Dental evidence for ontogenetic differences between

modern humans and Neanderthals

Tanya M. Smitha,b,1, Paul Tafforeauc,1, Donald J. Reidd, Joane Pouechb,c, Vincent Lazzarib,c,e, John P. Zermenoa,
Debbie Guatelli-Steinbergf, Anthony J. Olejniczakb, Almut Hoffmang, Jakov Radovcićh, Masrour Makaremii,
Michel Toussaintj, Chris Stringerk, and Jean-Jacques Hublinb
a
Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138; bDepartment of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; cEuropean Synchrotron Radiation Facility, BP 220, 38046 Grenoble Cedex, France; dDepartment of Oral
Biology, School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW, United Kingdom; eInternational Institute of Paleoprimatology and
Human Paleontology: Evolution and Paleoenvironments, Unité Mixte de Recherche Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 6046, Université de Poitiers,
86022 Poitiers cedex, France; fDepartment of Anthropology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210; gMuseum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Schloss
Charlottenburg–Langhansbau, D-14059 Berlin, Germany; hCroatian Natural History Museum, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; iDepartment of Orthodontics, University
of Bordeaux II, 33000 Bordeaux, France; jDirection de l’Archeologie, Service Public de Wallonie, 5100 Namur, Belgium; and kDepartment of Palaeontology,
Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom

Edited* by Richard G. Klein, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and approved October 17, 2010 (received for review July 26, 2010)

Humans have an unusual life history, with an early weaning age,
long childhood, late first reproduction, short interbirth intervals,
and long lifespan. In contrast, great apes wean later, reproduce
earlier, and have longer intervals between births. Despite 80 y of
speculation, the origins of these developmental patterns in Homo
sapiens remain unknown. Because they record daily growth during
formation, teeth provide important insights, revealing that austral-
opithecines and early Homo had more rapid ontogenies than recent
humans. Dental development in later Homo species has been in-
tensely debated, most notably the issue of whether Neanderthals
and H. sapiens differ. Here we apply synchrotron virtual histology
to a geographically and temporally diverse sample of Middle Paleo-
lithic juveniles, including Neanderthals, to assess tooth formation
and calculate age at death from dental microstructure. We find that
most Neanderthal tooth crowns grew more rapidly than modern
human teeth, resulting in significantly faster dental maturation. In
contrast, Middle Paleolithic H. sapiens juveniles show greater sim-
ilarity to recent humans. These findings are consistent with recent
cranial and molecular evidence for subtle developmental differen-
ces between Neanderthals and H. sapiens. When compared with
earlier hominin taxa, both Neanderthals and H. sapiens have ex-
continues to be vigorously debated (7, 13, 18). A paucity of in-
formation on dental development in hominins postdating Homo
erectus, coupled with conflicting interpretations of Neanderthal
ontogeny, complicates assessment of the modern human (fossil and
recent Homo sapiens) and Neanderthal ancestral condition. To
address these limitations, we apply synchrotron imaging to quantify
dental development and age at death in the largest sample of
Neanderthal and fossil H. sapiens juveniles studied to date (Fig. 1,
Table 1, and Movie S1). Furthermore, we reevaluate results
obtained from single juveniles of both taxa (13, 14) and contrast
these expanded samples with radiographic and histological data
from recent human populations. Although traditional histological
methods are destructive, generally prohibiting comprehensive
studies of rare fossil material, recent advances in synchrotron X-ray
imaging now permit accurate 3D virtual histology (19, 20). This
nondestructive method enables us to assess internal records of
dental development in key hominin fossils spanning a range of
ontogenetic stages, geographic sources, and geological ages.
Studies of hominin dental growth rely on the fact that tooth
crowns and roots form through rhythmic cellular activation and

tended the duration of dental development. This period of dental
immaturity is particularly prolonged in modern humans.
|
hominin ontogeny human evolution | modern human origins | tooth
|
growth biological rhythm
R econstructing the evolution of human development from
a severely limited fossil record is a fundamental challenge (1).
