Coal seams have dual porosity system comprising micro and macro-pores

Methane gas, which has been adsorbed onto the internal coal surface,
requires a pressure drop to be evacuated and its achieved by de-watering.
Adsorption Capacity: 100-800 Scft/ton
The porosity of coal bed reservoirs is usually very small, ranging from 0.1 -
<5%.
Low cost comparing to other fossil fuel USD 5 / MMBTU (Tight gas USD 11 /
MMBTU
that explosive limits of methane in air are 5–15%, by volume.

hydraulic fractures propagate perpendicular to the minimum horizontal

The first commercial CBM well in the San Juan basin was drilled in 1953

CBM reservoir properties are determined by a number of factors, including

coal properties Depositional setting geological processes
Gas generated by the thermal maturation of the coal is stored on the
coal matrix, as adsorbed gas. The hydraulic pressure in the coal cleats
.assists in keeping the gas adsorbed )fractures(
Coalbed gas is classified on the basis of origin as
primary biogenic gas secondary biogenic gas early thermogenic,
Thermogenic migrated Thermogenic mixed gas.

Primary biogenic gas is generated in peat at relatively low temperature and

shallow burial depth. Most primary biogenic gas is lost during burial and
compaction
Early thermogenic gas is generated by the thermal maturation of the coal,
generally, at vitrinite reflectance < 0.78%.
Thermogenic gas is generated by further burial and thermal maturation of
coal, at vitrinite reflectance > 0.78%.
Thermogenic gas is the source of most gas in thermally mature coal.
Secondary biogenic is generated by activity of methanogenic microbes
present in meteoric water moving through the coal cleat system

Determining engineering best practices consider many CBM reservoir

properties:
Depth of coal occurrence Thickness of individual coal seams
Net coal thickness Number of coal seams and their vertical distribution,
Lateral extent of the coal Thermal maturity structural dip
Adjacent formations (e.g., aquifer)
The number of effective coal seams and their vertical distribution affect
the type of completion to be used. The completion could be single zone
completion or multizone,

Dip of the coal is greater than 15 degrees, then keeping a horizontal

wellbore inside the coal seam is very difficult, and drilling a horizontal well
may be uneconomical.
Aerial extent of the coal also plays an important role in selecting
well locations and in deciding whether to drill a vertical or horizontal well.
Distance to fracture barriers aquifers and formation compressibility
Influences the selection of fluids when hydraulic fracture stimulation is used.
Depth of Occurrence
Depth of coal occurrence is important to the selection of completion and
stimulation methods.
With increase in depth of coal occurrence, overburden stress, formation
pressure, and thermal maturity of coal increase, and gas content may
increase.
Depth important factor in determining the surface injection pressure and the
bottomhole pressure when designing a fracture treatment.

Gas Content
Thermal maturity moisture ash contents maceral composition of coal
directly affect the coals ability to adsorb gas. Gas content of coal is governed
by the adsorption capacity and formation pressure.
The amount of gas retained depends on the reservoir pressure and coal
properties.
Coal Rank
Coal rank or thermal maturity may be described on the basis of the
percentage of carbon moisture in coal Vitrinite reflectance

LIGNITE→SUBBITUMINOUS→ BITUMINOUS (High Volatile; Medium Volatile; Low Volatile)→

ANTHRACITE (Semianthracite; Anthracite )
The amount of gas that may be stored in coal is directly depend on coal
Rank.
Low-volatile bituminous (LV) may be better for CBM gas Production than high-
volatile bituminous (HV) coals, as LV coals have potential to adsorb greater
amounts of gas and are more highly cleated than HV coal.
The gas content of semi-anthracite and anthracite coals may be very high,
there are no economical coalbed gas projects in these coals, owing to low
permeability and very slow rates of gas desorption.

Reservoir pressure affects

Gas storage capacity Critical desorption pressure
Leakoff coefficient Well productivity

Thus the fluid flow in CBM formations is controlled by two flow mechanisms
Darcy flow and diffusion.
When depressurization progresses to the Critical Desorption Pressure, gas
Desorbs from the coal matrix adjacent to the cleat and moves by Darcy flow to
The well-bore .Desorption of coalbed gas from the coal matrix adjacent to
The cleat creates a concentration gradient, and gas within the matrix diffuses
to the cleat thus flow is diffusion.
Water saturation
Coalbed water is important because,
1) May contribute microbes that generate biogenic gas,
(2) May cause artesian overpressure,
(3) Reduces the relative permeability to gas in the coal cleats
(4)Must be removed to allow coalbed gas desorption
(5)Water must be disposed, which adds to operation costs

