1

Ramos, Victor A., 2018, Tectonic evolution of the central Andes: From terrane accre-
tion to crustal delamination, in G. Zamora, K. R. McClay, and V. A. Ramos, eds.,
Petroleum basins and hydrocarbon potential of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia:
AAPG Memoir 117, p. 1–34.

Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes:

From Terrane Accretion to Crustal
Delamination
Victor A. Ramos
Instituto de Estudios Andinos Don Pablo Groeber, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN),
Universidad de Buenos Aires— Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)
Ciudad Universitaria – Pabellón 2, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Email: andes@gl.fcen.uba.ar

ABSTRACT
The analysis of the pre-Andean history of the Central Andes shows a complex tectonic evo-
lution. The basement of the Andean continental margin was formed by the accretion of
­Precambrian blocks during the formation of Rodinia in late Mesoproterozoic times. There
are two magmatic arcs of Grenvillian age, one developed on the margin of the craton, known
as the Sunsas belt, and another on the accreted terranes. The suture between these blocks with
the Amazonian craton has been continuously reactivated by tectonic and magmatic processes.
The terranes of Paracas and Arequipa, both of Grenvillian age, have a contrasting Paleozoic
evolution. The Arequipa terrane amalgamated to the craton by the end of the Mesoproterozoic,
and during the Paleozoic its suture acted as a crustal weakness zone. This zone concentrated
the extension and the formation of a large platform in the retro-arc basin, where the Eopaleo-
zoic sediments accumulated. The Famatinian magmatic arc of Ordovician age 14752460 Ma2
is preserved in this segment along the continental margin. The Eopaleozoic extension that
affected the Paracas terrane reopened the old suture and formed oceanic crust between Am-
azonia and Paracas. The subduction of this oceanic crust developed a magmatic arc over the
cratonic margin, which is preserved in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru as orthogneisses asso-
ciated with metamorphic rocks of Famatinian age. There are ophiolitic assemblages, paired
metamorphic belts, and intense deformation associated with the Paracas collision (∼460 Ma)
against the Amazonian craton. In northern Eastern Cordillera of Peru the late Paleozoic oro-
gen has within-plate granitic belts and was far away from the active margin. The orogen was
deformed and uplifted in two phases (336–285 Ma and 280–235 Ma) known as the early and
late Gondwanide orogenies. They are preserved as medium grade metamorphic belts devel-
oped along the Paracas segment. Further south along the Arequipa segment in southern Peru
and Bolivia, the late Paleozoic–Triassic rocks are represented by granites and acidic volcanic
rocks, which are not metamorphosed and are associated with sedimentary rocks. Relics of a

Copyright ©2018 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

DOI:10.1306/13622115M1172855

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 2 Ramos

magmatic arc are exposed as tonalites and metamorphic rocks 1∼260 Ma2 along the northern
continental margin of Peru and in the near offshore platform. The extensional regime that
dominated most of the Mesozoic developed rift basins in the hanging-wall of the terrane su-
tures, which controlled the structural highs and basin margins. The Peruvian Late Cretaceous
orogeny produced the emplacement of the Coastal batholith, the beginning of deformation
along the coast, and the first foreland basins. The giant Ayabacas submarine syn-tectonic col-
lapse is also controlled by previous sutures. The Cenozoic Andean evolution was dominated
by a wave of shallowing of the subducted slab, the migration of the magmatism to the fore-
land, the steepening of the oceanic plate, and the consequent “inner arc” magmatism. The
“inner arc” plutonic and volcanic rocks are the expression of deep crustal melts, associated
with crustal delamination and lithospheric mantle removal. The flattening of the oceanic slab
is related to ablative subduction and shortening in the Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera. The
steepening is associated with rapid removal of mantle lithosphere and crustal delamination,
expressed at surface by the “inner arc” magmatism. The suture crustal weakness zones be-
tween different terranes partially controlled the location of the delaminated blocks and the
“inner arc” magmatism. Both processes triggered the lower crust ductile shortening and sub-
sequent upper crustal brittle development of the sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt.

INTRODUCTION understanding of new plays that may have potentially

The understanding of the geology of the Central
Andes of Peru and Bolivia has increased notably
in the last decade from numerous investigations,
both from academia and from industry. This rapid
advance of knowledge with specific works in dif-
ferent disciplines makes it difficult to update the
understanding and correlation of these contribu-
tions for the explorationists, whose specific objec-
tives are concentrated, most of the time, in the
evaluation of sedimentary basins, generally located
in the sub-Andean foreland.
However, the many processes that have been iden-
tified in this sector of the Central Andes are important
to understand the evolution of these sub-Andean ba-
sins. For example, displacements of the volcanic front
of the Andes, changes in the composition of magmatic
arcs, and the rapid uplift of mountain ranges have
been associated with crustal erosion by subduction,
changes in the Benioff zone geometry including steep-
ening of the subducted oceanic slab, with important
volcanic flare-ups on the surface. It is now known
that part of these processes is related to crustal de-
lamination and thermal and mechanical removal of
the lithosphere, which produce important changes in
the dynamics of the fold-and-thrust belts of the sub-­
Andean region.
Besides these processes, the accretion and collision
of terranes with their respective paired metamorphic
belts, ophiolitic rocks and deformation, have been rec-
ognized particularly in the Paleozoic. Our knowledge
of the geographical boundaries of these terranes and
their deformation and uplift histories is critical in the
developed below productive Mesozoic sequences.
Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present a
succinct appraisal of these new data, highlighting those
that may have a direct relation with the evolution of
the adjacent sub-Andean basins. Special attention will
be paid to the terrane boundaries and sutures, because
these inherited crustal weakness zones have an import-
ant role in the control of the extensional basins during
the early Mesozoic and the subsequent Andean defor-
mation. Many processes such as lower crustal delam-
ination and lithospheric mantle removal are strongly
influenced by this inherited architecture, focusing up-
lift and deformation in the upper crust. I am aware
that, because of these ambitious objectives, we will not
be able to treat them with the same detail, but we will
try to draw attention to those that are considered the
most important for the purposes of this volume.
THE PRE-ANDEAN BASEMENT
There is abundant evidence that recognizes the exis-
tence of a block of Precambrian basement attached to
the Amazonian craton. The early seismological studies
of Dorbath et al. (1993) together with the gravimetric,
geochemical, and isotopic analyses of Mamani (2006)
and Mamani et al. (2008, 2010) have outlined the limits
of a cratonic block, known as the Arequipa Massif. The
boundary with Amazonia was also confirmed by the
occurrence of potassic and ultrapotassic mafic rocks of
Cenozoic age, which delineate two deep lithospheric
mantle blocks that have undergone different depletion
and enrichment events (Carlier et al., 2005; Ramos,