Dental remains have figured prominently in debates over hominin
ontogeny for decades, as they are frequently recovered in fossil
assemblages and represent a reliable index of maturity. Moreover,
when considered across the Primate order, dental eruption ages
are broadly correlated with several life history events (e.g., ages at
weaning and first reproduction) and physical attributes (e.g., body
and brain mass) (2, 3; but see refs. 4–7). Variation among primate
life histories has primarily been ascribed to differential mortality
rates, as well as ecological niches, lifestyles, social complexity,
cognitive development, or a combination of these factors (4, 5, 8).
Although is it well established that humans are developmentally
unique among living primates (9), weaning earlier and reproducing
later than expected, the adaptive significance and evolutionary
origins of our prolonged childhood are unresolved (1, 9–11).
Tooth histology, involving quantification of microscopic growth,
is the most effective means of determining developmental rates,
eruption ages, and age at death in juvenile hominins (12–15).
Studies of dental growth have revealed that Pliocene to Early
Pleistocene hominin ontogeny was more rapid than that of recent
humans (12, 16, 17), but data from limited Neanderthal samples
ANTHROPOLOGY
secretion, producing a permanent record of mineralized growth
layers in enamel and dentine (reviewed in ref. 15; explained fur-
ther in SI Appendix). Importantly, counts and measurements of
these progressive short- (daily) and long-period (> daily) incre-
ments yield rates of secretion and extension, allowing crown and
root formation time estimation. Moreover, the remarkable pro-
duction of a line coincident with birth in permanent first molars
(M1s) allows developmental time to be registered with an indi-
vidual’s actual age. When this neonatal line can be identified and
subsequent development assessed from enamel and dentine
increments, age at death may be estimated to within 5% of an
individual’s true age (21–23). This histological approach is a sub-
stantial improvement over the nearly ubiquitous application of
recent human or ape developmental standards to age juvenile
Author contributions: T.M.S. and J.-J.H. designed research; T.M.S., P.T., D.J.R., J.P., V.L.,
J.P.Z., and A.J.O. performed research; P.T., D.J.R., J.P.Z., D.G.-S., A.H., J.R., M.M., M.T.,
and C.S. contributed new reagents/analytic tools; T.M.S., P.T., D.J.R., J.P., and V.L. analyzed
data; T.M.S., P.T., J.P., V.L., J.P.Z., and A.J.O collected virtual data; T.M.S. and D.J.R. collected
additional data from casts and sections; D.G-S., A.H., J.R., M.M., M.T., C.S., and J-J.H
provided assistance with data acquisition; and T.M.S., P.T., D.J.R., D.G.-S., A.J.O., and
J.-J.H. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
*This Direct Submission article had a prearranged editor.
Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
1
To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: tsmith@fas.harvard.edu or paul.
tafforeau@esrf.fr.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
1073/pnas.1010906107/-/DCSupplemental.

www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1010906107 PNAS | December 7, 2010 | vol. 107 | no. 49 | 20923–20928


Fig. 1. Virtual histology of the maxillary dentition from the 3-y-old Engis
2 Neanderthal. (A) Synchrotron micro-CT scan (31.3-μm voxel size) showing
central incisors in light blue, lateral incisors in yellow, canines in pink, and
third premolars in green. (Deciduous elements are not rendered in color as
they were not studied.) (B) Isolated elements and cross-sectional slices show
the degree of permanent tooth calcification and broad horizontal hypo-
plastic bands. (Scale bars in A and B, 10 mm.) (C) Synchrotron phase contrast
image (4.95-μm voxel size) used to count long-period lines in the maxillary
first molar. (Scale bar, 5 mm.) (Inset) The neonatal line just above the conical
dentine horn tip of the mesiobuccal cusp, estimated to have begun forming
17 d before birth.
20924 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1010906107
hominins. Thus, independent chronologies can now be precisely
developed from individuals who died while forming their denti-
tions, avoiding circular comparisons with living taxa, and per-
mitting statistical assessment of ontogenetic variation.
