have separated Japan from the Asian mainland. At other times, such a process seems to initiate, and then it mysteriously ceases. The result may just be a graben structure, or plateau-type basalts may form prior to ces- sation of activity ‘Although magmatism is certainly concentrated at plate boundaries, some igneous activity also occurs within the plates, both oceanic (location 6) and continental (lo- ‘ation 7), Ocean islands such as Hawaii, the Galapagos, the Azores etc, all form by voleanism within the oceanic plates (Chapter 14). The products are usually basaltic but are commonly more alkaline than ridge basalts. The reason for this type of igneous activity is much less obvi ous than itis for plate margins, because our plate tec tonic paradigm is of little use in these mid-plate regimes. ‘The source of the melts is also less clear, but appears to be deep, certainly well into the asthenosphere. Sev- cral of these occurrences exhibit a pattern of igneous ac- tivity that gets progressively younger in one direction. ‘The direction correlates well with plate motion in aman- ner that suggests the plate is moving over a stationary “hot spot” or mantle “plume,” with the most recent ac~ tivity occurring directly over the plume. Intraplate ac tivity within continental plates is much more variable than that within the oceans (Chapter 19). Tt is composi tionally variable, but usually alkaline, and occasionally extremely so. This reflects the more complex and het- erogeneous continental crust, and sub-continental man- tle as well Some of the most unusual igneous rocks, such askimberlites and carbonitites, occur within continental provinces. The term igncous-tectonic association refers to these broad types of igneous occurrence, such as mid- ‘ocean ridge, island arc, or intra-continental alkalic sys- tems, We will address these associations in the later chapters of the igneous section. SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS The taterior ofthe Earth ‘Anderson, D-L. (1992). The Earth's interior in Understanding the Earth (eds. G. C: Brown, C. J. Hawkesworth, and P.C.L, Wilson). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Brown,G.C.and A. E. Mussett (1993). The Inaccessible Earth ‘Chapman & Hall, London. Jacobs, A. (1975). The Earth's Core, Academic Press. Lon ‘don, Jones, JH. and M. J. Drake (1986). Geochemical constraints ‘0n core formation in the Barth, Nature, 322, 221-228, Montagner, J-P. and D.L. Anderson (1988). Constrained ref erence mantle model. Phys. Earth Planet. Sci. Let, 44, 205-207. Wyllie, P.J. (1971). The Dynamic Earth: Textbook in Geo: sciences. John Wiley and Sons. New York16 Chapter The Origin ofthe Earth and Solar System Brown, . C.and A. E. Mussett (1993). The naccesible Barth (Chapman & Hall. London. ‘Newsom, H. W., and J. H. Jones, (1990). Origin ofthe Earth (Oxford University Press. New York. Taylor, $. R. (1992). Solar System Evolution: A New Perspec- tive, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, Taylor, S. R. (1992). The origin of the Earth. In G.C. Brown, C.J, Hawkesworth, and M. S. Matthews, (eds.) Under: standing the Earth. Cambridge University Pres. Cambridge. Weaver, H. A., and L. Danly, eds. (1989). The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems. Carmbridge University Press. Cambridge Wood, J. A. (1979). The Solar Sysiem. Prentice-Hall, Bngle- wood Cliffs, NJ. * meteorites Goldstein, J. L, and J. M. Short (1967). The iron meteorites, their thermal history snd parent bodies. Geochim. Cos ‘mochim. Acta, 31, 1733-1770, Kerrie, JF and M.S. Matthews, eds. (1988). Meteorites and the Early Solar System. University of Arizona Press. Tus- MacSween, H. Y. (1987). Meteorites and their Parent Planes ‘Cambridge University Pres. Cambridge Wasson, J.T (1985). Meteorites, W.H. Freeman, New York Pressure and Temperature Gradients inthe Earth Sclater,J.G.,. Jaupart, and D. Galson (1980). The heat flow through oceanic and continental cust and the heat loss of the Earth, Rev. Geophys. Space Sei, 18, 269-311 Williamson, E.D., and L.H. Adams (1923), Density distribu: tion in the Earth. J. Wash. Acad, Sc, 13, 413-428. 241 in This tories tion. jgneou ture at tion). 1 texture emit The deter ing thr Pho regeMeteorites and na Press. Tus: Parent Planets. a. Nigy York. th ‘The heat flow he heat loss of 311, cnsity distribu. 28, 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘This chapter is designed to assist the student in labora- tories with hand specimen and thin-section identifica tion, The preferred method for classifying any rock type, igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, is based on tex- ture and composition (usually mineralogical composi- tion). Textural criteria are commonly considered fist, as, textures provide the best evidence for rock origin and permit classification into the broadest genetic categories. ‘The first step in igneous rack description should be to determine whether the rock falls into one of the follow- ing three categories: Phaneritic. The crystals that compose the rock are readily visible with the naked eye. ‘The crystals iC any, are too small to be seen readily with the naked eye, Fragmental. The rock is composed of pieces of disag- ‘regated igneous material, deposited and later amal- gamated. The fragments themselves may include Pieces of pre-existing (predominately jgncous) rock, crystal fragments, or glass. If a rock exhibits phaneritic texture it crystallized slowly bencath the surface of the earth, and is called plu- tonic, or intrusive. Iitis aphanitieit crystallized rapidly atthe earth’ssurface, ands called voleanie, or exrusive. Fragmental rocks are collectively called pyroclastic. ‘Some rocks classified as phaneritic and aphanitic are rel- atively equigranular (of uniform grain size), whereas oth- ers exhibit'@ range of grain sizes because different ninerals may experience somewhat different growth rates, The grain size usualy varies over only a modest range, and does so somewhat gradually. If, onthe other and, the texture displays two dominant grain sizes that vary by a significant amount, the texture is called por. Dhyrii. The larger crystals, called phenocrysts, formed Chapter 2 Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks earlier during a period of slower cooling. The finer erys- tals are referred to as groundmass. Whether such rocks are considered plutonic or volcanic is based on the grain size of the groundmass. Because the grain size is gener- ally determined by cooling rate, porphyritie racks com- monly result when a magma experiences two distinct phases of cooling. This is most common in, elthough not limited to, volcanics, in which the phenocrysts form in the slow-cooling magma chamber, and the finer ground- ‘mass forms upon eruption. 2.2 COMPOSITIONAL TERMS, Nearly all igneous rocks are composed principally f sil icate minerals, which are most commonly those included in Bowens Series: quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, muscovite, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene, and olivine. ‘Of these the frst four (and any feldspathoids present) are felsic minerals (from feldspar + silica) and the latter four are mafic (from magnesium + ferric iron). Gener- ally, felsic refers to the light colored silicates whereas mafic refers to the darker ones. In addition to these principal minerals, there may also be a number of accessory minerals, present in very small quantities, usu- ally consisting of apatite, zircon, sphene, epidote, an oxide or sulfide, ora silicate alteration product such as, chlorite. The composition of igneous rocks can be described in a variety of ways. Most geologists agree thatthe best way to form the compositional basis fr a classification of g- neous rocks isto use the exact mineral content, as will be doscribed shortly. A number of general descriptive terms, however, are not meant to name specific racks, ‘but to emphasize some compositional aspect of a rock. Unfortunately many ofthese terms address similar, but not equivalent, compositional parameters, resulting at times in confusion. For example, the terms in the previ ‘ous paragraph are commonly applied not only to miner- als, but also to the rocks that they compose. Felsc, then, w18 Chapter? describes a rock composed predominantly of felsic min als, whereas mafle describes a rock with far more matic minerals The term ultramafic refers o a rock that con- sists of over 90% mafic minerals. Similar, but not equiv- alent, terms are eucocratic, meaning light-colored rock. and melanocratc, meaning a dark-colored, rock, Te first two terms are based on mineral content, wherees the at ter ones are based on rock color, but the relationship be- tween these two parameter is obvious. Rocks composed principally of light-colored minerals (felsic), wil surely be lighcolored themselves (eucocratc) Color, however, i not a very reliable measure of the composition ofa rock ‘Thus terms such as mafic, that are defined by color, yet have clear chemical connotations can be confusing. For example, when plagioclase becomes more ealeie than about Ans it is commonly dark gray or even black Smoky quartz also quite dark, Should these mincrals be considered mafic? Most geologists would resist this, a8 the mnemonic roots of the felsic and mafie terme refer to their chemical composition, eventhough color may have replaced composition as the common distinguishing fea- ture. A rock composed of 90% dark feldspar would thus be considered both felsic and melanocratc. The color of a rock has been quantified by a value known as the color index, which is simply the volume percentage of dark minerals. : Purely chemical terms such as site, magneisan, a alin, or alaminous, etc, that refer, rexpectvely tothe ‘SiO,, MgO, (Na,O + KO), and Al,O; content of a rock may aso be used, particularly when the content of some particular component is unusually high Silica content is ‘of prime importance, and the term acidicis synonymous vith sili, Although based on the outdated concept that silicic acid isthe form of silica in solution, even in melts, the term s stil in use. The opposite of acidic is base, and the spectrum of silica content in igneous rocks has been subdivided as follows: acidic > 66 wt. % SiO intermediate 52-66 wt. % SiO, basic 45-52% wt. % SiOz ulteabasic <5 wt. % SIO, Because the concept behind “acidic” and “basic” is not accurate, many petrologists consider these terms out- dated as well, whereas others consider them useful. Nat- urally, basic rocks are also mafic, so we see some of the unnecessary complexity involved in simply describing the ‘most general compositional properties of igneous rocks, ‘Yet a further problem arises when we attempt to refer to the composition of a melt. How, for example, do we refer to the magma that, when crystallized, becomes a basalt? Because there are few, if any, minerals in a melt, the mineral-based terms felsic and mafic are technically ‘ot appropriate. Color, as mentioned above is an unre- liable compositional measure, and itis notoriously poor for magmas and glasses, as the common occurrence of black obsidian, that is quite silicic, can testify. Basic ‘would apply, and it is here that the term may best be used. Many North American geologists consider the terms mafic and felsic appropriate compositional terms, and prefer to call adark magma mafic rather than basi, which they consider outmoded. British geologists prefer basic and acidic to refer to magmas, because they are ap- propriately based on composition and not mineralogy. ‘Others escape the problem altogether by naming the ‘magma after the rock equivalent. The literature is thus full of descriptions of “basaltic magmas,” “mafic mag- mas,” and “basic magmas.” Asa true-blue North Amer- ican, I tend to use the term “mafic” for both magmas and rocks We will find some other descriptive chemical terms that are useful in the classification of melts and igncous rocks in Chapter 8. 2.3. THEIUGS CLASSIFICATION (Over time, a number of classification schemes have been applied to igneous rocks, resulting in a plethora of equiv- alent or overlapping rock names (see Table 2-1 at the ‘end of the chapter for a partial list). In the 1960s and 1970s, the International Union of Geological Sciences (UGS) formed a Subcommission on the Systematics of Teneous Rocks to attempt to develop a standardized and workable system of igneous rock nomenclature. 