Coronavirus disease 2019

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This article is about the disease. For the virus, see Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. For the
pandemic, see 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic.

Coronavirus disease 2019

(COVID-19)

• 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease

Other names
• Novel coronavirus pneumonia[1]

• Wuhan pneumonia[2][3]

• Wuhan coronavirus

• "Coronavirus" or other names for SARS-

CoV-2

Symptoms of COVID-19

Pronunciation • /kəˈroʊnəˌvaɪrəs dɪˈziːz, ˈkoʊvɪd/

Specialty Acute respiratory infection[4]

Symptoms Fever, cough, shortness of breath[5]

Complications Pneumonia, acute respiratory distress

syndrome, kidney failure

Causes Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus

2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Risk factors Travel, exposure to the virus

Diagnostic rRT-PCR testing, immunoassay, CT scan

method

Prevention Correct hand washing technique, cough etiquette,

avoiding close contact with sick people or

subclinical carriers, social distancing

Treatment Symptomatic and supportive

Frequency 339,645[6] confirmed cases

Deaths 14,717[6] (3 to 4 percent of confirmed cases; lower

when unconfirmed cases are included)[7]

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[8] The disease was first identified in 2019 in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province in
central China, and has since spread globally, resulting in the 2019–20 coronavirus
pandemic.[9][10] Common symptoms include fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Muscle
 pain, sputum production, diarrhea, and sore throat are less common.[5][11][12][13] While the majority of cases result in mild
symptoms,[14] some progress to severe pneumonia and multi-organ failure.[9][15] As of 20 March 2020, the rate of deaths
per number of diagnosed cases is 4.1 percent; however, it ranges from 0.2 percent to 15 percent, according to age
group and other health problems.[16]
The virus is typically spread from one person to another via respiratory droplets produced during coughing.[17][18] It may
also be spread from touching contaminated surfaces and then touching one's face.[17] Time from exposure to onset of
symptoms is generally between two and fourteen days, with an average of five days.[19][20] The standard method
of diagnosis is by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) from a nasopharyngeal swab. The
infection can also be diagnosed from a combination of symptoms, risk factors and a chest CT scan showing features of
pneumonia.[21][22]
Recommended measures to prevent infection include frequent hand washing, physical distancing (maintaining distance
from others), and keeping hands away from the face. [23] The use of masks is recommended for those who suspect they
have the virus and their caregivers, but not for the general public, although simple cloth masks may be used by those
who desire them.[24][25] There is no vaccine or specific antiviral treatment for COVID-19. Management involves treatment
of symptoms, supportive care, isolation, and experimental measures.[26]
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020[27][28] and a pandemic on 11 March 2020.[10] Evidence of local
transmission of the disease has been found in many countries across all six WHO regions.[29]

Contents

• 1Signs and symptoms

• 2Cause
• 3Diagnosis
• 4Prevention
• 5Management
o 5.1Personal protective equipment
o 5.2Mechanical ventilation
o 5.3Experimental treatment
o 5.4Information technology
o 5.5Psychological support
• 6Prognosis
• 7Epidemiology
• 8Terminology
• 9Research
o 9.1Vaccine
o 9.2Antivirals
o 9.3Anti-cytokine storm
o 9.4Passive antibody therapy
• 10See also
• 11References
• 12Further reading
• 13External links

Signs and symptoms

Likelihood of symptoms[30]

Symptom %

Fever 87.9

Dry cough 67.7

Fatigue 38.1

Sputum production 33.4

 Anosmia (loss of smell)[31] 30-66

Shortness of breath 18.6

Muscle pain or joint pain 14.8

Sore throat 13.9

Headache 13.6

Chills 11.4

Nausea or vomiting 5.0

Nasal congestion 4.8

Diarrhea 3.7 to 31[32]