Results and Discussion
To calculate crown formation time, molar eruption age, and age at
death, we quantified the following standard developmental varia-
bles: cuspal enamel thickness, long-period line periodicity (num-
ber of daily increments between successive long-period lines), total
number of long-period lines in enamel (Retzius lines or peri-
kymata), and coronal extension rate (speed at which enamel-
forming cells are activated to begin secretion along the enamel-
dentine junction) in 90 permanent teeth from 28 Neanderthals and
39 permanent teeth from 9 fossil H. sapiens individuals (Materials
and Methods and SI Appendix). These data were compared with
464 recent human teeth (> 300 individuals). This sample reveals
that cuspal enamel is significantly thinner in Neanderthals than in
recent humans for 10 of 14 tooth-specific comparisons (SI Ap-
pendix, Tables S1 and S2). Importantly, thinner cuspal enamel in
Neanderthals formed over shorter periods than recent humans, as
mean cuspal secretion rates are nearly identical in both taxa (12,
18, 24). Cuspal thickness in fossil H. sapiens is similar to that of
recent humans, although certain postcanine teeth have thicker
enamel in the fossil sample. The average Neanderthal long-period
line periodicity is 7.4 d (range: 6–9; mode: 7–8; n = 11), which is
significantly lower (Z = −2.863, P < 0.01) than in recent humans
(mean: 8.3 d; mode: 8; range: 6–12; n = 365), but not statistically
different from fossil H. sapiens (mean: 8.0 d; mode: 7–8; range:
7–10; n = 5) (SI Appendix, Table S3). Total numbers of Neander-
thal long-period lines are similar to recent humans (SI Appendix,
Table S4), as previously noted for a larger sample (25). Coronal
extension rates are higher in Neanderthals (SI Appendix, Table S5),
exceeding recent human ranges in 10 of 13 comparisons (Fig. 2).
Thus, thinner enamel, lower long-period line periodicities, and
faster extension rates result in lower crown formation times in
Neanderthals than in recent humans (SI Appendix, Table S6).
Crown formation times in fossil H. sapiens are more similar to recent
humans than to Neanderthals, exceeding recent human values in
some instances (14).
Combining histological data on initiation ages, crown formation
times, and root formation times yields age-at-death estimates
for six Neanderthal and two fossil H. sapiens juveniles (Table 1).
To assess how these individuals compare with a recent human
ontogenetic model, calcification stages of each tooth were scored
(Materials and Methods and SI Appendix, Table S7), stages were
converted to mean human ages (following ref. 26), and these ages
were averaged across each dentition to yield age at death. Com-
parisons of our histologically determined ages with ages predicted
from recent humans demonstrate that most of the Neanderthal
dentitions we examined grew more rapidly than recent and fossil
H. sapiens (Fig. 3). A significant difference (L= 8.166 at α = 0.05)
exists between the slopes of Neanderthal (1.41) and recent human
(0.93) dental trajectories. Recent human dental standards over-
estimate age at death in several Neanderthals, but these same
standards either accurately predict or underestimate age at death
in living and fossil H. sapiens. Variation within formation times or
the degree of dental precocity in Neanderthals does not appear
to be related to ontogenetic stage, geological age, or geography,
although both individuals from Belgian sites (Engis 2 and Scladina)
show particularly rapid development. Thus, comparative ontoge-
netic studies should not use recent human dental standards to
assign ages to juvenile Neanderthals.
When dentition-wide calcification patterns are compared fur-
ther, rapid development in Neanderthals appears to primarily
result from accelerated molar development (earlier age of com-
pletion, shorter duration of formation, and/or earlier initiation
age). Recent human M1s initiate calcification 2 to 3 wk before
Smith et al.
 Table 1. Middle Paleolithic juvenile hominins included in the present study
Taxon Fossil Locality
Neanderthals Engis 2 Engis, Belgium
Gibraltar 2 Devil’s Tower, Gibraltar
La Quina H18 La Quina, France
Krapina Maxilla B Krapina, Croatia
Obi-Rakhmat 1 Obi-Rakhmat, Uzbekistan
Scladina Scladina, Belgium
Krapina Maxilla C Krapina, Croatia
Le Moustier 1 Le Moustier, France
H. sapiens Qafzeh 10 Qafzeh, Israel
Qafzeh 15 Qafzeh, Israel
Irhoud 3 Irhoud, Morocco
Previous ages provided for historical reference only; most sources do not explain their method for determining age. New ages
determined from tooth histology in this study.
birth, completing crown formation by about 3 y of age (27). Ne-
anderthal M1 crowns also began forming 2 to 3 wk before birth
(Fig. 1 and SI Appendix, Fig. S1), completing formation ≈6 mo
earlier than recent humans (and thus beginning root initiation at
younger ages). Although M1 initiation age appears to be fairly
conserved across hominins, maxillary M3 initiation in the Scladina
juvenile occurred at 5.9 y (13), which is 2 to 4 y earlier than av-
erage mandibular M3 initiation ages in recent humans (28, 29).