23.1 Calculations and Plotting “The LUGS system requires that we determine three min- eral components and plot the percentages of those com- Ponents on. triangular diagram to determine the proper name. Figure 2-1 shows how triangular diagrams are used. In Figure 2-1, the three components are labeled X,Y, and Z. The percentage of X (at the upper apex) is zero, along the ¥-Z hase, ad increases progressively 0 100% atthe X apex. Any horizontal line represents a variation inthe Y/Z ratio ata constant value of X. Such lines (at 10% X inerements) have been shown on the left diagram. Likewise, ines of constant ¥ and constant Z have been ‘added. These lines can be used like graph paper to plot 4 point, anda fow of these lines have been labeled. In order to plot a point on a triangular diagram using par- ticular values of X, Y, and Z they must total 100%. If they do not, then they must be normalized to 100%. This is accomplished by multiplying each by 100/(X+Y+2). ‘Asan example, point A has the components X = 9.0, Y = 2, Z=13. We can normalize these values (o 100 by ‘multiplying each by 100/(9.0-+2.6+ 1.3) =7.75. That gives,‘eis an unre- rriously poor -ceurrence of estity. Basic ray best be corfider the ‘tional terms, cer than basic, logists prefer they are ap- { mineralogy. y naming the ature is thus ‘mafic mag- North Amer- magmas and hhemical terms sand igneous nneshave been hora of equiv- ble 2-1 at the the 1960s and vgical Sciences ‘Systematics of, indardized and dature. nine gee mio- Sorthte con dine the proper Pagans sre te labeled X,Y, er apex) is zer0 ssively 0 100% sents a variation Suc lines (at the et diagram. int Z have been ah paper to plot deen labeled. In ‘gram using par- total 100%. I ta to 100%. Tis 100K+¥+2), nents X= 90, ¥ values to 100 by 5. That gives . 3 20 2 ‘Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks 19 x Figure2-1. Two methods for ploting «point with the components: 70% xX, 20% ¥, and 10% Zon trian- gular diagrams. the normalized values: X=7%, Y¥=20%, and Z=10%. If we count up 7 lines from the Y-Z base we get a line representing a constant 70% X. Next counting 1 line from the X-Y base toward Z, we get a line representing 10% Z. Their intersection (point A) is alo intersected by the line representing 20% ¥ because the sum must be 100%. Ifthe proper grid fines are available this technique is simple and direct, however, on the diagrams in Fjgures 2-2 and 2-3 the lines are not supplied, and for these di agrams an alternative method is used to locate point A, asillutrated on the right diagram in Figure 2-1, Beeause ¥=20% and Z=10%, the ratio 100YI(Y+Z) = 2000130 = 67. f we move 67% of the way along the Y-Z base from Zitoward Y we have a point withthe proper YIZ.ratio of ‘our point A. Any point along a line from this point to the X apex will also have this same YIZrato. If we pro- ceed along such ane to the 70%X position, we may plot Point A atthe same position as on the left diagram. Al- though this method is not as direct for locating a point ex- aeily, it quickly determines the fied in which a point falls inthe figures that follow. To classify a rock using the IUGS system, one should ‘se the following procedure: 1. Determine the mode (the percentage of each min- eral present, based on volume). The mode is esti ‘mated on the basis of the cumulative area of each ‘mineral type as seen on the surface of a hand spec- {men or in a thin section under the microscope. A more accurate determi performed by “point counting” a thin section. Point counting in- volves a mechanical apparatus that moves the sec- tion along a two-dimensional grid on the petrographic microscope stage. With each shift, ‘the mineral atthe cross-hair of the microscope is identified and counted. When several hundred such points are counted, the counts for each min- eral is summed and the totals are normalized to 100% to determine the mode. All ofthese meth- ods determine relative areas of the minerals, but these should correlate directly to volume in most cases, From the mode determine the volume % of each of the following: Q = % quartz P’ = % plagioclase (Ans-Ango) The composi tional restriction is meant to avoid confusing the nature of nearly pure albite, which should bbe considered an alkali feldspar % alkali feldspar total % feldspathoids (“foids") total % matics and accessories “The majority of igneous rocks found at the earth's surface have at least 10% O'+A'+P’ or F'+A’+P Because quartz is not compatible with felds- pathos, they will never occur in equilibrium to- ‘gether in the same rock. Ifa rock to be classified hhas atleast this 10% of these constituents, ignore M and normatize the remaining 3 parameters to 100% (once again, by multiplying each by 100/(Q'sP'+ A’) (or 100/(F+P+A°) From this we get Q=1000'('+ PA’), and similarly for P, A, and F (ifappropriate) which sum to 100%. Itmay seem strange to ignore M, but this isthe proce dure. As result, rock with 85% mafic minerals20 Chapter? can have the same name as a rock with 3% matics, ifthe ratio of P:A.0 is the same. 4. Determine ifthe rock is phanertie (plutonic) or aphanitic (voleanie). It is phanerti proceed 10 ure 2-2 If itis aphanitic use Figure 2-3 5. To find in which field the rock belongs, first de- termine the ratio 100P/(P+A), Selecta point along the horizontal P-A line (across the center of the diamond) on Figure 2-2a (or 2-3) that corre- sponds to this ratio. Next proceed a distance cor- responding to Qor F toward the appropriate apex. Because quartz and feldspathoids can’t coexist, there should be no ambiguity as to which trian- gular half ofthe diagram to select. The resulting point, representing the Q:A:P or FAAP ratio should fall within one of the labeled subfields, ‘hich provides a name for the rock. 6. Ifthe rock is phaneritc, and Q4+A +P-+F <10 see Section 2.34 2.3.2 Phaneritic Rocks Let's try an example. Upon examining a phaneritic rock, we determine that it has the following mode: 18% quartz, 32% plagioclase, 27% orthoclase, 12% biotite, 8% horn- blende, and 3% opaques and other accessories. Frotn this we got Q'=18, P’=2, and A’=27. O'-P'+A’ = 17, 30, we multiply each by 100/77 to get the normalized values Q =23, P42, and A =35 that now sum to 100, Because the felsic minerals total over 10%, Figure 2-2a is appropri- ate, To determine in which field the rock plots we must calculate 100P/(P+A) which is 100(421(42+35)) = $5. By ‘counting along the P-A axis from A toward P in Figure 2-2a, we find that it plots between the 35 and 68 lines. ‘Then we move upward directly toward point Q. Because 23 falls between 20 and 60, the appropriate name for this rock is “granite.” A rock with 9% nepheline, 70% orthoclase, and 2% plagioclase, with the rest mafics and accessories would bbe a “nepheline syenite.” Try the calculation yourself. ‘The term “foid” is a general term for any feldspathoid. Dow’t use the term “foid” in a rock name. Rather, sub- stitute the name of the actual feldspathoid itself. The same applies for “alkali feldspar" in the fields for alkali feldspar granite and alkali feldspar syenite. Use the true feldspar name, if you can determine it, such as “ortho- ‘clase granite.” For rocks that plot near P a problem arises. Three rel- atively common rock types all plot near this corner: gab- bro, diorite, and anorthosite, and cannot be distinguished fon the basis of QAPF ratios alone. Anorthosite has ‘greater than 90% plagioclase in the un-normalized mode, and is thus easily distinguished. Both diorite and gabbro, however, plot in the same field(s), and must be distin- {uished based on criteria other than QAPF ratios. Re grettably, they are distinguished on the basis of two dif- {erent parameters. In hand sample, gabbro is defined as having greater than 35% mafic minerals in the mode (usually a pyroxene or olivine) whereas diorite has less than 35% mafics (usually hornblende, but possibly a py- roxene). In thin section, on the other hand, they are dis- tinguished by plagioclase composition, which can be determined by optical properties. The plagioclase in gab- ‘bro is more anorthite rich than Any, whereas the An- content of plagioclase in diorite is less than Afi, Of ‘course, whenever there is more than one eriterion, a rock could be a gabbro by one and a diorite by the other. ‘When confusion results the UGS recommends that pla- ioclase composition has priority. Further complication may arise from compositionally zoned plagioclase (Sec- mn 3.1.3). Perhaps the most common method used to distinguish gabbro from diorte in hand specimen is based fon color index (% dark minerals). As mentioned above, plagioclase more calcic than Any, is commonly black, ‘whereas itis white when more sodic. Thus gabbros are commonly black and diortes usually have asalt-and-pep- per appearance. This method is ot recommended by the TUGS. As mentioned above, the color index is far from reliable, so is at best a technique for first approximations in the field. 2.3.3 Modifying Terms It is noceptable under the IUGS system to include min- eralogical, chemical, or textural features in a rock name ‘The goal here is to impart some descriptive information that you consider important enough to put in the name. This is a matter of judgement, and is flexible. Ifthe rock is unusually light colored for its category, you may want, to add the prefix “leuco-,” as in “leuco-granite.” it's ‘unusually dark, add the prefix “mela-,” asin “"mela-gran- ite." This would help distinguish the 85% mafic vs. 3% mafic rock mentioned instep 3 above. You may also use textural terms (see Chapter 3) suchas “porphyritic gran ite,” “rapakivi grenite,” “graphic granite,” ete, When nating a rock, always try to find the correct name from the proper IUGS diagram. Names such as “pegmatite,” “aplite," or “tut” are incomplete. Rather use these tex- tural terms to modify the rack name, as in “pegmatite orthoclase granite,” “apltic granite," or “rhyolite tuff.” Ifyou want to convey some important mineralogical in formation, that may be added to the name as well. Nat- urally quartz, plagioclase, and alkali feldspar are already implicit in the name, so are redundant if mentioned specifically. However, you may want to describe a rock as a “riebeckite granite," or a “muscovite biotite gran- ite." If more than one minerals included, they ae listed in the order of increasing modal concentration. Ia the previous example then, there should be more biotite than* ratios. Re> 's of two di is defined as fn the mode vrite has less iy apy- they are dis- hich can be ‘clase in gab- eas the An- an Any, Of serion,a rock vy the other. inds that pla- complication joctase (Sec- thod used to imen is based ioned above, nonly black, ‘gabbros are salteand-pep- ended by the 2xis far from proximations include min- rock name. 2 infemation Lin the name, te. Ifthe rock you magwant ranite.” If it's n“mela-gran- mafic vs. 3% 1 may also use phyritic gran- " ete. When ct name from pegmatite,” use these fex- n “pegmatitic shyolite tuff.” reralogical in- ‘as well. Nat- ar are already if mentioned escribe a rock » biotite gran- they are listed ration. In the re biotite than. . Akai Fs Quartz Syenite (Foxettes Pevidottes o Ovine 40 oxente orton Onhopyrexente \ inopyroxeete— Byroxenites vine Webstrte : x gates ‘Orthopyroxene ‘Ginopyroxenite “ Clinopyroxene Figure 2-2 A clasification ofthe phaneritc igneous rocks, (a) Phaneritic rocks with more than 10% (quarts + feldspar + [ {espthods dy Gabor: rocks (9 Uvamate sks Aer TOS (os eletenes tite ead oe chon "1 22 Chapter? ‘muscovite in the rock, At times it may also be desirable to add a chemical modifier, such as alkaline, calc-alka- fine, aluminous.cte. A common example is the use of the prefix “alkali.” High contents of alkalis can stabilize an alkali amphibole, or an alkali pyroxene. We usually don’t think of pyroxene-bearing granites, but some “alkali granites” may indeed contain a sodium-rich pyroxene. ‘As we shall see in Chapter 8, some chemical character- istics are manifested throughout a whole series of coge- netic magmas in some igneous provinces. The chemical terms are thus more commonly applied to “suites” of igneous rocks (a group of rocks that are genetically related). 