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Campos 2012 Ifugaochordophones
Campos 2012 Ifugaochordophones
Fredelizo Z. Campos 1
Abstract
With a musical system that is deeply rooted in oral tradition, the study
of something more tangible such as material culture is crucial in advancing
ethnomusicology in the Philippines. Although music-related artifacts are yet
to be explored fully in Philippine archaeology, materials from indigenous
cultures particularly musical instruments that were archived at the turn of
the century, present perspectives on the early music in the Philippines. This
paper explores the traditional chordophones of the Ifugao and how analysis
of materials such as these provide insights and directions to the specialist
study of archaeomusicology, and further elucidates the pre-colonial roots of
music and musical instruments in the country.
I Music Department, School of Humanities, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong; email: cfredeliza@l
yahoo.ca
Introduction
While the universality and enduring presence of music in the
history of humanity is unquestionable, there is much to learn on how
musical instruments were integrated into human activities in the past.
Their presence in societies attests to what has long been defined as music
/ a manifestation of people's creativity in combining inarticulate sounds
into a more coherent, perceptual experience (Alperson, 1994; Rault, 2000).
Although the development of musical competence in prehistory, a nexus to
human's earliest known cognitive ability has been examined over the past
few decades (Cross, 1999, 2003; Cross and Morley, 2008; Mithen, 1998, 2005;
Wallin et al., 2000), it may not be constructive to locate in time the invention
of the first musical instruments. As Sachs (2006) argues, early humans must
have been obliviously producing the seeds of the earliest musical instruments
when they first clapped or stamped on the ground. The origin of many of
the musical instruments in the Philippines, even those often encountered in
literature such as gongs (Benitez, 2005; Cadar, 1996a), remain unclear. This
compels questions that do not center around when materials were actually
produced but rather towards the rationale behind their manufacture and
subsequent development.
kulintang music tradition (Benitez, 2005; Cadar, 1996a, 2004 ). There is a need
to address this gap as we look at indigenous musical instruments, taking full
consideration of the periods and circumstances the materials were archived
and tracked down over time.
169
It also explores the potential of in/depth analyses of musical instruments to
illustrate their transformations over a certain period of time, and possibly the
forces at play in their development. The considerable material and diversity of
music in the Philippines, comprising over 150 cultural or indigenous groups
(AIPP 2010; Wessendorf, 2011) alongside their own historical trajectories,
makes it more challenging to present an encompassing musical profile
that acknowledges both pre/colonial and Western/influenced materials. It
is hoped that case studies such as this allow for succinct data that would
contribute to a more comprehensive musical account of the country.
What is clear, however, among the music of the Ifugao is the distinct
division between sung or vocal genres and instrumental music. This was
observed early on, duly noted in 1904 during the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
(Densmore 1906). No known traditional song or chant is accompanied, and a
responsorial form is usually present in choral singing (M. B. Dulawan, 2005).
Moreover, the same structure is observed in musical instruments. Jew'
harp and flute music often revolve around a reciprocal type of interaction
between players, and to articulate words (Blench and Campos, 2010, 2011). In
ensembles, such as among gong players, the first flat gong leads the ensemble
and an interaction amongst players occur based on patterns. Provisional
terms are attached to particular gongs based either on its function within the
ensemble or playing style, such as khangha for the lead gong and hepfat for the
subsequent supporting gongs, while in some areas, the lead gong is referre
to as pinhak and the rest as holnob, katlo, or kapat (Campos, 2012) .
MUSIKA JORNAL 8 • 2012
171
Idiochord tube zithers, idiochord half-tube zithers, and heterochord
zithers from different institutions and from personal collections were
examined in this study (Figure 2). Both whole-tube and half-tube types
are produced from mature bamboos bearing one to four idiochord strings,
i.e., made out of a sheath stripped from the material itself leaving both ends
attached to produce the vibrating string. From its length measurements,
bamboos with internodes that range from 23 em to over 49 em were utilized
bearing diameters between 5 em and 10.50 em (Table 1). Most have either
two or four strings while a singular 3-stringed zither and two single-stringed
zithers are included in the assemblage. These zithers are no longer played
nor essentially produced in the area, although there are some recollections of
the musical instrument being played for entertainment among small groups
in the past. Moreover, there is no recognizable difference or reasoning when
it comes to the production and performance choices made between tubular
zithers and half-tube zithers among its players.
from Melanesia (Kunst, 1967). Another unusual tube zither contains a split
singular string that is assumed to be both struck and plucked in a particular
way to generate a more distinct resonance as the split string will not easily
vibrate freely (Figure 5).
Heterochord board zithers endured to this day but they were only
archived from the 1950s onwards (Table 2). The instrument is widely used
in the Cordillera but apparently not elsewhere in the Philippines and may
well be a local development from the idiochord half/tube zithers still being
played in other areas. Both idiochord and heterochord zithers, though never
used concurrently, are known to be played by locals to imitate gong ensemble
patterns. At least four different rhythmic patterns are played in Asipulo and
players can choose to add resonators by placing the board on top of a bowl or
a similarly/shaped object to enhance sonority while movable bridges change
the frequency and pitch of the strings (Figure 6) . Originally, rattan strips are
used as strings but the introduction of industrial wires altered the timbre of
the vibrating chord and instigated players to pluck the strings, eliminating the
percussive method of playing the instrument with thin percussion sticks.