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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  3

2008; Carlotto et al., 2009a). Further north, the pres-
ence of a cratonic block underlying the Western Cor-
dillera and adjacent offshore was demonstrated by the
studies of Romero Fernández et al. (2011) and Romero
Fernández et al. (2013), who confirmed a Precambrian
basement underlying the Paracas terrane.
The Grenvillian-Age Basement
Several attempts have been made to understand the
regional tectonic evolution of the Precambrian and
Paleozoic basement rocks and the processes involved
in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia. A milestone and
classic contribution to this comprehension of the
Andean geology of Peru was carried out by Mégard
(1978, 1979) and other ORSTOM’s researchers in the
1980s such as Dalmayrac, Laubacher, Marocco, as well
as those carried out in the 1990s in Bolivia, by Herail,
Sempere, Martinez, and several others.
The present knowledge of the basement in Peru
was set by the pioneering work of Dalmayrac et al.
(1977, 1980; Figure 1a). These studies recognized the
existence of an old early Proterozoic block named
as the Arequipa Massif, as well as the correlation
of the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Cordillera
with similar rocks of Sierras Pampeanas (Figure 1a).
The existence of a ~2000 Ma-old granulitic base-
ment along the coast of southern Peru was a tectonic
enigma that led to different hypotheses (see, e.g.,
Coira et al., 1982; Dalziel and Forsythe, 1985; R
­ amos,
1988, 2008; Bahlburg and Hervé, 1997; Wörner
et al., 2000; Loewy et al., 2003, 2004). There is pres-
ently some consensus that the Arequipa Massif, as
part of the Arequipa terrane, was first accreted in
the late Mesoproterozoic during the amalgamation
of the Rodinia supercontinent (Loewy et al., 2004;
­R eimann et al., 2010) and later reactivated during
the Ordovician but without involvement of oceanic
crust (Ramos, 2008).

Figure 1. A. First correlation between metamorphic belts of the Cordillera de Marañón in Peru and Sierras Pampeanas in
Argentina. Note the Grenville age of the Río Picharí outcrop and the outline of the Arequipa Massif (based on Dalmayrac
et al., 1977, 1980); B. Present knowledge of the metamorphic belt and the extension of the Paracas-Arequipa-Antofalla
basement and its off-shore continuation; the Grenvillian ages are based on Wörner et al. (2000); Loewy et al. (2004);
Miškovic’ et al. (2009a) and Romero et al. (2013). Ages in brackets are protolith ages. The proposed sutures and their
ages are modified from Ramos (2008, 2009, 2018). Note that the metamorphic belt is interrupted between Cordillera de
Vilcabamba and Sierras Pampeanas by the coeval sedimentary rocks of southern Peru and Bolivia.

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 4 Ramos
The first occurrence of Grenville-age basement in
the Central Andes was reported by Dalmayrac (1978)
and Dalmayrac et al. (1980) along the Río Picharí valley
(Figure 1b). These outcrops have been later extended to
other exposures by Miškovic’ et al. (2009a), who dated foli-
ated late Mesoproterozoic rocks such as the Satipo tonalite
by U-Pb in zircons at 985 { 14 Ma, the Querobamba
granite at 1123 { 13 Ma, and the Mariposa alkali feldspar
granite at 1071 { 23 Ma. Most of these intrusives have in-
herited zircon ages clustering at 1100 Ma, interpreted as
the crystallization age, which allowed their assignment
to the Sunsas magmatic arc (Cordani et al., 2000). These
rocks represent a dismembered orogenic belt of Grenville
age as paraautochthonous domains that have remained
in proximity to the margin of Amazonia according to Car-
dona et al. (2010) and Chew et al. (2011, 2016).
The main outcrops of granulitic rocks of late Meso-
proterozoic Grenville age were described and dated in
southern Peru by Wasteneys et al. (1995) and Loewy et
al. (2004), who recognized a late Mesoproterozoic met-
amorphic event, superimposed on a Paleoproterozoic
basement of 2000 Ma. On Isla Hormigas de Afuera,
along the offshore Paracas High in the continental
platform to the west of Lima (Figure 1b), high-grade
metamorphic rocks have been subsequently identified
and dated by Romero et al. (2013), with similar ages of
crystallization and metamorphism.
One of the few exposures of Grenville-age rocks in
Bolivia is at Cerro Uyarani (Figure 1b), in the northern
Altiplano near the boundary with Chile, which was dis-
covered by Troëng et al. (1994). This hill of medium to
high-grade metamorphic basement stands barely 500 m
(1640 ft) above the surface of the piedmont of the Western
Cordillera and is partially obliterated by the products of
extensive stratovolcanoes and Oligocene–Miocene syn-
orogenic deposits. These authors recognized other smaller
exposures further south in the vicinity of the town of Wila
Kkollu. The Uyarani metamorphic rocks have been dated
by Wörner et al. (2000) at 1157 { 57 Ma with inherited
zircons yield a 2024 { 133 Ma age. Different C ­ enozoic
volcanic rocks in the Altiplano have also recorded these
Paleoproterozoic ages in several localities, as shown by
McLeod et al. (2013). These studies extended the base-
ment from the eastern margin of the central region of the
Altiplano to the Huarina belt along the western margin
of the Eastern Cordillera (Jiménez and López-Velásquez,
2008; Jiménez et al., 2009; Ramos and Jiménez, 2014).
In summary the Mesoproterozoic metamorphism of
Paracas and Arequipa terranes in Peru and Bolivia was
associated with the formation of Rodinia, when these
terranes collided with the Amazonian craton (Carlotto
et al., 2008, 2009a; Ramos, 2008, 2009; Miškovic’ et al.,
2009a). The basement units of both terranes typically
have an older Paleoproterozoic protolith.
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The Brasiliano–Pampean Basement
There are no clear indications of late Neoproterozoic oro-
genic rocks in the basement of the Central Andes between
6 and 14°S latitude (Cardona et al., 2005a), in spite of the
late Neoproterozoic bulk zircon ages obtained by Dal-
mayrac et al. (1980). However, some authors interpreted
the presence of a Neoproterozoic belt that would extend
below the younger Phanerozoic sequences or sub-Andean
cover (Chew et al., 2008; Escayola et al., 2011; Reimann et
al., 2015), as a northern continuation of the Puncoviscana
belt. Although in the Laurentian margin in the vicinity
of the southern Appalachians, the early formation of an
ocean at 700 Ma, subsequently subducted during the
approach of peri-Gondwanan terranes has been inferred
(Chew et al., 2008), no evidence of an active margin has
been recorded along the Andes at these latitudes.
There is consensus that during the late Neopro-
terozoic the Central Andean margin was dominated
by the opening of the proto-Iapetus Ocean (Miškovic’
et al., 2009a), with some minor evidence of magmatic
activity related to the rift phase (Baldo et al., 2006;
­Ramos, 2009). The active margin was developed in the
Puncoviscana belt and their associated calc-alkaline
batholith, south of 22°S latitude (Ramos, 2008).
The Famatinian Orogeny
The Famatinian orogenic cycle was defined in north-
western Argentina by Aceñolaza and Toselli (1976) as
the orogeny that occurred after the Pampean (or late
Brasiliano) orogeny during the late Neoproterozoic
and persisted up to Middle-Late Devonian times.
Subsequent studies have demonstrated that a major
orogeny ended at Middle Ordovician times, and as a
consequence, the Famatinian orogeny was restricted
from the base of the Cambrian up to the Middle Ordo-
vician in the Sierras Pampeanas of west central Argen-
tina (Haller and Ramos, 1984; Astini and Benedetto,
1993; Astini et al., 1995; Pankhurst et al., 1996, 1998).
The occurrence of metamorphic rocks associated
with orthogneisses with ages contemporaneous with
those of Sierras Pampeanas led Chew et al. (2007) to
identify the Famatinian orogeny in the Eastern Cordil-
lera of northern Peru. Rocks of similar ages are also
exposed further north in Venezuela and Colombia and
were described by several authors in the Mérida and
Chibcha terranes (Bellizzia and Pimentel, 1994; Re-
strepo-Pace et al., 1997; Alemán and Ramos, 2000). In
recent years further geochronology has enhanced that
correlation, allowing the Famatinian orogeny to be ex-
tended along the entire proto-Pacific margin of South
America, north of Patagonia (Ramos, 2018).
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  5