2.3.4 Mafic and Ultramafic Rocks Gabbroic rocks (plagioclase + mafics) and ultramafic socks (with over 90% matics) are classified sing separate diagrams (Figure 2-2b and c, respectively). As with any classification, the [UGS subcommittee has had to find a delicate balance between the tendencies for spitting and lumping, The same is true for us. Whereas the [UGS rust serve the professional community, and guide ter- rminology for professional communication, we must find a classification suitable for more common use in petrol- ogy laboratories, Figure 2-2b for gabbroic rcks is simplified from the TUGS recommendations. When one can distinguish py- roxenes in @ gabbro, there is more specific terminology (for example, an orthopyroxene gabbro is called a “norite”). Figure 2-2c is a more faithful to the {UGS recommendations. In hand specimen work it may be difficult to distinguish ortho- from clinopyroxene in black igneous rocks. Hence the terms “peridotite” and “py- roxenite” are commonly used for ultramaties, because they are independent of pyroxene type. When the dis- tinction can be made, the more specific terms in Figure 2-2c are preferred. The presence of over 5% hornblende further complicates the nomenclature of both mafic and ultramafic rocks. I believe that the [UGS distinetion be- tween an “olivine-pyroxene hornblendite,” an “olivine- hornblende pyroxenite,” and a “pryoxene-hornblend> peridotite” adds more detail than necessary at this point. ‘The student is referred to the complete IUGS classifica. tion (Streckeisen, 1967, 1974; LeMaitre, 1988) for proper names if it becomes important to make more detailed distinctions in nomenclature, 2.4 APHANITIC ROCKS Voleanic rocks are treated in the same way as plutonics in the original [UGS classification. One determines the ‘mode, normalizes to find P, A, and Q or F ,and plots the result in Figure 2-3, in a manner identical to that de- scribed for Figure 2-2. Because the mode is commonly difficult to de ermine accurately for voleanics, Figure 2-3 Phonolte Toph F Figure 2-3 A classification and nomenclature of voleanic rocks. After 1UGS, is a simplification, modified from the more detailed dia gram published by the IUGS (Streckeisen, 1979). The ‘matrix of many volcanics is composed of minerals of ex- tremely fine grain size, and may even consist of a con- siderable proportion of vitreous (glassy) or amorphous material. Thus it is commonly impossible, even in thin section, to determine a representative mineralogical mode. If it is impossible to recognize the mineralogy of the matrix, a mode must be based on phenocrysts. The TUGS recommends that rocks identified in such a man- ner be called phenotypes, and have the prefix “pheno. inserted before the name (e.g, “pheno-latite"). As we shall soon see, minerals crystallize from a melt in a se- quence (as indicated by, but certainly not restricted to, Bowen's Series),so the first minerals,o crystallize do not necessarily represent the mineralogy of the rock as a whole. If based on phenocrysts, the position of a rock on Figure 2-3 will be biased toward the early-forming phases, and usually erroneous for the rock as a whole. Figure asics Obes. ute of voleanie . = detailed dis- 1, 1979). The ainerals of ex- sist of a con- ‘or amorphous even in thin mineralogical mineralogy of snoerysts, The such a man- -efix “pheno-” tite”). As we a melt in a se- restricted to, sstallize do not the rock as 2 nof a rock on cearly-forming kasa whole. em in the volcanic classification, just asin the plu- fonic one. One cannot distinguish andesite from basalt ting Figure 2-3. The TUGS recommends a distinction based on color index or silica content (sce below), and ot on plagioclase composition. An andesite is defined as ' plagioclase-rich rock with either a color index below 435% of with greater than 52% SiO», Basalt has a color index greater than 35%, and has less then 52% SiO. Many andesites defined on color index o silica content have plagioclase of composition Ang; or greater. ‘The most reliable way to avoid the matrix problem Aiscussed above is to analyze the voleani rock chemi- cally, and use a classification scheme based on the ana- Igtial results (as is implicit using % SiO. in the TUGS distinction between andesite and basalt discussed above). The TUGS has subsequently recommended a classifice- tion of volcanics based on a simple diagram comparing the total alkalis with silica (Le Bas etal, 1986). The d- agram (Figure 2-4) requires a chemical analysis and is divided into 15 fields. To useit, we normalize achemicel analysis ofa volcanic to a 100% non-volatile basis, add Na,0 + KO, and plot them against SiO;. Results are generally consistent with the QAPF diagram when @ ood mode is available. ‘The diagrams shown in Figures 2-2 to 2-4 should pro vide you with the names of most common igneous rocks, ‘but a number of important rock types classified by the IUGS are not included in the figures. For instance, the clasification shown doesnot cover any hypabyssal (shal Tow intrusive) rocks such as diabase (or dolerite in Britain), nor does it cover the less common rock types such as carbonafites (igneous carbonates), lamproites! % ‘Again rocks that plot near Pin Figure 2-3 present a Wiese te ,0+4,0 3 & 3 (Classification and Nomenclature of Tgneous Rocks 23 lamprophyres, (highly alkaline, volatilerich mafic flow/dike rocks) spilites (sodic basalts), or keratophyres, (odie intermediate volcanics), etc. Highly alkaline rocks, particularly those of continen- tal origin, are varied, both mineralogically and chemi cally. The composition of highly alkaline rocks ranges to high concentrations of several elements present in only ‘race amounts in more common igneous rocks. The great variety results in a similarly complex nomenclature, Al- though these alkaline rocks comprise less than one per- cent of igneous rocks, fully half of the formal igneous rock names apply to them. Such an intricate nomencia- ture is far beyond the intended scope ofthis chapter. Chapter 19 will eal with several of the more common of interesting alkaline rock types. have tried to avoid the cumbersome detail that acom- prehensive classification requires and have attempted to Provide a useful compromise between completeness and practicality. Table 2-1 lists a much broader spectrum of ‘igneous rock names that can be found in the literature, ‘Those in bold are recommended by the IUGS and can be found either in Figures 2-2 to 2-4, orn the TUGS publi- cations referenced, The other terms are not recommended by the IUGS, as being too colloquial, too restrictive, in- appropriate, or obsolete. I have attempted to provide a very brief definition of each term, including the IUGS-ap- proved term that most closely approximates it.I s im- possible to do this with precision, however, as the ‘chemical, mineralogical, and/or textural criteria seldom ‘coincide perfectly. Table 2-1 is intended to provide you with a quick reference to rock terms that you may en- counter in the literature, and not asa rigorous definition ‘of each. For the latter you are referred to the AGI “ephcs honotte ryoite tation of vol- 37 ica. After ‘Le Ras etal, (1986). Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. BES Re aa ULTRABASIC 45 BASIC g2INTERMEDIATE ¢ ACIDIC 0% 8102| } I 24 Chapter? ‘Table2-1_ Common Rock Names, wth IUGS Recommended Terms in Bold Print ‘Approximate Meaning Name ‘Approtinate Meaning Mgrich andesite Ketungite Kerch olivine melliie ‘Quare Monzonite Keratophyre ibid felsic woleanie ‘Levoo-(alkali felepoe) eraaite Kersanite Biotte pia. lampropyce (ToL. 19-6) Mele lamprophyre (19-6) inbeitc —_Volatievch ema 5.1) Med.-to fine rained cate carbonate Komaiite sae voleane(mesity Archean) Fige 2-3 and 4 Kogaie trinemetaite ‘Aakaremite Olivine basalt, Ladogalite Mati alkali felepar syne ‘Avortsite Fig 22 Lamproite ‘A group of K-, Mg, voltiesich voleanics ‘Aplte GGrastoud with fine sugary extare (L193) eral Fig 23nd 2-4 Lamprophyre A diverse group of dark, porphyrte, mafic © Bananite Olivine tephit (TOL 1941), ‘amali Krich hypabyssal rks (TOL 19+) Beforsite Dolomite earbontite Larvive Anite synite-monzonite Beamerete ——Teacyte (Fig 142) Latte Fig 23, Boninite Mprich andosite Leacitie Volesni rook that is eany al euite Camptonite ——_Hlorablende lamprophyre (Tb. 19-6) Lherzlite ig. 22 Caneaite rstaitesanidine phlogopite lamproite (Tl Limburgite Volcanic pyroxene «olivine + opaquesin a 193) lass proundmass Carbonatte > 50% carbonate Lipari Riot Cedrite Diopsdeleucitelamproiv (TO. 19-5) TLuyulianite _Porphyfie granite with tourmaline Chamoekite —_Ortopyrorene grante Madupite [Lamprite with pike phlogopite ground Comendite ——_Peralkaline rhyolite mass (T1955) Corflandie ——_Pyroxenc-olivine hornblende Maturite Alkaline ultramatie volcanic Dace Figs. 2-3 ana 2-4 Matchite Lempeonhyte Diabase Mediu grained basalygabbro Matignite ‘Aegirine-aupte nephelinesyenite Diorite Fig 22 Mannie Leucterichtrt lamproite (TB. 198) Dolerite Mediu grained basaleabro Many “HIypersthene monzonite Denite Fel? Mananite Mgrnch andesite Enderbite Hypersthene tonalite Mavicabergite Nauolite phonolit Enexte Nephelize monzo-gabbroiorte Masafuerite Pierte basalt Felste Mieroertaline pranitid Meimechite —Uriraafievoleanie Fonte Alka feldspar metasematisrock aoc Meutite Ura melt cinopyroxene volanie sted wit catbonaies av. 198) Fergusite Preudolucite (idee Mettiotite Phonic metiite Biurosite Leucite-pog,lamprote (Tol, 195) Meheigie Mafia Feidjice Fig.23 Replace oid” with the aetual Misgte Orbicla pablo (Feidolte Fy 22 feldspathoid name Miasite Febicbitte-aephetine monzosyenite Fourctite ‘Mari nace lamprophiyre Minette Biotic lamprophyre (To. 14) Fortnite Glassy olivine lamproite (Tel. 19) Misourite Matic ype of este (oidte Foysite Nepheline syeite Monchigute Feldspartre lamprophyre (TDL 19-6) Gabbe Fig 22 Monzonite Fig 22 Glimmenie _Bititeschultramatie Monronorite _Ortboclae-bearng hypersthene gabro Gente Fig. 22 Mati soi tackysadesite (Fig. 142) Graitla Fels Putone (granite ike) rock Rave sole carbonatitevoleanie Granodionte Fig 22 Nelonite Timente-paite dike rock Granophyre_Porphyriegrait with granophyric texture Nepheliate _Nopholie bearing basalt (TH. 191) Gratinte Phonobte nepectiite Nepliinalte Plutonic aephelnte (a fide) Grennaite Nepheline syenite Nordmarkite —Quari-bearing alkali fetsparsynive Haraste Trecolie Nowe Orthopyroxene gabbro Haraburgte Fig 22 Obsidian Veoleanic lass (pcally sili) Hawaite Soaictrachybasalt ig. 142) Oceanite Piste Horableedite —_Utramatie eck >90% homblende Oaiite Lamproptyre Hyalocasite _Pyrocastie rock ~ angular gas rageneas Opdatie “Hyperlthenegranodiorte Teelanite Abpoor, Fetch andesite Ontite Lamproptyee pide ‘Applied to welded tts Orendite Di-sanicine-phog,lamproite (TO. 195) ote Giinopyroxene nepheinite (TM 1953) Oreste Volenie ner the tap phone ~ pono: alte Gin bearing leucttoite tephite border (Fig, 24) Jacuprangite Alkaline pyroxenite ache ‘Utama lamprophyee ‘otenie Hyperstnene monzonosite Peralkaine rhyolite (To. 18-1) Sursiite Olivine madypiticlamproite (ToL 19) Very coarse grained igtous rock Kalsiite Xaluliterich mafic volcanic (TEL 1941) Peridotite Fig 22 Kamafugite Collective term forte group KAtungiteMA Perlite ‘Voleni las that exhibit tne concentric Furte-Uzandie crackingtite, mate to beks (ToL 194) ‘opaques ina ‘pie ground: 19s) nevokeanie . syenite y 196) © wabbro 1142) Ta 18-5) alte phono table 2-1 Continued CClasitication and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks 25 “Approximate Meaning Name ‘Approximate Mea Figs 23nd 24 Basaic las Fig. 23 Tahitte Hatyne tepr-phonoite Olivine-rich baat (Fig 162) Tepite Fig 23 and'TOL 1941 Fig 24 Teplriphonolite Fig 23 Hydrovs volcanic glass TescheateAnaicime abbvo Asortoaite ‘Theralte Nepieline gabra Plagograite — Leucotonaite ‘Thotlte ‘Thole basalt or magma series (See. 87) Potente Melilitelamprophye (10. 