(There are no available histological data on maxillary M3 initia-
tion in recent humans or mandibular M3 initiation in Neander-
thals for a more direct comparison.) We note that mandibular M3
initiation can be highly variable; radiographic evidence reveals
minimum ages as early as 6 to 7 y, with ranges as large as 5 y within
recent human populations (28–30). Only two histological esti-
mates of recent human mandibular M3 initiation are available: 6.4
y of age for an African individual (31) and 7.7 y of age for a me-
dieval European individual (32). The Le Moustier 1 age at death in
this study employs the maxillary M3 initiation age from the Scladina
Neanderthal to estimate death at 11.6 to 12.1 y of age (SI Appendix,
Table S8). Although we prefer to use taxon-specific information
when available, the difference between Neanderthal and recent
human regression lines remains significant even when the initiation
age used to calculate Le Moustier’s age is increased by as much as
5 y. Thus, the finding that recent humans show significantly slower
dental maturation than Neanderthals appears to be robust.
Finally, our juvenile sample indicates that Neanderthal M1
emergence likely occurred within the faster half of recent human
age ranges, which average 4.7 to 7.0 y across global populations
(28). Juvenile hominins at this developmental stage are extremely
rare. Although the fossil individuals we studied either pre- or
postdate M1 emergence at death, three Neanderthals are in-
formative. The Krapina Maxilla B individual erupted its maxillary
M1s before death at 5.9 y of age, as revealed by slight wear facets.
The La Quina H18 juvenile, which is developmentally younger
than Krapina Maxilla B (SI Appendix, Figs. S2 and S3, and Table
S7), appears to have erupted its maxillary M1s even earlier, as
revealed by extensive attrition on both molars and exposed dentine
on the right M1. This evidence is consistent with the Scladina
Neanderthal, which shows a pattern of heavy M1 attrition at 8 y of
age, rapid M1 root extension, a young age of M1 root completion,
and mandibular M2 emergence 2 to 5 y before recent human av-
erage ages (28). In contrast to these findings, Macchiarelli and
colleagues (18) reported that M1 emergence occurred in an iso-
lated Neanderthal tooth from La Chaise at 6.7 y of age, which is at
the high end of the recent human range. However, to derive this
age, the root length present at eruption was estimated from the
fully formed tooth, although there are no available root length data
from Neanderthals with erupting M1s. Moreover, studies of great
apes show that root lengths can be quite variable as teeth emerge
Smith et al.
Date, kya Previous age, y New age, y
>30–50 2–6 3.0
30–50 3.1–5.8 4.6
45–60 7 Unknown
100–127 6.5–8 5.9
75 9–12 6.0–8.1
80–127 8.5–12 8.0
100–127 10–10.5 Unknown
40 12–20 11.6–12.1
90–100 6 5.1
90–100 9 Unknown
160 7–8 7.8
(33), complicating attempts to predict eruptive root lengths from
fully formed teeth.
Although M1 eruption, brain mass, and body mass are broadly
correlated across primates (1–3), our study does not support
predictions for late age at M1 emergence in either Neanderthals
or fossil H. sapiens (contra ref. 1). At least two of our fossil
juveniles (Krapina Maxilla B, Qafzeh 10) erupted M1 earlier than
many human population mean ages (28), which may also have
been the case for the Scladina and La Quina H18 juveniles. The
confidence intervals of the primate regression equation used to
predict M1 emergence age from cranial capacity in hominins (1)
has been characterized as “undesirably large” (34; also see ref. 3).
Comparisons of variable traits, such as M1 eruption age, among
closely related taxa may not be as illustrative as higher-level tax-
onomic comparisons (7), which have revealed potential “grade
shifts” among broad primate groups (3). These findings un-
derscore the need for additional research into the significance of
variation in M1 eruption age within and among human pop-
ulations. Moreover, future recoveries of Neanderthal and fossil
H. sapiens juveniles who died at this key developmental stage are
ANTHROPOLOGY
necessary to provide firm M1 eruption ages.