In-situ Stress
Coal is highly compressible, and the in-situ stress acting on coal affects
reservoir permeability and production.
Knowledge of the in-situ stress is used in calculating the surface injection
pressure and the bottom hole treatment pressure when designing fracture
stimulation treatments
Permeability
Coal has very low matrix permeability (< 1 Md .) Fluid and pressure
transmission in CBM reservoirs is dependent on the coal cleats.
Cleats in the coal seam are formed as a result of coal dehydration, local and
regional stresses, and unloading of overburden.
Two orthogonal sets of cleats develop perpendicular to bedding in coals.
Face cleats are the dominant fracture set, and they are:
more continuous laterally extensive
face cleats form parallel to maximum compressive stress and perpendicular to
fold axes.
Butt cleats are strain release fractures that form parallel to fold axes

Cleats are more closely spaced with increasing coal rank

face cleat is more continuous than the subordinate butt cleat leads to
permeability anisotropy and elliptical reservoir drainage patterns
Coal seam permeability is used to calculate
leakoff coefficient size of the pad volume
injection rate of a fracture treatment

Coalbed Thickness
Coal seam thickness affects the quantity of coalbed gas. Also, thickness
affects the decision whether to drill a vertical or horizontal well.
If thick, then drilling a horizontal well is not considered to be the best
economic choice, as the wellbore may not access all parts of the reservoir

Reservoir Temperature
Reservoir temperature is important in selection of the stimulation design to be
used for hydraulic fracturing. The fracturing fluid to be used is directly
dependent
on the reservoir temperature, as temperature affects the fluid stability.
Reservoir Temperature
Reservoir temperature is important in selection fracturing fluid to be used it is
directly dependent on the reservoir temperature, as temperature affects the
fluid stability.
Reservoir differences is key to successful evaluation and operation of a CBM
project.
1.Gas Composition 2.Adsorption 3.Water Production
4.Gas Flow 5.Rock Physical Properties 6.Gas Content
7.Coal Rank 8.Gas Production

Gas Composition
Gas produced from coalbeds may be initially higher in methane than the gas
produced from conventional reservoirs since Ethane and heavier, saturated
hydrocarbons are more strongly adsorbed than methane consequently, they
.may not be as readily desorbed at first
Coalbed gas is usually of high quality, suitable for direct input into natural gas
.pipeline

Adsorption
large surface area within the micro-pores and the close proximity of methane
molecules on the internal solid surfaces allow large volumes of gas to be
.stored in the coal. 1 billion sq ft per ton of coal

Water production
Large volumes of water in the first year or two years of production decrease
for the remaining life of the well, which might be 15 - 20 years
High initial cost to dispose of large volumes of water early in the life of the
CBM well, but the costs decline rapidly thereafter as the production of water
decrease rapidly. Exceptions when wells are located near active coal mines
.that have already dewatered through years of mining

Rock Physical Properties

Coals of optimum rank for methane are brittle and with low values of Young’s
modulus has low permeability and depends on natural fractures to act as gas
and liquid conduits. Without hydraulic fracturing, these low-permeability coals
.are usually commercially non-productive
As vitrinite reflectance or coal rank increases, coal has less micro-porous
.structure and thus higher compressive strength
Deep coals, or highly stressed coals, may exhibit a permeability of less than
0.1 md with this low permeability coal it not accommodate economical
.methane flow rates, even with hydraulic fracturing

Gas Content
Gas adsorbed on the coal cannot be detected on geophysical logs they
.should be calculated through volumetric calculations using cores
Coal can be detected and located by logs while gas adsorbed could be lost to
.the atmosphere or adjacent formation such as sandstone
Gas content of coals may increase with depth as do conventional gas
reservoirs, but in contrast, the content increases because of the positive
influence of pressure on adsorptive capacity rather than the compressibility of
.the gas

:depth. The amount of adsorbed gas also depends on

 Ash content Coal Rank Burial history –
,chemical makeup of the coal
Temperature Gas lost over geologic time –

Coal rank
Rank refers to the degree of maturity (coalification) that depends on
temperature and pressure as a function of depth

Gas production
.may be produced for 25–35 years from reservoir
Coalbeds feature production rates of methane that initially increase and then
slowly decline as gas production continues over a long period and this is due
.to the decrease in pressure process by dewatering

Drilling method
Primary concerns in selecting the appropriate coalbed drilling method
Formation damage Wellbore stability gas/water flow
,Lost circulation because of high permeability Overpressure
.
Factors and data are considered when designing the drilling program:
o formation depth, pressure and production;
o type of coal and non-coal formations;
o well logs;
o drilling fluid specifications;
o casing program;
o drilling problems encountered;
Potential problem zones sloughing shale zones and water aquifers must be
identified plus probable Lost of circulation zones.