Figure 2. Reconstruction of the Famatinian Orogen in the Central Andes. Ages of the Ordovician rocks in the
Marañón Domain based on Cardona et al. (2005a, 2007, 2009), Cardona (2006), and Chew et al. (2007,
2016); in the Vilcabamba Domain on Reitsma (2012) and Spikings et al. (2016); in the Paracas terrane on
Romero et al. (2013); in the Arequipa terrane on Wörner et al. (2000) and Loewy et al. (2004). Proposed
sutures and terrane boundaries modified from Ramos (2008, 2009, and 2018).

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 6 Ramos
The Famatinian orogeny in the Central Andes of
Peru and Bolivia was controlled by the old Grenvillian
sutures, in a similar way to the northern Andes, where
Precambrian blocks were detached with the associated
formation of oceanic crust and re-amalgamated to
Gondwana, as proposed by Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997).
These processes can be recognized north of the Aban-
cay deflection in Peru, as described by Ramos (2008,
2010c). However, the old suture between Arequipa
and the Amazonian craton did not separate to form
oceanic crust (Figure 2) but instead controlled the sub-
sidence of a large retro-arc basin from Ordovician to
Devonian times (Sempere, 1995; Suárez Soruco, 1999).
Several distinct domains have been recognized in
the Famatinian orogen based on different rock types
and inferred tectonic settings in this sector of the Cen-
tral Andes (see Figure 2).
The Olmos-Loja Domain  This domain as defined
by Carlotto et al. (2009a) encompasses the region
adjacent to the Huancabamba deflection along the
border with Ecuador. Although most authors recog-
nize that the rotation associated with the deflection is
Late Cretaceous or younger (Mitouard et al., 1990), it
seems that an old structural Paleozoic terrane bound-
ary (Ramos, 2009) enhanced this rotation. The bound-
aries between juxtaposed basement blocks together
with the later collision of Laurentia in the Late Pa-
leozoic are the candidates for controlling the present
deflection.
This domain is characterized by Ordovician sed-
imentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks, which
contrast with the high- to medium-grade metamorphic
rocks of the Marañón Massif further south (Reyes and
Caldas, 1987). The Ordovician phyllites and schists of
the Olmos Complex and the metasedimentary rocks
of the Salas Group continue to the north in Ecuador,
where similar rocks have been described in the vicini-
ties of Loja (Aspden et al., 1995).
The Marañón Domain  Chew et al. (2007) and Car-
dona et al. (2009) dated Famatinian rocks in the
northern segment of the Eastern Cordillera, north
of the Abancay deflection. These authors described
magmatic arc rocks (now orthogneisses) with ages
similar to the Famatina type locality in the Sierras
Pampeanas. U-Pb ages in zircons in these gneisses
range from 475 to 460 Ma (Figure 2).
Willner et al. (2014) identified high-­p ressure
conditions west of the magmatic arc of
11213 kbar>5002540°C 193221004°F2 during maxi-
mum burial derived from a garnet amphibolite in the
Tapo Ultramafic Massif. The metamorphic rocks in the
western Marañón Complex have low PT conditions at
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13972_ch01_ptg01_001-034.indd 6
2.422.6 kbar and 3002330°C 15722626°F2 estimated
for a phyllite-greenschist assemblage. According to
Willner et al. (2014) these contrasting metamorphic
conditions defined a paired metamorphic belt, which
is characteristic of a magmatic arc environment. The
age of the peak metamorphism is 465 { 24 Ma dated
by a Sm-Nd mineral-whole rock isochron.
The occurrence of ultramafic rocks in the depart-
ment of Huanuco was known from the pioneering re-
connaissance of Antonio Raimondi in the 19th century,
as testified by the talc schists and peridotites that are
exhibited in the Museum of Natural Sciences of the
National Major University of San Marcos (see locali-
ties in Raimondi, 1929). The extent of these ultrabasic
outcrops in Huanuco, Huancapallac, and Chinchao is
known from surveys of Aumaitre et al. (1977). These
rocks currently known as the Tapo Ultramafic Com-
plex were interpreted as relics of oceanic crust, which
were subducted and exhumed along a collisional su-
ture (Castroviejo et al., 2009a, b, 2010a, b; Fanlo et al.,
2009). These mafic-ultramafic complexes described for
200 km (124 mi) from Huanuco to Tapo correspond
to the suture between Paracas and Amazonia (Ra-
mos, 2018). These rocks are associated with chromite
ores, which extend further north and south and are
of regional importance (Grandin and Zegarra, 1979).
According to V. Benavides Cáceres (personal com-
munication, 2017), these metamorphic and associated
mafic rocks, together with serpentines, are exposed
south of the Abancay deflection associated with the
“Phyllite formation” of Steinmann (1929, p. 11). This
unit has been identified above 4000 m (13,123 ft) in
the Cordillera de Vilcabamba by Egeler and de Booy
(1961), who found low-grade metamorphic rocks bear-
ing early Ordovician graptolites and the “Phyllite for-
mation.” The ultramafic rocks are also exposed north
of the Cordillera de Marañón; they have been de-
scribed in Ñaupe in the Olmos Massif as serpentinized
peridotites (Grandin and Zegarra, 1979) and continue
even further north in the locality of Zumbia in the
Cordillera Real of Ecuador according to Benavides
Cáceres (personal communication, 2017). Based on
this evidence, it is possible to recognize a discontin-
uous belt over 1200 km (746 mi) of these ultramafic
rocks along the Eastern Cordillera of Peru and south-
ern part of the Real Cordillera of Ecuador.
Whole rock geochemical data from siliciclastic de-
tritus in the Paleozoic cover show a high Cr content,
which may indicate that ophiolitic rocks were exposed
to erosion in the source areas (Reimann et al., 2015).
Structural studies of this ophiolitic belt in Huanuco
and Tarma, west of the Marañón Massif, demonstrated
the development of phyllonites and mylonites along
the contacts, ruling out a previous interpretation of
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  7
these rocks as peridotite igneous i­ ntrusives (­ Rodrigues
et al., 2010a). The ductile deformation D3 that affects
the peridotites and serpentinites in Huanuco has a
southwest vergence (Rodrigues et al., 2010b), coher-
ent with an east-dipping polarity of the previous
subduction.
These data led Ramos (2008, 2009) to define the
Paracas terrane, a Grenvillian-age basement micro-
continent, which collided against the proto-margin of
Gondwana in Ordovician times (see details in Ramos,
2018). Based on these data, it is likely that the Paracas
microcontinent collided against the proto-margin with
a subduction zone dipping beneath the Marañón Mas-
sif (Ramos, 2008, 2009, 2010a, c; Carlotto et al., 2011;
Willner et al., 2014; Chew et al., 2016, among others).
The Paracas terrane has been interpreted as a paraau-
tochthonous block based on the similar characteristics
described by Romero et al. (2013), between the base-
ments of Paracas and Arequipa. Both blocks share in
common a Grenville-age metamorphism, early Pro-
terozoic protoliths, and evidence of an overimposed
Famatinian arc.
It is worth mentioning here that the studies of
Chew et al. (2007) and Cardona et al. (2009) recognize
metamorphism around 480–470 Ma, with similar ages
as the main metamorphic peak described by Willner et
al. (2014). However, Chew et al. (2016) identified a late
Famatinian event in the Early Silurian, represented by
high-grade ~435 Ma orthogneiss in the Marañón Com-
plex. These authors correlate this event with Ocloyic
magmatism and deformation described by Bahlburg
et al. (2016) in the eastern Puna Eruptive Belt of north-
ern Argentina (Faja Eruptiva de la Puna of Figure 2).
This belt was formed in a back-arc setting of the main
Famatinian arc along the hanging-wall of the Grenville
suture with volcanic rocks of 476 Ma interbedded with
graptolite-bearing sediments. This deformed sequence
has been affected by 444 Ma old intrusives that Bahl-
burg et al. (2016) relate to the Ocloyic orogenesis. This
last event is part of a series of episodes recognized
in the Terra Australis orogen (Cawood, 2005; Ramos,
2009; Chew et al., 2016).
The Vilcabamba Domain  The metamorphic rocks of
the Cordillera de Vilcabamba south of the Cordillera
de Marañón, in the vicinities of the Abancay deflec-
tion (Figure 2), were described by Marocco (1978).
This author was the first to document the gradual