19-6) Tonalite Fig22 Pyosenite —Fig.222 Trachyte Figs 2-3 and 2-4 Quatre | Fig 22 Troctalite Olivine-ich gabe (Fg. 22) Ravhaugite Coarse dolomiic carbonate (Ta. 18-2) Trohdhjemite _Leucoconlto Rete Broken-ap punsee Uncompahgrite — Pyroxene melittte Rbyolite igs 23 and 2-4 Unite Felsicnephinlite (T0181) Sanasite Navampe-augite lamprophyre (Tb, 196) Veit Glassy of phlog,larnproite (ToL. 19-5) Smekie Mich andesite Vicote Seo onset Seoria Highly escalated basalt Voresite HoLa-orthoe.lamprophyre (ToL 19:6) Skonkinite Alkaline pltoaie wth Kis, foi and ue Websente Fig. 22 Shorboulte —— Krichbaale ToL 191) Wrehtite Fg22 Save Coarse ealte carbonate (TB. 19.2) Wokigite Diveuciterichterte madupi lampeite Spessrite Hb plaglamprophyre (To. 19-5) (Table 195) Spite ‘Altered abitized baat, Wyomingte _Deleucte-plog.lamproite (TB 195) Sree Re2e Glossary or LeMaitre (1989). For the sake of brevity, I have included only the root IUGS terms, such as granite, andesite, ot rachyte, and not compound terms such as alkali-feldspar granite, or basaltic rachy-andesite, et. 25 PYROCLASTIC ROCKS, ‘The initial IUGS classification did not cover pyroclastic rocks, but they were covered in a later installment (Schmid, 1981). As mentioned previously, if the chemi- Giase Rock Fragments @ ‘© with permission from Elsevier Science, ‘As (<2 i) ysis cal composition is available these rocks could be classi- fied compositionally in the same manner as any volcanics, but they commonly contain significant impurities, and only those for which the foreign material is minimal can ‘name be applied with confidence. Pyroclastics are thus ‘commonly classified on the basis of the ype of fragmen- tal material (collectively called pyroclasts) or on the size of the fragments (in addition to @ chemical ar modal ‘name if possible) Ifthe type of material isto be the basis, the voiume percent of glass, rock fragments, and crystal fragments is determined and the name derived from Fig- api 2-64 mm) Lapierut Breoce Pyronasti ‘reco oF ‘Aaglomeraie Blocks and Bombs, ‘68mm eo : Figure2-5 _Ciassification o the pyroctastc rocks. (a) Based on type of material. After Pettjohn (2915) and Schmid (1981). (b) Based on the size of the material. After Fisher (1966). Copyright%6 Chapter? lure 2-Sa. Ifthe fragment size isthe basis, determine the percentage of the fragments that fll into each of the fol- Towing categories: > 64mm diameter Bombs (if molten during fragmentation) Blocks (if not) 264mm Lap <2mm Ash ‘The results are then plotted on Figure 2-Sb to deter- mine the name. Agelomerate in Figure 2-Sb ean be used for coherent or incoherent material, whereas most geol- ogists restrict the term pyroclastic breccia to coherent material. Figures 2-Sa and b are not necessar ally exclusive. Its acceptable to name a rock a“ vitric lapili tuff” if you want to emphasize thatthe lapilli are mostly composed of glassy fragments. An aquagene tuff isa waterborne accumulation of ash. Tt may result from a sub-aqueous eruption or it may be an airborne accumulation that has been reworked by water. Hyalo- laste is an aquagene tuff that is created when magma is shattered when it comes into contact with water. ‘SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS ‘The following are IUGS publigations: LeBas,M.J,R.W. LeMaitre, A. L.Streckeison, and B, Zanet- tin (1986). ‘chemical classification of voleanic rocks based ‘on the total alkal-silica diagram. J. Petrol, 27, 745-780, LeMaitre, R.W.,ed, (1989). A Classification of Igneous Rocks and a Glossary of Terms. Blackwell. Oxford, ‘Streckeisen, A. L. (1967) Classification and nomenclature of| igneous rocks. Neues Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie Abhand- angen. 107, 144-240. Sireckeisen, A. L. (1973). Plutonic rocks, classification and ‘nomenclature recommended by the IUGS subcommission on the systematics of igneous rocks. Geotimes, 18, 26-30. Strockeisen, A. L. (1974). Classification and Nomenclature of Plutonic Rocks, Geol. Ruudschau, 63, 773-186. Streckeisen, A. L. (1976). To each plutonic rock its proper name. Earh-Sct Rev. 12, 1-33, Strockeisen, A. L, (1979), Classification and nomenclature of voleanic rocks, lamprophyres, carbonatites, and melilitic rocks: recommendations and suggestions of the TUGS sub: ‘commission on the systemstics of igneous rocks. Geology, 7, 331-238, Schimid, R. (1981), Descriptive nomenclature and classification ‘of pyroclastic deposits and fragments. recommendations and suggestions ofthe IUGS subcommission on the systematics ‘of igneous racks. Geology. 9, 4-43, PROBLEM 1, Using the appropriate diagram, name the following. rocks: Modal percentages Plagioclase “Orihocase Nephetine Olivine Orthopytexene Clinoyrorene Horablende Other: Voleanie Number _Piutonle ua 1 a) xo 0 2 Po 1s 5 3 Pow 3 4 P 2 ” 6 5 PB 6 6 6 P @ 2 2 7 P 2 e 1 ® P 9 > 0 P 2 2 4 s B ‘ B vo4 2% 6 rr v s 7 7 5 ¥ s Pry 10 “ » 2 5 25 s 6 2‘aneous Rocks mmenclature of ogie Abhand- «ifidion and abcommission +5, 18,26-30. renclature of 6. Dek its proper smenclature of «and meliitie the TUGS sub- ks. Geology, 7, high symmetry, faces with a high density of lattice point: (100), (110) tend to form more prominent faces. In more ‘complex silicates, this tendency may be superceded by preferred growth in directions with uninterrupted chains of strong bonds. Pyroxenes and amphiboles thus tend to bbe clongated in the direction of the Si-O-Si-O chains, and micas tend to elongate inthe directions of the silicate sheets, Defects, such as screw dislocations, may also aid the addition of new ions to a growing face, and impuri- ties may inhibit growth in some directions. In general, faces with low surface energy become more prevaleat ‘When low-energy faces predominate over high-energy faces, the overall energy ofthe system is lower, and hence more stable. The surface energy on different faces may vary disproportionately with changing conditions, so the shape of aparticular mineral may vary from one rock to another. Cashman (1990) also reminded petrologists of ‘what metallurgists have long known: As the degree of ‘undercooling increases, minerals change from well- faceted crystals to acicular habits, then to dendritic, and finally to spherulitic forms In most situations the composition of a growing erys- tal differs considerably from that of the melt. Only in simple chemical systems, such as water-ce, is this not true. In the general case, then, the growth of a mineral will gradually deplete the adjacent melt in the con- stituents thatthe mineral preferentially incorporates. For growth to proceed, new material must diffuse through the melt, cross the depleted zone, and reach the crystal surface. In addition, the formation of a crystal from ‘melt produces heat (the latent heat of crystallization, which is merely the opposite of the latent heat of fusion, see Section 6.3). This heat must also be able to diffuse away from the crystal, or else the temperature at the growing surface may become too high for erystallization to proceed. 3.1.1. Rates of Nucleation, Growth, and Diffusion Because there are three main processes involved in min- cral development, and not just one, their relative rates have considerable influence on the ultimate texture of the resulting rock. We shall see that, like the weak link in a chain, whichever rate is the slowest will be the over- all rate-determining process, and exert the most control oni crystallization, There is a further rate that we must also address: the cooling rate of the magma. If the cool- ing rateis very slow, equilibrium is maintained or closely approximated. If the cooling rate is ficant un- dercooling can result, because there is seldom time for nucleation, growth, or diffusion to keep pace. The cool- ing rate is an important externally controlled variable, peepee pened Saget lpn e ee a ae ee cage epg pear Prat ghetto Ste Sancta Temperate Figure 3-1 Idealized rates of erytal nucleation and growth as. function of temperature below the melting point. Slow ‘cooling results in only thinor undercooling (T,), 80 that rapid growth and slow nucleation produce fewer coarse-grained crys- fals, Rapid cooling permits more undercooling (T,), so that slower growth and rapid nucleation produce many fine-grained crytals. Very rapid cooling involves little if any nucleation or _growth(7,) producing a glass.stal-forming «that we ob- ste of a rock. growth are poling of the oth Bites, but ses viscosity, gure 3-1, the ver tempera- ‘because it ergy onto an encounter of bryonic clus- cause atoms. existing crys- o nucleate in ry the rate of of rock. As he degree to point before ‘ooling rates se (such as at perature, the Trate is bigh ger, reselting among slow- s.on the other “dbefore ens 310 Ty in Fig- eltng Point tion and growth ig point. Slow 1), 50 that rapid sse-grained ens- ing (T,), 50 that ny fine-grained «ay nucleation or 3-1, the nucleation rate exceeds the growth rate, and small exystals are formed, resulting in the very fine- P grained texture of volcanic rocks. Very high degrees of ~ tmdercooling (Tin Figure 3-1) may result in negligible “yates of nucleation and growth, such that the liquid so- Bidities toa glass with very few erysals or none at al "Two-stage cooling can create a bimodal dstibution of gqain sizes. Stow cooling followed by rapid is the only plausible sequence, and might occur when erystalization began in a magma chamber, followed by the opening of a conduit and migration of magma to the surface. Ini tially the magma would be only slightly undercooled and afew coarse crystals would form, followed by voleanism. and finer crystals. When there isa distinctly bimodal dis tribution in grain size, with One size considerably larger ia oes the texture is called porphyritic, The lager crystals are called phenocrysts, and the finer sur- rounding ones are called matrix or groundmass. A por phyritic rock is considered plutonic or voleanic on the ‘basis of the mairix grain size. If the phenocrysts are set a glassy groundmass, the texture is called vitrophyic. If the phenocrysts contain numerous inclusions of an- ‘other mineral that they enveloped as they grew, the tex- ture is called poikilitie, The host crystal may then be called an eikocryst.* ‘The growth rate of a crystal depends upon the surface ‘energy of the faces and the diffusion rate. For ¢ constant ‘cooling rate the largest crystals will usually be those with the simplest structures (they also nucleated earliest) andlor the most plentiful or fastest diffusing components. “The diffusion rate of a chemical speciosis faster at higher temperature and in material with low viscosity. Dittu- sion rate is thus low in highly polymerized viscous melts (such melts are geriérally silica-rich and also tend to be ‘ooler than mefic melts). Small ions with low charges dif fase best, whereas large polymerized complexes diffuse poorly. In general, diffusion ina fluid is better than in a sass, and better in glass than in crystalline solids. HO dramatically lowers the degree of polymerization of ‘magma (Chapter 7), thereby enhancing diffusion. Alka- lis have a similar effect, although less extreme. The very coarse grain size of many pegmatites may be attributed ‘more tothe high mobility of species in the H,O-rich melt from which they crystallize than to extremely slow eool- ing. ‘The rates of nucleation and growth vary with the sur- face energy of the minerals and faces involved, the degree ‘of undercooling, and the erystal structure. These valves can be different for different minerals, even in the same magma, Different minerals can be undercooled to dif- fering extents because the melting point in Figure 3-1 is specific to each mineral. We shall se in Chapters 6 and 7 that minerals develop sequentiallyin a cooling magma asthe melting point of each is progressively reached. The ‘Textures of Igneous Rocks 29 temperature may thus be under the melting point of one mineral (undercooled) and above that of another. Many stable nucle of one mineral may thus form, while only a fow of another, resulting in many small crystals of the former, and fewer, larger erystals ofthe latter. The pop- ular notion that the large erystals in @ porphyritic rock ‘must have formed first or in a slower-cooling environ- ‘ment is thus not universally valid. ‘The sudden loss of @ 'H,O-rich fluid phase will quickly raise the crystallization * temperature (Section 7.5) and can also produce por- phyritictexture in some platonic rocks, as we shall see in Chapter 11. ‘When the diffusion rate