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Water Reclamation and Reuse

Article  in  Water Environment Research · October 2013

DOI: 10.2175/106143013X13698672322183

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 Water Reclamation and Reuse
Wen Wen Pei1, Xuesong Xie1, Phuong Ong1, Benjamin F. Trueman1, Monica A. McVicar1,

Margaret E. Walsh1* and Graham A. Gagnon1

ABSTRACT: A review of the literature published in General

2012 on topics related to water reclamation and reuse is Extent of Reuse. In Brazil, vehicle wash

presented. This review is divided into the following wastewater was treated for reuse by flocculation-column

sections: (1) General: extent of reuse, research needs, flotation followed by sand filtration and chlorination

guidelines and monitoring, and health effects, (2) (Zaneti et al., 2012). The full-scale treatment system

Treatment technologies: integrated process design, achieved a 70 % wash water recovery rate over 27 cycles

membrane treatment, membrane bioreactors, and produced reclaimed water that was odorless and clear

electrocoagulation, ion exchange and adsorption, wetlands, with an average turbidity of 9 NTU.

managed aquifer recharge, and (3) Planning and In a five-year field experiment in São Paulo state,

management: public acceptance and education, Brazil, irrigation by municipal wastewater effluent

economics/pricing, water quality planning and management increased yield on a sugarcane plantation while maintaining

and project/case studies. It can be seen from this review soil pH and basic cation concentrations adequate for plant

that much of the treatment technology research has focused development (Blum et al., 2012). However, there was a risk

on membrane treatment, integrated designs and other of adverse impacts on groundwater or other water bodies

innovative technologies. due to the high sodium leaching potential.

KEYWORDS: wastewater, water reclamation, A multi-criteria decision making model

wastewater reuse, monitoring, membranes, planning and suggested that wastewater could be used sustainably for

management irrigation in the Thessaly region of Greece based on

doi: 10.2175/106143013X13698672322183 economic, social and environmental criteria (Bakopoulou et

————————— al., 2012). For both agricultural and landscape irrigation,

1
Dalhousie University, Department of Civil & Resource the best secondary effluent treatment technology was found
1*
Engineering; Dalhousie University, Department of Civil & to be filtration or coagulation-filtration followed by ozone
Resource Engineering, 1360 Barrington St., Bldg. D, Rm. D215,
disinfection.
Halifax, N.S., B3J 1Z1, Canada; Tel. 902-494-8430; Fax. 902-494-
Research Needs. A review of policy and
3108; E-mail: mwalsh2@dal.ca
experience related to wastewater reuse in an agricultural

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
context suggested that future research should focus on risk health impact from volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in

assessment with the goal of overcoming excessive caution effluent treated by microfiltration (MF)/reverse-osmosis

due to risk overestimation (Molle et al., 2012). A need for (RO) for indirect potable reuse (Rodriguez et al., 2012).

research aimed at reducing the environmental and financial Results suggested that 1,4-dichlorobenzene could be used

costs of wastewater reuse was recommended. as a treatment performance indicator for MF/RO processes.

Guidelines and Monitoring. A set of 27

sustainability indicators was developed to assess Treatment Technology

wastewater reuse systems in Australia (Upadhyaya and Integrated Process Design. A combined

Moore, 2012). The indicators were applied to two reuse electrocoagulation-ultrasound process was evaluated for the

systems (a tree plantation and a lake discharge for treatment and reuse of car-washing wastewater (Chu et al.,

augmenting environmental flow) using a multicriteria 2012). Results of the bench-scale experiments

decision making model. demonstrated 69 and 96 % removal of COD and turbidity,

A review of policy and experience related to respectively, for 1.2 A current intensity, pH of 6.0,

wastewater reuse concluded that the practice holds much electrode distance of 1.5 cm and 20 minute contact time.

promise for reducing water demand, recycling nutrients, An integrated chemically enhanced primary

improving soil health and reducing pollution (Hanjra et al., treatment (CEPT), trickling filter (TF) and ultrafiltration

2012). However, the need for water reuse policies and (UF) process using coagulant produced from fly ash was

regulations to protect public health and the environment developed to treat domestic wastewater at bench scale

was emphasized. (Zhao et al., 2012). The integrated system was capable of

A review of published reports on municipal removing total phosphorus (TP) and total suspended solids

effluent irrigation systems assessed the agricultural and (TSS) completely while also removing 95 and 88 % of

environmental implications of soil phosphorous COD and ammonium, respectively.