transition from the “Phyllite formation,” the fossil-
iferous Ordovician rocks, slightly metamorphic (of-
ten with some schistosity or strain-slip cleavage), to
higher grade metamorphic rocks without evidence of
a major discontinuity along a traverse across this cor-
dillera. Based on these field observations, ­Marocco
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(1978) disregarded the previously postulated Pre-
cambrian ages of the green-schists exposed near
Cusco (Heim, 1948a; Egeler and de Booy, 1961) and
recognized that these rocks were part of an Eoher-
cynian metamorphic belt. This assumption has been
confirmed in the Machu Picchu inlier of this region
by the granitic intrusions reported by Reitsma (2012)
and Spikings et al. (2016), who identified Famatinian
ages between 479.9 { 2.3 and 472.3 { 4.8 Ma in these
rocks. South of the Vilcabamba domain, early Paleo-
zoic sedimentary rocks are dominant (Figure 2).
The Altiplano Domain  Clastic sedimentary se-
quences of Ordovician age widely exposed in the Al-
tiplano domain of southern Peru and Bolivia, south
of Cusco, have been described by Reimann et al.
(2010, 2015). Igneous rocks are almost absent along
this segment, with some minor volcano-sedimentary
rocks described by Bahlburg et al. (2006) in the Ol-
lantaytambo and Umachiri Formations, which are
exposed in the Machu Picchu inlier and on the Al-
tiplano, respectively. Detrital zircon U-Pb ages and
graptolite faunas indicate that the Ollantaytambo
Formation is Ordovician in age (Bahlburg et al., 2011;
Reitsma, 2012).
These clastic deposits have been interpreted as a
continuous Ordovician retro-arc platform developed
inland from the magmatic arc, which is along the coast
of southern Peru and northern Chile (Ramos, 2008).
Further south, these rocks gradually pass again to
low-grade metamorphic facies, which are in continu-
ity with the higher grade metamorphic rocks of Sierras
Pampeanas.
Summary of the Famatinian Orogeny  In summary
it is probable that the old Precambrian terrane that
was accreted to the Amazonian Craton as part of Lau-
rentia during the Grenville orogeny was detached or
partially detached prior to the Famatinian Orogeny.
The northern block, known as the Paracas terrane, de-
tached sufficiently to form oceanic crust, which was
later subducted, to form the Famatinian arc along
the Cordillera de Marañón (Chew et al., 2007, 2016;
Ramos, 2008). The southern block, the Arequipa ter-
rane, did not form oceanic crust, but the extension
produced a large retro-arc basin during Ordovician
to Devonian times (Sempere, 1995; Bahlburg et al.,
2006) coeval with the development of the magmatic
arc along the coast on the Arequipa Massif. The
boundary between both basement terranes coincides
with a major crustal boundary defined by Marocco
(1978, p. 5) as the “Abancay deflection” (Figure 2).
The change in metamorphic grade along strike of the
early Paleozoic rocks is related to the collision of the
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 8 Ramos
­ araautochthonous and allochthonous blocks of Para-
p Litherland et al., 1994; Sánchez et al., 2006). These
cas (northern Peru) and Cuyania (northern Argentina
and Chile), respectively. The segments that recorded
collisions expose middle to deeper crustal levels and
are characterized by metamorphic rocks (Otamendi
et al., 2008).
The northern sub-Andean foreland records a hiatus
with no sedimentation or erosion during Late Ordo-
vician–Silurian times, and only the Contaya Forma-
tion of possible Early Ordovician age is preserved in
the Huallaga and Marañón Basins of northern Peru
(Baby et al., 2018). Molasse deposits in these basins are
represented by the Cabanillas Formation of Devonian
age (Calderon et al., 2017) and may represent the sy-
norogenic deposits of what Chew et al. (2016) identi-
fied as the late Famatinian orogeny. Further south in
the Ucayali and Madre de Dios Basins, Alemán et al.
(2003) recognized an unconformity between the Caba-
nillas and Contaya Formations as related to the Oclo-
yic deformation, which to the south is considered as
part of the late Famatinian orogeny.
The Bolivian sub-Andean region also records the
Famatinian orogeny through thick sequences of Late
Ordovician–Devonian synorogenic deposits (Sempere,
1995; Jiménez et al., 2009) in the Tarija Basin.
As pointed out by Bahlburg and Hervé (1997) and
Chew et al. (2016), after the Famatinian deformation
there is a magmatic and metamorphic gap between
420 and 350 Ma (Late Silurian–Early Carboniferous).
However, contractional deformation persisted during
the Devonian with the development of foreland ba-
sins in northwestern Argentina and southern Bolivia
(Starck, 1995). The tectonic control changed in the
Early Carboniferous when flexural loading subsidence
of the foreland basin gave place to viscoelastic relax-
ation of bending stresses (Tankard, 1986). This author
also described subsequent upwarping along the ba-
sin margin and subsidence in the basin axis during a
period of tectonic quiescence. These viscoelastic ba-
sins lose the previous asymmetry of a foreland basin
by regional isostatic adjustments of the lithosphere to
thrust-belt loading.
The Alleghenide Orogeny
The northwestern sector of Peru together with the
adjacent ranges of Ecuador, in the Cerro de Amotapes
(Figure 3), have been the focus of different tectonic
interpretations. Gneisses and granitoids of Late Paleo-
zoic to Triassic age such as the Tres Lagunas and
Jubones foliated granitoids are well known along
the eastern margin of the Cordillera Real of Ecuador
(Aspden and Litherland, 1992; Aspden et al., 1992;
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gneissic rocks and foliated granitoids are also exposed
along the Huancabamba deflection in the Amotape–
Tahuin domain. The rocks in this region are associated
with the Río Piedras amphibolite, a mafic complex
of Triassic age, interpreted as possible oceanic rocks
(Feininger, 1978; Litherland et al., 1994; Ramos, 2009).
The Amotape–Tahuin basement has been consid-
ered by Feininger (1987) and Mourier et al. (1988) as
an allochthonous terrane, mainly based on the com-
parison with the Paleozoic sequences exposed in the
Olmos Massif of southern Ecuador and the paleo-
magnetic data obtained from these areas. Mourier et
al. (1988) proposed that this block was accreted by a
right-lateral strike-slip during Cretaceous times.
Based on the U/Pb sensitive high-resolution ion
microprobe (SHRIMP) and Ar-Ar dating of the met-
amorphic event that affected the Illescas Massif (Car-
dona et al., 2005b, 2008), Ramos (2009), following
these authors, interpreted that the collision took place
during the Permian. This last author proposed that the
Tahuín terrane of Feininger (1987) collided against the
Gondwana margin during the Alleghenide orogeny,
possibly as a part of Laurentia, and it was left on the
Gondwana margin after being detached from Lauren-
tia. Some other authors, although correlated this de-
formation with the Alleghenide collision, interpreted
that the Tahuín terrane as an autochthonous part of
Gondwana (Bellido et al., 2009; Timoteo et al., 2012).
The new studies by Witt et al. (2017) in the Amotape
region showed that the maximum age of the me-
taquartzite of Illescas as well as the low-grade schists
of Quebrada Seca are from locally derived igneous
source ranging from 331 to 329 Ma and from 321 to 319
Ma, respectively (Figure 3). These data also show that
the abundant occurrence of Pampean zircons in Illes-
cas and Quebrada Seca (560–521 Ma and 575–525 Ma,
respectively) indicate an autochthonous Gondwanan
origin for the Amotape basement (Witt et al., 2017).
These authors related the first phase of metamor-
phism affecting the protolith at ~310 Ma, to terrane
accretion of subduction dynamics following Cardona
et al. (2008). This Late Carboniferous episode could be
related to one of the early phases of the Alleghenide
orogen described by Hatcher (2010).
Five exploratory wells were drilled by oil companies
along the continental platform between Chiclayo and
Talara in recent years (Figure 3). Two of these wells are
located in the Outer Shelf High and intersected meta-
morphic rocks interpreted as possible Precambrian in age
(Romero Fernández et al., 2011). However, subsequent
Ar-Ar dating showed Late Paleozoic ages in the San Mi-
guel x-1 well (Timoteo et al., 2012; Romero et al., 2013).
The metadiorites intersected by the well were Ar-Ar
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  9