is not the limiting (slowest) rate, erystals growing free and unencumbered in a melt will tend to be euhedral and nicely faceted, When the rate of diffusion is slower than the rate-af growth (asi quickly cooled, or “quenched,” lavas) the crystals take ‘onan increasingly radiating form, ora tree-like, branch: ing form termed dendritic (Figure 3-2). When diffusion is slower than growth, a zone of depleted liquid builds up at the crystalfiquid interface as described above. ‘Some workers propose that the crystals reach out in thin tendrils beyond the zone to tap a supply of appropriate elements or cooler melt. Others suggest that the pertur- ‘ations in the surface shape toward dendritic forms help to eliminate the local heat build-up that accompanies crystallization. Perhaps both processes contribute to den- Aric or spherulitie growth, Ultramafic lavas, stich as Pre- cambrian komatites, whéW quenched, may develop jpeciacular elongated olivine crystals, in some cases up toa meter Tong, called spinifex texture. The unusual size ‘Bayo coued by apt govt oe sng ‘growth of the simple olivine SerUCTUTE Tha very low viscosity magma, not by slow cool- ing. Spinifex pyroxenes over 3 ccatimeters Jong have also “been dese “Cita comers and edges have a larger volume of ‘néarby liquid to tap for components (or to dissipate the heat of erytallization) than do crystal faces (Figure 33) In addition, comers and edges have a highcr proportion of unsatisfied bonds. Thus we might expect the corners and edges to grow more rapidly than the faces in such ‘quench situations. The resulting forms are called skele- tal crystals. In some cases, the extended corners may meet to enclose melt pockets atthe recessed faces (Fig- ure 3-4a). The corners of quenched plagioclase tend to gxow straighter, creating a characteristic swallow-talled shape (Figures 3.2a and 3.40). Of course any motion of the liquid or exystalsrchomogenizes it and reduces the limiting effects of slow diffusion, 3.1.2. Nucleation at Preferred Sites Epitaxis is the general term used to describe the pre~ ferred nucleation of one mineral on another preexisting,Figure 3.2 Backscattered electron image of quenched “blue _lassy pahoehoe,” 1996 Kalapana flow, Hawaii Brightness is proportional to back-scattering ability, and hence to mean ‘atomic number. Black minerals ee felsic plagioclase and gray ‘ones are mafics. (a) Large embayed olivine phenocryst with smaller plagiciaselaths and clusers of feathery augite nucle- ating on plagioclase. Magnification ca. 400 x. (b) ea. 2000 x ‘magnification of feathery quenched augite crystals nucleating ‘on plagioclase (black) and growing in a dendritic form outward. ‘Augite nucleates on plagioclase rather than pre-existing augite ‘phenocrysts, perhaps due to local enrichment in mafic compo- nents as plagioclase depletes the adjacent liquid in Ca, Al, and Si. Photographs taken withthe assistance of Jack Rice and Michael Schaeffer, University of Oregon. Photographs taken With the assistance of Jack Rice and Michael Schaeffer, Uni- versity of Oregon, ‘mineral, thereby avoiding problems associated with slow nucleation. Similarity of the crystal structures ofthe min- eral substrate and the new phase is a prerequisite for epi- taxial growth. The atomic constituents of the new mineral thereby find favorable spots to accumulate and a stable nucleus forms. The growth of sillimanite on biotite or Figure3-3_ (a) Volume of liquid (shaded) available to an edge for comer ofa crystal is greater than for 8 side. (b) Volume of Con liquid available to the narrow end of a slender crystal is even ous greater. After Shelley (1993). Copyright © by permission ing. Kluwer Academic Publishers ‘mine ‘muscovite in metamorphic rocks, rather than as a direct lee) replacement of available crystals ofits polymorph kyan- can ite, isa common example. The: sillimanite and mica are similar in geometry and bond lengths, so that silimanite tends to form in areas of mica concentration, Rapakivi texture, involving albitic pla | ioclase overgrowths on orthoclase, occursin some gran- ites where the plagioclase preferentially forms on the structurally similar alkali feldspar, rather than nucleating 4 on their own, A crystal nucleus may also form epitaxi- ally ina twin orientation on a preexisting grain of the same mineral, leading tothe formation of growth twins Spherulitic texture in silicic voleanics is a texture in which needles of quartz and alkali feldspar grow radially froma common center. This and varioltietextureof ra fg diating plagioclase lath in some basalts are probably the result of nucleation of later crystals on the frst uclei to form, Both are considered to form during the devitnifi- cation of glass, which wil be discussed below under sec- Figure 3-4. (a Skeletal olivine phenoedst with rapid growth mae atedges enveloping melt at ends. Taupo, NZ. (b) “Swallow be tai plagioclase in tachyte, Remarkable Dike, NZ. Length of Re both fields ca. 02 mm. From Shelley (1983) Copyright © by ted permission Kluwer Academie Publishers,letoanedge ) Volume of ystal is even ‘permission rasa direct corph kyan- aresin both y and bond ‘eas of mica albitic pla- ‘some gran- sms on the 1 nucleating om epitaxi- rain of the twins a texture in row radially ture of r2- srobably the rst nudlei to he devitrifi- vunder sec. ‘rapid growth (©) “Swallow: IZ. Length of >pyright © by ‘ondary textures. Nucleation of minerals on dike (or even “S gesicle) walls is also a common phenomenon. Growth of ‘Blongated crystals (generally quartz), with c-axes normal tovein walls, results in a structure called comb structure, because the parallel columns resemble the teeth of a comb. Crescumulate texture is similar, and describes the | growth of elongated, non-equilibrium arrange- ments of olivines, pyroxenes, feldspars, or quart that ap- pear to nucleate on a wall or layer and may grow up to feveral centimeters long. Crescumulate texture com- ‘monly occurs in layered mafic plutons (where it may ap- pear in multiple ayers) and in the margins of granites. 3.1.3 Compositional Zoning ‘Compositional zoning is & common phenomenon and oc- cars when a mineral changes composition ast grows dur- ing cooling. The composition of most solid-solution ‘minerals in equilibrium with other minerals or liquid is ‘emperature-dependent. The reasons for this wll become dear in Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 27. Compositional zoning can only be observed petrographically when the color (Figure 3-5a) or extinction position varies with compo- Figue3-5_ (a) Compositionaly2oned hornblende pheaoaryst ‘ith pronounced color variation vsbl in plane-polarized lg Feld width 1 mm. (b) Zoned plagiciase twinned on theca bad law. Andesite, Crater Lake, OR, Feld with 03 mn. Textures of eous Rocks 31 sition, In the case of plagioclase, the extinction angle is highly composition-dependent, and the compositional variations show up as concentric bands of varying bright- ness in cross-polarized light (Figure 3-Sb). Ifequilibrium ‘between the crystal and the melt is maintained, the com- position of the mineral will djust to the lowering tem- perature, producing a compositionally homogeneous ‘crystal. Chemical zoning, on the other hand, occurs when ‘equilibrium isnof maintained and a rim of the new com- position radded around the old. Compositional re-equi oration a pupiocte requis SAY exclange and tis is difficult due to the strength of the Si-O and Al-O bonds. Diffusion of Alis aso slow. Zoning in plagioclase is therefore very common. ‘As Figure 6-8 shows, the composition of plagioclase {in equilibrium with a melt becomes more Na-rich as tem- perature drops. The expected zonation in cooling igneous plagioclase would thus be from a more anorthite-rich core to a more albite-rich rim. This type of zoning is called normal zoning. Itis common in igneous rocks, al though it is typically interrupted by reversals. Reverse zoning is the opposite of normal zoning, with: inget tnd else out zones. Iz comenon in ome mete morphic plagioclase, where growth is accompanied by rising temperature, Reverse zoning is rarely a long-term {rend in igneous plagioclase; rather itis typically a short- term event where it contributes to localized reversals as component of oscillatory zoning. Oscillat is the most common type of zoning in se, besalse a in An-content rarely dominates the exytalization period. The sample lustrated in Fig- ure 3-Sb is oscillatory, and Figure 3-6 shows some typi- cal osillatory zoning profes, extending from plagioclase cores to ims. Abrupt changes in zoning, such a the re- versal in Figure 3-6, require abrupt changes in the con- ditions ofthe magma chamber, Most petrologists favor the injection of hotter, more juvenile magma into acoa!- ing and crystallizing chamber to effect this change: The common occurrence of corroded or remelted embay- ‘ments of the crystal rim accompanying many reversals. supports this conclusion, The more gradual oscillations i- lustrated in Figure 3-6b are more likely to result from diffusion-dependent depletion and re-enrichment of the liquid zone adjacent to the growing crystal in an undis- turbed magma chamber. The depleted components could be the anorthite molecule, or a constituent such as HO. that can lower the melting point and thus shift the equi- librium composition ofthe plagioclase (Loomis, 1982). “Most other minerals are not as conspicuously zoned plagioclase. This may be because the zoning is simply less obvious in thin section, because it may not affect the color or extinction. Most minerals apparently maintain ‘equilibrium withthe melt because the exchange of ions does not involve disruption ofthe strong Si-AL-O bonds. Fe-Mg exchange is also easier because these elements. {32 Chapter3 2% alt ‘Chango in An mol Bio go 8 ° cow diffuse more readily than AL-Si, Microprobe analysis, however, reveals chemical zonation in several igneous and metamorphic minerals. A'color element map of gar- net (courtesy of Jack Rice, University of Oregon) is ‘shown on the back cover of the text. 3.14 Crystallization Sequence ‘Asa rule, early forming minerals in melts that are not significantly undercooled are surrounded completely by liquid and develop as ewhedal crystals, bounded on all sides by crystal faces. As more crystals begin to form and ‘il the magma chamber, crystals wll inevitably come into contact with one another. The resulting mutual interter- ‘ence impedes the development of crystal faces and sub- hhedral or anhedral crystals form. In some cases, one can infer the sequence of mineral crystallization from these interferences. Early minerals tend to have better forms and the latest ones are interstitial, fling the spaces be- tween the earlier ones (Figure 3-7). Euhedral minerals are commonly phenocrysts in an aphanitic groundmass, ‘and thus clearly formed early in the sequence. Some com positionally zoned minerals may show euhedral cores that formed when the crystals were suspended in melt and anhedral rims that formed later when the crystals ‘were crowded together (see Figure 3-14¢). ‘Unfortunately the simple principle that a crystal that molds itself to conform to the shape of another must have crystallized later is not as reliable as we might wish. ‘Whether or nota crystal grows with well-developed faces depends largely upon the surface energy of the faces. Minerals with very low surface energy may form euke- Aral crystals even in metamorphic rocks where all grow Figure 3-6 Schematic examples of plagioclase zoning profiles determined bby microprobe point traverse. (2) Re peated sharp reversals atributed to ‘magma mixing, followed by normal cooling increments. (b) Smaller and it~ regular oscillations caused by local disequilibrium crystallization. (e) Complex oscillations due to combina- tions of magma mixing and local ds- ‘equilibrium. From Skelley (1993). Copyright © by permission Kluwer ‘Academic Publishers, ing crystals are necessarily in contact with neighboring grains. Gamet and staurolite, for example, are nearly al- ‘ways euhedral in pelitc schists. Igneous accessory min- crals such as zireon, apatite and titanite likewise tend to be euhedral, even though they commonty form during the later stages of crystallization. Metamorphic