Most CBM wells are vertical the commonly used methods for drilling vertical
CBM wells are rotary percussion drilling and the conventional rotary drilling.
For softer formation : conventional rotary drilling is used
For harder formation: rotary percussion drilling to increase the ROP(rate of
penetration)
Most used drilling fluids in coal: are air/mist aerated mud formation water
Coal is drilled underbalanced. This prevents the drilling fluid, chemical
additives, and drilling solids from being injected into and plugging the cleat
system of the coal.

Horizontal drilling
:The drilling equipment used for most horizontal wells is comprised of
,drilling bit
,positive-displacement motor (PDM)
,logging while drilling (LWD)
,measurement while drilling (MWD)
lateral “push” drill pipe (LPDP)
heavy-weight drill pipe (HWDP) or drill collars (DC) used for weight
drill pipe from surface (DPFS)
Types of horizontal drilling are:
Long Radius (LRH)
Medium Radius (MRH)
Short Radius (SRH)
Horizontal wells have a kick-off point (KOP), a directionally drilled curve
section to an inclination within the range of 70° to 110
MRH designs cover the widest range of build rates (6°/100’ to 40°/100’) and
can be drilled using most common drilling tool size
Advantages of horizontal drilling
Reduced water coning due reduced drawdown in the reservoir
Increased production rate
Reduced pressure drop
reduction in sand production
more efficient drainage pattern

Completion
Before selecting a completion method for a CBM well, nine factors should be
considered.
investment required number of coal seams expected production rate;
reserves in the various coal intervals coal seam permeability
gas content type of stimulation treatment
wellbore stability problems future workover requirements
artificial lift requirements.

completion design should be coordinated with the stimulation strategy.

pumping equipment must be considered taking under consideration the effect
of fracturing sand and coal fines that can migrate back.
Tubing in the well must be designed to maximize the lifting of liquids early in
the life of the well.
a reserve analysis should be performed on each potential interval to
determine the commercial value of the well.
The
effect of various sizes of stimulation treatments, type of artificial lift, and the

size of the tubular have to be determined on the basis of reserves and the
expected
commercial value

cased hole completion

most common completion in medium-to-low permeability coal bed. it gives the
best control over coal integrity and the stimulation of individual seams. Cased-
hole completions replaced open-hole completions to solve the coal sloughing
problems and to allow fracture stimulation treatments.
the casing is perforated, and the coal is hydraulically stimulated.
Some disadvantages associated with the single-seam completion are:
o it may cause thin coal seams to be ignored, and thus, cause large areas
to remain uneconomic.
o it requires a much larger number of CBM wells, with increased capital
costs and land disturbance, to produce the same quantity of gas as can
be produced from fewer wells using multi-seam completions.
Openhole Cavity
openhole cavity technique involves setting the casing only to the top of the
coal formation with the drilling rig. Then, the coal is drilled out using a special
completion rig . To enhance the flow back and to encourage coal
sloughing in the wellbore, compressed air is injected into the reservoir
The generated coal fines may be removed out
by circulating the drill bit to the total depth from time to time. This process is
repeated till the cavity is stable.
The cavitation process affects the wellbore in the following ways. It
o removes the drilling skin damage and increases the connectivity of the
reservoir to the wellbore;
o removes stress damage, due to stress concentration around the wellbore
o enhances the permeability in a zone
o enlarges the physical wellbore radius
The factors that lead to the successful use of the open-hole cavity
completion
highly compressible coal high permeability
formation overpressure high gas content coal

Topset and Under Ream

used to produce coalbed gas from shallow coal seams.
In this method, wells are drilled to the top of the coal and casing is set. Then,
the well is drilled through the coal and under reamed to enlarge the borehole
to enhance production and to remove permeability damage caused by drilling.
Wells are then stimulated by pumping a small quantity of water (approximately
160 bbl) to remove the damage caused to the formation by drilling. No
propant is used as the permeability of the reservoir is already high.
When topset and under-ream completion is successful
High permeability beds are thick and continuous
Some disadvantages of this method are that the gas decline rate is very steep
as the reservoir permeability falls because fines cause plugging, as there is
no proppant trap them

Horizontal Wells`
Fracturing wings in vertical CBM wells in have average half lengths of less
than 200 ft. reason for such short half lengths is associated with the creation
of complex fracture geometries.
Horizontal wells contact the main fracture system of the coal, as they are
drilled perpendicularly to the face cleats this increases production and
ultimate gas recovery.
in CBM, horizontal wells are drilled in seams ranging from 3 ft to about 20 ft
thick, In thicker coal seams, horizontal wells are not effective, as the well bore
is not able to contact the complete reservoir. hydraulic fracturing has not been
very successful in horizontal CBM wells, because the costs are not been
justified by the limited increase in production.