Haemoptysis 0.9

Conjunctival congestion 0.8

Although those infected with the virus may be asymptomatic, many develop flu-like symptoms, including fever, cough,
and shortness of breath.[5][33][34] Emergency symptoms include difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain or pressure,
confusion, difficulty waking, and bluish face or lips; immediate medical attention is advised if these symptoms are
present.[35] Less commonly, upper respiratory symptoms, such as sneezing, runny nose, or sore throat may be seen.
Symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea have been observed in varying percentages among people in
several studies, with percentages varying from 3% to 31% of cases depending on the study. [36][37][32] Some initial cases in
China presented only chest tightness and palpitations.[38] In some, the disease may progress to pneumonia, multi-organ
failure, and death.[9][15]
As is common with infections, there is a delay from when a person is infected with the virus to when they develop
symptoms, known as the incubation period. The incubation period for COVID-19 is typically five to six days but may
range from two to 14 days.[39][40]

Cause
Main article: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
The disease is caused by the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), previously
referred to as the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV).[41] It is primarily spread between people via respiratory droplets
from coughs and sneezes.[18] A study investigating the rate of decay of the virus found no viable viruses after 4 h on
copper, 24 h on cardboard, 72 h on stainless steel, and 72 h on plastic. However, detection rates did not reach 100%
and varied between surface type (limit of detection was 3.33×10 0.5 TCID50 per liter of air for aerosols, 100.5 TCID50 per
milliliter of medium for plastic, steel, and cardboard, and 10 1.5 TCID50 per milliliter of medium for copper). Estimation of
the rate of decay with a Bayesian regression model suggests that viruses may remain viable up to 18 h on copper, 55 h
on cardboard, 90 h on stainless steel, and over 100 h on plastic. The virus remained viable in aerosols throughout the
time of the experiment (3 h).[42] The virus has also been found in faeces, and transmission through faeces is being
researched.[43][12]
The lungs are the organs most affected by COVID-19 because the virus accesses host cells via the enzyme ACE2,
which is most abundant in the type II alveolar cells of the lungs. The virus uses a special surface glycoprotein called a
"spike" (peplomer) to connect to ACE2 and enter the host cell. [44] The density of ACE2 in each tissue correlates with the
severity of the disease in that tissue and some have suggested that decreasing ACE2 activity might be
protective,[45][46] though another view is that increasing ACE2 using Angiotensin II receptor blocker medications could be
protective and that these hypotheses need to be tested. [47] As the alveolar disease progresses, respiratory failure might
develop and death may follow.[46]
The virus also affects gastrointestinal organs as ACE2 is abundantly expressed in the glandular cells
of gastric, duodenal and rectal epithelium[12] as well as endothelial cells and enterocytes of the small intestine.[48] The
virus has been found in the faeces of as many as 53%[12] of hospitalised people and more anal swab positives have
been found than oral swab positives in the later stages of infection.[49] The virus was found in faeces from 1 to 12 days
and 17% of patients continued to present the virus in faeces after no longer presenting them in respiratory samples,
indicating that the viral gastrointestinal infection and the potential fecal-oral transmission can last even after viral
clearance in the respiratory tract.[12] Reoccurrence of the virus has also been detected through anal swabs suggesting a
shift from more oral positive during the early stages of the disease to more anal positive during later periods.[49]
The virus is thought to be natural and have an animal origin,[50][51] through spillover infection.[52] It was first transmitted to
humans in Wuhan, China, in November or December 2019, and the primary source of infection became human-to-
human transmission by early January 2020.[53][54] The earliest known infection occurred on 17 November 2019 in Wuhan,
China.[55]

Microscopy image showing SARS-CoV-2. The spikes on the outer edge of the virus particles resemble a crown, giving
the disease its characteristic name.

Schematic diagram of the Coronavirus particle. S, spike protein; M, membrane protein, E, envelope protein; N,
nucleocapsid protein; ; structural proteins of coronavirusCoronavirus virion structure.