petrolo- gists have noted a tendency toward euhedralis that di- ‘minishes in the order of increasing Si-O polymerization. Olivine and pyroxenes thus tend to be more euhedral than quartz or feldspar. Furthermore, Flood and Vernon (4988) noted that, although there is certainly a sequence ‘of mineral formation, there is considerable overlap, and Figure 3-7 Eubedral early pyroxene with late interstitial pla sioclase (horizontal twins). Stillwater complex, Montans. Field ‘width $ mm a of ETSEGRELE £42 othe: Gat atior FRE ~~. BUPSPRSESQESP SRR SESE LEE REE. GEE2xamples of, determined ses. (8) Re- tributed to {by normal naller and ir- ed by local zation. (0 tocombina- ad local dis ley (1993) fon Kluwer eighboring enearly al- sssory min- vise tend to oem during aie petrolo- ism that di merization. ‘e etpedral sind Vernon a sequence verlapgnd serstital poe ‘ontana. Field ost crystallization takes place via simultaneous crys- tallzation of several mineral types. We shall sce why this js true in Chapters 6 and 7. The molding relationships thus develop after most, if not all, of the minerals have ‘begun to crystalize. When growth is simultancous, the relative surface energy of mutually impinging minerals may have considerable influence on which mineral de- vyelops good crystal faces and which molds to the other. Hunter (1987) demonstrated that, although crystals sus- din melt tend to form ewhedral grains, once they fouch each other they are likely to dissolve at areas of high surface curvature interfacial edges) and crystallize at areas of low curvature, thus becoming more rounded. Except for minerals with very low surface energy, then, -eubedral crystals should be rare in cases of simultaneous ‘exystallization Geologists have often appealed to grain size as an- ‘other indicator of crystallization sequence. In porphyritic volcanics, the large phenocrysts are generally considered tohave formed before the groundmass phases. Although thisis commonly true, grain size is dependent on nucle- ion and growth rates, as discussed above, and some of ‘the minerals in the groundmass may have formed early, ‘with 2 faster nucleation and slower growth rate than the phenocrysts. The large, euhedral, K-feldspar megacrysts found in many granitic rocks for example, are commonly believed to form late inthe crystallization sequence of those rocks, not earl ‘Another sequence indicator is based on inclusion re- lationships. Igneous inclusions should have formed at an earlier stage than the host that enveloped them.’ One must be aware, however, that a thin section is a two-di- mensional slice through a three-dimensional rock, and a mineral that may appear to be surrounded by another ‘could be jutting into it from above or below the plane of, the section. One should thus note whether a mineral is ‘consistently included in another throughout the section before concluding that itis truly an inclusion. tn the case ‘of the K-feldspar megacrysts mentioned above, they are commonly poikilitic, and the numerous inclusions of ‘other minerals in them are taken as important indicators of their late formation, overruling arguments for early formation based on grain size. But even wien a mineral is consistently included in another, this isnot always un- equivocal evidence that the included phase ceased to crystallize before the host erystallization began. For ex- ample, ophitic texture (Figure 3-8) refers to the envel- ‘opment of plagiociase laths by larger clinopyroxenes, and iscommonly interpréted to indicate thatthe clinopyrox- ‘ene formed later. MeBimney and Noyes (1979), however, noted & case fit the Skaergard intrusion of Greenland in which the size of the plagioclase inclusions increases steadily from the clinopyroxene core tothe rim. This sug gests that plagioclase and clinopyroxene crystallized si- ‘multaneously. The clinopyroxene nucleated less readily, Figure 3-8 Ophitic texture. A single pyroxene eavelops sev. «eral well-developed plagioclase laths. Width 1 mm. +0 fewer erystals formed, and they enveloped the more ‘numerous and smaller plagioclases. The late plagioclase rains that were included toward the host rims had fonger to grow, and were therefore large. ‘As Flood and Vernon (1988) concluded, none of the be birefrin- lites that are 2t still micro- are formed higher ratio iner ground are very hot ce structures . ‘The common result is a texture witha dense network of clongate plagioclase microphenocrysts and granular py roxenes, with smaller magnetite crystals, Glass may $0- Uiify asa late interstitial material. The amount of glass in basaltic rocks generally less than in more silicic vol- canis, but can vary considerably, from virtually none to highly sassy when basalt comes into contact with water. ‘The lexicon of basaltic textures reflects the variation in ass content, which s crudely correlated with decreasing pyroxene size in a fretwork of intergrown plagioclase Jaths. Ophitc texture (Figure 3-8) refers toa densé net- work of lath-shaped plagioclase microphenocyrsis in- cluded in larger pyroxenes with little ot no associated ‘glass. This grades into sub-ophitic (smaller pyroxenes, ‘that stil partially envelop the plagioclase), and then into Figure 3-14 Development of curutate textures. (a) (Cosas acumulate by erytal setting or simpy form Jnplce nea the margits othe magma chamber, In is case plagioclase crystals (white) accumulate in mutual contact, and an intereurolus gud (ray ils he ine teres. b) Orthocumulate:ntezcuruls guid ery talzes to form additional plagiocase rims plus other Bases inthe interstitial volume (dark). There is ite ‘rnoexchange between the interculs liquid and the ‘ain chamber. (€) Adcumulates: open system exchange ‘etween the itercumulus liquid andthe main chamber (Glus compaction ofthe camulate pile sllows compo- ‘ents thet would otherwise create aditionalintercum- Ua minerasto escape, and plagocase fills most of te awallable space, (4) Heteradcumoltenteeumclas iq ‘uid xstlizes to adltional plagioclase rims, pus otier large minerals (hatched and shaded) that nucleate poorly and poklitially envelop the payiclses. ter Wager and Brown (1567). ‘Textures of Igneous Rocks 37 Figure 3-15 Intergranular texture in basalt. Columbia River Basalt Group, Washington. Width | mm. intergranular texture (Figure 3-15), in which the plagio- clase and pyroxene crystals are subequal in size, and glass (or its alteration products) is still relatively minor. In tergranular texture grades into intersertal texture when interstitial glass or glass alteration isa significant com- ‘ponent, When glass becomes suficiently plentiful that it surrounds the microlites or microphenocrysts, the tex- tore is called hyalo-ophitic. Hyalo-ophitic grades into hhyalopilitic asthe glass fraction becomes dominant, and both pyroxenes and plagioclases occur as tiny microlites. So don’t these basalt petrographers have fun with nomenclature? Holohyaline (glassy) texture is more common in s cic rhyolite and dacite flows. Ifa rock is > 80% glass itis called obsidian. Some workers prefer to restrict the term Politic (Woteradoumuiate)38 Chapter3 to more silca-rich glasses, and refer to basaltic varieties astachyfite or simply basatle plas. Obsidian is very dark colored, in spite ofits commonly silicic nature, because ‘lass is quickly tinted by very minor amounts of impu- rity. The glass in silicic lavas is not necessarily caused by very rapid cooling, because some obsidian flows are too thick to have cooled so quickly. Motion and/or the characteristically slow diffusion and nucleetion of highly polymerized and viscous silicic flows may impede crystallization and produce these highly glassy rocks. The ‘textural terms described above are usually applied to ran- domly oriented crystals, but they may grade into trachytic texture as flow causes alignment of the microlites. ‘Trapped bubbles of escaping gas create sub-spherical ‘voids in volcanics, called vesiles. Vesicles tend to rise in less viscous basaltic magmas, and thus concentrate neat the surface of basaltic flows. There is a complete grad: tion from basalt to vesicular basalt to scoria with in- creasing vesicle content. Vesicles filled with later mineral growth, typically secondary zeolite, carbonate, or opal, are called amygdules. The silicic counterpart of scoria is pumice. Pumice is typically light and frothy, and fresh samples float in water, Frothy pumice is commonly light gray, even though its corresponding vesicle-ree obsid- ian may be black. The reason for this contrast is that the ‘bubbles expand the glass to a thin film between the bub- bles, which refracts and diffuses light, just as breaking ‘waves form whitecaps on the dark sea. 3.1.10 Pyroclastic Textures Pyroclastic rocks are fragmental, and are produced by explosive voleanic activity. The classification of pyro- clastic rocks is based on the nature of the fragments (py- roclasts, or tephra) as discussed in Section 2.5. The ‘eruptive and emplacement modes are discussed in Chap- ter 4. The ash component of pyroctasts is commonly a mixture of pulverized rock and primary glass (including shattered pumice and aerosol liquid). The vesicles in pumice expand rapidly upon explosive eruption and are usually destroyed. The interstitial glass then forms cus- pate- or spicule-shaped three-pointed shards (Figure 3.16a). Because these shards are commonly warm in a pyroclastic flow, they deform in a ductile fashion, and fold over to the shape indicated on the right of Figure 3-16a and in Figure 3-16b. This type of bending, other structures caused by compression and deformation resulting from settling in hot ash accumulations, are col- lectively referred to as eutaxitic textures, Larger pieces of pumice may accumulate intact and have the gas squeezed from them, eliminating the bubbles. If all of the gas is expelled, the pumice returns to the black color vf obsidian, and the squashed fragments are called fi- amme. In fluid lavas, such as basalts, bursting bubbles Figure 3-16 (a) The interstitial liquid (black) between bubbles in pumiee (left) become 3-pointed-star-shaped glass shards in ash containing pulverized pumice. Ifthey are sufciently warm ‘when pulverized or after accumulation ofthe ash) the shards ‘may deform and fold to contorted shapes, as seen on the right and in the photomicrograph (b) ofthe Rettesnake ignimbrite, SE Oregon, Width 1 mm, hurl fine spray aloft, and it falls as glassy pellets called “Pele’s tears” (after the Hawaiian voleano god, Pele), or the magma may be stretched to form delicate glass threads (“Pele’s hair"). Ash falling through very moist air may accumulate successive layers on a single ash nu- ‘cleus, forming spheroidal balls called accretionary lapill Consolidated deposits of such laplli are called pisolitie tus. 3.2 SECONDARY TEXTURES: POST-MAGMATIC CHANGES Secondary textures are those that develop after the rnegus rock is entirely solid. These processes do not volve melt and are thus really metamorphic in nature, ‘The process of crystallization does not necessarily cease when the magma becomes solid. As long as the temper- ature is high enough, recrystallization, and both chemi- cal and textural'e-equilibration, fake place (otherwise metamorphic petrologists would have very little to do). Because large plutons may remain at temperatures FLELGES & a gir them there prov This eral tical: reste Most rarel enceseen bubbles ass shards in ciently werm bh) the shards +00 the right ccignimbrite, . alles called 24, Pal, or cate plas very moist gle ash a mary tpl ied plotite ‘cin nature. ssarily cease the temper- both chemi 2 (otherwise little to do), ‘mperatures equivalent to high-grade metamorphism for thousands years, there is ample opportunity for such processes to ‘Gecur. Solid-state processes that occur as a result of ig ‘neous heat (even though waning) are called autometa- rorphic, and will be covered in this section. Because solid-state crystallization processes are truly metamor- phic, hey will be discussed more fully in Chapter 23. ‘Ostwald ripening is a process of annealing (or textural riaturing) of crystals ina static environment. As Hunter (1987) noted, differences in grain-boundary curvature will drive grain growth by Ostwald ripening until straight ‘boundaries result (Figure 3-17). In such recrystalization, ¢grain boundaries migrate toward their centers of curva. ture, Small grains with convex outward curvature are thus eliminated as the surfaces of neighboring larger grains with convex inward curvature encroach upon them. Ifthe process attains textural equilibrium ina soid, there will be similarly sized grains having straight, ap- proximately 120° triple-grain intersections (Figure 3-17) ‘This equilibrium texture is most common in monomin- eralic metamorphic rocks (quartzite and marble), par- ticularly if metamorphosed in a nearly static stress regime. We will discuss annealing further in Chapter 23. “Most igneous rocks are not monomineralic, however, and rarely attain a good equilibrium texture. Relative differ- ‘ences in surface energy of contrasting mineral types and the coarse grain size of plutonics serve to establish and maintain interlocking textures in most cases. Ostwald ripening, however, may eliminate smaller grains in favor of larger neighbors at an early stage of growth, produc- ing ¢ more uniform distribution of grain sizes. Volcanic Rigure 3-17 “Ostwald ripening” in amonomineralie material. Grain boundaries with significant negative curvature (concave inward) migrate toward their center of curvature, thus elimi= ‘ating smaller grains and establishing a uniformly coarse- trained equilibrium texture with 120° grain intersections (Polygonal mosaic). ‘Textures of Igneous Rocks 38 grain size are far less stable than pluronics, and the groundmass recrystallizes readily. Glass is particularly unstable, and readily devitrifies to fine mineral replacements, as described below. But vol- ‘canies coo! quickly to low temperatures, and kinetic re- strictions to recrystaliztion develop early. The retention ‘of magmatic texturess thus surprisingly 00d in igneous rocks, but some types of solid-state recrystallzation are ‘well known and [shall review them here. 3.2.1 Polymorphic Transformation As you undoubtedly learned in mineralogy, many nat- ural substances have more than one crystal structure. Al- ternative structural forms of the same chemical substances are called polymorphs. Familiar polymorphs ie praphite-diamond, calcite-aragonite, kyanite- andalusite-sllimanite, and the several polymorphs of SiO. As we shall see in Chapter 6, a given structure is ‘most stable over a particular range of pressure and tem- perature conditions, so that one polymorph will trans- form to another when the conditions change from its stability range to that of an alternative structure. Cooling and depressurization of rising, partly or wholly crystalline igneous rocks may cross the stability field boundaries of some polymorphs, resulting in transformations. Dis- Seti muntecace wets iy as miner? Moe poston and vei oboe aaeie A e Som pee nena onda oe Soe ieee nace en one Pedi race te ing ee 6-6). Reconstructive transformations. such as graphite- Pe oe eee a is hatte pion ger oop tna Sao ont cas soy ale ena sits potas ind aay ita sara perenne tein eeepc er Sapa cae eee ey ee eases aareciee eal fem caps oensiy eakescuee he as ti ance ig becomes cod aly ee pce ee eons ‘earlier phase is distinctive, however, the replacement feiractth ay irs poraneeria ae cage rather than assume its own characteristic form. For ex- ample, high quarez may crystals as arly phenocrysts in eens Toad tam arth june Dae Suruabaly 2 hetagena!dpyasti tout he pee Souinan pm fae of i fume Boosas tisk ee mesons os eueenena ar eee cee sure). The original phenocryst shape is usually preserved, Dace mea Suse aces" Chapter 3 Another possible result of polymorphic transformations is the development of secondary twins, which can also provide a clue to the transformation process. Recogni- tion of such features can provide some very useful in- formation concerning the thermal history of a rock. 3.2.2 Secondary Twinning In addition to the primary twins discussed above, twin- ning may occur by secondary processes in pre-existing minerals. Secondary twins can oceur asa result of poly- morphic transformation or deformation. Transformation twins are caused when a high-temperature crystal struc- ‘ute inverts to a low-temperature.polymorph. As high- temperaturé'structures have more vibrational energy, they generally exhibit a higher degree of symmetry then the low-temperature alternative. Because symmetry is lowered with cooling, the high-temperature form typ cally has a choice of fwo or moze alternative low-sym- retry orientations, Ifa whole erystal assumes dine ofthe alternatives, no twinning will result. If, on the other hand, different portions of the same erystal are displaced into teach of the alternative choices, the portions will generally be in twin relationship with the other portion. This is the origin of the “cross-hatched” or “tartan” twins of micro- cline (Figures 3-18¢ and d), which are produced when the high-temperature monoclinic form inverts tothe low- temperature trilinic microeline structure. The familiar multiple “albite” twins of plagioclase (Figures 3-18b), are attributed to a similar monoctini to triclinic trans. formation, but this does not occur in plagiociase of in- termediate composition, and are commonly really primary twins resulting from nucleation error during ‘growth. Cyetic twins in quartz and olivine are other ex- amples of transformation twins. ins can also be generated by deformation of solid- ified igneous rocks. Twinning isan important aspect of a rock's response to deformation, because the shifting of a portion ofa grain into the twin orientation is an easier re sponse to effect than is grain rupture. Deformation twins in plagioclase can also occur on the albite twin law, but they usually ack the extremely straight lamellar form of their primary counterparts. Deformation twins in pla- sioclase are most easly recognized when they are wedge- shaped and bent (Figure 3-19). Calcite also readily develops deformation twins in response to shear. Di formation twins enhance the ductile response of rocks such as marble, and are uncommon in other minerals 3.2.3 Exsolution Exsolution, discussed further in Section 6.5.4, involves ‘mixing that becomes increasingly limited in some solid solution minerals as they cool. Perhaps the most com- Figure 3.18 Feldspar twins. (a) Carlsbad twin in orthoclase. Wispy perthitieexsolution is also evident. Granite, St, Cloud MN. (b) Very straight multiple albte twins in plagioclase, set in elstic groundmass. Rhyolite, Chaffee, CO. (e-d) Tartan twins in microctine. Al field widths -1 man. ‘mon example occursin alkal-feldspats where unmixing _ results in separation of Nacrich and K-rich segregations.. ‘Because the unmixing in this case involves partitioning of K and Na ions, and not strongly-bonded Si and Al, it takes place relatively easily and the scgregations appear as a coherent intergrowth of long wispy lamellae. “Co-2 orthoclas, te, St. Cloud agioclase, set ed) Tartan ‘eunmixing ‘gregations. Hitioning of iand Al, it ions appear vellae. “Co. Figure 3-19 Polysynthetic deformation twins in plagioclase. Note how they concentrate in areas of deformation, such as at the maximum curvature of the bent cleavages, and taper away toward undeformed areas. Gabbro, Wollaston, Ontario. Width 1mm. herent,”in this sense, means that the lattices of the lamel- Jae have a specific crystallographic relationship to the host, and are not randomly oriented. When the alkali feldspar is potassc, the result is exsolved albite lamellae ina K-feldspar host, and s called perthite (Figure 3-18a), When the alkali feldspar is sodic, the lamellae are K-teldspar in an albite host, and is referred to as an- tiperthite. Exsolution also occurs in plagioclase at times, but albite-anorthite unmixing involves Si-Al, as well 25 Na-Ca exchange, and the process, when it occurs at all, ‘produces much finer lamellee, Exsolution also occurs in pyroxenes, in which low-Ca ‘orthopyroxene separates from high-Ca clinopyroxene. Thin lamellae of one of these ina host of the other are ‘common, Pigeonite is an intermediate mixture, and is only found in volcanic rocks that cooled too quickly to allow unmixing to occur. ‘Unmixing does not have to be coherent, and irregular patches of exsolved phases are commonly found, as are instances of complete expulsion ofthe exsolved phase to form separate grains immediately outside the host. Ex- Solution occurs in amphiboles and a few other common ‘minerals, Some mafic silicates may even exsolve an Fe- Ti-oxide, In some anorthosites, high-temperature and high-pressure pyroxenes can dissolve a considerable amount of Al, and exsolve lamellae of plagioclase a they cool at lower pressures. The red or pink color common to some feldspars is caused by the exsolution of fine hematite cell are spherical or ovoid bodies a few mm toa few ‘em across that occur in some igneous rocks. Some ap- Pear to result from liquid immiscibility, a primary exso- ‘Textures of Tgneous Rocks 4 tution phenomenon discussed in Chapters 6, 11, and 19. Others are probably amygdule fillings, and yet others may be isolated blobs of mingled magmas, 3.24 Secondary Reactions and Replacement Solid-solid and solid-vapor reactions are processes that ‘dominate during metamorphism, and will be left largely to the second portion of this text. As stated above, how- - ‘ever, igneous rocks cool through a temperature range appropriate to this realm, and plutonic rocks remain in that realm for a considerable length of time. Secondary ‘mineral reactions that occur in igneous rocks as they cool, and that are not products of a distinct later metamorphic event, are commonly called autometamorphie processes rather than metamorphic ones, because they are a natural part of igneous cooling, Autometamorphic processes are more common in plutonic rocks than in volcanics, be- cause they remain at elevated temperatures fora longer time. Diagenetic and weathering processes are not con- sidered to be autometamorphic (a rather arbitrary dis- tinction). Most, but not all, autometamorphic reactions involve minerals at moderate temperatures in an envi- ronment in which H,0 is either liberated from residual ‘melt or externally introduced. Such alterations area sub- set of autometamorphism which involves hydration, and they are called deuteri alterations. Some of the princi- pal alteration processes follow. Pyroxene is a common primary mafic mineral in a va- riety of neous rocks. If H,O penetrates at modest tem- peratures, a deuteric alteration of pyroxene to amphibole results, called uralitization (Figure 3-20). Any grada- tion from amphibole rims on pyroxene cores to patchy ‘multiple cores of pyroxene in an amphibole, to complete replacement, is possible. The amphibole may be a single exystal of hornblende, or a fibrous actinolite or horn- blende aggregate. Either, when demonstrated to result from pyroxene alteration, may be called uralite but the termis more commonly applied to the latter. Biotitizationis a similar process of hydration/deuteric alteration that produces biotite, cither directly from py- roxene, or, more commonly, from hornblende. Because biotite contain little Ca, epidote may be produced as Ca is released during the alteration of hombiende to biotite. ‘Chloritization isthe alteration of any mafic mineral tochlorite. Chlorteis avery hydrous phylosilicate, and ‘commonly replaces the less hydrous matics at low tem- peratures when water is available. Pyroxenes, hor blendes, and biotites are commonly observed in thin section in various stages of alteration to chlorite. As in other deuteric alterations, bydration attacks the outer ‘margin of a mineral, so that chlorite commonly replaces the initia? mafic from the rim inward, In the case.of bi- otite, HO may work its way along the prominent cleav-42 Chapter3 higher temperatures (Figure 6-8), and is les stable than its sodic counterpart at low temperatures. The calcium- rich types thus break down to more nearly pure albite,re- leasing Ca and Al to form an epidote mineral (e calcite and/or sericite). In zoned plagioclase, one can occasion= ally observe the products of saussuritization or seritiza- tion concentrated inthe Ca-rich core or some of the more ‘Ce-rich oscillatory bands inthe original grain. ‘Olivine is easily