Figure 3. The Amotape–Tahuin domain in northwestern Peru and Ecuador (based on Cardona et al., 2005b,
2008; Sánchez et al., 2006; Bellido et al., 2009; Romero Fernández et al., 2011; Timoteo et al., 2012; Romero
et al., 2013; Witt et al., 2017). Note the offshore extent of late Paleozoic rocks south of Illescas. (331–329 Ma):
Ages between brackets are maximum ages from igneous zircons in metamorphic rocks; (221 Ma): Ages in
italic are nondeformed granites of Triassic age.

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 10 Ramos
dated by these authors and an age of 259.5 { 12.3 Ma
was obtained. The age is similar to the metamorphic
257 { 8 Ma age obtained by Cardona et al. (2008) in the
tonalitic gneisses of the Illescas Massif. Both ages show
an important metamorphic episode at about 260 Ma,
subsequent to the emplacement of tonalities and diorites
of a possible Late Paleozoic magmatic arc, which could
be related to late episodes of the Alleghenide orogeny.
The new data of Witt et al. (2017), together with
those provided by Romero et al. (2013), indicate the
existence of subduction in the Western Cordillera
along the continental margin in this sector of Western
Gondwana for the Late Paleozoic. However, the new
data question the allochthonous nature of the Tahuín
terrane for this time period. Later tectonic reactiva-
tions during the Mesozoic produced the rotation de-
tected by paleomagnetism as identified by Mourier
et al. (1988).
The orthogneisses and foliated granitoids of several
sectors of the Northern Andes yielded Triassic Ar-Ar
ages between 237 and 211 Ma (Vinasco, 2004; Sánchez
et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2015), which were inter-
preted as crustal melts associated with the collapse of
the Alleghenide orogen and subsequent breakup of
Pangea (Alemán and Ramos, 2000; Cediel et al., 2003;
Martin-Gombojav and Winkler, 2008; Ramos, 2009).
An alternative interpretation was advanced by Riel
et al. (2013, 2015), who proposed a high-temperature
low-pressure metamorphism in the forearc zone for
the El Oro metamorphic complex of the Tahuin block
at 229.3 { 2.1 Ma. This extension was followed by un-
derplating of a high-pressure low-temperature unit at
225.8 { 1.8 Ma during a contractional episode.
Subsequent extension during Triassic times indi-
cates the beginning of Pangea breakup after the colli-
sion of Laurentia with Gondwana.
The Gondwanide Orogeny
After the pioneering studies of Steinmann (1929) and
Steinmann et al. (1930), who described Paleozoic met-
amorphic rocks in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru, sev-
eral authors such as Mégard (1978) and Dalmayrac
et al. (1980), among others, recognized an orogenic
episode characterized by igneous intrusions, defor-
mation, and metamorphism as part of the Hercynian
deformation. These rocks have been recently dated
and correlated with the Gondwanide orogeny, widely
recorded in southern Argentina and Chile (Miškovic’ et
al., 2009a; Chew et al., 2016). These authors recognized
discrete episodes of Gondwanide magmatism with
variable intrusive facies and changes in styles of sub-
duction. An early Gondwanide phase from the middle
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of Carboniferous to Early Permian between 336 and
285 Ma was characterized by a transition from mildly
peraluminous and calc-alkaline diorites, ­granodiorites,
and monzogranites to a main Gondwanide phase of
juvenile granitoids lacking a subduction-­related signa-
ture between 280 and 235 Ma (Miškovic’ et al., 2009a).
According to these authors, the highly peraluminous
leucogranites of the Late Triassic (230–205 Ma) show
the termination of arc magmatism by detachment of
the subducting oceanic slab (Figure 4).
The Gondwanide magmatism started in Carbonif-
erous times in the northern Eastern Cordillera, shifted
to the south in the Permian being dominant in its cen-
tral part, and, during the Triassic, ended in the south-
ern segment of Eastern Cordillera of Peru, passing to
the Cordillera Real of Bolivia (Ávila Salinas, 1991).
The early Gondwanide deformation at about ~305 Ma
(Chew et al., 2016) produced the angular unconfor-
mity of Pennsylvanian age between Ambo and Tarma
Formations in the Huallaga Basin and between Caba-
nillas and Tarma Formations in the Marañón Basin
(Calderon et al., 2017).
These magmatic phases can be related to the late
Gondwanide metamorphism characterized by the
high-grade paragneisses of the Huaytapallana Com-
plex, constrained to ~260 Ma by U–Pb and Th–Pb
monazite age data (Chew et al., 2016). We agree with
these authors that this orogenic phase cannot be re-
lated neither to flat-slab subduction along the margin
nor to terrane accretion because there is no evidence of
collision of microcontinents during the Late Paleozoic
in this segment of the Central Andes (Ramos, 2009;
Chew et al., 2016).
The mildly peraluminous nature of the initial Car-
boniferous granitoids is similar to other intraplate
magmatic events of this age developed along the pro-
to-margin of Gondwana. Carboniferous granites have
been described as weakly peraluminous in northern
and central Argentina (see Grosse et al., 2009). The
emplacement of the Carboniferous batholiths of Peru
inboard of the continental margin can be explained
in a similar fashion to the Sierras Pampeanas, as a
response to the collapse of the previous orogenic de-
formation with extension of the crust and mantle up-
welling (Grosse et al., 2009). This extension shifted
to the south in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru, east of
the previous sutures. The intrusion of the Permian
granitoids is characterized by the lack of a subduc-
tion-related signature. The emplacement of these Late
Paleozoic granites, not directly related to subduction
in the asthenospheric wedge, is controlled by localized
extension along the hanging-wall of the Grenvillian–
Famatinian sutures. This reactivation of the suture
explains, as proposed by Carlotto et al. (2011), the
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  11

Figure 4. Late Paleozoic igneous rocks and representative ages of the Triassic phase after Jiménez and López-Velásquez
(2008), Jiménez et al. (2009), Chew et al. (2016), and Spikings et al. (2016). The outline of the Arequipa terrane is based
on Carlier et al. (2005) and Mamani et al. (2008, 2010); other boundaries are based on Ramos (2008, 2009) and Carlotto
et al. (2009a).

