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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Algebra is one of the most abstract branches of mathematics

(Gunawardena, 2011). Technically, arithmetic cannot live without the

help of algebra for real numbers are needed for functioning and its

success depends on the concept of algebraic expressions. As

Gunawardena (2011) emphasized, algebraic expressions serve as

models for interpreting and making inferences about data, and in the

realm of mathematics, it plays a great role. Considering the

importance of algebraic expressions in the real world, I am ignited to

conduct a study in order to understand what makes algebra among

students difficult to deal with for them to achieve meaningful learning

in higher mathematics.

Difficulty in dealing with mathematics, specifically algebraic

expressions was already manifested in other countries. In fact, there

were already studies conducted such as the study of Ncube (2011) on

analysis of errors and of Lai (2012) error analysis in Mathematics. As

a Mathematics teacher myself in the field, I also experienced this issue

about errors in simplifying algebraic expression among my students.

During my five years of my career as a Grade 8 mathematics teacher, I

have observed that many students have serious problems pertaining

to algebraic expressions. They seem to have mastered concepts in

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arithmetic such as addition and subtraction and are able to solve

lengthy arithmetic problems, but are hesitant when it comes to using

algebraic methods. It made me wonder since the introduction of

algebraic expression was already presented in the Grade 7 Curriculum

and in Grade 8 is just a review of the topics on linear inequality, linear

function, special product, factoring, and so on. Base on my

observations, the most common errors that my students have

committed was their confusion with the rules on algebra.

Sadly, problems on simplifying algebra are still rampant among

Grade 8 students. Since algebra is a key topic in learning

mathematics, according to Usiskin (2004) and Egodawatte (2011)

stated that it is vital that the misconceptions in algebra are addressed

as early as possible in order to afford learners the opportunities to

study mathematics with understanding at a higher level. Thus, this

qualitative case study will identify the common errors and the reasons

behind learners’ errors in simplifying algebraic expression that will

help teachers in our area craft materials that will hopefully, eliminate

those errors.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative case study is to analyze the

errors in simplifying algebraic expressions among Grade 8 students.

This study will particularly identify the common errors they will be

committed in performing the said mathematics’ topic and the reasons

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behind it. This study also will discuss how learners’ errors affects

their learning in mathematics subject.

Research Questions

Since this study attempts to analyze the errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions among Grade 8 students, specifically, this

research will examine the following research questions:

1. What are the learners’ errors in simplifying algebraic

expressions?

2. What is the most common error done by the learners in

simplifying algebraic expressions?

3. What are the reasons of Grade 8 students of a certain public

high school in Lupon, Davao Oriental in committing errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions?

4. How does their difficulty in algebraic expressions affect their

learning in mathematics subject?

Importance of the Study

Analyzing the errors in simplifying algebraic expressions among

Grade 8 students can result to a better teaching-learning experience

in teaching Algebra. As a Mathematics teacher, the insights from the

informants will deepen my understanding on the common errors

committed by the learners in simplifying algebraic expressions so that

learners who are having difficulty in algebra will be mentored and

assisted.
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Grade 8 Learners. The result of this study can help the learners

recognize their errors and will allow them to look for the correct way in

avoiding such errors.

Mathematics Teachers. It is also beneficial for teachers in

developing materials that will address learners’ errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions that are also appropriate to the needs and

capabilities of their learners.

School Administrators. This study can also serve as a baseline

data for the school administrators in crafting activities that will

enhance teachers’ capability in order to address diverse learners’

needs. Since after all, the success of the lesson presentation in the

hand of the teachers.

Parents. As the one who are directly concerned with the

education of their children, the result of this study also can help in

encouraging our dear parents to strictly monitor their children’s

performance at school. Since family has a great contribution to the

learners’ development and achievement at school.

Future Researchers. Aside from that, this study will serve as a

looking glass for other minds of the same interest of study, or get a

sneak-peek that would support their pursuits, or may see as the basis

of their researches.

Theoretical Perspective

This study will be anchored in the theory of constructivism of

Jean Piaget (Piaget, 1985), which implies that learners actively

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organize their experiences by constructing mental schemas to

accommodate new knowledge and connecting it with existing

knowledge. The constructivist perspective, derived as a part from the

work of Piaget asserts that conceptual knowledge cannot be

transferred from one person to another (Piaget, 1970). Rather, it must

be constructed by each person based on his/her own experience.

Piaget, an epistemologist, explained the term genetic epistemology as

discovering the roots of varieties of knowledge including the scientific

knowledge (Piaget, 1970). As cited in the study of Ncube (2016),

according to Piaget (1970), learning is not a simple passive process of

receiving from the surrounding environment. Constructivism is a

dynamic process of an individual involving interaction between the

individual’s existing knowledge and new ideas. As cited in the study

of Mbewe (2013), the constructivist perspective, developed as a part of

the work of Piaget asserts that conceptual knowledge cannot be

transferred from one person to another but is constructed by the

individual him or herself (Piaget, 1970). Constructivism, as described

by Fosnot (2005), refers to the process whereby learners actively

construct their understanding and knowledge of the world through

experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. As cited in

the study of Makonye & Nhlanhla (2014), the constructivist theory

implies that learners do not come to a new grade as empty vessels but

bring pre-knowledge from previous grades, which knowledge they use

to assimilate and adapt incoming mathematical concepts (Hatano,

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1996). So, the new knowledge they learn interacts with their prior

knowledge and learners try to find the balance; to equilibrate between

what they know already and what they are learning now.

In this view, learning mathematics is seen as a continuous

process through abstraction of relationships between actions and

reflections. During this process, students construct schemas and

modify and/or apply them intentionally to achieve their goals. Careful

analysis of these actions will allow the researcher or the teacher to

identify student conceptions or misconceptions wherever they may

lead.

Delimitations and Limitations of the Study

Any field of inquiry requires to delimit the exploration in order

to facilitate the development of my research’s specific focus. This

study was limited to only eight (8) Grade 8 learners of a certain public

high school in, Lupon, Davao Oriental.

The data gathering was based on the key informant interview

using audio recording and field notes. The terminologies and language

used during the interviews did not contain jargons which avoid

confusion with the participants. This is important so that the

informants’ responses have no negative impact on the complexity of

the language. I was also committed to analyzing the data gathered in

the study to know the experiences in committing errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners as the informants.

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My study was restricted by numerous influences. First, all the

informants were of the same school but belongs to different sections.

Because of the great diversity, restrictions and technicalities, a

different demographic would expand the scope of this study or much

better to consider other schools in other barangays of Lupon, Davao

Oriental. Second, the experiences of committing errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners limited the study.

Other learners of the neighboring barangays may similarly experience

the error in simplifying algebraic expressions that may lengthen the

scope of this reading. Third, all the informants in this study were from

different sections, who may likely have differences in processing

things, in technicalities and in teaching-learning experience. In

addition, my role as a Mathematics teacher of the same school limited

the study. In consonance, I cannot abnegate the fact that some

informants’ responses may perhaps familiar with the Mathematics

teachers, school heads, and myself; for that reason, the participants

may not have been eager to willingly share personal experiences for

the alarm that someone might recognize them through their stories.

These limitations are in the offing to influence the findings and

any use of these findings should be with great care. Lastly,

notwithstanding the finest labors I am having, to be mindful of my

biases, it is probable that my involvement as a Mathematics teacher

myself who know the participants generate partialities which situate

borders that take place to my exploration.

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Definition of Terms

The following terminologies are operationally defined in this

study:

Algebraic expression. Generally, it refers to a symbol or a

combination of symbols used in algebra which contain one or more

numerical coefficients, variables and arithmetic operations.

Simplification. Refers to the process of making something

simpler or easier to do or understand. In this study, it refers to

making a mathematical expression less complex or solving a

mathematical problem in a simpler way.

Analysis of Error. Refers to the method of determining the error

repeatedly committed in a given problem. In this study, it refers to the

identification of the errors committed by the Grade 8 learners in

simplifying algebraic expressions and understanding how and why

they commit such errors.

Organization of the Study

This study has five chapters namely: introduction, review of

related literature, methodology, results and discussion, and

conclusions and implication for practice

Chapter 1 highlights the background of the study, the purpose

of the study, the research questions, the importance of the study, the

limitations and delimitations of the study, the theoretical perspectives,

and the definition of terms being used in the study.

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Chapter 2 is the review of related literature that gives a clearer

picture of the research problem. The components of this chapter are

the nature of Algebra, error versus misconception, difficulties in initial

Algebra, teachers’ intervention, and on the concept of constructivism.

Various research procedures used in the investigation of this

study are presented and explained in Chapter 3. Research design, role

of the researcher, research informants, data collection, data analysis,

trustworthiness and credibility, and ethical consideration are being

discussed in this chapter.

The results and discussion of the interview conducted to each

student are stated in the Chapter 4. It shows the research findings

made after the data analysis. The data were taken from in-depth

interviews and observations.

Chapter 5 completes the study by drawing out the conclusions,

insights of the study, and implication for practice as well as

recommendations for future research.

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Chapter 2

REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE

Literature and Studies

The literature review quoted in this study provides a clearer

picture of the research problem which sources were taken from books,

research handbooks, e-journals, conference papers and early stage

materials. Moreover, this part of the study justifies the reason for the

conduct of this qualitative research.

The Nature of Algebra. Algebra as a core subject within

mathematics, is an instrumental for achievements in other

mathematical domains such as geometry, calculus and statistics, and

serves as a gateway to advanced mathematics and higher education

(Jupri, Drijver, & van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2013). According to Katz

(2007), algebraic knowledge and skills are relevant in daily and

professional life either directly or as a prerequisite. Therefore, we can

say that successful algebra education is a precondition for

achievements in mathematics education in general.

Initial algebra education, as emphasized by Van Amerom

(2002), is a crucial phase in algebra education. As cited in the study of

Khanyile (2016), algebra is considered to be one of the most abstract

branches of mathematics (Egodawatte, 2011). The application of

algebra can be found in all current branches of mathematics and

science in general (Seng, 2010). As cited in the study of Mashazi (n.d.),

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given in the Oxford dictionary that algebra is part of Mathematics that

uses letters and other symbols to represent quantities and situations.

This abstract nature of algebra and the learners general lack of sense

in understanding algebra, most often than not, leads to the failure of

appreciating the power of algebra. Learners do not know when to use

algebra or manipulate it in a range of situations. The challenge in

algebra is that most of the learners fail to understand the main

concepts of algebra which leads the learners in committing errors.

Within mathematics curricula, algebra has been widely

recognized as one of the most difficult topics, which leads to learning

difficulties worldwide (Jupri, Drijver, & Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen,

2013). According to the Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study (TIMSS) 2007, Indonesian students’ achievement in the

algebra domain was significantly below the average student

performance compared to other Southeast Asian countries like

Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore. Similarly, the study of Jupri,

Drijver, and van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2013) revealed that the ability

of the learners to translate back and forth between the world of the

problem situation and the world of mathematics and to reorganize the

mathematical system itself, constituted the most frequently observed

difficulty in both the written test and the interview data. Jupri et al.

further discussed additional observed difficulties. Such difficulties

were concerned about understanding algebraic expressions, applying

arithmetic operations in numerical and algebraic expressions,

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understanding the different meanings of the equal sign, and

understanding variables.

Error Versus Misconception. According to Mohyuddin and

Usman (2016), it is important to establish the difference between an

“error” and a “misconception” as both seem to be equivalent regarding

the incorrect result they produce. Errors are caused by

misconceptions and the latter are attributed to lack of

conceptualization and understanding, carelessness, problems in

reading or interpreting a question and lack of numbers knowledge

(Spooner, 2002). Learners’ errors are the symptoms of

misunderstanding as per Li (2006). Also, Muzangwa and Chifamba

(2012) view an error as a mistake, blunder, and miscalculation or

misjudge. On the other hand, misconception is the result of a lack of

understanding or in many cases misapplication of a “rule‟ or

mathematical generalization (Spooner, 2002).