altered in cooling mafic rocks, even in volcanics. It is commonly rimmed or replaced by scr- pentine or dark brown iddingsite, 320F ‘growths resulting from the combined growth of two or more minerals as they replace another mineral. AS in any ‘of the replacements described above, replacement may be partial or complete. Complete replacement and pseudomorph are common. The fibrous actnalite-hom- Dlende “uralite” aggregates replacing pyroxene are an example. Biotte + epidote replacing homblende is an- other. Myrmekite is an intergrowth of dendritic quartz inasingle crystal of plagioclase (Figure3-21).The quartz appears rod-like in thin section, and numerous adjacent | i Figure 3-20 (a) Pyroxene largely replaced by hornblende. Some pyroxene remains slight areas (Pyx) inthe hornblende I core. Width 1 mm. (b) Chlorte (light) replaces biotite (dark) atthe rim and along cleavages. Tonalite. San Diego, CA, Width 3mm. Be be pis Por Me Mic Py Pe Mie Me, Poi ot Ge ce Gi Hi se Ae Fem: ta su « a e co Forms . Rae ages, and chlorite can be seen to replace biotite margins as well as along cleavage planes (Figure 3-206). } Sericite is a term applied to any very fine-grained a white mica. Seritization is then the process by which fel- sic minerals (usually feldspars of feldspathoids in igneous rocks) are hydrated to produce sericte. Incipient stages ‘can be recognized by a fine dusty appearance of feldspars, in plane-polarized light. In more advanced stages of al- teration, the feldspars appear speckled with fine micas rh having yellowish birefringence, and then larger clots with ie ‘coarser crystals and higher birefringence. K* ions are re- ‘quired for plagioclase to be altered to sericite. Potassium may be released by chloritization of nearby biotite. K- {feldspar requires no additional K, and may commonly 1 ‘be more sericitized than associated plagioclase. Saussuritization is the alteration of plagioclase to an Figure 3-21 Myrmekite formed in plagioclase atthe bound- epidote mineral. More caleie plagioclase is stable at ary with K-feldspar. Photographs courtesy L. Coinscement may ment and aolite-hora- xene are an lene is an- let quarte ‘Textures of Igneous Rocks 43 3-1 Common Igneous Textural Terms ‘Consisting etiey of cytes (Stat erm, ot commonly wed). (Containing both crystals end gle. Consisting erry of les. Moet minerals ar 100 fine-grained tose with he maked ey. ‘The minerals are conre enough to se withthe naked eye ‘Too fine-grained to distinguish the minerals microsopicaly. Average eral diameter ies thas! ram. Average cal GametersI-Smm. ‘Average crystal dametr i greater than mm Very care grained, Fine- to medium rained xenomorphic and equigranular (looks sg). Grains areal approximately the sme size Grains vary considerably ine Perptyitc ‘Approximately bimodal size divibutin (usualy requires a grest dterence)- Megaporphriie Porphritie ure that canbe seen in hand specimen (cael wed), 1 Microporpaysic Porphyrte texture that vile only under the microscope. Payee oye) ‘An adjcsive (suf) celering to porphyrteextre. Phenosrst Large cyt setin a fine mati. Polke ‘Thehoat phenocryst(ikocryst) coming any inclusions of ether minerals Oikorst ‘The host phenocryt in politic texture. Groundmase ‘The glasy or fine grained element athe porpyee texture (matt, meso) Curulophyrie Phenocrysis ofthe same or differen minerals ocr in user (Fig 31 lomersperpiyrtie __Sysonymous with cumalophyre (used by some to spec that only one minerals involved) Hints | Tho aprons fetes ins bor hpi and ods hss (eee aed serie ‘Theres a continuous gradation nse “Aphyrie Non porphyrite (no phenosry) Form of fadivdual Grains ‘Euhedral (iomorphic) Completely bounded by erysal faces Sobbedral (Cesta faces only parialy developed (¢abidiomorphie) 5 ‘Anhedral (llowiomoephic) Crystal faces are ently absent f CCysal habit: equant, prismatic, calunar, accu, ibous, tabular, pay, micaceous, lath-shaped, etc. (se ery mineralogy tex). Corroded (embayed) "Subhedral or askedral forms produced by parual meling (fesorpion) of phenocrysts bythe met Fors of Grant nthe Rock asa Whale Taciiomoreie Mostf te gains re cubed (a). i Hypdiomorpic Consisting predominant of ebheda ais (conimon in may gran rock), Alowiemerpie Mostettiegant re abedral Common. Sutred Characterized by atcuation slong gh frepla inter penetrating boundaries, Commer io recrysalized de formed rocks Moatie tern of plpeonal egies esta ecco Het (Oikos) ‘Te lage mineral that nls othersn polit etre. Guest ‘The ide mineral ia pie etre Pole ‘One lrg yal contains eerste crystal of another miner. Refers to growth phetomens, not “suoliion or replacement Grepie “An inergrowih in wc he ue shows angular meget forms, Usually cc with ust i mieoctine Cues. Gos eee ey New er Micopranti ‘Saphire vse on under th microscope Granophyre ‘Aterareofcorainporpyelic roca in wich he grounds minerals (sly quarts asks dsp) pea- circ each other a eatery equa iterowtha Resembes mcrogrephs tee but smote tel Exsolution lamellae __Lamelarbuns of pase exsoied rom ox pase (Figure 2). Pete Inegulr vis, patches, lenses ea soc loci na lal ldsper os Usually rests om exsuton Gigwe i80) Antpete "Besoin ella of la fear ina plots hoe. Ul mic hiner tan prt. Spice Areplacenea texture in which anaes cepaed by an intxpowth of one o mee mineral Mymecte ‘secondary etre crating o regula "worm" Be of od of Gur neplapolse hos ascent oa al eldpar grais (Figure 2, Sphere Atal intesgromt of vous ners Commonly ail fldspr end qua in devise vlan Asoc Sitar to phere but te Chess alayer a ercoiated nal os wala, (continued)44 Chapter3 Table31 Continued Varioliie ‘Spb traciurcs consisting of dvergeal plagocae bow mean basal Coalescent ‘Anhedrl textures developed by simultaneous growth of two mineral grins in contac ‘Textures of Mac Hpnooes Rocks ‘Ophi Large pyrotene gros enclose small random plagioctane lath (Figure 3-8) Subophitic ‘The plagioclase lat are larger and only partly eaclned by the pyroxene. Nesoptiie Paglocas is larger yet and te pyroxenes are itera. Intergranular ‘Small crete grins of pyrotene, ovine, le, il the wtersves ina random network of large plaploelase athe ‘Figure 313). Intersertal Gass, ecyptoceystaline material or alteration products cocupy the spaces between plagioclase laths. Hyelo-phite ‘Anintersrtl texture in which lager amount of glass preset and less pyroxene Stl more glass present and plaiocase occurs only tiny random micrlies, “Texture of certain basalts contining abundat angular inertial as catics between the plagioclase ahs, Intersil growth of a mineral between ealer ones which ate llin contact and give the distinct imprssion that they accumulated a the bowtom of a magma chamber (Figure 3-14). ‘Camila texture wth other minerals occupying the atrial areas (Figure 3-14). ‘Garulat texture in which the etl cate minerals pros toile pore space (Figure 5-14). Intermediate between orho- and adcumulae. ‘One or more mineral eplce another, retaining the form of he orghal mineral [Areplacement texture n which a minerals repinced by sn inary of one or more minerals ‘Other forms include replacement of ris, cores or patches of one mineral by anther. Common processes ince: Urlitzation Replacement of pyroxene by amphibole (Figure 3-214). . ‘Sausuitization Replacement of plapoclae by epdote Biostzation Replacement of pyroxene or amphibole by bit Chicanos Replncnat fy mafic cote gure 3-20) Scitation Replcemento par rely by ne mie mits eaten Terms intenal ne miner ihe intericesbetween exer xtized rains (Figure 37) ees lites aut echoat cis in cals sages of fort, Thy ae oop ond cnn be idee nde the mi ar Miaites Say neler ert of whch teas Some properties re ios deena. monly « Fay Coming fran mires pe 8). ophera Picts tet. Sherali Tree Const eldpa micro alignd ve fom (Fg 3-1 spherl Embayed ‘Having embayments due to reaction with the melt (resorption) (Figure 3-2). on Seta! Cink hie row or have eencsroda tos let ner wh a igh proportion finer ods intheg! awed site mgt Sieve Cops reid with harnelnays(apparng sos) de to sop (Figare 3-18). Enid rented nukeatonofone miner! nants dierent hind Rapa Srerprowin af npn on ala eg 325 D Yereter Contin ar bee t SSoomoas Sigay wets peform Famiecos Fry vesblar secre carters of pie tures, m Dine Contig ves inte sah msropeneens ptr enn Nowoine cates presen cert pone oso whic che mineral poe. Portion Fpevncies fe econ vlna es rom ng pee. ; é Voici ips {jin bes igh charged wh ences igneous ‘Anyesssia ‘Vets sompeely pry le with sendy minerals cnptals { Tioptye Large oi srctures representing ps uth devi lc as neat How ‘Aurel ctr evloped aie eal of fom we Foto Piene prali. be Banding, Alternating planar layers. oa Uneasa Unc parts effect es Xena An ncn funy rock formati kee Sek dgtcen soon vepne ga ice ie can cure pater eng frm cotaton of oe vlc ase pn ong Pyroclasic Comprised ofirgnente. bending Sot vos os cet ul nmi, mingled gato fed vedios compos: Orteale Orois meso radleting etl commony creel Sanda found in ome Eates. centric Spon Crntncerake bp todendtc om ofeine cya a some gence rena ously 3 yest Terms ; ‘See Section 25. bearer Pyrocaste Glas textures Pecwtea Gay ai roca Marthe arandsof gas Flame Compresed pumice fragment ina tutvunder the a icating that they are all parts quartz crystal: Myrmekites are very common grit rocks, and occur preferentially where plagio- jeese is in contact with K-feldspar. Myrmnekites appear tw have grown from the plagioclase/K-feldspar bound- * ary into the K feldspar. As the plagioclase replaces the K- teleased (the anorthite component of Joclase contains less SiO, than the K-feldspat), Thereby producing the quartz, Myrmekite commonly forms during cooling of granitic rocks, but may also occur ‘in metamorphics. For details of the process see Shelley (1993, pp. 144-147) and Collins on his web site {hutpsivrrw.csun.eduvege0005), Devitification isthe secondary crystallization of glass tofine grained mineral aggregates. Gass is an inherently unstable material, and is readily replaced by more sta- ble minerals when kinetics permit, Water-quenched basaltic glass may be replaced by brown, optically isotropic oxidation-hydration products collectively known as palagonite, More silicic glassy rocks commonly devitrfy to produce a microgranular mass of small, tequidimensional grains of interlocking feldspar and ica minerals called felsitic texture (Figure 3-18b). Crys- tal form is entirely suppressed in flstic rocks, and the texture looks very much like chert. Devitrfication of ‘sass may also produce radial aggregates of crystals (com monly eristobalite or tridymite plus feldspar) called spherultes. Lithophysae are large cavities bordered by ‘pheraliic growth, Common in rhyolts, they probably represent late volatile relesses that created gts bubble in the glass. Spherulites may be found imbedded in a fel- site mari, 3.25 Deformation Deformation of solid rock can result in a variety of tex- ‘tures, most of which we will cover in the metamorphic portion of the text. For now, we will be concerned only with common types of post-rystallization deformation of igneous rocks. The result is bent, broken, and crushed ‘exystals or fragments. Foliations are created in many i neous rocks that remain at depths and temperatures where they are sufficiently ductile to deform readily Compaction of pyroclastic deposits creates @ flattening ‘effect and typically imparts an enhanced foliation. De- {formation can also produce undulose extinction, a wavi ness in the optical extinction pattern due to minor bending ofthe crystal lattice. It is not to be confused with ‘compositional zoning, which sesults in a distintly con- oe a ae . sont aS Ce / Sunset Crator, AZ “Compsste Volcans: Dome: Mt Rainier, WA. Laseon Poak, CATgneous Structures and Field Relationships 49 Ieanic land- noes repre- Mt Rainier, vage about 2 voligne of a tovoleanoes of magma sre generally 2 most com- re generally hh flows and pleanie form posits varies “0 vary over y associated whereas the vosive erup- orexample, J pgure 4-3. (0) Hlutrativecrosssec- sssome vol ff tion of a stratovolcano. After Mac- herinterms donald (1972). (b) Deeply glaciated ssmayshow {| porthwallofMt Rainier, WA, astra Morthisdit- [J tovolcano, showing layers of pyro-

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