accumulation (Elliott and Jaiswal, 2012). For a typical The efficiencies of ultraviolet-light-emitting

regulated maximum irrigation rate of 5.1 cm/wk, secondary diodes (UV-LEDs), emitting UV-A or UV-C radiation

effluents with 3-4 mg P/L caused soil phosphorous separately or coupled, were tested on both microbiological

enrichment beyond levels necessary for crop yield and chemical pollution removal from urban wastewater for

optimization; however, in cases where advanced systems recycling purposes at lab-scale (Chevremont et al., 2012).

discharged effluent below 0.5 mg P/L, applied phosphorous Coupled UV-A/UV-C processes achieved a higher

could potentially fall short of crop needs. microbial removal than single UV-LED processes and

Health Effects. Pilot and full-scale studies in oxidized up to 37 % of creatinine and phenol.

Perth, Western Australia found a low potential human

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
 The combination of coagulation-precipitation and biological processes (Khan et al., 2012). The study, which

spiral wound RO was evaluated and compared to ran for more than 12 months, showed that the process was

conventional treatments for hydrofluoric (HF) acid efficient and capable of treating municipal wastewater,

wastewater treatment (Won et al., 2012). Pilot-scale results removing BOD and COD to a level of 22 and 57 mg/L,

showed that the combination was capable of treating the respectively, enabling the treated effluent to be recycled for

HF acid wastewater to a reusable level. agriculture use.

A bench-scale study was conducted to evaluate Oil-rich wastewater from a dairy farm in an arid

the efficiency of Fenton oxidation alone and in combination environment was treated for reuse by an anaerobic

with an aerobic sequencing batch reactor (SBR) for textile treatment and wetland system at pilot-scale (Travis et al.,

wastewater treatment and reuse (Blanco et al., 2012). 2012). The system achieved COD, BOD5, TSS, oil and

Results demonstrated that, while both processes were grease, total nitrogen (TN), and TP removal rates of 94, 96,

capable of achieving high effluent qualities for reuse, the 97, 99, 73 and 73 %, respectively, indicating the possibility

combined process removed more COD, iron, and TOC. of effluent reuse according to the WHO health risk

A combined process using ozone with guidelines for wastewater reuse in mechanized agriculture.

biologically activated carbon filtration was investigated at Membrane Treatment. The efficiency of a

full-scale for the removal of trace organic chemicals pilot-scale UF membrane for the treatment of secondary

(TrOCs) from wastewater treatment plant effluents effluent to be reused in wet textile industries was evaluated

(Reungoat et al., 2012). Results demonstrated that the at Baciacavallo wastewater treatment plant in Prato, Italy

combined process was able to remove 50 % DOC, over 90 (Borsi et al., 2012). The UF process was optimized in terms

% TrOCs, 70 % of non-specific toxicity and 95 % of of running time, backwash, chemical addition and cleaning

estrogenicity, indicating that the process could significantly procedures and results showed that the process could be a

reduce the presence of TrOCs in recycled water. suitable tertiary treatment process for textile wastewater

A coagulation coupled with membrane bioreactor treatment and reuse.

(MBR) hybrid system was investigated at bench-scale for Fouling behavior of a pilot-scale MF process

the possibility of its use in reclaiming dairy wastewater treating secondary wastewater effluent was investigated

(Chen and Liu, 2012). The process achieved 98 % COD through an 18 month study to identify potential

removal and flocculation processes improved the fouling relationships between key operating parameters (flux and

level of the membrane. backwash interval) and water quality determinants

Municipal wastewater was treated at full-scale by (turbidity and temperature) (Raffin et al., 2012). It was

an integrated process using an upflow anaerobic sludge bed found that power or exponential functions could describe

(USAB) reactor followed by flash aeration without aerobic the relationship between reversible fouling rate and flux,

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
while reversible fouling rate and turbidity were related types of feed wastewaters and results showed that

exponentially. pretreatment for large foulants (i.e., effluent organic matter

A pilot-scale filtration system using both (EfOM)) in order to reduce membrane fouling had negative

nanofiltration (NF) and RO was investigated for the impacts on virus removal.