Talking about errors, Riccomini (2005) posited two main

types, namely; systematic and unsystematic errors. Riccomini (2005)

further discussed that systematic errors are the common errors made

by learners over a long period while unsystematic errors are non-

persistent incorrect responses which learners can easily correct

themselves without much intervention from the teacher. Yang et al

(2011) point out that systematic errors might be the result of the use

of algorithms that lead to incorrect answers or the use of procedures

that have not been fully understood. There is misapplication of rules

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caused by learners’ failure to grasp concepts or rules. While in

unsystematic errors, are just random and have no evidence of

recurring. These errors, for Kousathana and Tsaparlis (2002), could

be a result of overloading the working memory, hastiness or

recklessness.

Errors are product of misconception. Misconceptions in

performing different basic rules related to mathematical concept lead

to errors in understanding new concept. Several studies have been

conducted regarding errors in simplifying algebra. In fact, in a study

of Mbewe (2013), it was discovered that learners’ errors occur

frequently and repeatedly. Mashazi (n.d.) conducted a study for Grade

9 high school students and found that various aspects contribute to

learners’ errors including ignoring of the letter and replacing letters

with numeric values. Another study was conducted by Muzangwa and

Chifamba (2012) that was administered to the undergraduate

students. They found out that majority of the errors were due to

knowledge gaps in basic algebra. Gunawardena (2011) also conducted

a study to secondary students. In his research it was discovered that

the main reason for misconceptions was the lack of understanding of

the basic concept of the variable in different context. He also found

out that the abstract structure of algebraic expressions posed many

problems to students such as understanding or manipulating them

according to accepted rules, procedures or algorithms. As cited in the

study of Wang (2015), Greeno (1982) conducted a study with

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beginning algebra students to test their conception of structure of

relations in problems. He found that students were short of structural

understanding of algebra. For instance, they partitioned algebraic

expressions into separately component parts. And more often,

students’ operation of simplification seemed to be quite at random.

For example, was simplified as   at one time, and as at another time.

Another study that was cited by Wang (2015) was the study of Wenger

(1987), who also described the students’ arbitrary strategies when

they dealt with simplifications due to the fact that they could not

recognize the right things in algebraic expressions. And students were

incapable to transform the simplification knowledge they had learned

in one context, as polynomials, to another one, as radicals. Another

study was the Study of Seng (n.d.) whose analysis of students’ errors

shows that Form 2 students tended to make the exponent error

because of interference from the newly learned mathematical

concepts. This is evidenced in the interview transcripts with students.

Ncube (2016) conducted a study on analysis of errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions and found out that learners are lacked of the

basics in algebra, and therefore teachers should assist learners to

grasp the basics of algebra like: collecting like and unlike terms;

bracket expansion, addition and subtraction of directed algebraic

terms.

These errors produced by learners as suggested by Mbewe

(2013), play an important role in indicating to teachers the stages at

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which their learners are at as well as showing where there is need for

further teaching or study. Once learners fail to understand the key

aspects of algebra, they have difficulties in Mathematics. Learners

possess a serious arithmetic-algebra gap which, as observed by Seng

(2010), remains a fundamental cause of learning difficulties. As cited

in the study of Seng (2010), Warren (2003) felt that understandings of

basic arithmetic operations could assist successful transition from

arithmetic to algebra. As cited in the study of Machaba (n.d.), if

learners experience difficulty in seeing the connection between

arithmetic and algebra, it will be difficult for them to understand the

notion of algebraic expressions (Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, Taylor &

McEldoon, 2012).

Difficulties in Initial Algebra. Jupri, Drijver, and Van den

Heuvel-Panhuizen (2013) identified five types of difficulties in initial

algebra, namely: applying arithmetic operations, understanding the

notion of variable, understanding algebraic expressions,

understanding the different meanings of the equal sign, and

mathematization. s

Applying Arithmetic Operations. Many studies show that 12–

13-year-old students often fail to add or subtract like algebraic terms

and sometimes detach symbolic expressions from the operations (e.g.,

Herscovics & Linchevski, 1994; Linchevski, 1995; Linchevski &

Herscovics, 1996). Also, in the studies of Booth (1988) and Warren

(2003), students (11–14 years) misapply commutative as well as

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associative properties when carrying out subtractions or divisions,

and fail to use the distributive property of a multiplication over an

addition (Booth 1988; Pillay et al. 1998). According to Jupri, Drijver,

and Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2013), these difficulties reveal

students’ limited mastery of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division; of applying the priority rules of arithmetic operations in

calculations; and of using properties of numerical operations.

Generally, properties of numerical operations are understood as

commutative, associative, inverse, and distributive properties within

both additive and multiplicative situations.

Understanding the Notion of Variable. Concerning the literal

symbols that are so crucial in algebra, research—carried out with 10–

14 year-old students—reveals that students have difficulties to

distinguish different roles of literal symbols such as placeholder,

generalized number, unknown, or varying quantity (Booth, 1988;

Drijvers, 2003; Linchevski & Herscovics, 1996; Rosnick, 1981;

Usiskin, 1988; Van Amerom, 2002). Literal symbol, as a placeholder,

is seen as an empty “container” in which a numerical value can be

stored or from which it can be retrieved; as an unknown, it is used in

a problem solving process in which the goal is to find a solution of an

equation; as a generalized number, it acts as a pattern generalizer

symbolizing equivalence: all values substituted for the literal symbols

will result in true statements, for instance 2x+5x=7x; and as a varying

quantity, it is used in a functional relationship either as an input

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argument or as the output function value (Jupri, Drijver, & Van den

Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2013).

Understanding Algebraic Expressions. In addition to the

different views on literal symbols, students also have to recognize that

an algebraic expression, such as x+10, has a dual nature: it

represents a calculation process as well as being an algebraic object in

its own right (Drijvers, 2003; Van Amerom, 2002 & 2003). In the

literature, this is called the process-object duality (Sfard 1991); the

inability to switch between the process and the object view is called

the process-product obstacle (Thomas & Tall, 1991). Jupri, Drijver,

and Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2013) also identified another obstacle

called parsing obstacle, which is the inability to disentangle the order

in which the algebraic expressions must be understood and

processed, sometimes conflicting with the order of natural language.

As illustrated by Thomas and Tall (1991), in dealing with 12−5x,

students may read from left to right as 12−5 giving 7, and consider

the full expression to be equivalent to 7x; in dealing with x+3,

students may read it as x and 3, and interpret this as 3x. The

expected answer obstacle is the incorrect expectation of having a

numerical answer for an algebraic expression. This causes a related

difficulty which is called the lack of closure obstacle, which is the

discomfort from attempting to handle an algebraic expression which

represents a process that cannot be carried out (Thomas & Tall,

1991). One characteristic of an ability to manipulate algebraic

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expressions technically, as well as with insight that causes difficulties

in algebra is the gestalt view on algebraic expressions (Arcavi, 2005).

This concerns the ability to consider an algebraic expression as a

whole, to recognize its global characteristics, and to foresee the effect

of a manipulation strategy. According to Bokhove and Drijvers (2010),

the gestalt view includes both pattern salience, i.e., the recognition of

visual pattern in expressions and equations; and local salience, i.e.,

the attraction by local algebraic symbols, such as inequality signs and

minus signs in inequalities or equations. The latter may lead to

looking at symbols in isolation without taking the whole expressions

into consideration. Furthermore, Bokhove and Drijvers perceive the

gestalt view as enabling the learner to take strategic decisions about

what to do next and to resist or succumb to the visual salience.

Understanding the Different Meanings of the Equal Sign.

Another difficulty in initial algebra learning concerns the equal sign.

In arithmetic, the equal sign often invites carrying out a calculation

and writing down a numerical answer, whereas in algebra, it usually

means “is algebraically equivalent to” (Filloy & Rojano, 1989;

Herscovics & Linchevski ,1994; Ketterlin-Geller et al., 2007; Kieran,

1981; Linchevski, 1995; Pillay et al., 1998). With the former insight,

students may interpret 2+3 =.... as adding 2 and 3 to get the specific

answer 5 and may not view 2+3=3+2; 2+3=1+4; or 5=2+3 as possible

solutions to the same task. The latter insight, however, is needed to

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understand equivalence, for example while rewriting x+2=3x+4 as

x=3x+2.

Mathematization. The final difficulty in initial algebra

concerns mathematization, a core concept of the approach to teaching

mathematics that is called realistic mathematics education (RME)

(Freudenthal, 1991; Treffers, 1987). This mathematization has both

horizontal and vertical mathematization aspects. The difficulty in

horizontal mathematization concerns going from the world of real

phenomena to the world of symbols and vice versa: in other words, to

translate back and forth between the world of the problem situation

and the world of mathematics (Treffers 1987; Van den Heuvel-

Panhuizen, 2003). These transitions are demanding for students and

in particular 10–14 year-old students (Ketterlin-Geller et al., 2007;

MacGregor & Stacey, 1998; Van Amerom, 2003; Warren, 2003;

Watson, 2009). Activities of horizontal mathematization include, for

instance, formulating a problem in a different way, discovering

relations and regularities, and transferring a real-world problem to a

mathematical problem or to a known mathematical model (De Lange,

1987). These horizontal mathematization activities are in line with the

first two problem solving heuristics proposed by Polya (1973), namely

understanding the problem and devising a plan. The difficulty in

vertical mathematization concerns dealing with the process of

reorganization within the mathematical system itself, i.e., the process

of moving within the symbolic world (Treffers, 1987; Van den Heuvel
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Panhuizen, 2003). Instances of vertical mathematization activities

involve combining, integrating, formulating, and manipulating

algebraic models while solving equations and inequalities; formulating

a new mathematical concept; and proving regularities and generalizing

(De Lange, 1987; Treffers, 1987; Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2000).

Teachers’ Intervention. Since, learning mathematics is a

step by step process, in a sense that every new topic is connected or

related to the previous concept being taught, it is very important to

correct first the errors in order for the learner to proceed productively

to the next topic. According to Mbewe (2013), misconceptions are

habitual and cannot be solved easily. It was recommended that

teachers and learners need to talk about misconceptions during

teaching and learning process so that ways of doing away with them

could be identified. As cited in the study of Li (2006), Booth (1988)

pointed out that, “one way of trying to find out what makes algebra

difficult is to identify the kinds of errors students commonly make in

algebra and then to investigate the reasons for these errors”. As cited

also in the study of Khanyile (2016), Baker, Gersten and Lee (2002)

argue that, as part of teaching intervention, learners’ errors and

misconceptions can be used as an effective instructional method. They

suggest that teachers need to be able to predict learners’ errors and

misconceptions in order to prepare in advance to use them “to help

learners understand correct solutions” to mathematical problems.

Adenji (n.d.) recommended among others that mathematics teachers,

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in respective of the ability of the students in mathematics, should give

equal attention and treatment to their students’ difficulties especially

in algebra classes. Knowing the basics of algebra will go a long way in

understanding the procedural and conceptual aspects of algebra.

Teachers should take the constructivist perspective into consideration

and be in a position to create a strong arithmetic background for

learners so that the arithmetic background could be applied to

algebra.

As cited in the study of (Makhubele & Nkhoma, n.d.) evaluating

of learners’ errors and determining its causes is what Luneta (2013)

refer as error analysis. Similarly, as cited in the study of Ncube

(2016), Ketterlin-Geller and Yovanoff (2009) describe error analysis as

focusing on the weaknesses of learners and this is meant to help

teachers classify mistakes. For systematic errors, it is best to

implement error analysis to identify the reasons behind those

learners’ errors and to identify appropriate remediation to do away

with it. However, as cited in the study of Mohyuddin & Usman (2016),

students do not come to classroom with “blank slates” (Resnick, 1983)

but with theories constructed from their everyday experiences—an

activity crucial to all successful learning.

These conjectures to some extent are the causes of

misconceptions which lead learners to make errors in solving

Mathematics tasks. Learners try to link what they already know to

new information and at times they link unrelated things resulting in

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them making errors. The way these misconceptions affect learners in

learning situations is also evident in algebra. According to Mbewe

(2013), misconceptions are habitual and cannot be solved easily.