Diagnosis
Main article: COVID-19 testing

CDC rRT-PCR test kit for COVID-19[56]

The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.[57] The standard method of testing is real-time reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR).[58] The test can be done on respiratory samples obtained by various
methods, including a nasopharyngeal swab or sputum sample.[59] Results are generally available within a few hours to
two days.[60][61] Blood tests can be used, but these require two blood samples taken two weeks apart and the results
have little immediate value.[62] Chinese scientists were able to isolate a strain of the coronavirus and publish the genetic
sequence so that laboratories across the world could independently develop polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests to
detect infection by the virus.[9][63][64] As of 19 March 2020,[65] there were no antibody tests though efforts to develop them
are ongoing.[66] The FDA approved the first point-of-care test on 21 March 2020 for use at the end of that month. [67]
Diagnostic guidelines released by Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University suggested methods for detecting infections
based upon clinical features and epidemiological risk. These involved identifying people who had at least two of the
following symptoms in addition to a history of travel to Wuhan or contact with other infected people: fever, imaging
features of pneumonia, normal or reduced white blood cell count, or reduced lymphocyte count. [21] A study published by
a team at the Tongji Hospital in Wuhan on 26 February 2020 showed that a chest CT scan for COVID-19 has
greater sensitivity (98%) than the polymerase chain reaction (71%).[22] False negative results may occur due to PCR kit
failure, or due to either issues with the sample or issues performing the test. False positive results are likely to be
rare.[68]
One study in China found that CT scans showed ground-glass opacities in 56%, but 18% had no radiological
findings.[69] Bilateral and peripheral ground glass opacities are the most typical CT findings, though they are non-
specific.[70] Consolidation, linear opacities and reverse halo sign are other radiological findings.[70] Initially, the lesions are
confined to one lung, but as the disease progresses, indications manifest in both lungs in 88% of so-called "late
patients" in the study group (the subset for whom time between onset of symptoms and chest CT was 6–12
days).[70] Ground glass opacities are also a common feature in children's disease. [71]

Typical CT imaging findings

CT imaging of rapid progression stage

Prevention
See also: 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic § Prevention

An illustration of the effect of spreading out infections over a long period of time, known as flattening the curve; decreasing peaks
allows healthcare services to better manage the same volume of patients.[72][73][74]

Alternatives to flattening the curve[75][76]

Prevention efforts are multiplicative, with effects far beyond that of a single spread. Each avoided case leads to more avoided cases
down the line, which in turn can stop the outbreak in its tracks.

Because a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 is not expected to become available until 2021 at the earliest,[77] a key part of
managing the COVID-19 pandemic is trying to decrease the epidemic peak, known as flattening the epidemic
curve through various measures seeking to reduce the rate of new infections. [73] Slowing the infection rate helps
decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed, allowing for better treatment of current cases, and provides
more time for a vaccine and treatment to be developed.[73]
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection in locations with an outbreak of the disease are similar to those
published for other coronaviruses: stay home, avoid travel and public activities, wash hands with soap and warm water
often and for at least 20 seconds (proper hand hygiene and also the time it takes to sing "Happy Birthday to You"
twice.), practice good respiratory hygiene and avoid touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed
hands.[78][79][80] The CDC recommends covering up the mouth and nose with a tissue during any cough or sneeze and
coughing or sneezing into the inside of the elbow if no tissue is available.[78] They also recommend proper hand hygiene
after any cough or sneeze.[78] Social distancing strategies aim to reduce contact of infected persons with large groups
by closing schools and workplaces, restricting travel, and canceling mass gatherings. [81] Social distancing also includes
that people stay at least 6 feet apart[82] (about 1.80 meters), roughly the length of a full-size bed/mattress.[83]
According to the WHO, the use of masks is only recommended if a person is coughing or sneezing or when one is
taking care of someone with a suspected infection.[84] Some countries also recommend healthy individuals to wear face
masks, particularly China,[85] Hong Kong[86] and Thailand.[87] Some health experts consider wearing non-medical-grade
masks and other face coverings like scarves or bandanas a good way to prevent people from touching their mouths
and noses, even if non-medical coverings would not protect against a direct sneeze or cough from an infected
person.[88]
To prevent transmission of the virus, the CDC recommends that infected individuals stay home except to get medical
care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask when exposed to an individual or location of a
suspected infection, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid
sharing personal household items.[89][90] The CDC also recommends that individuals wash hands often with soap and
water for at least 20 seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty, before eating and after
blowing one's nose, coughing, or sneezing. It further recommends using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least
60% alcohol, but only when soap and water are not readily available.[78] For remote areas where commercial hand
sanitizers are not readily available, the WHO suggested two formulations for the local production. In both of these
formulations the antimicrobial activity of ethanol or isopropanol is enhanced by a low concentration of hydrogen
peroxide while glycerol acts as a humectant.[91] The WHO advises individuals to avoid touching the eyes, nose, or
mouth with unwashed hands.[79] Spitting in public places also should be avoided.[92]