Comprehensive tooth formation data in expanded hominin
samples are also of interest in a broader evolutionary context.
Estimates of crown formation, molar eruption age, and/or age at
death in three early Homo individuals (Sangiran S7-37, KNM-ER
820, KNM-WT 15000) suggest that the modern human de-
velopmental condition arose in taxa postdating Homo erectus (12,
16, 35, 36; also see ref. 37). Postcanine tooth development in early
Homo appears to be accelerated relative to the anterior dentition
(36), which is also apparent in the Neanderthals examined in the
present study (and in ref. 30). Crown formation times estimated for
a lower fourth premolar (P4) and M1 of Sangiran S7-37 are 2.7 and
2.5 y (12), respectively, which are similar to our Neanderthal P4 and
M1 formation times of 2.9 and 2.6 y. Although none of the three
early Homo individuals died while erupting their molars, Dean and
colleagues have estimated respective M1 and M2 eruption ages at
4.4 and 7.6 y (12), suggesting a slightly more prolonged period of
growth than in australopithecines or living apes (35, 36). Whereas it
is unlikely that Neanderthals routinely erupted their M1s as early as
4.4 y of age, the M2s of Scladina had emerged before death at 8 y of
age, which is similar to estimates for early Homo. Unfortunately,
less is known about dental development in taxa postdating H.
erectus and predating Neanderthals. Homo antecessor and Homo
heidelbergensis long-period line (perikymata) numbers are reported
to be more similar to Neanderthal anterior teeth than to modern
humans (38). Assuming cuspal enamel formation times and long-
period line periodicities similar to either Neanderthal or recent
human mean values would yield shorter crown formation times in
both H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis than in H. sapiens. Un-
PNAS | December 7, 2010 | vol. 107 | no. 49 | 20925

Fig. 2. Box-and-whisker plot of average coronal extension rates in recent
and fossil H. sapiens and Neanderthals for the maxillary (Upper) and man-
dibular (Lower) dentitions. Postcanine teeth are represented by mesiobuccal
cusps.
fortunately there are no comparable data on molar formation or
eruption in either taxon; a recent report on dental development in
H. antecessor (39) does not include any data on incremental growth
in this species. In summary, although it is appears that crown
formation times increased and molar eruption occurred at later
ages during the evolution of Homo, available evidence suggests that
consistently prolonged dental development may have first ap-
peared in H. sapiens.
These findings provide important insight into developmental
processes that are relevant to energy allocation and survival (4).
Some have argued that harsh conditions created high young adult
mortality rates in Neanderthals, which may have acted as a selec-
tive pressure to maintain a rapid maturation pattern (40, 41).
Others have argued that risky developmental environments may
favor slower growth in juvenile primates (42; but see ref. 4). It is
tempting to speculate that variation in tooth formation may in-
20926 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1010906107
dicate broader life history trends, as subtle ontogenetic differences
between Neanderthals and H. sapiens have also been reported for
the cranium (43–45) and postcranium (46). Recent sequencing of
the Neanderthal genome has shown that genes involved in skeletal
development and cognitive abilities may also differ between these
taxa (47), opening the exciting possibility of the input of compar-
ative genomic analyses into this debate. Although additional study
is necessary to assess the adaptive significance of developmental
variation, absolute ages of death that are independent of reference
populations are an essential first step for understanding the evo-
lution of hominin craniodental and skeletal ontogeny (35, 48).
Materials and Methods
Virtual Imaging of Macro- and Microstructure. Overview scans of isolated teeth
and those in situ were performed with laboratory microtomographic scanners
(BIR Actis 300/225 FP or Skyscan 1172) with voxel sizes between 14 and 31 μm (as
in refs. 13 and 14) or with synchrotron microtomography (micro-CT) on
beamline ID19 of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility with voxel sizes
between 20 and 31 μm. Virtual planes of section were generated with Vox-
Blast Software (Vaytek, Inc.) or VG Studio MAX 2.0 (Volume Graphics, Inc.) by
locating a “developmental plane” bisecting the dentine and pulpal horns in
a labio-lingual or bucco-lingual orientation for anterior and postcanine teeth,
respectively. These sections were used to measure cuspal enamel thickness
and enamel-dentine junction length. Additional sections were cut to measure
root length and assess overall tooth formation (SI Appendix, Figs. S2–S11), as
detailed below. Phase contrast synchrotron scans were performed for certain
specimens with long propagation distances (4–6 m) and voxel sizes of 7.45 or
4.95 μm (at 51 or 60 keV) to visualize long-period lines in enamel and dentine
(Fig. 1 and Movie S1). Selected areas were scanned with 0.7-μm voxel size in
local phase contrast or holotomography mode (at 52 keV) to quantify fine
incremental features in 10 of 11 juveniles (following refs. 14 and 20). It was
not possible to transport the Obi-Rakhmat 1 individual for virtual imaging.