treatment and potential reuse of segregated textile The effect of coagulation as a method of

wastewater (Kurt et al., 2012). The membrane system was pretreatment for direct UF of primary settled municipal

capable of purifying the wastewater for reuse, achieving wastewater was investigated at bench-scale (Diaz et al.,

66-96, 98 and 99 % removal of water conductivity, COD 2012). Optimal operating conditions were achieved with

and color, respectively. 0.16 mM aluminum dosing and backwashing of 85 second

A bench-scale study was conducted to investigate duration; however, the filtration process was able to

the feasibility of a RO membrane system to purify efficiently remove COD (81-95 %) regardless of the

pretreated olive mill wastewater (OMW) (Ochando-Pulido coagulant dose and initial influent quality.

et al., 2012a). The membrane system achieved over 99 % Synthetic tunnel-construction wastewater with

removal rates for both COD and ionic content and 100 % high TSS and soluble silica was treated by a bench-scale

removal of phenols, iron and suspended solids (SS), crossflow MF process with and without either calcium

enabling the wastewater to be reused. chloride (CaCl2) or magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Olive mill wastewater was also treated using lab- pretreatment (Yi-Wen et al., 2012). Both CaCl2 and MgCl2

scale membrane systems (NF, composite RO and pretreatment increased contaminant removal, but the

asymmetric RO) with a pretreatment process consisting of treated effluents still required dilution or polishing before

Fenton-like advanced oxidation, flocculation-sedimentation reuse; additionally, MgCl2 pretreatment led to significant

and filtration (Ochando-Pulido et al., 2012b). With the membrane fouling.

addition of pretreatment, the NF membrane achieved a 43- The efficiency of lab-scale UF and NF processes

59 % COD removal rate and did not show any fouling in raw textile wastewater and reactive dye aqueous

concerns; the composite and asymmetric RO membranes solutions treatment was investigated with the aims of

achieved much higher quality effluents (around 98 % COD wastewater reuse and minimization of chemical usage

removal) that could be directly reused, but membrane (Aouni et al., 2012). NF proved appropriate for wastewater

fouling was an issue. treatment, achieving COD, conductivity and color removal

Mechanisms of a hollow-fiber low-pressure rates of 90, 80, and 90 %, respectively, indicating the

polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane unit for potential for water reuse in textile finishing processes.

wastewater treatment and reuse were studied at bench-scale Submerged aerated and vibrated membrane

(Huang et al., 2012). Experiments were conducted with six filtration systems were investigated at lab and pilot-scale

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
with the aim of recovering both energy and water in bacteria, indicating the SMBR effluent met the

municipal wastewater treatment (Mezohegyi et al., 2012). international and local regulations of reuse for irrigation.

Both processes were efficient in up-concentrating COD but A composite membrane, prepared by coating

not nitrogen or phosphorus; however, the vibrated TiO2/polyvinyl alcohol (PVC) on a polyester filter cloth, in

membrane process had a better use potential than the a bench-scale anoxic/oxic MBR was evaluated in terms of

aerated membrane system when fouling control and energy nitrate and ammonia removal for treatment of synthetic

usage were considered. industrial wastewater (Liu et al., 2012). Effluent from the

Membrane Bioreactors. The performance of a novel membrane process was of higher quality (i.e., it was

MBR pilot-plant treating winery wastewater was studied reusable in a polyester fiber production plant) and required

and compared with a full-scale conventional activated less frequent cleaning than the MBR system using a

sludge system (Valderrama et al., 2012). The MBR pilot commercial polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane.

plant achieved much higher COD removal compared to the Electrocoagulation. Acid mine drainage (AMD)

conventional activated sludge system and the MBR in Saraka Lake, Serbia, characterized with low pH of 2.63,

permeate was reusable for urban, agricultural and high heavy metals concentration of up to 610 mg/L and

recreational purposes. high sulfates concentration of up to 12 000 mg/L, was

The efficiency of two full-scale MBR systems treated with a pH adjustment followed by

(MF with pore size of 0.4 μm and UF with pore size of electrocoagulation using iron and aluminum electrode sets

0.034 μm) treating pretreated wastewater in a Granada at bench-scale (Orescanin and Kollar, 2012). The process

wastewater treatment plant was evaluated (Arevalo et al., achieved 100 % color and turbidity removal and above 99