Management
Four steps to putting on personal protective equipment[93]

People are managed with supportive care, which may include fluid, oxygen support, and supporting other affected vital
organs.[94][95][96] Steroids such as methylprednisolone are not recommended unless the disease is complicated by acute
respiratory distress syndrome.[97][98]
The CDC recommends that those who suspect they carry the virus wear a simple face mask. [24] Extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure, but its benefits are still under
consideration.[69][99] While WHO does not oppose the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen for
symptoms,[100] some recommend paracetamol (acetaminophen) for first-line use.[101] While theoretical concerns have
been raised about ACE inhibitors, as of 19 March 2020 these are not sufficient to justify stopping these medications. [102]
The WHO and Chinese National Health Commission have published recommendations for taking care of people who
are hospitalised with COVID-19.[103][104] Intensivists and pulmonologists in the US have compiled treatment
recommendations from various agencies into a free resource, the IBCC.[105][106]
Personal protective equipment
Management of people infected by the virus includes taking precautions while applying therapeutic manoeuvres,
especially when performing procedures like intubation or hand ventilation that can generate aerosols.[107]
CDC outlines the specific personal protective equipment and the order in which healthcare providers should put it on
when dealing with someone who may have COVID-19: 1) gown, 2) mask or respirator,[108][109] 3) goggles or a face shield,
4) medical gloves.[110][111]
Mechanical ventilation
Most cases of COVID-19 are not severe enough to require mechanical ventilation (artificial assistance to support
breathing), but a percentage of cases do.[112][113] Some Canadian doctors recommend the use of invasive mechanical
ventilation because this technique limits the spread of aerosolized transmission vectors.[112] Severe cases are most
common in older adults (those older than 60 years [112] and especially those older than 80 years[citation needed]). Many
developed countries do not have enough hospital beds per capita, which limits a health system's capacity to handle a
sudden spike in the number of COVID-19 cases severe enough to require hospitalization.[114] This limited capacity is a
significant driver of the need to flatten the curve (to keep the speed at which new cases occur and thus the number of
people sick at one point in time lower). [114] One study in China found 5% were admitted to intensive care units, 2.3%
needed mechanical support of ventilation, and 1.4% died. [69] An Italian startup employed 3D printing technology to
produce valves for life-saving coronavirus treatment due to a broken supply chain of original manufacturing.[115] 3D
printed valves cost $1 instead of $11,000 and were ready overnight.[116]
Experimental treatment
See also: Research
No medications are approved to treat the disease by the WHO although some are recommended by individual national
medical authorities.[117] Research into potential treatments started in January 2020, [118] and several antiviral drugs are in
clinical trials.[119][120] Although new medications may take until 2021 to develop,[121] several of the medications being tested
are already approved for other uses, or are already in advanced testing.[117] Antiviral medication may be tried in people
with severe disease.[94] The WHO recommended volunteers take part in trials of the effectiveness and safety of potential
treatments.[122]
Information technology
See also: Algorithmic regulation
In February 2020, China launched a mobile app to deal with the disease outbreak.[123] Users are asked to enter their
name and ID number. The app is able to detect 'close contact' using surveillance data and therefore a potential risk of
infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only
recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials. [124]
Big data analytics on cellphone data, facial recognition technology, mobile phone tracking and artificial intelligence are
used to track infected people and people whom they contacted in South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore. [125][126] In March
2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have
coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected
citizens.[127] Also in March 2020, Deutsche Telekom shared private cellphone data with the German federal government
agency, Robert Koch Institute, in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus. [128] Russia deployed facial
recognition technology to detect quarantine breakers.[129] Italian regional health commissioner Giulio Gallera said that he
has been informed by mobile phone operators that "40% of people are continuing to move around anyway".[130]
Psychological support
Infected individuals may experience distress from quarantine, travel restrictions, side effects of treatment, or fear of the
infection itself. To address these concerns, the National Health Commission of China published a national guideline for
psychological crisis intervention on 27 January 2020. [131][132]