If learners possess a good arithmetic background, they are not

likely to face errors in algebra. This is because algebra knowledge is

built upon the foundation of already acquired arithmetical knowledge.

By the definitions above, the researcher concludes that most of the

errors in algebra are systematic, which means it can be remediated. It

is because most students’ error in mathematics, particularly in

algebra, are consistent and products of their misapplication or

misunderstanding on the established rules of the subject. And as

educator it is very important to identify learners’ errors and their

causes.

On the Concept of Constructivism. Constructivism, as

described by Fosnot (2005), refers to the process whereby learners

actively construct their understanding and knowledge of the world

through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. As

cited in the study of Makonye & Nhlanhla (2014), the constructivist

theory implies that learners do not come to a new grade as empty

vessels but bring pre-knowledge from previous grades, which

knowledge they use to assimilate and adapt incoming mathematical

concepts (Hatano, 1996; Olivier, 1989). So the new knowledge they

learn interacts with their prior knowledge and learners try to find the
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balance; to equilibrate between what they know already and what they

are learning now.

The process of finding the balance between prior and current

knowledge may lead to errors (Makonye and Nhlanhla, 2014).

Learning is a thinking process. In this process the mind can conceive

misconceptions which hinders learners to successfully solve problems.

As cited in the study of Matuku (2017), Piaget (1968) stated that

learning occurs in three stages namely; assimilation, the placing of

new information into schemas, accommodation, the transforming of

existing schemas to new information and equilibration, attaining a

balance between oneself and the environment.

During learning, learners usual simplify and rearrange new

information to fit into their existing schemas (assimilation and

accommodation). The process of assimilation can be demonstrated

using a situation whereby a learner knows that 𝑎2 - 𝑏2 = (a – b) (a +

b). When she is asked to evaluate 1012 − 992 without using a

calculator, the learner will be able to express it in the same way used

for that 𝑎2 𝑏2. The learner will have 1012 −992 = (101 -99) (101 + 99).

The learner can then simplify what is inside brackets to 2 × 200 =

400. The demonstration shows that the learner has interpreted the

new situation in terms of the already known aspect of factorization

difference of two squares.

The picture of accommodation process can be explained by

looking at a situation where learners have to find products of algebraic

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terms. If a learner has the knowledge that a × b = ab or ba, then when

a problem requires the same learner to simplify a × 5 then s/he might

have a5 as the answer as the learner will be thinking that a5 is the

same as 5a. This means, there is a need for restructuring so that the

learner sees when one part of the algebraic term is a number then the

number has to be written first. This shows that it is not always

possible to connect new ideas to schemas. The failure to link existing

schemas to new situations may result in the creation of a new box in

the mind of the individual.

The learner may find it difficult to link the knowledge in the box

to existing schemas which may force him or her to memorize the ideas

or rules to learn. In the process of recalling, some of the rules are

partially remembered resulting in the learner being confused and

making errors. As cited in the study of Ncube (2016), these errors, as

suggested by Olivier (1989), are the natural results of learners’ effort

to construct knowledge. According to Brodie (2014), understanding

learner errors is a way of understanding learner thinking. Therefore,

errors which are product of misconceptions should be expected,

appreciated and be given attention in order for the concerned

individual create ways to get away with it.

 25

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

I chose a qualitative approach for this study to discover the

errors in simplifying algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners. In

general, qualitative research methods are especially useful in

discovering the meaning that people give to events they experience

(Bogdan & Biklen, 2003; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). A qualitative

approach is most appropriate for this study because it fosters a better

understanding of the lived experiences of the participants and how

they commit errors in simplifying algebraic expressions. The use of

rich, critical description provides in-depth, detailed accounts of the

participants’ experiences. Moreover, the essential elements of a

qualitative research process are generally defined as including

epistemology, a theoretical perspective, and methodology (Crotty,

1998). This chapter defines and discusses each of these components

in relation to this study.

Philosophical Foundation

The epistemology framing this qualitative case study is

constructivism. This epistemological approach asserts that different

people construct meaning in different ways, even when experiencing

the same event (Crotty, 1998). Crotty identified several assumptions of

constructivism, three of which are fundamental to this study: (1)

because meaning is constructed by human beings as they engage with

 26

the world they are interpreting, qualitative researchers tend to use

open-ended questions, so that the participants can share their views;

(2) humans engage with their world and make sense of it based on

their historical and social perspectives; (3) the basic generation of

meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a

human community. The research interpretations and findings in

qualitative research, therefore, are context-specific.

Constructivism is useful as the philosophical framework for this

research. According to Stake (1995), out of all the roles that

researchers play, the role of gatherer and interpreter is central: “Most

contemporary qualitative researchers nourish the belief that

knowledge is constructed rather than discovered. The world we know

is a particularly human construction”. Stake (1995) defines

constructivism as a belief that knowledge is made up largely of social

interpretations rather than awareness of an external reality.

This case study is based on the errors in simplifying algebraic

expressions among Grade 8 learners. Of particular interest are the

ways learners simplify expressions and how they commit errors in

simplifying. Initial algebra. The study’s participants constructed

reality based on their individual and shared experiences. How they

arrived their solutions and commit errors based on the given algebraic

expressions is complex, and reflects the constructivist epistemology.

In terms of analysis, the interpretive theoretical perspective

provided a framework for understanding the ways the learners commit

 27

errors in simplifying algebraic expressions. This study was specifically

interested in discovering how the Grade 8 learners commit errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions. The interpretive tradition asserts

that researchers should begin by examining the context to be studied

through actions and inquiry, as opposed to predisposed assumptions.

The basic interpretive study exemplifies the assumption that the

researcher is interested in understanding how participants make

meaning of a situation or phenomenon. This meaning is mediated

through the researcher-as-instrument. The strategy is inductive, and

the outcome is descriptive (Merriam, 2002). Generally, rather than

begin with a theory or preconceived notion of the way the world works,

researchers should begin by immersing themselves in the world

inhabited by those they wish to study (Esterberg, 2002). Specifically,

understanding how individuals in the world construct and interpret

reality should constitute the primary emphasis (Gubrium & Holstein,

1997). Constructivist and interpretive approaches subscribe to the

notion that all social reality is constructed, created, or modified by all

the social players involved. Thus, it is important to consider Stake’s

(1995) argument that, “most contemporary qualitative researchers

nourish the belief that knowledge is constructed rather than

discovered. The world we know is a particularly human construction”.

In agreement with this worldview, I used a constructivist

paradigm to examine and understand the errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners. Constructivist

 28

researchers focus on understanding and reconstructing the meanings

that individuals hold about the phenomenon being studied (Gubrium

& Holstein, 1997; Jones, 2002) by examining in-depth their lived

experiences (Jones, Torres, & Arminio, 2006) through use of open-

ended questions (Crotty, 1998). Thus, for this study, I conducted

interviews with 8 Grade 8 learners, reviewed relevant on-site

documents, and continually analyzed these data in an attempt to

understand and construct meaning of participants’ perceptions and

experiences in simplifying algebraic expressions.

Research Design

Qualitative case study research served as the main methodology

for this study. This section describes the background of case study

research, defines case study methodology, examines the relevance of

case study methodology, explores the characteristics and

misconceptions of case study methods and describes case study

research designs as being created from case study research. All

components of the research design are connected but these

connections are not rigid. Maxwell’s (2005) rubber band analogy

explains the connections and interactions. He posited that a

qualitative design is like a rubber band which has a considerable

flexibility which has constraints imposed by the different parts on one

another, constraints which, if violated, make the design ineffective.

There are many well-known case study researchers. For the

purpose of this research, I relied primarily on definitions offered by

 29

modern case study methodologists Merriam (1988), Stake (1995), and

Yin (2009). In terms of the contributions of case studies, Flyvbjerg

(2006) believed that greater numbers of good case studies would

strengthen social science. However, he warned researchers to be

mindful of the five greatest misunderstandings of case study research:

(1) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge;

(2) one cannot generalize from a single case; therefore, the single-case

study cannot contribute to scientific development; (3) the case study is

most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are

more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (4) the case

study contains a bias toward verification; and (5) it is often difficult to

summarize specific case studies.

Case Study

Stake (1995) described case study methodology as a strategy of

inquiry in which the researcher explores in-depth a program, event,

activity, process or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by

time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a

variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time.

For this study, the phenomenon under investigation was the errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions. The case for the current study were

Grade 8 learners from a certain public school in Davao Oriental. Case

study researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data

collection procedures over a sustained period of time. For this study, I

collected data through in-depth interviews, and additionally reviewed

 30

documents provided to me by the school where the study was

conducted. Specifically, interviews were conducted and audio-taped,

tapes were transcribed into word documents, documents were

reviewed, and data were coded for emergent themes. Another

component of case study is the unit of analysis, defined as the area of

focus of the study (Merriam, 1988; Yin, 2009). For this study, this

unit of analysis was the Grade 8 learners participating in the study.

Yin (2009) named five components of effective case study

research design: (1) research questions; (2) propositions or purpose of

study; (3) unit analysis; (4) logic that links data to propositions; and

(5) criteria for interpreting findings. The most appropriate questions

for this type of qualitative case study research were “how” and “why”

forms of questions. Specifically, I asked about the ways the learners

simplify algebraic expressions and identify how they were able to

commit errors.

The second component of case study research design is to

define the study purpose clearly. This component is most commonly

recognized as the purpose statement. My purpose in this case study

was to understand the experiences in committing errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions, and how these learners commit the errors.

The third component of the case study research design is the

unit of analysis. Yin (2009) described the unit of analysis as the area

of focus that a case study analyzes. Yin wrote that an appropriate unit

of analysis occurs when primary research is accurately specified. The

 31

unit of analysis is directly tied to the research questions developed by

the researcher. This study’s units of analysis, per Merriam (1988), are

the errors in simplifying algebraic expressions (cases to be studied)

among Grade 8 learners in a public school in Davao Oriental.

The fourth component of case study research design is to

connect data to propositions. This connection is made following the

data collection phase, as themes emerge. As data is analyzed, the

researcher attempts to match patterns that appear in the data to the

theoretical propositions of the case study. The themes that emerged in

this study thus served as answers to the research questions posed in

Chapter 1.

The fifth component of case study design is the criteria for

interpreting findings. Commonly, the case study researcher codes the

data prior to developing themes (Yin, 2009). Following the theme

development stage, I carefully extracted meaning from the findings to

determine recommendations for practice and future research.

Participants

In this study, I used multistage sampling techniques, a

combination of two or more methods, in a sequential manner. First, I

conducted a universal sampling method through the administration of

a 20-item test among Grade 8 learners in a particular public school in

Davao Oriental. Since the overall study intended to determine how the

learners commits errors in simplifying algebraic expressions, all Grade

8 learners from different sections from the said public school were
 32

included. The selection of participants for this study was based on a

strategy referred to as, “purposeful selection” which, by one definition

(Maxwell, 2005), denotes that “a selection strategy in which particular

settings, persons or activities are selected deliberately in order to

provide information that can’t be gotten as well from other choices”.

Sample size is also dictated by the qualitative approach used in

a study drawing on two types of data (Creswell, 2007). Qualitative

approaches typically involve a smaller sample size (Gall, Gall, & Borg,

2007). With the case study approach as adopted for this study,

researchers typically select a limited number of cases and collect

multiple forms of data to provide an in-depth analysis of the cases.

I also used homogeneous sampling techniques after the

administration of a paper and pencil test among the Grade 8 learners.

Homogenous sampling involves selecting participants based on

particular characteristics or on membership in a particular subgroup

(Creswell & Clark, 2011). The inclusion criteria used in this study is

that the participants should have a low score in the administered test.

This purposive sampling approach provides a pool of participants who

share experience related to the phenomenon the researcher wishes to

explore.