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 12 Ramos
emplacement along this zone of structural weakness
of the Pataz batholith, among others (Figure 4).
This late Paleozoic “Hercynian” magmatism was in-
terpreted by Carlier et al. (1982) as connected to exten-
sional episodes affecting the continental crust. These
igneous rocks are now associated with an “inner arc,”
as defined by Clark et al. (1984, p. 270), which was the
locus of widespread crustal anatexis. Its tectonic set-
ting will be discussed in the analysis of the Oligocene
granites based on Ramos and Jiménez (2014).
The extension that controlled the emplacement of
these Late Paleozoic granitoids in the Eastern Cor-
dillera not only shifted from north to south but also
decreased in intensity in that direction before ending
nearby the Abancay deflection (Figure 4). The suture
associated with these intrusions corresponds to the
contact between the Paracas terrane and the Amazo-
nian craton.
It is interesting to note that the main phase of defor-
mation identified in the northern Eastern Cordillera,
as late Gondwanide at 260 Ma by Chew et al. (2016),
coincides with the important metamorphism and igne-
ous activity recorded in the Amotape–Tahuin domain
(Figure 3) along the northwestern coast of Peru and
southern Ecuador. The main metamorphism of tonal-
itic gneisses of the Illescas Massif was dated by U-Pb
SHRIMP around 257 Ma by Cardona et al. (2008), as
well as the San Miguel x-1 metadiorite in 259 Ma by
Romero et al. (2013).
The alternation of extensional periods with intru-
sion of granitoids with periods of compressive defor-
mation, orogenic uplift, and metamorphic phases is
related to the absolute motion of Gondwana. The re-
treat of the trench is linked to extension as observed
in the Sierras Pampeanas in the Carboniferous (Astini
et al., 2009; Martina et al., 2011) and compression to
the continent overriding the oceanic plate, as de-
scribed for the Phanerozoic along the South American
margin (Cawood, 2005; Ramos, 2008, 2010b). Based on
these processes the Paleozoic evolution of the Gond-
wanide orogeny in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru as
described by Chew et al. (2016) can be explained by
this alternation of tectonic regimes. However, the oc-
currence of two separated metamorphic belts, one
along the coast and other in the Eastern Cordillera,
needs some additional explanation. The Gondwa-
nide deformation is intense along the coast in the
Amotape–Tahuin domain and in the Eastern Cordil-
lera north of the Abancay deflection and almost disap-
pears to the south. The metamorphic peak at 260 Ma
is common to both domains, and there are no medi-
um-grade metamorphic rocks of late Paleozoic age
south of Abancay deflection in southern Peru, neither
in Bolivia nor in the Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina.
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Medium-grade metamorphic rocks of this age are pre-
served in the Cordillera Real of Ecuador and in the
Central ­Cordillera of ­Colombia. This clearly indicates
that the d ­ eformation, uplift, and main peak of meta-
morphism are associated with the collision of Lauren-
tia and ­Gondwana in the Early Permian times.
This intense compressive deformation that occurred
at ∼260 Ma, the main Gondwanide orogeny at these
latitudes, uplifted the Marañón Massif, exposed the
Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, and developed a Late
Permian fold-and-thrust belt in the sub-Andean fore-
land of the Huallaga and Marañón Basins ­(Calderon
et al., 2017). This deformation phase was so import-
ant in the northern sub-Andean basins that part of
the underlying Paleozoic sequences was eroded away
according to Baby et al. (2018). This Late Permian up-
lift is also detected in the Ucayali and Madre de Dios
Basins (Alemán et al., 2003). The angular unconfor-
mity between the synorogenic molasse deposits of the
Tarma and Copacabana Formations (Late Carbonifer-
ous–Early Permian) and the Mitu Group in the East-
ern Cordillera or the Ene Formation and its equivalent
units in the sub-­Andean basins is the expression of this
main Gondwanide deformation. Some authors have
referred to this unconformity as the Juruá orogeny
(Rosas et al., 2007; Carlotto et al., 2009b), but recent
studies in the Solimoes and Acre Basins in adjacent
foreland of Brazil demonstrated that this orogeny is
much younger in the Juruá type locality (Late Jurassic
according to Caputo, 2014).
It is important to remark that in the Marañon and
Ucayali Basins, as well as in the Huallaga Basin, the
initial sedimentation was driven by foreland basin de-
velopment in the Early Permian (Erlich et al., 2018).
The provenance of the Late Permian synorogenic
deposits clearly show a maximum depositional age
younger than 265 Ma, in agreement with the main
Gondwanide orogeny at ∼260 Ma, derived from the
uplift of the Eastern Cordillera (see figure 12 of E
­ rlich
et al., 2018). An important unconformity ­s eparates
these deposits from the Mitu rift sequences.
The Pangaea Breakup
The tectonic activity that followed the Gonwanide
orogeny in the Central Andes of Peru and Bolivia is
characterized by several extensional episodes. The
oldest and more widespread was the product of the
collapse of the Gondwanide orogen that produced
the rift system of the Mitu Group (Mégard, 1978,
1984; Carlotto et al., 2008; Spikings et al., 2016). The
red-beds and alkaline basalts of the Mitu Group
are separated by an angular unconformity from the