Advantages of horizontal wells over vertical fracture stimulated wells

can be drilled to a length of 8000 ft (arial extent)
can be oriented in the direction of maximum horizontal stress to intersect
face cleats, to provide maximum wellbore stability
are better in reservoirs having high permeability anisotropy
may provide accelerated cash flow and small foot-print
can be better controlled to stay in seam
Disadvantages of horizontal well
They are costly specially when there multiple seams to be drilled horizontally
chances of collapsing during drilling and production are high (production
liner is recommended to prevent collapsing).

Multilateral Horizontal Wells

Multilateral horizontal well is considered when ratio of horizontal well gas
production rate and vertical well gas production rate is less than one.
total contact area for a vertical well is more than that for a single horizontal
well
When a number of thin coal seams are to be accessed, multiple lateral wells
will provide greater production than a vertical well.

Pinnate Wells
proved very successful in producing coalbed gas from low-permeability coals,
may have a 20-fold increase in production rate, compared to fracture-
stimulated vertical wells.
not suitable in high permeability coals, as many cases of lateral collapses
have occurred.
Some advantages of pinnate wells are that
 wells can drain up to 2000 acres from a single drill pad;
 gas is produced immediately;
 peak gas production is reached quickly
 wells can drain a reservoir in 2 to 4 years
 gas recovery is high (80 to 90%);  high gas flow rates (1 to 5 MMcfd) can
be achieved
Fracture stimulation
1) Reduce wellbore formation damage
(2) stimulate production and accelerate dewatering by creating a high-
conductivity path in the reservoir,
(3) distribute the pressure drawdown and thus reduce coal fines production,
(4) to effectively connect the wellbore to the natural fracture system of the
coal.

the larger the volume of fracturing fluids injected, the greater the potential
fracture dimensions. Fluid injection rates and viscosity also affect
fracture dimensions.
In a permeable coal seam high injection rates, large pad volumes, and solid
fluid-loss additives are needed to pump a fracture treatment successfully.
Increasing volume of fracturing fluid lead to fracture mainly growing in length.
Increasing fluid viscosity can lead that the injection pressure to increase
resulting in greater fracture width, and thus often shorter fractures.
The type of stimulation treatment selected is a function of
the depth thickness permeability of a coal seam
when applying hydraulic fracturing we should specify:
type of fracturing fluid volumes of fluid required
pump rate at which they are injected

type of frac fluid

o plain water and potassium chloride (KCl) wate
o gelled fluids
o foam
o acids
o gas
o hybrid (any combination of 2 or more ).
• Plain water has a lower viscosity than gelled water, and thus, plain water has
less proppant transport capacity.
The proppant carrying capacity of water ranges from 1 to 2 ppg
Two types of gelled fluids
Linear gels and cross-linked gels
they have a much better proppant carrying capacity than water and can thus
attain better fracture conductivity. But the problem faced with gelled fracturing
fluids is the polymer residue left behind.(causes permeability damage) newer
and better cleaning agents solved the problem of polymer residue.
Linear gel can carry up to 8 ppg, whereas cross-linked gel can carry as
much as 12 ppg.
Linear gel
most commonly used gelling agents in fracturing fluids are guar gum and guar
dervatives plus for cellulose dervatives.

Cross-linked gel
Cross-linking agents may be added to linear gels to form high-viscosity
fracturing fluid with a very high propant carrying capacity fracturing fluid
remains viscous until a breaking agent is introduced.

Foam
mixtures of a gas phase, a liquid phase and a surfactant. Foam fracturing
technology uses foam bubbles to transport and place proppant in fractures.
used foam fracturing fluids employ nitrogen or carbon dioxide as their base
gas. Incorporating inert gases with foaming agents and water reduces the
amount of fracturing liquid required.
It is used in cases where there is low water content in the coal cleats and low
reservoir pressure gradients (less than 0.2 psi/ft).
proppant carrying capacity of up to 8 ppg.

advantages of using foam as fracturing fluid are

causes less permeability damage because less fluid is involved
has better cleanup than gelled fracturing fluids

Disadvantages
Its expensive

Acid fracturing
Acids are used in limestone formation to dissolve the rock and create a
conduit through which formation water and CBM can travel.

Gas fracturing
CO2 or N2 may be used as the fracturing fluid in CBM reservoirs that have
water sensitive coal.