Data Collection Methods

Green, Camilli, & Elmore (2006), echoing Yin (2009), stated that

a carefully conducted case study benefits from having multiple

sources of evidence, which ensure that the study is as robust as

 33

possible. The concept of methods refers in general to the appropriate

use of techniques of data collection and analysis (Prasad, 2005). In a

case study, it is important to converge sources of data, also known as

triangulation, as a means to ensure comprehensive results that reflect

the participants’ understandings as accurately as possible. Yin (2009)

and Stake (2000) concur that triangulation is crucial to performing a

case study reliably. Additional sources of data allow case study

researchers to create a story—one that honors participants’ meaning-

making processes. Seidman (1991) supported this same view, stating,

“I interview because I am interested in other people’s stories. Telling

stories is essentially a meaning-making process. When people tell

stories, they select details of their experience from their stream of

consciousness” (Seidman, 1991). Based on the scope of this research,

which focused on making meaning, I selected interviewing as the

primary data collection vehicle.

As a rule, interviews must be conducted carefully to ensure a

reliable case study. So, purposeful sampling, including the

consideration of an individual versus a group focus, should be

considered, as well as sample size and appropriate participants to

choose for the interviews. The interview is often viewed as a

conversation between the interviewer and interviewee, in which the

interviewer asks questions and the interviewee responds accordingly

(Esterberg, 2002).
 34

When conducting interviews, relationships and rapport must be

established, and coupled with trust. According to Patton (1980), the

purpose of interviewing is to find out what is inside on someone else’s

mind. Patton added that the reason we interview people is to extract

from them those things that cannot be observed by the naked eye.

Active listening and nonjudgmental behavior are two of the common

practices that should be prioritized when interviewing for case study

research. There are six types of questions (Patton, 1987; Merriam,

2009) to be employed during the interview process for case study

research: (1) experience/behavior, (2) opinion/belief, (3) feeling, (4)

knowledge, (5) sensory, and (6) background/demographic.

Esterberg (2002) described a pattern for general and specific

questions, called, “open-ended” questions, and cautioned against

dichotomous or leading questions, which could lead to a closed style

of questioning. The intent for this study was to make the interviews

conversational. As the researcher, I shared information about myself

with the participants to establish the trust and rapport necessary for

this conversation. Conducting the interviews in this way allowed me to

put respondents at ease, and allowed for an optimal interviewing

environment.

Qualitative researchers use many methods for gathering

information and interviewing is one of those methods with a research

base. Seidman’s (1998) Interviewing as Qualitative Research is

grounded in the phenomenological tradition of three distinct, thematic

 35

interviews designed to question the meanings of lived experiences.

Seidman connected the core of phenomenology to qualitative

philosophy saying that interviewing provides access to the context of

people’s behavior and thereby provides way for researchers to

understand the meaning of behavior. Furthermore, in the in-depth

interviewing research, the meaning people make out of their

experience affects the way they carry out that experience, in which,

interviewing allows researchers to put behavior in context and

provides access to understanding their action (Seidman, 1998).

Esterberg (2002) refers to in-depth interviews as semi-structured,

describing the process as less rigid than structured interviews, and

allowing for a freer exchange between the interviewer and interviewee.

Qualitative interviews result in thick descriptions of the subject being

studied that enable readers to make decisions about transferability of

study results (Merriam, 2002). Interviews allow for triangulation of

information obtained from other sources and, thus, increase the

credibility of study findings (Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995; Merriam,

2002; Stake, 1995).

Eight participants were interviewed for this research.

Interviewing allowed for identifying and soliciting knowledge from

those who Patton (2002) calls, “key informants”. Key informants are

people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting

and articulate about their knowledge, and whose insights can be

helpful in assisting an observer in understanding events that have

 36

happened and reasons why those events happened. For convenience,

all of the interviews were held in participants’ classroom. All

interviews were conducted face to face and lasted from 35-55 minutes.

With the participants’ approval, I audio recorded the interviews to

ensure accurate transcription (Merriam; 1998). I also took

handwritten notes during each interview, which enabled me to track

key points to return to later in the interview or to highlight ideas of

particular interest or importance.

As a first step in the interview process, I reminded participants

of the purpose of the study, research procedures, expected benefits,

their right to withdraw from the study at any time, and protection of

confidentiality. I also asked participants if they had any questions

about the research study or research procedures. I also provided

information about myself to establish rapport and gain their trust

(Patton, 1980). I used the semi-structured interview approach

(Merriam, 2002) and a uniform set of open-ended questions to obtain:

(a) demographic information on the participants, and (b) participants’

perceptions and experiences with collecting, analyzing, and using data

for the purpose of improving student success in school and in society

(See Appendix Interview Guide). Open-ended questions were used

throughout the interviews to encourage participants to respond freely

and openly to queries (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003; Esterberg, 2002; Kvale,

1996). Probing and/or follow-up questions were used, when

 37

necessary, to encourage participants to elaborate on or clarify a

response (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

The transcription process began after the first interview. To

ensure transcript accuracy, I reviewed each transcript while listening

to the audiotapes. Additionally, the transcripts were presented to each

interview participant for their review further to ensure accuracy.

Data Analysis

Qualitative research studies involve a continuous interplay

between data collection and data analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).

For this reason, I began analyzing data following the first interview to

begin identifying patterns, and to facilitate subsequent data collection

(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Qualitative analysis is a form of intellectual

craftsmanship. There is no single way to accomplish qualitative

research, since data analysis is a process of making meaning. It is a

creative process, not a mechanical one (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

Similarly, Stake (1995) emphasized that qualitative study capitalizes

on ordinary ways of making sense and that there is no particular

moment when data analysis begins. He added that analysis essentially

means taking something apart, which in this case, not only means

understanding the ways learners simplify expressions and how they

commit errors, but also identifying and defining the patterns that

emerged from that meaning making process. Qualitative data analysis,

then, gives meaning to first impressions and final compilations. It is

 38

an analysis that tells the story of Grade 8 learners on how they

commit errors in simplifying algebraic expressions.

Methodologically, Esterberg (2002) suggests, “getting intimate

with data”, and describes the main objective of immersing oneself in

interview transcripts to “load up your memory” with the collected

data. This study followed the data analysis and coding procedures

suggested by Creswell (2009) and Esterberg (2002). Specifically,

Esterberg (2002) suggested that open coding is a process where the

researcher works intensively with the data gathered, line by line,

identifying themes and categories that seem of interest. Additionally,

Creswell (2009) mandated the traditional approach in the social

sciences that allows the codes to emerge during the data analysis.

Once the data from this research were examined thoroughly through

the open coding process, I reviewed the codes for emerging themes in

the data.

This research study followed the Creswell’s (2009) six steps

during the data analysis process and, although these steps are

described in linear order, Creswell described “an interactive practice”

to analysis. That is, there is a recursive element to following these

steps—the process is not simply a static, linear order of analysis. The

first step is to organize and prepare the data for analysis. During this

step, I reviewed audio tapes from interviews and transferred into word

document transcripts. Second, is to read through the data. This step

also aligns with Esterberg’s directive to “get to know your data”. I

 39

reflected on the overall meaning to gain a general sense of the

information and ideas that the participants conveyed. Third is to begin

detailed analysis with the coding process. In this study, I followed

Creswell’s procedure of organizing the material into segments by

taking the text data and segmenting sentences into categories. I then

labeled those categories with terms based on the actual language from

the participants. The fourth step is to use the coding process to

generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories for

these for analysis. I used this process to generate codes for the

descriptions, which then led to generalizing a small number of

categories or themes. Then, I analyzed the themes that emerged and

gathered the various cases into a general description for this bounded

case. Fifth step is to advance how the description of the themes will be

represented in the qualitative narrative. For this step, I wove the

emergent themes into narrative passages, so that the findings

emerged logically from the participants’ responses. Lastly, is the

interpretation of the meaning of the data. Creswell recognizes that a

researcher’s own background plays just as important a part of the

meaning making process as a researcher’s fidelity to a theoretical lens.

During my own interpretation process, my experience as a

Mathematics teacher informed my understanding of the participants’

stories. As well, to convey the participants’ perceptions of their

experiences accurately, I focused specifically on what they were

saying, the conclusions they drew, and their intentions for future
 40

practice. The themes that emerged from this study came directly from

my awareness of the healthy tension between my own biases and the

participants’ own meaning-making processes.

Research Steps

The research conducted for this study followed a uniform

protocol to ensure that the interviews yielded data consistent with the

study’s goals:

1. Participants were invited to the study by the researcher,

and were informed of the risks involved.

2. In-depth (semi-structured) interviews were held with

participants in their respective schools.

3. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed within a

day of the interviews.

4. Follow up informal contact was initiated, and each

participant was given his or her respective transcript for

member-checking, and to verify transcript content.

5. The researcher coded the data for emergent themes.

Trustworthiness and Credibility

Since qualitative research entails the researcher taking an

active role in the collection and interpretation of others’ meaning

making, to be credible, qualitative researchers must be good and

trustworthy. As described by Lincoln and Guba (1999) including

Krefting (1990), trustworthiness is the truth value of the findings of

 41

the study. Brink (1999) also states that trustworthiness is about the

consistency, stability, and repeatability of the informant’s accounts

including the investigator’s or researcher’s ability to collect and record

information. In addition, Lincoln & Guba (1985) suggested four

criteria in assessing the trustworthiness of a study. These four reflects

underlying subjectivist assumptions of qualitative research as

opposed to the objective and realist nature of quantitative work. The

said criteria are credibility, transferability, dependability and

confirmability.

Stake (1995) cautioned qualitative researchers against narrow

thinking, and instead suggested that researchers learn to understand

their research as their participants do, rather than impose their own

assumptions. In qualitative research, these protocols come under the

name of, “triangulation”. To increase the trustworthiness of the

study’s findings, I employed strategies recommended by renowned

qualitative researchers. To decrease threats to credibility (Lincoln &

Guba, 1985), I (a) triangulated data; i.e., I used multiple sources of

data to confirm emerging findings (Merriam, 2002; Prasad, 2005;

Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009); (b) performed member checks (Merriam,

2002) by sending participants a copy of their interview transcript and

asking them to verify the accuracy of the content; and (c) requested

peer (or colleague) review (Merriam, 2002) of my findings as they

emerged. To increase dependability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) of study

findings, I provided an audit trail (Merriam, 2002)—that is, a detailed

 42

explanation of the data collection and analysis methods and how

decisions were made throughout the study (see Appendix E). Finally,

to enable other researchers to make decisions about transferability

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985) of results, I used rich, thick description

(Merriam, 2002).

However, there are additional strategies, according to Merriam

(2002), that researchers need to follow to be ethical and trustworthy:

Triangulation ..............Using multiple investigators, sources

of data or data collection methods

to confirm emerging findings.

Member checks ..........Taking data and interpretations back

to the people from whom the data

were derived, and verifying its

plausibility.

Peer review.................Discussing the process of the study

and the congruency of emerging

findings with data and the tentative

interpretations with colleagues.

In addition to triangulation, member checks, and peer review,

Merriam (2002) recommends that credible and trustworthy

researchers follow these additional guidelines.

Reflexivity..................Engaging critical self-reflection by

the researcher regarding

assumptions, biases, and the

 43

relationship to the study, which may

affect investigation.

Engagement................Allowing for adequate time to

collect data, such that it becomes

saturated.

Maximum variation.... Purposefully seeking variation or

diversity in sample selection

to allow for greater range of

application of the findings by

consumers of the research.

Audit trail ...................Providing a detailed account of

the methods, procedures, and points

in carrying out the study.

Rich description.........Providing enough rich, thick

description to contextualize the

study, such that will be able to

determine the readers extent to

which their situation matches the

research context.

Merriam (2002) further described the strategy of ensuring rich

description as providing enough description to contextualize the study

such that readers will be able to determine the extent to which their

situation matches the research context. Thus, the prominence of

 44

Merriam’s strategies in this study’s methodology ensures the

goodness/ethical practices and trustworthiness of this research.