Prognosis

The severity of diagnosed COVID19 cases in China[133]

Case fatality rates by age group in China. Data through 11 February 2020.[53]
Case fatality rate in China depending on other health problems. Data through 11 February 2020.[134]

The severity of COVID-19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other
common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while
those with severe or critical disease may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from
symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks. [30]
Children of all ages are susceptible to the disease, but are likely to have milder symptoms and a much lower chance of
severe disease than adults; in those younger than 50 years, the risk of death is less than 0.5%, while in those older
than 70 it is more than 8%.[71][135] Pregnant women are at particular risk for severe infection.[136][137]
In some people, COVID-19 may affect the lungs causing pneumonia. In those most severely affected, COVID-19 may
rapidly progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) causing respiratory failure, septic shock, or multi-organ
failure.[138][139] Complications associated with COVID-19 include sepsis, abnormal clotting, and damage to the heart,
kidneys, and liver. Clotting abnormalities, specifically an increase in prothrombin time, have been described in 6% of
those admitted to hospital with COVID-19, while abnormal kidney function is seen in 4% of this group.[140] Liver injury as
shown by blood markers of liver damage is frequently seen in severe cases.[141]
Some studies have found that the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) may be helpful in early screening for severe
illness.[142]
Many of those who die of COVID-19 have preexisting conditions, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus,
and cardiovascular disease.[143] The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that, out of over 2000 deaths from the
disease in the country, 99.8% had at least one preexisting condition with the average person having
2.7.[144][145] According to the same report, the median time between onset of symptoms and death was eight days, with
half that time being spent hospitalized. However, patients transferred to an ICU had a median time of five days between
hospitalization and death.[144] In a study of early cases, the median time from exhibiting initial symptoms to death was 14
days, with a full range of six to 41 days.[146] In a study by the National Health Commission (NHC) of China, men had a
death rate of 2.8% while women had a death rate of 1.7%.[147] Histopathological examinations of post-mortem lung
samples show diffuse alveolar damage with cellular fibromyxoid exudates in both lungs. Viral cytopathic changes were
observed in the pneumocytes. The lung picture resembled acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).[30] In 11.8% of
the deaths reported by the National Health Commission of China, heart damage was noted by elevated levels
of troponin or cardiac arrest.[38]
Availability of medical resources and the socioeconomics of a region may also affect mortality. [148] Estimates of the
mortality from the condition vary because of those regional differences, [149] but also because of methodological
difficulties. The under-counting of mild cases can cause the mortality rate to be overestimated. [150] However, the time lag
in death occurring can mean the mortality rate is underestimated.[151][152]
It is unknown if past infection provides effective and long-term immunity in people who recover from the
disease.[153] Immunity is likely, based on the behaviour of other coronaviruses,[154] but cases in which recovery from
COVID-19 have been followed by positive tests for coronavirus at a later date have been reported.[155][156] It is unclear if
these cases are the result of reinfection, relapse, or testing error. [citation needed]
Concerns have been raised about long-term sequelae of the disease. The Hong Kong Hospital Authority found a drop
of 20% to 30% in lung capacity in some people who recovered from the disease, and lung scans suggested organ
damage.[157]

Case fatality rates (%) by age and country

Age 80+ 70–79 60–69 50–59 40–49 30–39 20–29 10–19 0–9

China as of 11 February[53] 14.8 8.0 3.6 1.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0

Italy as of 19 March[145] 23.6 15.3 4.9 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0

South Korea as of 22 March[158] 10.5 6.2 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Case fatality rates (%) by age in United States

Age >85 75-84 65-74 55-64 45-54 20-44 0-19

United States as of 16 March[159] 10.4-27.3 4.3-10.5 2.7-4.9 1.4-2.6 0.5-0.8 0.1-0.2 0.0