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  13
underlying late Paleozoic Copacabana limestones
(Rosas et al., 2007). The second episode that con-
trolled the rifting of the Pucará Group in the Late
Triassic presents variations in the different seg-
ments and is the consequence of the final breakup of
Pangaea. Several authors have emphasized that the
location of the Late Permian–Triassic granites and
rhyolitic rocks, as well as the associated Triassic–
Early Jurassic rifting, coincides with the axis of the
Eastern Cordillera of Peru and Bolivia (­ Dalmayrac
et al., 1980; Sempere et al., 1999, 2002; Jaillard et al.,
2000).
Hf isotope data indicate that crustal reworking
was a dominant process during arc magmatism, but
it shows a decreasing in intensity through time. Ini-
tial eHf values for the Ordovician granitoids during
the Famatinian cycle are 26.73, increase to 22.43 in
­Carboniferous–Permian times, and reach 21.57 in the
Late Triassic (Miškovic’ and Schaltegger, 2009). eHf val-
ues of 20.7 to 18.0 for Cenozoic back-arc rocks indi-
cate that the extent of crustal reworking decreased with
time and was associated with larger inputs of juvenile
magma in an extensional regime during subduction
(Miškovic’ and Schaltegger, 2009; Ramos, 2010a).
The tectonic settings of the extensional regimes also
change from north to south and are linked to the dif-
ferent Paleozoic orogenic segments. This is also seen
in the late Paleozoic–Triassic granitoids, which are
I-type in the north, I-S-A transitional in the central
part, to A-type in the south (Miškovic’ et al., 2009b). To
describe their differences, several sectors were identi-
fied (Figure 5).
Nor thern Segment of Eastern Cordillera of
Peru  This segment corresponds to the Eastern Cor-
dillera north of the Abancay deflection, where on
top of the red sandstones and minor alkali basalts of
the Mitu Group, continental and marine carbonates
of the Pucará Group were deposited (Rosas et al.,
2007). Most of the rift system of the Mitu Group, as
well as the extensional faults that controlled the Pu-
cará depocenters, are concentrated along the Eastern
Cordillera and developed in the hanging-wall of the
previous sutures as noticed by Ramos (2009, figure
11) and Chew et al. (2016).
The distribution of the marine Late Triassic–
Early Jurassic rocks between Ayacucho and north
of Jaén (Figure 5) shows that they were deposited in
a fault-controlled depression, which deepens to the
east. According to Rosas et al. (2007) the deposits of
the Pucará Group represent the sag phases of the Mitu
synrift, but Carlotto et al. (2009b) interpreted them
as synextensional facies related to rifting, based on
the great thickness variation of these deposits. The
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extensional activity continued up to the Sinemurian,
but from that time on it is linked to the beginning of
subduction, as volcanic arc rocks are preserved in the
northwest of the basin. The Late Triassic–Early Juras-
sic marine deposits developed eastward of the Pa-
racas terrane, which was a positive area at that time
(Figure 5). The Norian Sea entered by the Río La Leche
area, north of Chiclayo to the central trough that is
now along the present Eastern Cordillera (Carlotto et
al., 2009b), controlled by east-northeast-trending faults
parallel to the Tahuín suture.
The Norian Sea of the Pucará Basin did not go fur-
ther south than the Totos-Paras High, which was the
northern boundary of the Arequipa Basin (Carlotto
et al., 2009b). This high was part of a series of horsts
and grabens parallel to the Abancay deflection that
reactivated the old suture between the Paracas and
­Arequipa terranes (Figure 5).
Southern Segment of Eastern Cordillera of Peru
and Cordillera Real of Bolivia  The extension along
this segment also started with the sedimentation in
a rift setting of the Mitu Group along the Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 5), far away from the continen-
tal margin (Mégard, 1978; Jaillard et al., 1990). This
­r ifting is also controlled by the suture between the
Arequipa terrane and the Amazonia craton (Ramos,
2009). New ages available from these rocks indicate a
time span between 245–240 and 220 Ma (Spikings et
al., 2016), much younger that the Permian–Early Tri-
assic age assigned in previous works (Mégard, 1978;
Dalmayrac et al., 1980; Kontak et al., 1990).
Triassic granitoids and related volcanic rocks were
emplaced in an extensional setting along this segment
of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru between 220 and 200
Ma. The Triassic magmatism was dominated by alka-
line lavas of within-plate affinities, and peraluminous
granites, which are characteristic of continental rift
settings (Spikings et al., 2016).
These Triassic granites are well exposed along the
Cordillera Real of Bolivia (Figures 4, 5), where granitic
stocks such as the Huato (2252218 Ma), ­Illampu (218–
202 Ma), Zongo (219–201 Ma), and Huayna Potosí
(2182196 Ma), Taquesi (2142211 Ma), among others
(Jiménez et al., 2009), were emplaced in an extensional
setting (Ávila Salinas, 1991; Ramos and Jiménez,
2014).
South of the Abancay deflection, the Arequipa B­ asin
developed since Sinemurian times, as part of the vol-
canic arc–retro-arc basin system. According to ­Carlotto
et al. (2009b), the northern limit coincides with the
­Totos-Paras High, whereas the eastern boundary is
represented by the Cusco-Puno High along the foot-
hills of the Eastern Cordillera.
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 14 Ramos