Ethical Consideration

All researchers attempt to design and implement good/ethical

and trustworthy studies. Indeed, qualitative researchers believe that if

a study is credible, it has to be good in the ethical sense and be

trustworthy. A sound case study is significant and complete, utilizes

alternative perspectives and sufficient evidence and is reported in an

engaging manner (Yin, 2009).

A letter was given to the principal or school administrator of the

said public school in Davao Oriental. Hence, this study will not go any

further if the researcher fails to secure written communication to the

proper personnel. Respectively, informants were given a copy of a

letter of consent before the interview and discussion. The freedom to

withdraw if ever they prefer not to become one of the research

informants were observed. Considerably, an open-communication

were maintained for the informants to monitor and understand the

process and procedures of the study.

Researcher Positionality

One important distinction between qualitative and quantitative

research is the role the researcher plays in the process. It is clear that

the primary instrument for data collection and analysis in case study

research is the researcher herself. As a researcher progresses through

 45

the research process, the researcher must acknowledge he or she is a

human instrument and the primary research tool. As such, it is

imperative for researchers to consider their own biases, limitations,

and views—throughout data collection, analysis, interpretation, and

the reporting phases of the process. Qualitative research assumes that

the researcher’s biases and values impact the outcome of any study

(Merriam, 1998). However, Peshkin (1988) submitted that, “one’s

subjectivities could be seen as virtuous, for bias is the basis from

which researchers make a distinctive contribution, one that results

from the unique configuration of their personal qualities, and joined to

the data they have collected”. To enable any audience of qualitative

studies to evaluate the validity of conclusions extrapolated from data,

researchers should, as part of the study, neutralize or bracket their

biases by stating them explicitly to the full extent possible (Altheide &

Johnson, 1994). For this study, in the interest of full disclosure and of

guarding against unethical or unintentional influences on my

interpretation, the following discussion outlines my personal

experiences germane to this study.

I have currently spent several years working in K-12 education,

including as a Mathematics teacher, of which have given me keen

insight into the data available to teachers and schools and has given

me an even broader scope. From this position, I can view the learners

“from the treetops”, so to speak. Understanding the challenges and

struggles these learners face in simplifying algebraic expressions

 46

bolsters my understanding of how the teaching-learning process

transpires in the school setting.

In addition to the influence of my professional experience, my

personal background and upbringing may bias my methodological

approach. I have spent my entire life, personally and professionally,

within a range of a few hundred miles of the research site. In this

geographical context, I have been immersed in a culture that

emphasizes the importance of education and life-long learning.

In this study, the possibility of bias will also be recognized in

lieu to my current professional role and responsibilities. Even so, I will

adhere to the warning of Litchtman (2006) that I, as a researcher,

must place my own thoughts in brackets so as not to influence my

thinking about the phenomenon. When words are put in brackets, it

means that they are to be set aside and treated as a unit. Therefore, I

commit myself in putting my predetermined ideas about the

experiences of Grade 8 learners in committing errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions.

Further, I, as a researcher accomplished the task by carefully

listening to each informant without making judgments or jumping to

conclusion, by recording each interview, by keeping research journals

explicating personal reactions and reflections, and through careful

review of official documents that will be provided by the informants. It

is important to keep my interactions with informants focused on the

 47

topic of errors in simplifying algebraic expressions among Grade 8

learners around the specified target area.

 48

Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

This case study presented the analysis of errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners. The qualitative

approach to my study offered rich descriptions of the phenomenon

experienced, hence, each Grade 8 learners experienced errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions. The data gathered were done

through in-depth interviews backed up by audio-recordings.

To help the readers understand the research informants,

various accounts of the informants were provided with direct

quotations and viewpoints of the said phenomenon. Found in

Appendix B is the procedure employed during my in-depth interviews

with the informants.

Moreover, the results provided a thorough understanding of

the analysis of errors in simplifying algebraic expressions among

Grade 8 learners in four ways by showing the (a) learners’ errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions; (b) most common error done by the

learners in simplifying algebraic expressions; (c) reasons of grade 8

students in committing errors in simplifying algebraic expressions;

and (d) effects of difficulty in algebraic expressions in learning in

mathematics subject. The themes will be discussed in this chapter.

 49

Background

The participants of this study were comprised of eight (8)

Grade 8 learners from a certain public high school in Davao Oriental.

They ranged in age from 12 to 14 years old; six (6) were females, and

two (2) were males. For reporting purposes, and to protect

participants’ identities, each participant was assigned a pseudonym.

Interviewees contributed differing amounts of information to

the three themes that comprise the narrative. Some participants

talked at length on one or two themes; some participants made nearly

equal contributions across all three themes. Thus, all participants’

voices and views are represented in this study.

Study Findings

After a depth interview with the Grade 8 learners, I was able to

extract several themes which helped me increase and enrich my

understanding of their experience in simplifying algebraic expressions.

The first theme was the learners’ errors in simplifying algebraic

expressions. Second theme was the most common error done by the

learners in simplifying algebraic expressions. The third one was the

reasons of grade 8 students in committing errors in simplifying

algebraic expressions; and the fourth one is the effects of difficulty in

algebraic expressions in learning in mathematics subject.

While the themes are reported as being discrete, there is

considerable overlap among them. Further, participants’ responses to

interview questions often addressed more than one theme. In those

 50

cases, the interview data are described where they appear to fit most

logically.

Theme 1: Learners’ Errors in Simplifying Algebraic Expressions.

This theme is discussed in two parts: (1) basis and processes in

answering, and (2) difficulties in simplifying. Each part is further

divided into sections based on participants’ perceptions of and

experiences in committing errors in simplifying algebraic expressions.

Upon analyzing the errors committed by the participants,

several things were realized. Committing errors in Mathematics,

especially in Algebra, is not an alien to many. Once learners fail to

understand the key aspects of algebra, everything will follow. Errors

are product of misconception. And misconceptions in performing

different basic rules related to mathematical concept lead to errors in

understanding new concept. Riccomini (2005) identified two types of

errors in solving mathematical problems which are systematic and

unsystematic errors. Now based on the students’ situation, they are

classified to commit systematic errors, to which according to

Riccomini (2005), as the common errors made by learners over a long

period These type of errors, which is committed by the participants,

might be the result of the use of algorithms that lead to incorrect

answers or the use of procedures that have not been fully understood

(Yang, Sherman, & Murdick, 2011).

Basis and Processes in Answering. This section describes the

ways how the participants simplify the algebraic problems that was
 51

given to them. Furthermore, it discusses the basis on how they have

come up with their answers and how they commit errors.

When asked about their answers, all of the participants

described the ways and the processes they have applied to each

problem, some talked about the various methods which serve as their

basis, and some talked about the complexity of the problem and their

‘come-what-may’ style of solving. This section of the narrative reports

on those simplifying issues.

In general, participants admitted that the given problem to them

was difficult and even explained that they were not able to encounter

the kind of mathematical problems in their classes. While others as

well acknowledged that they are confused and that they tend to forgot

about the rules of simplification or their previous teachings about it.

Kuan naglisod ko ug sabot sa nalibog ko sa mga

pangotana unya nakalimot pud ko unsaon nako pag
solve. (I have difficulty in understanding the
problem. I a confused with the questions and I
forgot how to solve them.) --- Art

Sa akoa ma’am kuan man gud ko ato gud

nagkalisod unya wala ko kabalo sa kuan ato
ma’am, naa’y kahibalo kung unsaon to pagkuan,
unsaon to pag solve to bantog naglisod ko. (For me,
I was really struggling that time. I don’t know to do
the process of solving, that is why I have had
trouble.) --- Sam

These students were having difficulty to reconstruct their

knowledge in algebra, and it was difficult for them to apply their

previous knowledge to the problems they are given to solve. Having

their papers, the students were asked on how they get things done.
 52

Addition, among the four fundamental operations, is the most uttered

response from them when asked about the basis of their answers. Of

the 20-item test, addition was the most favored one, having the

numericals added as much as they think they should be. Now this

issue among them, which is misguided use of arithmetic operations,

is not new at all. Several studies have already conducted wherein

students often fail to add or subtract like algebraic terms and

sometimes detach symbolic expressions from the operations. Aside

from the overuse of addition in simplifying problems, distributive

property has also been repeatedly mentioned by the participants

when asked about the basis of their processing. This misconception

also has been emphasized in the studies of Booth (1988) and Warren

(2003). They said that students in junior high school misapply

commutative as well as associative properties when carrying out

subtractions or divisions, and fail to use the distributive property of a

multiplication over an addition. The way the participants solved the

problems and the way they reasoned out are the evidences of the

errors they frequently committed. According to Jupri, Drijver, and

Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2014), these difficulties reveal students’

limited mastery of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division;

of applying the priority rules of arithmetic operations in calculations;

and of using properties of numerical operations. When asked about

they do first after dropping their eyes on the given, the students said:
 53

Akong gitan aw maam kung unsa ang mapareha ug

variable. (I look into which one has the same
variables.) --- Jen

Sometimes kanang kung magbuhat or makakita ko ug

mga problem, akoang mga ginahimo is kanang
magamit ko usahay ug kanang mag add or even
mugamit ko ug mga foil method. (Sometimes, when
I encountered a problem, what I do is I sometimes
use addition or even using foil method.) --- Lu

Each of the participants has their own way of dealing with the

problem. However, the thing is, they begin the simplification not in an

accepted way of solving an equation. Base on their responses, they

knew some of basics; arithmetic, solving methods and others.

Nonetheless, the mastery of using those knowledges seemed to be

unwired and was not systematic. According to Seng (2010), learners

possess a serious arithmetic-algebra gap which remains a

fundamental cause of learning difficulties. It is very apparent that

these learners are experiencing difficulty in seeing the connection

between arithmetic and algebra, which, according to Matthews,

Rittle-Johnson, Taylor and McEldoon (2012) will be difficult for them

to understand the notion of algebraic expressions. Learning

mathematics is a step by step process, in a sense that every new

topic is connected or related to the previous concept being taught, it

is very important to correct first the errors in order for the learner to

proceed productively to the next topic.

Difficulties in Simplifying. Mathematics is no easy thing. It

goes beyond arithmetic and is complicated, to which, simplification

must be attain. Every given equation is crying aloud for solution. On

 54

the face of it, after having the participants solve the given problem,

they were asked about the struggles they have encountered and the

difficulties they experienced. All of them expressed their issues. One

student said:

Lisod siya ug naa siyay…didto ka maglisod sa

kanang mga n squared ug b cube. Maglisod ko mag
add unya di ko kakuha sa answer kung na’ay mga
². (It is difficult when… I have difficulty with
squared and cube. I have struggle in addition, then
I can’t have the answer if there are squares.) --- Kat

Sa algebra maam kay akong kalisdan nga unsaon

jud bitaw siya pag naay negative and positive, ing
ana. Masipyat bitaw siya maam. Tapos, kana pung
pagkuan nimo pagkuha nimo sa solution, kung i
subtract bato siya or i add. Then ang kanang pag
squared nga kanang unsaon nimo. I squared bato
siya or I minus lang ang iyang exponent. (In
algebra, I am struggling if there are number signs. I
get it wrong. Then, in getting the solution, whether
I should perform subtraction or addition. Then, the
exponent, should I square it out or should I
subtract the exponents.) --- Lu

Analyzing their responses, it can be coclude that they are really

having a lot of issues when it comes to simplification. These

participants are repeatedly explaining that they get troubled as to how

things work. Upon reviewing their papers as well, it was observed

that they have difficulty in recognizing the dual nature of an algebraic

expression. This is what Drijvers (2003) explained that a certain x +

15 has dual nature. Meaning, this algebraic expression represents a

calculation process as well as being an algebraic object in its own

right. Another observation is the fact that the participants had

misconceptions related to the illustration of Tall and Thomas (1991),

 55

wherein students in dealing with x+3, students read it as x and 3, and

interpret this as 3x. This issue is also common with the participants.