2012). Both MBR systems were able to treat the % heavy metal removal.

wastewater for unrestricted reuse, but compared with the Ion Exchange and Adsorption. The effect of

UF-MBR system, the MF-MBR generated effluent with a magnetic anion exchange resin, MIEX®, in reclaimed

higher concentration of coliphages due to the larger wastewater pretreatment for a pilot-scale managed aquifer

membrane pore size. recharge (MAR) was studied (Zhang et al. 2012). At

In Cairo, Egypt, a submerged membrane optimal conditions (5-10 mL/L resin for 10-15 minute

bioreactor (SMBR) system using a hollow-fiber UF contact time), MIEX® proved to be an efficient

membrane was set up at pilot-scale for grey water treatment pretreatment for the removal of organic matter and nitrates

(Smith and Bani-Melhem, 2012). After 50 days, the system in MAR, allowing the final effluent to meet the

showed very good removal of COD, TSS, color, turbidity, groundwater standard for drinking water sources.

ammonia nitrogen, anionic surfactants and coliform Metal sorption was investigated at lab-scale using

several microorganisms to treat a synthetic biofuel

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
biorefinery effluent with high concentrations of dissolved Horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands,

natural organic matter (Palumbo et al., 2012). The planted with Arundo donax and Phragmites australis were

bacterium Novosphingobium nitrogenifigens, strain Y88T, also investigated for the treatment of recirculating

worked best for overall metal removal, while other tested aquaculture system effluent (Idris et al., 2012b). The CWs

microorganisms failed to remove manganese from the planted with Arundo donax achieved higher contaminant

wastewater. removals (i.e., BOD, TSS, TP, TN and E. coli removal of

A new microbial desalination cell (MDC) with 95, 87, 95, 98 and approximately 100 %, respectively),

capacitive adsorption capabilities (cMDC) and an yielding effluent suitable for reuse within aquaculture

adsorptive active carbon cloth (ACC) for electrodes was systems.

developed and tested at lab-scale to solve ion migration The efficiency of a pilot-scale vertical flow

problems which have been found to prohibit wastewater constructed wetland (VFCW) planted with Canna,

from beneficial reuse (Forrestal et al., 2012). Results Phragmites and Cyprus was investigated to treat primary

showed that the cMDC was able to remove 69 % of the salt treated municipal wastewater (Abou-Elela and Hellal,

from tested water and that each gram of ACC electrode 2012). Over two years of experiments, significant

adsorbed 61-82 mg of total dissolved solids (TDS). reductions of COD, BOD, TSS, total coliform and fecal

Wetlands. Treatment of hexavalent and trivalent coliform were observed, and treated effluent was found

chromium in pretreated textile wastewater by a full-scale suitable for irrigation.

constructed wetland planted with Phragmites australis was Managed Aquifer Recharge. The fate of N-

investigated for water reuse (Fibbi et al., 2012). Removal nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in aerobic recycled water

rates of 72 and 26 % were achieved for hexavalent and recharged into a deep anaerobic pyritic aquifer was

trivalent chromium, respectively, and treated effluent met investigated at both lab and field-scale (Patterson et al.,

the Italian regulation for water reuse. 2012). Results showed that the anaerobic conditions of the

Several full-scale horizontal subsurface flow aquifer were suitable for the biodegradation of NDMA with

(HSSF) gravel-based constructed wetlands (CWs) planted first-order kinetics.

with Arundo donax and Phragmites australis were Other. A study focused on the optimization of a

investigated for the treatment of dairy processing factory specific integrated fluidized bed bioreactor (iFBBR) in

wastewater (Idris et al., 2012a). Constructed wetlands terms of hydraulic retention time (HRT), organic loading

planted with Arundo donax achieved higher removal of rate (OLR) and flocculant addition (Xing et al., 2012). The

contaminants and produced more biomass, resulting in iFBBR was evaluated for the treatment and reuse of a

effluent applicable for reuse on non-food crops. primary effluent wastewater and achieved over 93, 61 and

60 % removal of DOC, TN and TP, respectively, under the

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
optimal operating conditions of a 90 minute HRT, 8.64 kg (Bichai et al., 2012). Results showed that the solar-treated

COD/day●m3 OLR and flocculant addition four times a effluents contained much lower concentrations of E.coli

day. (<2 CFU/mL), indicating an improved safety of irrigation

For the purpose of optimizing winery wastewater practices due to the treatment.