Concluding Remarks
The collection of chordophones archived in this study demonstrates
subtle morphological transformations and developments that occurred over
the last 100 years or so. Along with the obsolescence of etched decorations
are the declining craftsmanship in the manufacture of the instrument and
its inherent value within the Ifugao community. The introduction of new
raw materials in its production serves as markers of industrialization and
apparent socio~political changes. Tourism figured greatly in the province
over the past few decades, and this included a vibrant promotion of tradition,
which inadvertently generated standardized musical instruments and
performances (Campos, 2012). These are just some of the insights that can
be generated in the study of assemblages of material culture collected over a
period of time.
For the moment, the earliest records of chordophones from the
Philippines only extends over a hundred years and it is unlikely that much
older musical instruments of this type can be found without difficulty.
However, the discovery of gongs and bells from archaeological excavations
and shipwrecks established the participation of the Philippines within trading
networks in the Indo-Pacific from as early as the lOth century (Benitez, 2005;
Nicolas, 2006, 2009). Recent archaeological excavations suggest that the
incorporation of musical instruments into Filipino culture is indeed much
older. Conch shells, which are excavated from archaeological sites as well as
carabao horns, are known to have been used as trumpets. At Nagsabaran, a
Neolithic site in Cagayan, northern Philippines, four small, suspended bells
were recovered from its Metal Age burials dating to perhaps 1500 years old
(Figure 8) (Piper and Hung, pers. comm. 2011). The bells were found in a
child burial and were possibly worn as a charm bracelet.
To date, gongs and bells are the only materials recorded and analysed
as musical instruments, but this mainly relates to their high survivability in
the archaeological record where most organic instruments will have decayed
long ago. The characteristic shape is also easily recognizable as a musical
instrument but it is plausible that inconspicuous materials that could
be associated with music are present and would require re-examination
by informed analysts. For instance, the faunal assemblage from the same
excavation in Nagsabaran have been examined (see Amano, 2011; Piper;
Campos, et al., 2009; and Piper, Hung, et al., 2009) and a single fragment of a
bird ulna, 3.5 em in length, bears intricate decorations on its surface2 (Figure
9). This could possibly be remnants of a small bone flute, similar to some
of the oldest bone flutes from a red-crowned crane found in China wherein
the species bear ancient mythical connotations (Zhang et al., 1999). The
incisions are similar to the decorative patterns on several bamboo flutes in
the Philippines.
Figure 2. ldiochord and heterochord zithers archived from lfugao Museum (Kiangan),
Mayoyao Museum (Mayoyao) , Intangible Cultural Heritage Museum of the
lfugao Provincial Government (ICHO) , Banaue Museum (Banaue) , U.P. Center for
Ethnomusicology (UPC E), The Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH), and from private
collections (Pers Coli).
s ~ ~.::~_,._ . : ~
-~-~- -
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Figure 3. ldiochord zithers from the early 1900s. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural
History (FMNH) .
Figure 4 . Tubular zither with an elongated aperture was for either aesthetic or functional
reasons . Courtesy of Mayoyao Museum.
Figure 6. Heterochord zither from Asipulo with a resonator, the owner replaced the
original rattan strings with industrial wires about 20 years ago. Courtesy of D. Dulnuan .
Figure 7. Heterochord board zithers with lamellae. Courtesy of Banaue Museum and R.
Blench.
Figure 8. Bells excavated from the Metal Age deposits in Cagayan (courtesy of Hsiao-
chun Hung).
1 em
Figure 9. Bird bone bearing anthropogenic signatures (courtesy of N. Amano} .
Acknowledgements
The author expresses thanks for the institutional support of the
Provincial Government of Ifugao and its municipalities, Intangible Cultural
Heritage Office, Banaue Museum, National Museum of the Philippine .
University of the Philippines Center for Ethnomusicology, Libray of Congres .
and the Field Museum of Natural History. Acknowledgement is due to Hsiao-
chun Hung, Noel Amano, Philip Piper and the Nagsabaran Archaeological
Project for access to materials. Heartfelt thanks are due to Manuel Dulawan, Lil ·
Beyer/Luglug, Rebeccca Bumahit, Delfin Dulnuan, Gabriel Maddawat, Virgili
Anannayo, Prof. Ramon Santos, Prof. Peter Bellwood, and Roger Blench for the
additional materials, information and comments on this paper. Support for the
fieldwork conducted in Ifugao is provided by the World Oral Literature Project
in collaboration with Roger Blench, and to access archives at the Field Museum
of Natural History and the Library of Congress, from the University of Honcr
Kong Travel Research Grant.
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