One example is given number 4 wherein the equation says,

Now, what the participants commonly did was to read the

equation as negative 4mn and 4, thus interpreting it as -8mn. This is

what Tall and Thomas (1991) emphasized that the expected answer

obstacle is the incorrect expectation of having a numerical answer for

an algebraic expression. They added that this incorrect expectation

causes a related difficulty which is called the lack of closure obstacle;

the discomfort from attempting to handle an algebraic expression

which represents a process that cannot be carried out.

The issue explained by Tall and Thomas (1991) is just few of the

many misconceptions of the participants. Another issue is seen

through one of the responses:

Maglisod ko anang mga variable kay wala ko

kabalo na I add pana siya ug apil or dili na diha ko
maglisod sa kanang variable ug kanang nay mga
squared ug kanang nay mga exponent. Maglisod ko
ana kay kanang wala ko kabalo kung unsa akoang
I answer. (I am struggling with variables because I
do not know if it has to be included in addition or
not. I am stressed with variables and exponents. I
am having difficulty about them because I do not
know what to answer.) --- Kay

Looking at the participant’s struggle, as she explained it, she

has trouble when there are variables included and exponents in an

equation. This There is also what we call the gestalt view of solving an

algebraic expression which includes local salience according to

 56

Bokhove and Drijvers (2010). This local salience is about the

attraction by local algebraic symbols, such as inequality signs and

minus signs in inequalities or equations. Now the thing about this

gestalt view is that it leads to looking at symbols in isolation without

taking the whole expressions into consideration (Bokhove & Drijvers,

2010). This kind of view is apparent and observed among the

participants, which lead them to committing errors in simplification.

Theme 2: Most Common Error Done by the Learners in Simplifying

Algebraic Expressions.

In their responses to interview questions, participants identified

the most common error they commit in simplifying algebraic

expressions. During the in-depth interview with the participants and

upon observing their outputs, I was able to gather various errors and

even misconceptions they have done which leads to errors while

solving the given problem. Among all the mentioned and observed

errors, the most common ones are the misinterpretation of algebraic

expressions, misused of solving operations and misapplied rules of

simplification.

Most participants misinterpret an equation and read them in a

way that is more confusing. Base on their responses, whenever they

are confronted with equations that has variables (whether it has a

numerical coefficient with it or not), exponents, sign numbers and

encountering fractions, they get confused, thus losing their focus to

interpret and analyze the problem.

 57

The facial value of the expressions affects the students’

concentration and enthusiasm in solving. Basically, this

misinterpretation of expressions is the beginning of misconceptions in

simplification, thus, lead the students to commit error. When they

misinterpret the algebraic expressions, the tendency is, they will

misapply a certain method. Concerning the literal symbols that are so

crucial in algebra, most students have difficulties to distinguish

different roles of literal symbols such as placeholder, generalized

number, unknown, or varying quantity (Van Amerom, 2002).

Another error the participants commonly done is the misuse of

operations in simplification. The participants get distracted with the

existence of sign numbers, or sometimes neglect them. Taken for

example is given number 1, which is

. When asked about the process, the student

respond:

Ang 4m kay gi plus nako sa m then ang 3n gi plus

nako sa 5n ug sa n maam. So ang answer kay
5m+9n. (I added 4m with m, then I added the 3n
with 5n and n. So, the answer is 5m+9n.) --- Kay

Observing the given response, the student neglected the

negative value of (-m). Another issue is that they tend to add

numerical coefficients with that of the variables, having the idea that a

variable has an automatic value of 1.

Ang kuan diay , ako

ni siyang gi add. Tas akong answer kay 12. (I added
and my
answer is 12) --- Lee
 58

With Lee’s case, she added all the numerical coefficient while

neglecting the variables. She added the numeral values 4, 3 and 5

excluding the variables. Concluding from the given responses of the

students, we can say that they lack mastery in combining like terms

and even have these imaginary rules in combining variables. They

tend to combine all variables in one, having its automatic value of 1

added. This kind of issue among students is explained by Booth

(1984). He explained that school algebra was sometimes taken as

generalized arithmetic. This meant that the general statements in

algebra represented given arithmetical rules and operations.

Therefore, students’ prior experiences of using symbols in arithmetic

would impact on their understanding of the meaning associated with

formal symbols in algebra. This is what Fosnot (2005) described as the

process whereby learners actively construct their understanding and

knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on

those experiences. Another thing explained by Küchemann (1981)

that students interpret letters as specific unknowns rather than as

generalized numbers, and they treated letters as concrete objects or

overlooked them. This means that many students were unable to

interpret literal expressions as numerical input-output procedures.

Above all the errors, the participants also misapplied the rules

of simplification. This is what Jupri, Drijver, and Van den Heuvel-

Panhuizen (2014) identified as parsing obstacle, which is the inability

to disentangle the order in which the algebraic expressions must be

 59

understood and processed, sometimes conflicting with the order of

natural language. One thing leads to another, the expected answer

obstacle comes next wherein the incorrect expectation of having a

numerical answer for an algebraic expression. And according to Tall

and Thomas (1991), this causes a related difficulty which is called the

lack of closure obstacle, which is the discomfort from attempting to

handle an algebraic expression which represents a process that

cannot be carried out.

Theme 3: Reasons of Grade 8 Students in Committing Errors in

Simplifying Algebraic Expressions.

Many of the study participants expressed the reasons why they

commit errors in solving algebra. Under this theme are different

categories which are: difficulty in understanding the problem, and

difficulties with rules of exponent and sign numbers variables and

fraction.

As cited in the study of Khanyile (2016), algebra is considered

to be one of the most abstract branches of mathematics (Egodawatte,

2011) and initial algebra education is a crucial phase to take up to

(Van Amerom, 2002). Having the reality that algebra is an abstract

one, and that Mathematics mostly bring frustrations to many, most

likely, errors are expected to be on its way. Among the affected ones

are the participants in this study. There are no prisons when nobody

commits crime and no one commits an error without a reason. As the

cliché goes, everything has a reason. From philosophy to science, from

 60

birth to death, from dawn to dusk, everything has an explanation. So,

as these high schoolers, they have reasons as to why they were not

able to solve the algebraic expressions properly. As emphasized in the

study of Makonye and Nhlanhla (2014), learners do not come to a new

grade as empty vessels but bring pre-knowledge from previous grades,

which knowledge they use to assimilate and adapt incoming

mathematical concepts (Hatano, 1996). Students have their own

bacons with them. They have the armors with them, it is just that,

they are not well-skilled enough to wield their swords in Mathematics.

Difficulty in Understanding the Problem. When one

encounters a mathematical problem, it is apparent to see a frown

head, at least for most of us. It is an undeniable fact that many if not

most, wish there is no Mathematics in their subject areas. Well, of

course, there are those who love it so dearly. However, frustration, is

an avoided reaction every time we are given a problem, and do not

even have a minute idea on how to solve it. Like many of us, the

participants, when confronted with mathematical hitches, confusion

reigns in their heads. Though they were able to explain the processes

they have done to solve the given problem, there were some other

items wherein they tend to say ‘Gipamtak an lang nako Maam.’ When

questioned about why do they did so, their responds are these:

Wala jud ko kasabot as in ani maam. Ako lang

gipamatak an. (I really don’t understand this one
maam. I just randomly answer it Maam.) --- Jen

Kay wa ko kasabot. Ay, naglibog ko kay tungod pud

kay nakalimot nako unsaon na pag solve unya wa
 61

pud ko kasabot sa mga pangotana didto. (Because I

don’t understand. I am confused also because I
forgot how to solve and I also do not understand
the question there.) --- Art

Base on the participants’ responses, one great thing that I was

able to find out, even though they just bluff their way out to solve the

problems, is the fact that they intend to find a solution and to arrive

on an answer, even if it is a ‘come what may’ type of strategy. Having

this kind of mentality towards a task, these students still have the

silver lining drawn for them to improve their mathematical skills.

According Piaget (1985), learners do actively organize their

experiences by constructing mental schemas to accommodate new

knowledge and connecting it with existing knowledge. However, these

students, they have difficulty in making connections between the

foundations they have had learned before with the problems they were

confronted to. They are disoriented with the complexity of the problem

and could not see the clear path to their way out. True, conceptual

knowledge cannot be transferred from one person to another (Piaget,

1970). This is why the students have to learn on their own how to

figure things out, to construct something based on their capacity to do

so. The thing is that they are a bit misguided when coming up on a

solution, and tend to forgot the foundations, these students are really

having tough time in simplifying algebra. When further asked about

what made it difficult to solve the problem, the participants came up

with different issues.

 62

Naglisod ko sa problem ma’am kay kanang basta

dili nako siya masabtan kay English man gud.
Unya masabtan man pud nako ang uban kanang
naa koy mahuna hunaan na masabtan nako siya
kay naa pud koy mahuna hunaan na ingatoon diay
siya pagbuhat pero dili ko makabalo nga unsaon
pag answer. (I have difficulty with the problem
because I cannot understand it since it is written in
English. I can understand some if I can think of
some ways to solve it, but I just do not know how
to answer.) --- Kay

Usahay man gud ma’am kanang maglisod ko ug

sabot sa iyahang pagka state sa kanang problem?
Then maglibog ko kung unsaon nako na siya
pagkuan kay usahay maka kuan iyahang mga
porma, kanang mga form niya ma’am ba. Maglibog
ko. (Sometimes, I have difficulty of how the problem
is stated. Then, I get confused on how to solve it
because its form is confusing.) --- Lu

As of these narratives, it was expressed by the participants

that the physical appearance of the problems itself made them

confused. The intricacy of its appearance, and how the problem is

stated and presented to them contributes to the complications of the

problem itself, as perceived by the students. Another issue that the

students are concerned of the fact that it is written in English, and we

may say that the comprehension skill of the students are not that

high enough to decode the given problem. Various faces of the

problem may appear to the students depending on how they situated

the problem to their minds. Drawing the picture out, as cited in the

study of Mashazi (2012), given in the Oxford dictionary, algebra is part

of Mathematics that uses letters and other symbols to represent

quantities and situations. This abstract nature of algebra and the

learners general lack of sense in understanding algebra, most often

 63

than not, leads to the failure of appreciating the power of algebra.

Learners do not know when to use algebra or manipulate it in a range

of situations. The challenge in algebra is that most of the learners fail

to understand the main concepts of algebra which leads the learners

in committing errors.

Aside from the issue of forms, the participants also cited other

issues. One student summed up:

Naglisod ko ug sabot sa problems ma’am kay kana

ganing sa niya ma’am, naa man gu’y usahay
ma’am na ma problema ko unsaon nako siya pag
solve, unsa ang iyang mga process ug unsa pa’y
laing pamaagi para ma solve siya ma’am. (I have
difficulty in understanding the problems because
there are times that I have problems on how to
solve it, I think about the process, and other ways
to solve it.) --- Jen

When confronted with given an algebraic expression, these

students are bombarded with issues on how to process the answers,

considering that there are lots of ways to spit things out. With

hundreds of things in their minds, they just cannot organize them to

arrive to an ultimate solution. We also have to consider that the very

foundation of these students is not well-established for so many

reasons. Also, Mathematics is not the only subject in their

curriculum. Students are also occupied and pressured from their

other academic subjects. Having too many things in our head, one

will lose focus, if one does not know how to sort things out. One

student reasoned out:

Kuan ma’am nalibog man gud ko ato ma’am. Unya

daghan pud ko gihuna huna ato ma’am sa ubang
 64

subject bantog naglibog ko sa kuan sa math. (I was

really confused about it. Also, I have had a lot of
things in my mind regarding other subjects, that is
why I got confused with Math.) --- Sam

Environmental factors, as well as physiological ones, affects that

participants ability to sort things out. Nonetheless, considering this

issue, Usiskin (2004) and Egodawatte (2011) emphasized that it is

vital that the misconceptions in algebra are addressed as early as

possible in order to afford learners the opportunities to study

mathematics with understanding at a higher level. The rampancy of

this matter among Grade 8 students is a serious one. It does not just

affect the students school performance but as well as their

enthusiasm towards Mathematics. You see, algebra is an instrumental

for achievements in other mathematical domains like geometry,

calculus and statistics, and it serves as a gateway to advanced

mathematics and higher education (Jupri, Drijver, & van den Heuvel-

Panhuizen, 2014). This is what Katz and Barton(2007) pointed out

that algebraic knowledge and skills are relevant in daily and

professional life either directly or as a prerequisite. Thus, helping

these students to get through, to turn their weaknesses into

strengths, can do great miracle in its entirety.