Epidemiology
Main article: 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic
The case fatality rate (CFR) depends on the availability of healthcare, the typical age and health problems within the
population, and the number of undiagnosed cases. [160][161] Preliminary research has yielded case fatality rate numbers
between 2% and 3%;[16] in January 2020 the WHO suggested that the case fatality rate was approximately 3%,[162] and
2% in February 2020 in Hubei.[163] Other CFR numbers, which adjust for differences in time of confirmation, death or
remission but are not peer reviewed, are respectively 7%[164] and 33% for people in Wuhan 31 January.[165] An
unreviewed preprint of 55 deaths noted that early estimates of mortality may be too high as asymptomatic infections are
missed. They estimated a mean infection fatality ratio (IFR, the mortality among infected) ranging from 0.8% to
0.9%.[166] A peer-reviewed article published on 19 March estimated the overall symptomatic case fatality risk as 1.4%
(IQR 0.9–2.1%).[167] The outbreak in 2019–2020 has caused at least 339,645edit confirmed infections and
14,717edit deaths.[6]
The epidemic spreads faster where people are close together and/or travel to other areas. Researchers found that
travel restrictions can reduce the basic reproduction number from 2.35 to 1.05, allowing the epidemic to be
manageable.[168]
An observational study of nine people found no vertical transmission from mother to the newborn.[169] Also, a descriptive
study in Wuhan found no evidence of viral transmission through vaginal sex (from female to partner), but authors note
that transmission during sex might occur through other routes. [170]

Total confirmed cases over time

Total deaths over time

[171]
Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people, 20 March 2020
 •

[172]
Total confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 per million people, 20 March 2020

Terminology
The World Health Organization announced on 11 February 2020 that "COVID-19" would be the official name of the
disease. World Health Organization chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said "co" stands for "corona", "vi" for "virus"
and "d" for "disease", while "19" was for the year, as the outbreak was first identified on 30 December 2019. Tedros
said the name had been chosen to avoid references to a specific geographical location (i.e. China), animal species, or
group of people in line with international recommendations for naming aimed at preventing stigmatisation.[173][174]
While the disease is named COVID-19, the virus that causes it is named severe acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 or SARS-CoV-2.[175] The virus was initially referred to as the 2019 novel coronavirus or 2019-
nCoV.[176] The WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public
communications.[175]