For certain samples, an additional phase retrieval process (49, 50) was used
to improve reconstructed data quality for single-distance scans or multiple-
distance scans (holotomography) before virtual sectioning.
Crown Formation, Root Formation, and Age at Death. Crown formation time
was calculated from measurements of cuspal enamel thickness and in-
cremental features in enamel (as summed cuspal and lateral formation times).
Cuspal enamel thickness was measured from the dentine horn tip to the
approximate position of the first-formed long-period line (perikyma) at the
crown surface. Cuspal enamel formation time was calculated as an average of
two methods (results of each typically differ by 1–2 mo). For recent and fossil
H. sapiens, a minimum value was determined as cuspal enamel thickness di-
vided by average daily secretion rate values of 3.80 and 4.11 μm/d for anterior
and postcanine teeth, respectively (as in ref. 14). For Neanderthals, cuspal
enamel thickness was divided by an average cuspal daily secretion rate of 3.84
μm/d, measured from the Lakonis Neanderthal M3 (24). Maximum cuspal
formation time was determined as the minimum time multiplied by a cor-
rection factor of 1.15 to compensate for 3D prism deviation (decussation) (51).
Lateral enamel formation time was calculated by multiplying the number of
long-period lines (Retzius lines or perikymata) by the long-period line peri-
odicity. High-resolution impressions and casts were produced to quantify
long-period lines (on crowns and roots, as in refs. 13 and 14), which were
counted on unworn or lightly worn crowns using stereomicroscopy at
a magnification of 40 to 50×. Long-period line periodicities for most juvenile
specimens were observed with 0.7-μm phase contrast scans (SI Appendix, Figs.
S12 and S13), except the Scladina individual, which was physically-sectioned
(13) and later confirmed with synchrotron imaging. Crown formation time
estimates for the Obi Rakhmat 1 individual were used for age-at-death cal-
culation only (detailed below). Coronal extension rates were calculated by
dividing the cusp-specific enamel-dentine junction length by the respective
crown formation time.
Our recent human comparative sample includes European, North American,
and African physically-sectioned teeth (27, 52, 53); available material was
screened to select unworn and lightly worn teeth cut nonobliquely (equiva-
lent to the degree of wear and section orientation in our fossil sample).
Comparative sample sizes are thus reduced relative to original publications as
a result of these criteria. Developmental variables were calculated as detailed
for fossil samples. Despite the potential for overestimation of linear enamel
thickness from physically-sectioned teeth, mean values for our recent human
molar sample were within one SD of virtually-sectioned recent human molars
(54) for 11 of 12 cusp-specific comparisons. There was no trend for cuspal
enamel thickness values from physically-sectioned teeth to exceed the mean
Smith et al.
Fig. 3. Regression of predicted versus actual age for eight fossil juveniles and 36 recent (living) humans. Predicted ages are derived from human radiographic
calcification standards. Fossil H. sapiens are represented by Qafzeh 10 and Irhoud 3; Neanderthals are represented by Engis 2, Gibraltar 2, Krapina Maxilla B,
Obi-Rakhmat 1, Scladina, and Le Moustier 1 (from left to right).
values of virtually-sectioned teeth, as would be expected if section obliquity
was influencing values; exactly 50% of the physically-sectioned mean values
were greater than the virtually-sectioned means. Statistical tests performed
with SPSS software (v. 17; SPSS Inc.) include nonparametric Mann-Whitney
U tests for comparisons of cusp-specific enamel thickness (where n > 3) and
long-period line periodicities between Neanderthals, recent humans, and
fossil H. sapiens.