Difficulties with Rules of Exponent and Sign Numbers,

Variables and Fraction. Another subtheme in this section is the fact

that the participants are having difficulties with the basics of algebra.

The first thing that the students recognize that open doors of

confusions, is the very existence of exponents, sign numbers, and the

 65

absence of numerical coefficients. Added to the unwanted scenery is

the, comes next is the involvement of fractions. For these students,

when seeing these things, to which they have already conditioned

their minds to, they know they are in trouble. The fear itself that they

themselves built in their minds, sends signals to them that awakens

their alert mode. This is an irrefutable reality. Considering this, Jupri,

Drijver, and Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2014) reiterate that within

mathematics curricula, algebra has been widely recognized as one of

the most difficult topics, which leads to learning difficulties worldwide.

Talking about the existence of number signs, exponents and

fractions, the students shared their thoughts:

Kay makalibog man gud siya ma’am, kanang

murag siya ang magdala ug kalibog sa usa ka given
ma’am ba. (It is confusing, it is like they are the
one that bring confusion in a given problem.) ---
Jen

Maglisod ko anang mga variable kay wala ko

kabalo na I add pana siya ug apil or dili na diha ko
maglisod sa kanang variable ug kanang nay mga
squared ug kanang nay mga exponent. (I have
difficulty in variables because I do not know
whether I have to include it in addition or not. I
have difficulty in variables and exponents.) --- Kay

From the students’ perspective, their minds are already

conditioned that whenever they see exponents and variables, they

know they are in trouble, that their very existence complicate the

entire problem. However, the existence of these exponents, number

signs and variables are the very nature of algebra. Algebra uses letters

and other symbols to represent quantities and situations. In

 66

congruent to the issue, Jupri, Drijver, and van den Heuvel-Panhuizen

(2014) observed that most difficulties in Mathematics were concerned

about understanding algebraic expressions, applying arithmetic

operations in numerical and algebraic expressions, understanding the

different meanings of the equal sign, and understanding variables. For

these participants, the headache gets complicated when the question

of what operation to use involving the aforementioned hitches comes

knocking on the door. One participant expressed his frustration:

Sa number 1 sa exponent maglibog ko kung unsaon

siya. Kay usahay man gud naa ma guy exponent
na kana bitawng dapat I add pud siya sa pikas
napud na line or variable. Diba sa isa ka variable
naa jud siya automatic 1. Tapos ana kay maglibog
man ko ana niya abi nako ug wala lang. Tapos i
plus napujd sa uban. Tapos sa sign numbers,
maglibog ko kanang ang negative kay magtapad
bitaw duha, diba dapat butangan siya ug open and
close parenthesis. Tapos sa variables, kanang kuan
siya maglisod sad ko kung unsa na variable ang
ibutang ana tapos sa last kay fraction. Ang fraction
kay unsaon nako pagkuha kung magamit ba ko ug
lcd, gcf or sa kanang pag cross multiply ba ko.
(Number 1 is exponent; I am confused how to deal
with it because there are exponents that are added
to the other line or variable. A variable has an
equivalent of 1, that is why I get confused about it
thinking that has no equivalent at all while others
have. Another is sign numbers, I get confused
when there are two negatives, it should be put into
parenthesis. Another is the variables. I have
difficulty on what variable to use. Lastly is the
fraction, like how to simplify it, should I use LCD,
GCF or cross multiplication.) --- Lu

Analyzing the concern of Lu, it can be observed that she is

having misconceptions when it comes to the usage of variables,

exponents, and number signs. These misconceptions of the

 67

foundations of algebra is true to all of the participants, which leads

them to committing errors. Apparently, errors are caused by

misconceptions and the latter are attributed to lack of

conceptualization and understanding, carelessness, problems in

reading or interpreting a question and lack of numbers knowledge

(Spooner, 2002). Misapplication of a “rule‟ or mathematical

generalization, as Spooner coined it, is seen as the main issue among

these students. The lack of understanding of the very role of the

fundamentals of algebra and the low comprehension when it comes to

the given problem leads the participants to commit error in

simplification.

Now, these errors, which are committed by the students is the

systematic one wherein according to Riccomini (2005), are the

common errors made by learners over a long period of time. Yang et

al (2011) point out that systematic errors might be the result of the

use of algorithms that lead to incorrect answers or the use of

procedures that have not been fully understood. There is

misapplication of rules caused by learners’ failure to grasp concepts

or rules. Questions might arise as how these students misapplied the

rules of simplification knowing that the topic has already been

discussed in their previous grades. We have to understand that error

comes in two faces, which are systematic and unsystematic. Students

throw out an array of reasons to which, in general, they say they tend
 68

to ‘forget’ what they have had learned. However, others have their

reasons to tell, one participant said:

Kanang katong pag grade seven, di ko magtarong

ug paminaw na’ay time na murag kadukaon ka nga
katulogon ka maminaw naa pu’y time na
kursonada gud ka maminaw gud unya pagka
panggawas sa eskwelahan malimtan na. unsaon
gani to maglibog na. (When I was in 7th grade, I
don’t listen attentively. There were times that I get
sleepy listening to the lecture, there were also times
that I get interested. However, when you go out
from school, I tend to forget every thing and get
confused.) --- Jen

Lack of attention, low retention and interest in the subject are

the main contributing factors which leads Jen to commit errors in

simplifying algebra even in 8th grade. Another participant explained

her side:

Maglisod ko kay kuan man gud siya dili kaayo ko

taga open sa notebook, mag open ko sa notebook
mag study ko pero kanang ang gi pang answer ba
kay malibog ko. (I have difficulty because I rarely
open my notebook. I do open and study but what I
answered are confusing) --- Kay

Kanang makalimtan lang nako tapos dili pud ko usahay

maka ukab sa notebook, kay usahay di ko magstudy. (I
tend to forget, then, I rarely open my notebook because
sometimes, I do not study at all.) --- Lee

Kay nalimtan nako, dili nako gnastudyhan akong mga

past na naagian. (Because I forget about them, I don’t
study my past lessons) --- Art

Another reason of misconception is the poor study habit. When

one aims to master mathematical skill, drill method is the best

solution. And drill method is realized through practice. Lack of

practice in solving leads to the stagnation of one’s knowledge. And

 69

solving practice can be done through follow up study habits at home

or during free time. Aside from poor study habits and poor retention,

there are also students that are triggered by having a lot of things in

mind.

Daghan man gud kaayo ka mahuna hunaan ma’am,

daghan na kaayo ka ug mga struggle na naagian. (I
think a lot of things, I already have experienced a
lot of struggles.) --- Arya

Kanang makalimtan lang ma’am, kay daghan sad

gihuna huna ma’am ba. Nakalimtan kay pokus sa
laing subject ma’am. (Because I just forgot. I think
a lot of things. I forgot them because I focused on
other subjects.) --- Sam

Seeing these narratives, it is apparent that teachers should

assist learners to grasp the basics of algebra like: collecting like and

unlike terms; bracket expansion, addition and subtraction of directed

algebraic terms (Ncube, 2016). The errors produced by learners as

suggested by Mbewe (2013), play an important role in indicating to

teachers the stages at which their learners are at as well as showing

where there is need for further teaching or study.

Theme 4: Effects of Difficulty in Algebraic Expressions in Learning in

Mathematics Subject.

The last theme in this study talks about the effects of difficulty

in algebraic expressions towards the participants in learning

Mathematics. Under this theme are the effects in scholastic

performance, and insights and positivism.

Algebra has been recognized as a critical milestone in students’

mathematics learning and it is a key topic in learning mathematics

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(Usiskin, 2004). Having determined the reasons behind

misconceptions in algebra, which leads to error, it is vital that the

misconceptions in algebra are addressed as early as possible in order

to afford learners the opportunities to study mathematics with

understanding at a higher level (Egodawatte, 2011). Analyzing the

participants’ responses, it is realized that the difficulty has been an

agony for so long. Students may not admit it somehow, but base on

field observations, they’re academic performance in algebra, or

Mathematics itself has been affected in various ways. Most of the

participants, repeatedly reasoned out that they forgot what they have

had learned from their previous grades and that, even though they

understand the process during discussions, still, after leaving school,

everything tends to be washed away. The students have a lack of

process analysis in the transition from arithmetic to algebra. Without

the undoing of the process, we could not perceive the circumstances

that the students could struggle with so well that we could not provide

apt strategies to prevent or remedy the difficulties (Wang, 2014) in a

systemic way even though we know the existing difficulties and their

causes. Knowing and reflecting on the effects of these difficulties will

help not just the students but the teachers themselves to gain better

strategies to cater the needs of these participants and help them to

become skilled in algebra.

Effects in Scholastic Performance. We all know that the

application of algebra can be found in all current branches of

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mathematics and science in general (Seng, 2010). The knowledge

gained in simple algebra serves as the footing towards any other

scholastic division. Knowing the errors, the participants frequently

committed, the fact that simplifying algebra has already been

encountered in the previous grades, is very important. One glitch to

another, will create even bigger hollow of confusion. Therefore,

knowing the errors and its effects towards the students is very crucial.

As per observation, only few of the participants are non-

participant in class discussion. Among the eight, only two of them

chose to stay quiet and go through with the class until the time ends.

Unlike the others who are confident enough to raise their hands and

tried their best at any cost, these two are not that risk takers and they

just keep their answers to themselves. The rest, they are confident

during recitations even if the answers are of surmise.

When it comes to homework, none of the students missed any of

them any nor assignment given to them. However, their output is of

guesswork, and are copy-pasted from their classmates. The

participants are somehow dependent to the upper class, especially

when assignments are concerned.

Lastly, amidst the difficulties and occupied minds, the say, the

participants were able to maintain an excellent attendance in class,

unless for some serious reasons, which I believe is not a scope of the

issue. All in all, though their performance is quiet below of the upper
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class, still, they are doing their part, to the least, to survive and to

show interest in schooling.

Insights and Positivism. After having the participants shared

their difficulties in simplifying algebra and the reasons behind those

difficulties, they were asked whether they hate Mathematics as a

whole. The good thing about these students is the fact that they say

‘No’ when they asked about having hatred on Mathematics, or even

algebra itself.

Sa akoa kay dili man nako hate ang math pero naa
lang jud ko’y rason nga dili nako ma answeran. (For
me, I do not hate Math but I just have reasons why
I cannot answer.) --- Kay

Dili. Naa man guy uban na mas makasabot ka then

naa puy uban na maglibog naka. (No. There are
things that you understand but there are things
that you don’t.) --- Arya

Although they honestly admitted that everything in algebra

makes them confused, they happily shared that they do not have any

ill thinking about the subject. In fact, they explained that there are

lessons in Mathematics that they are interested in. One student even

considers her difficulties as a challenge to herself to do better. She

said:

Dili ko kaingon na hate nako ang math ma’am. Kay

ang uban man pud na problem ma’am maka answer
man sad ko. Ang uban pud lisod, nindot man pud
siya ma’am kay ma challenge man pud nako
akoang sarili ma’am. (I cannot say that I hate Math
because I can answer other problems while others
are difficult. It is a good thing also because I get
myself challenged.) --- Kat
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Importante man ang math sa atoang kinabuhi. (Math

is important in our lives.) --- Lee

These students, in spite the struggle they are in, there

perspectives to the subject are full of positivity that they even draw

the silver lining themselves. While it may seem like algebra or

mathematical problems have no real use in life, knowing that only 20

percent of it is practically applied in real life, this could not be beyond

reality.  The truth is, Mathematics moves web pages around on the

Internet, keeps the computer chips humming in one's automobiles,

and keeps aircraft from colliding (Roman, 2004). For Mathematics is

incredibly significant and algebra is imperative in our lives and,

without realizing it, we use mathematical concepts, as well as the

skills we learn from doing math problems, every day (Pi Day, 2018). 