Research
Because of its key role in the transmission and progression of the disease, ACE2 has been the focus of a significant
proportion of research and various therapeutic approaches have been suggested.[46]
Vaccine
Main article: COVID-19 vaccine
There is no available vaccine, but research into developing a vaccine has been undertaken by various agencies.
Previous work on SARS-CoV is being utilised because SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV both use the ACE2 receptor to
enter human cells.[177] There are three vaccination strategies being investigated. First, researchers aim to build a whole
virus vaccine. The use of such a virus, be it inactive or dead, aims to elicit a prompt immune response of the human
body to a new infection with COVID-19. A second strategy, subunit vaccines, aims to create a vaccine that sensitises
the immune system to certain subunits of the virus. In the case of SARS-CoV-2 such research focuses on the S-spike
protein that helps the virus intrude the ACE2 enzyme receptor. A third strategy is the nucleic acid vaccines
(DNA or RNA vaccines, a novel technique for creating a vaccination). Experimental vaccines from any of these
strategies would have to be tested for safety and efficacy.[178]
On 16 March 2020, the first clinical trial of a vaccine started with four volunteers in Seattle. The vaccine contains a
harmless genetic code copied from the virus that causes the disease. [179]
One difficulty with vaccine development is that older people, who are more vulnerable to the disease, are often poorly
vaccinated due to age-related degradation of the thymus. Therefore, alternative methods will need to be developed to
increase immunity in this population. One method being considered is treatment with recombinant interleukin 7 which
plays an extremely important role in the maturation and reproduction of lymphoid cells. Using interleukin 7 along with
vaccines can boost the immune system's response to infections and increase the growth of restoration cells, thus
lowering the risk of death in older people.[180][181]
Antivirals
Main article: COVID-19 drug repurposing research
Several existing antiviral medications are being looked at to treat COVID-19 and some are moving into clinical
trials.[117] There is tentative evidence for remdesivir as of March 2020.[182] Remdesivir inhibits SARS-CoV-2 in
vitro.[183] Phase 3 clinical trials are being conducted in the US, in China, and in Italy.[117][184][185]
Chloroquine, previously used to treat malaria, was being studied in China in February 2020, with positive preliminary
results.[186] Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine effectively inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in vitro,[183] with hydroxychloroquine
proving to be more potent than chloroquine and with a more tolerable safety profile. [187] Preliminary results from a trial
suggested that chloroquine is effective and safe in treating COVID-19 associated pneumonia, "improving lung imaging
findings, promoting a virus-negative conversion, and shortening the disease course".[186] However, there are calls for
more review of the research to date.[188] The Guangdong Provincial Department of Science and Technology and the
Guangdong Provincial Health and Health Commission issued a report stating that chloroquine phosphate "improves the
success rate of treatment and shortens the length of person's hospital stay" and recommended it for people diagnosed
with mild, moderate and severe cases of novel coronavirus pneumonia. [189] On 17 March, the Italian Pharmaceutical
Agency included chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in the list of drugs with positive preliminary results for treatment
of COVID-19.[190] Korean and Chinese Health Authorities recommend the use of chloroquine.[191][192] However, the Wuhan
Institute of Virology, while recommending a daily dose of one gram, notes that twice that dose is highly dangerous and
could be lethal; as of March 20 the treatment has not yet been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [193]
The Chinese 7th edition guidelines also include interferon, ribavirin, or umifenovir for use against COVID-
19.[192] Teicoplanin appears to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and the related MERS conaviruses and is viewed as a potential
treatment for COVID-19.[194]
In 2020, a randomized controlled trial published in the New England Journal of Medicine found
that lopinavir/ritonavir was ineffective in the treatment of severe illness caused by SARS-CoV-2 and did not lead to
shorter hospital stays or better outcomes compared to standard care alone.[195] Nitazoxanide has been recommended
for further in vivo study after demonstrating low concentration inhibition of SARS-CoV-2.[183]
Studies have demonstrated that initial spike protein priming by transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) is
essential for entry of SARS-CoV-2 via interaction with the ACE2 receptor.[196][197] These findings suggest that the
TMPRSS2 inhibitor camostat approved for use in Japan for inhibiting fibrosis in liver and kidney disease might
constitute an effective off-label treatment.[196]
In February 2020, Favipiravir was being studied in China for experimental treatment of the emergent COVID-19
disease.[198][199] A study on 80 people comparing it to lopinavir/ritonavir found that it significantly reduced viral clearance
time to 4 days, compared to 11 for the control group, and that 91.43% of the people had improved CT scans with few
side effects.[200] On 17 March, Chinese officials suggested the drug had been effective in treating COVID in Wuhan and
Shenzhen.[201][202]Researchers reveal the crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 main protease providing a start for the design
of an improved α-ketoamide inhibitor. [203]
Anti-cytokine storm
Cytokine storm, a life-threatening medical condition, can be a complication in the later stages of severe COVID-19.
There is evidence that hydroxychloroquine has anti-cytokine storm properties.[204]
Tocilizumab has been included in treatment guidelines by China's National Health Commission after a small study was
completed.[205][206] It is undergoing a phase 2 non randomized test at the national level in Italy after showing positive
results in people with severe disease.[190][207][208][unreliable medical source?] Combined with a serum ferritin blood test to
identify cytokine storms, it is meant to counter such developments, which are thought to be the cause of death in some
affected people.[209][210][211] The interleukin-6 receptor antagonist was approved by the FDA for treatment against cytokine
release syndrome induced by a different cause, CAR T cell therapy, in 2017.[212][unreliable medical source?]
The Feinstein Institute of Northwell Health announced in March a study on "a human antibody that may prevent the
activity" of IL-6.[213]
Passive antibody therapy
Using blood donations from people who have recovered from COVID-19 is being investigated.[214] This strategy was
tried for SARS.[214] Using this mechanism of action, antibodies produced by the immune systems of those who have
recovered are transferred to people who need them. This is a nonvaccine method of immunization.[214] Other forms of
passive antibody therapy, for example, using manufactured monoclonal antibodies, are in
development.[214] Convalescent serum production could be increased for quicker deployment. [215]