(WWW) remediation and reuse, the molecular structure of The effect, in terms of microbiological

particulates in WWWs before and after treatment by five inactivation, of oxygen injection in a reclaimed wastewater

different treatment methods was investigated via pipeline during wastewater transportation was investigated

thermogravimetric analysis at lab-scale (Mosse et al., at full-scale (Acosta et al., 2012). Oxygen injection

2012). Generally, all five treatment methods reduced the contributed to an improved microbiological quality of the

amount of particulates found in effluent WWW, and tested wastewater during transportation and a reduced on-

passive treatment was able to mineralize WWW site disinfection requirement.

particulates. The technique of solar photocatalysis was

The efficiencies of several full-scale wastewater employed at lab-scale as tertiary treatment for municipal

treatment technologies were investigated in terms of wastewater for reuse (Prieto-Rodriguez et al., 2012).

removal of protozoan cysts and parasitic eggs from urban Results showed that, with the addition of hydrogen

raw wastewater (Sharafi et al., 2012). From the six month peroxide in the solar photoreactor, TiO2 concentrations

study it was concluded that the natural treatment systems could be reduced while achieving emerging contaminant

(constructed wetlands and stabilization ponds) were better removals.

than mechanical systems (extended aeration activated The effectiveness of ozone was investigated at

sludge and conventional ponds) for removing cysts and bench-scale as an alternative to chlorine in fresh produce

parasite eggs. washing to ensure microbial safety and to maximize water

Wastewater from converters in the steelmaking reusability (Rosenblum et al., 2012). When tested in

industry was treated by superconducting high-gradient parallel, 2 mg/L of ozone more effectively removed

magnetic separation technology at pilot-scale (Li et al., microbial contaminants than 100 mg/L of chlorine;

2012). Experimental results showed that the SS additionally, the washing wastewater produced from

concentration in the effluent could be controlled at a stable ozonation had improved water quality for reuse.

level below 10 mg/L, indicating that the treated water could Monochloramine was investigated as a treatment

be reused in the system. option to control microbial growth in thermoelectric power

The feasibility of solar disinfection for treating plant cooling systems that reuse secondary-treated

municipal wastewater effluent for reuse in irrigation was municipal wastewater (Chien et al., 2012). Bench and full-

investigated in terms of microbial removal at bench-scale scale results demonstrated monochloramine to be effective

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
in controlling biofouling in cooling systems using Planning and Management

secondary-treated municipal effluent and was also able to Public Acceptance and Education. A study in

control the biological growth in recirculating cooling Beijing, China showed a high degree of awareness

systems successfully when the biocide dose was adjusted to concerning water shortages and the necessity for reuse

maintain monochloramine residuals above 3 mg/L. among the public; however, few consumers were willing to

The process of electrochemical oxidation with use reclaimed wastewater (Chang and Ma, 2012). Concerns

conductive diamond anodes for the disinfection of treated over water quality and potential health risks hampered the

municipal wastewater for reuse was investigated at lab- acceptance of reclaimed wastewater, while the price, which

scale in terms of E. coli removal (Cano et al., 2012). was very low, had a minor impact.

Experimental results demonstrated complete removal of E. A survey of 250 Tuscan, Arizona residents was

coli from three different wastewaters and hazardous by- conducted to determine the relationship between public

products, including perchlorates and halo-compounds, were confidence in authorities responsible for water reclamation

not formed. and willingness to drink reclaimed water (Ormerod and

The performance of an aerobic three-phase airlift Scott, 2012). Results demonstrated that public acceptance

fluidized-bed reactor for polluted fish farming water of potable reuse was highly related to trust in professional

treatment was evaluated at bench-scale in terms of organic institutions (i.e., local officials, water and wastewater

matter, nitrogen and phosphorous removal (Sanchez O. and utilities, academics and regulators) and it was suggested

Matsumoto, 2012). Experimental results showed mean that increasing public involvement in authorities’ planning

removal efficiencies of BOD, COD, phosphorous, total and management of water reuse could promote public

ammonia nitrogen and TN to be 47, 77, 38, 27, and 24 %, comprehension and acceptance of the practice.