Root formation was assessed from counts and measurements of internal
long-period (Andresen) lines in root dentine (SI Appendix, Fig. S14) for Engis 2,
Gibraltar 2, Krapina Maxilla B, and Qafzeh 10, or from equivalent external
long-period lines (periradicular bands) for Obi-Rakhmat 1, Scladina, and
Irhoud 3. Long-period line number was multiplied by the long-period line
periodicity to yield the time between crown completion and death in de-
veloping roots. Age at death was calculated for Engis 2, Gibraltar 2, and
Scladina by identification of the neonatal (birth) line in M1s (Fig. 1 and SI
Appendix, Fig. S1) and summation of subsequent crown and root formation
times. For Krapina Maxilla B, Obi-Rakhmat 1, Le Moustier 1, Irhoud 3, and
Qafzeh 10, age at death was determined as the sum of initiation age and
developmental time of specific teeth (SI Appendix, Tables S8–S10; also see ref.
14). For Gibraltar 2, Krapina Maxilla B, and Scladina, developmental stress
indicators (hypoplasias or accentuated lines) were matched between de-
velopmentally overlapping teeth, allowing temporal cross-matching across
the dentition, and resulting in a continuous chronology. Initiation ages from
Scladina (13) were used for Neanderthals dentitions that could not be cross-
matched; a recent human initiation age was used for Irhoud 3 (32). For Qafzeh
10, the distolingual cusp of the maxillary M1 was estimated to have begun
formation at birth, and a pair of hypoplasias was used to register the M1 to
the maxillary central incisor (I1), which completed crown formation shortly
before death. For Obi-Rakhmat 1, which was not micro-CT scanned, age at
death was calculated for multiple elements as the sum of initiation age, av-
erage Neanderthal cuspal formation time, and long-period line numbers
(counted on crown and root casts) multiplied by the minimum and maximum
Neanderthal long-period line periodicity values (SI Appendix, Table S10). It
Smith et al.
was not possible to derive histological ages at death for Krapina Maxilla C, La
ANTHROPOLOGY
Quina H18, or Qafzeh 15.
To compare dental ontogeny in Neanderthals, fossil H. sapiens, and recent
humans, the overall development of each dentition was assessed through
published radiographs, micro-CT slices, and isolated elements (SI Appendix,
Figs. S2–S11, and S15). The degree of calcification of each tooth was scored
several times on a developmental scale of 1 to 14, according to the system of
Moorrees and colleagues (55) and Smith (56). Average scores were converted
into recent human ages for each tooth using an average of male and female
means in Tables 1 to 4 from ref. 26, which were averaged to yield age at death
for each individual (SI Appendix, Table S7). We realize that micro-CT data are
more precise than flat-plane radiographic data; the latter tend to over-
estimate crown initiation age and underestimate both crown completion and
root initiation ages (57). For comparison with human radiographic data,
published radiographs of the fossils were used when possible, or micro-CT
images were interpreted in keeping with radiographic image bias (i.e., in
a few instances crown completion and root initiation were scored at an
earlier stage when the developmental stage was intermediate between two
stages). Predicted recent human ages were then regressed against histolog-
ical ages for each individual (Fig. 3). Median values for age ranges of Obi-
Rakhmat 1 and Le Moustier 1 were used to calculate the slope of the Nean-
derthal linear regression line using SPSS. Our comparative sample of western
European known sex and age children includes four individuals from (26) and
panoramic radiographs of 32 additional individuals (scored following refs. 55
and 56). The equality of Neanderthal and recent human slopes was assessed
with a nonparametric test (58) to avoid potential violations of parametric
statistical assumptions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. For assistance with samples and data acquisition, we
thank Yoel Rak, Assaf Marom, Catherine Schwab, Michael Richards, Michael
Walker, Bernard Vandermeersch, Fred Grine, Shannon McPherron, Antonio
Rosas, Robert Kruszynski, Christina Verna, Patrick Semal, Michèle Morgan,
Chris Dean, Robin Feeney, Heiko Temming, Andreas Winzer, Christine Verna,
the Jonzac excavators, and the ID 19 beamline staff. Helpful discussions and
PNAS | December 7, 2010 | vol. 107 | no. 49 | 20927
comments on this manuscript were provided by Chris Dean, Wendy Dirks, Jay
Kelley, Karen Kramer, Dan Lieberman, Charles Nunn, and David Pilbeam.
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