The participants valued Mathematics and recognized the importance

of the subject in our lives, even to the end, these participants are full

of enthusiasm unlike others who are trying to escape Mathematics, as

if it is a penal for them. One participant shared a brilliant note on

Mathematics:

Kung I hate man gud nimo ang math ma’am

magkalisod na nuon ka ug sabot. Dapat dili daw
nimo I hate ang math dapat daw I l love nimo. (If you
will hate Math, things will get more difficult. We
should not hate Math, but rather, we have to love
it.) --- Arya

While the true meaning of mathematics might lie hidden from

students and remain unappreciated by the general

population, mathematics is, nevertheless, the bedrock of our modern

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world (Roman, 2004). According to Jaaffar (2003), poor education,

psychological blocks and romantic misconceptions

about Mathematics have made many among us innumerates. To this,

it is totally agreed on. Gladly, the participants shower themselves with

positivism and appreciate the very existence of the subject. Like what

one participant said, it is ‘challenge’ for her. Mathematics may be so

fundamental to our lives that it is indistinguishable from our activities

(Pair, 2017). Further, the laws of mathematics govern everything

around us, and without a good understanding of them, one can

encounter significant problems in life (Pi Day, 2018).

Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This chapter starts with the conclusions of the research that

have been reached as a result of interviewing eight Grade 8 learners.

The conclusions are prearranged by the four major ways: (a) learners’

errors in simplifying algebraic expressions; (b) most common error

done by the learners in simplifying algebraic expressions; (c) reasons

of grade 8 students in committing errors in simplifying algebraic

expressions; and (d) effects of difficulty in algebraic expressions in

learning in mathematics subject.

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This chapter also outlines the implications of the findings for

the Grade 8 learners, the Mathematics teachers, the school

administrators, the parents, as well as suggestions for further

research. Lastly, my insights will give end to this chapter.

Conclusions

Theme 1: Learners’ Errors in Simplifying Algebraic

Expressions. The chief finding of the study is the learners’ errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions. In line with this, I say that the

participants are experiencing difficulties in solving algebraic

expressions and are being affected greatly by the scarcity of the basic

knowledge in algebra which somehow distresses their enthusiasm to

do better in the subject area. The participants mentioned and even

manifested some of the errors which are result of their misconceptions

in its entirety. It can be observed through their outputs and

responses, the errors they are committing. Though theses students

are confident enough to mention the basis of their answers and the

processes they went through, still, their ways are unacceptable. The

participants get confused with the variables, whether to include them

or not. They failed to recognize the existence and effects of negatives

signs towards an expression. They just immediately apply the

operations they think are applicable.

Therefore, these participants are really at risk in mathematics, if

not given an action .Amidst the weight and the pressure being put on
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them, to which these students are constantly battling, leads them to

survive even harder with high hopes for their future.

Theme 2: Most Common Error Done by the Learners in

Simplifying Algebraic Expressions. The study’s second major finding

was the most common error done by the learners in simplifying

algebraic expressions. The truth of the matter is that the participants

misinterpret algebraic expressions, misused the solving operations

and misapplied the rules of simplification when confronted with

problems. They get troubled whenever given problems are mixed with

variables, exponents and sign numbers, not to mention the

involvement of fractions.

The thing about the students is that, they lean towards

overlooking a given expression and neglect the rest of the identities

within, thus applying an incorrect method of simplification. When

adding or subtracting variables, they usually interchange, or jumble

or even disregard them. These students cannot yet separate or

differentiate their knowledge on arithmetic that they even apply the

same rules to algebra. The inability to construct new knowledge from

the old schema to the new ones is difficult to be attained for the

students. They still vaguely rely on the previous ones and can hardly

register the new. This is why, confusion and frustration occupy their

heads and simplification becomes a psychological burden to them.

The strains that are underlying with them may need a great quantity

of time, energy, practice and focus to alleviate. The thing is that, most
 77

of them are hoping for a support, a positive change in the future, just

little by little.

Theme 3: Reasons of Grade 8 Students in Committing

Errors in Simplifying Algebraic Expressions. The third major

finding of this study was the reasons behind committing errors in

simplifying algebraic expressions among grade 8 learners. From this

finding I found out that the participants have poor foundations in

algebra, that they have poor study habits, poor retention and that

they have the inability to focus. These students were not able to

master their skills in simplifying algebraic expressions. As a result,

when they encounter such, all they have done is to guess and give

their best shot to whatever is left in them. The participants, most of

the time, forget their lessons after leaving the rooms. Aside from that,

they barely open their notes at home nor review their past lessons. At

the same time, these students did not give themselves time to practice

which led them to forget the basic rules and the very foundations of

algebra.

Aside from the personal factors that the participants narrated, it

was observed also that they are having difficulties in pushing through

the transition from arithmetic to algebra. Their mathematical analysis

skill is poor, together with their skill to comprehend or decode a given

problem. Their misconceptions towards algebraic expressions led

them to commit repetitive error.

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From this, I can say that the students are in need of remedial

and should have be given a special attention for them to improve what

there is to improve. There is so much for them to learn and their

manifestations in committing error toward simplifying algebra is in

frustration level, that they have to be rescued upon.

Theme 4: Effects of Difficulty in Algebraic Expressions in

Learning in Mathematics Subject. The fourth major finding was the

effects of difficulty in algebraic expressions in learning mathematics

subject towards the Grade 8 learners. An inference that can be

extracted from this finding is that there are few negative effects

manifested by the participants. Among these are being non-

participative of some of the participants during the lecture, and being

dependent to those classmates that know better. However, although

they admit that they get confused when it comes to some

mathematical processes, still, there are other topics that they are

familiarized with which gives them enough reason for not having an ill

feeling towards mathematics. It is well-observed that the students

showed positivity amidst the difficulty they experienced in simplifying

algebraic expressions. They took the difficulty as a challenge for them

to better improve themselves in the area of algebra and in

mathematics as a whole. With this, I can conclude that the

participants are trying their best to stay positive towards mathematics

and are pushing themselves to pursue their studies amidst their

wavering foundations in algebra.

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Implication for Practice

Specified below are the implications being realized after the

data gathered in this study. They are classified into six categories.

Implications for the Grade 8 Learners. From my study’s

findings, it is implicated that the Grade 8 students will undergo

remediation which entice more drills and practices, encouraging

interactive learning. Learning from these sessions will be a great aid to

students and teachers during the class discussionn. Also, peer

tutoring is highly encouraged among learners not just to improve and

develop mathematical strategy but as well as to fill lapses among

them. Lastly, attending boot camps or workshops relating to

Mathematics will surely of great help for those struggling Grade 8

students.

Implications for the Mathematics Teachers. Considering the

findings, it is implicated that the teachers especially those who are

teaching Mathematics will constantly undertake consultation parents,

school heads, and curriculum experts to better improve ways in

teaching Mathematics. The pieces of advice from these people could

give better picture on how Mathematical understanding and

educational endeavor go together to enrich not just the methods of

teaching but the awareness of the importance of improving

Mathematical ability. Another thing is that, these teachers should

continue collecting ideas and strategies for the purpose of making

teaching-learning process progressive. Developing materials that will

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address learners’ errors in simplifying algebraic expressions that are

appropriate to the needs and capabilities of the learners are of great

help. It should be better that they will intensify remedial programs in

the school for students to equipped with skills necessary for the

higher order thinking skills. Lastly, conducting boot camps and

workshops related to Mathematics is of a great strategy for making the

students emerge into enhancing their Mathematical ability where they

can have fun and better experience.

Implications for School Administrators. With the results, it

could be understood that the role of school administrators is essential

in the development and progress of the students. It is implicated that

crafting activities that will enhance teachers’ capability in teaching

Mathematics to address the various needs of a diversity of learners.

After all, the success of the lesson presentation in the hand of the

teachers. It is implicated that administrators will coordinate with

community linkages to better bridge teachers in conducting camps

and workshops related to Mathematics. The school administrators’

role significantly contribute to ease the task of Mathematics teachers

from difficulty of obtaining partners in helping the learners to have a

better learning experience. The monitoring of administrator in the

implementation of the curriculum can be of help to support the needs

of the teachers by constantly giving feedback to the higher ups on

what went well and not on the site. By then, there could be a constant

feedbacking of what could possibly be improved and needed.

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Implications for the Parents. The parents should consider

helping and guiding their children in their studies. It is necessary to

back up knowledge of students about what they learn at school thus

essential in the activation of previous knowledge during discussion

inside the classroom. As the one who are directly concerned with the

education of their children, they should strictly monitor their

children’s performance at school. Since family has a great

contribution to the learners’ development and achievement at school,

they should support school’s endeavor in the teaching-learning

process. More importantly, they should constantly open doors to for

progressive learning experience for their children who want to learn

more about so that strong partnership will produce highly intellectual

and responsive citizens of our country.

Recommendations for Further Research. Supplementary

research is implicated to expand the possibility of this study. Grade 8

learners’ solutions, strategies and support to sustain their learning.

In arrears to this research’s limitation, I would recommend the

following for further development and authentication of the given

findings:

First, eight Grade 8 learners who experienced committing error

in simplifying algebraic expressions were the center of this study. This

study could be replicated with more numbers of participants to equate

outcomes or to include participants from various schools in the

region. Second, my study understood the analysis of errors in

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simplifying algebraic expressions among Grade 8 learners by means of

individual interviews and focus group discussion. Involvements and

standpoints of the institution’s teachers and parents associated with

the Grade 8 learners are unknown. A triangulation of data might be

allowed with the presence of others in the study such as teachers,

school heads, administrators, and even the parents of the

participants. Third, the gender of the Grade 8 learners in this study

was unequally divided, ..............males and ............... females and,

thus, not a focus in this study. At the same time, there is one

participant who is a repeater and has been into Grade 8 level twice. A

comparative study for targeting the perspectives of male or female

Grade 8 learners, and the repeater and non-repeater would add

another breadth to this study. Fourth, the Grade 8 learners’ ages,

experiences and years of experience were varied. The study of Grade 8

learners within a certain age range or years of experience and

experiences may possibly provide data on passages. Fifth, the Grade 8

learners in this study are located of the same barangay, though of

different sections. Upcoming researches may possibly concentrate

specially on Grade 8 learners of other schools of neighboring

barangays, or even other municipalitiess in the region. Lastly, the

data analysis procedure is only limited with several coding processes.

A visitation of the data utilizing other coding process will provide more

essentials about the study.

Insights
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The findings of this study open doors to different spectrum of

reality. The reality that every component of educative process has

distinct color and quality that needs to be understood. Our differences

create vibrant products that give more things to share. Like a rainbow,

we never have endings. We continue to search for more. While we have

results now, we still open ourselves for possibilities. This is the start

of the lifelong learning. Every piece of information taken from this

study is considered important and relevant in finding more

spectrums.

In my field notes, I recorded some distinct observations that

might also be regarded significant to trail why there are plausible

evidences that contribute some failing of learning Mathematics. I

observed that the students are having poor study habits and that they

need further attention whether at home or at school. Aside from that,

students are pre-occupied with other subject areas which contributed

to their less interest in overcoming their errors.

With these observations, I could say that there is so much to

be done and reviewed in the system. There are fights we must win first

before we could finally load and improve the teaching of Mathematics

among Grade 8 learners. First things first.

The experiences of the Grade 8 learners in committing errors

in simplifying algebraic expressions as discovered in this study is an

eye opener for all. To protect and promote the right of every Filipino to

quality, equitable, culture-based, and complete basic education, we

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must see to it that we share the fight with our learners in this flight.