respectively, demonstrating the process to be an effective Four hundred randomly selected Arizona citizens

method for water reuse in fish farming. were surveyed by telephone to better understand public

The efficiency of a pilot-scale ozone and perceptions of water reuse (Rock et al., 2012). Results

ozone/peroxide oxidation process for treating primary- showed that even though most supported water reuse, over

treated wastewater from the Las Vegas Valley was two thirds had concerns about recycled water, with

investigated in terms of trace organic contaminant (TOrC) education level having a significant impact on perceptions

mitigation and NDMA formation (Pisarenko et al., 2012). of water reuse.

An ozone:DOC ratio of 0.5 resulted in the optimal dosing A workshop, implementing Jonathan Potter's

condition and the process was effective in removing TOrC, concepts of offensive and defensive rhetoric, was

including lowering NDMA formation potential upon developed as a social learning method for improving public

chloramination. engagement in and perception of water reuse (Hampton,

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
2012). Results suggested that instead of trying to persuade mode and seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), could reduce

the public, encouraging citizens to question or criticize environmental impact by more than 25 % over

scientific and technological information helped them form conventional SWRO and achieve higher effective power

their own judgments on the validity of the expert density and energy efficiency.

knowledge concerning water reuse. A risk management system implementing Hazard

Economics/ Pricing. A study considering the Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) was applied

environmental and energy costs of water consumption in to guarantee the safe use of reclaimed water on golf courses

Saudi Arabia estimated that increased water reuse in the oil in the Mediterranean region (Salgot et al., 2012). Present

and natural gas industry could conserve up to 29 % of protocols were found to be adequate for improving the

industrial water withdrawals (Kajenthira et al., 2012). reuse of reclaimed water on golf courses, however

Furthermore, increasing treatment and reuse in six cities simplification for practical application was deemed

could save approximately 225 million dollars and conserve necessary.

2 % of annual Saudi electricity consumption suggesting Simulation studies in Israel showed that by using

that improving water use efficiency through reuse and grey water for toilet flushing alone and in combination with

reclamation could allow the deferral of investments in garden irrigation, reductions in household wastewater flows

desalination technology and infrastructure. of 26 and 41 %, respectively, were achieved (Penn et al.,

A study in Brazil, adopting a combination of the 2012). These reductions occurred mainly during the peak

Probit and endogenous switching regression models as water consumption periods of morning and evening;

econometric tools to evaluate water reuse in Brazilian however, the pollutant concentration in wastewater

manufactures, showed that water pricing and charges could increased due to the replacement of tap water with treated

affect reuse decisions and convince firms to incorporate light grey water.

water reuse (Feres et al., 2012). Results also suggested that A water quality study on a mixture of tertiary

firms reusing water were more sensitive to water pricing effluent and RO permeate demonstrated the admixture to be

changes than those not reusing water. suitable for agricultural irrigation with slight to moderate

Water Quality Planning and Management. A restrictions (Abusam et al., 2012). In addition, it was found

comparative life cycle assessment was performed to that wastewater treatment processes should be taken into

evaluate the environmental impacts of novel and account in order to improve the accuracy of component

established processes for water reclamation and seawater concentration predictions.

desalination (Hancock et al., 2012). System optimization Projects/Case Studies. A two-year trial in

analysis showed that a newly developed hybrid process, Eastern Sicily, Italy evaluated the long-term effect of

consisting of forward osmosis operated in osmotic dilution vegetable irrigation with tertiary effluent municipal

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
wastewater (Cirelli et al., 2012). A 20 % increase in tomato References

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newly developed methodology in combination with a Acosta, N. A.; Gomez, L. E. R.; Diaz, M. A. (2012) Effect of

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Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 10—Copyright © 2013 Water Environment Federation
 Treated Sewage Effluent and Phosphogypsum in Brazil. Elliott, H. A.; Jaiswal, D. (2012) Phosphorus Management for

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Pisarenko, A. N.; Stanford, B. D.; Yan, D. X.; Gerrity, D.; Snyder, Aquaculture System for Nile Tilapia Production. Aquacult.

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 Yi-Wen, T.; Liu, J. C.; Sou-Sen, L.; Chia-Ping, L. (2012)

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