Figure 5. Triassic–Jurassic rift basins and Early Jurassic magmatic arc (based on Sempere et al., 2002, 2004; Rosas
et al., 2007; Jiménez et al., 2009; Carlotto et al., 2009b; Spikings et al., 2016). Note the location of the Totos-Paras
High along the Abancay deflection and the control of Paleozoic sutures on the distribution of the rift systems.

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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  15
The Arequipa Basin starts in the Early Jurassic
with sedimentation of the Yura Group with volcanic
and detrital sequences in the Chocolate Formation
­(Hettangian?–Sinemurian) at the base (Boekhout et al.,
2013), and carbonates (Toarcian–Bajocian), turbidites
(Bathonian–Oxfordian), clastic sequences (Oxfordian–
Kimmeridgian), and finally ending with carbonates
(early Tithonian). New ages of the Chocolate Forma-
tion and calc-alkaline plutons along the continental
margin indicate the onset of subduction between 196
and 176 Ma (Boekhout et al., 2013).
There is a clear shifting of the locus of the extension
and associated magmatism. Rifting started inboard in
the Eastern Cordillera at 245 Ma with the Mitu Group,
continued in this region with the intrusion of peralka-
line granites between 220 and 200 Ma, and moved to
the continental margin with arc-related rocks at about
195 Ma, when subduction controlled by an extensional
regime started (Ramos, 2010a; Spikings et al., 2016).
The Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia  The Eastern
Cordillera of Bolivia, south of the Cordillera Real,
has a series of basaltic dikes emplaced after 196 Ma
such as in Tarabuco area (Figure 4). Younger with-
in-plate basalts are spread along the Eastern Cor-
dillera up to the border with Argentina (Sempere
et al., 2002; Jiménez et al., 2009). There is a pro-
nounced and continuous decrease in the amount of
extension from northern Peru to southern Bolivia
during Triassic and Early Jurassic times in compar-
ison with previous segments. At these latitudes,
there are some basaltic fields in the sub-Andean
system, east of the Eastern Cordillera, such as the
Entre Ríos and Camiri basaltic fields, near the bor-
der with Argentina (Sempere, 1995; Suárez Soruco,
2000). Previous K-Ar dating yielded ages around
235 Ma for these basalts (Sempere et al., 2002),
but new Ar-Ar geochronological data yield pre-
cise ages of 204.03 { 1.38 Ma for a Camiri basaltic
dike and 180.55 { 1.52 Ma for the Entre Ríos basalts
(Kusiak et al., 2014). These values are similar to the
Bertrand et al. (2005) Ar-Ar ages from the Tarabuco
Basalts between 201.2 { 10.6 Ma and 185.5 { 6.3 Ma
and from 200.0 { 2.7 Ma to 189.5 { 1.4 Ma for the
Camiri basalts. These authors based on the study
of Marzoli et al. (2006), include these basalts in the
Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) based
on their geochemistry and age. The CAMP basalts
exposed in the northeastern margin of South Amer-
ica were correlated with typical 200 Ma basalts of
the east coast of North America and western mar-
gin of Africa (Bertrand et al., 2005; Kusiak et al.,
2014). This large igneous province is related to
breakup of Pangea (Marzoli et al., 1999).
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13972_ch01_ptg01_001-034.indd 15
THE ANDEAN EVOLUTION
There are several reviews of the Andean tectonic evo-
lution of this sector of the Central Andes (Mathalone
and Montoya, 1995; Sempere, 1994, 1995; Ramos and
Alemán, 2000; Carlotto et al., 2009a; Carlotto, 2013;
Garzione et al., 2017, among others). Several articles
have described the regional sedimentation patterns of
the Andean and sub-Andean basins including Bena-
vides Cáceres (1962, 1999), Jaillard et al. (1993) , Jacay
(1994), Jaillard (1994) , Martinez et al. (1994), Baby et
al. (1995), Carlotto (1998, 2013), Carlotto et al. (2005),
among many others. Since the detailed reviews of
Jaillard et al. (2000, and references therein) and Car-
lotto (2013) the importance of the role of inherited
pre-Andean structures in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
evolution of the Andean basins and their structures
has become evident. In this chapter the main regional
paleogeography will be discussed to understand the
controls that the inherited basement structures exerted
in the different Andean processes, such as crustal
delamination and lithospheric removal as described
by James and Sacks (1999) and Kay et al. (1999).
The Arc-Retro-Arc Extensional Regime
The threefold division of a subduction system in this
part of the Central Andes is difficult to recognize.
More than 150 km (93 mi) of the forearc has been
removed by tectonic erosion during Cenozoic times
(see von Huene et al., 1996; Clift, 2003) and the forearc
is poorly preserved. Subduction of the Nazca Ridge
led to uplift of the forearc (Macharé and Ortlieb, 1992).
The magmatic arc in some areas is directly exposed
along the present continental margin (Pitcher et al.,
1985; Boekhout et al., 2015). The successive magmatic
arcs and their retro-arc basins are well exposed north
of Arequipa, where late Cenozoic arc volcanic rocks
are not due to present flat-slab subduction (Soler and
Bonhomme, 1990).
Subduction in the Central Andes developed under
an extensional regime from Early Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous times (Auboin et al., 1973; Charrier, 1984;
Mpodozis and Ramos, 1989; Ramos, 1999), and the
magmatic arc products were juvenile poorly evolved
in intra-arc basins up to 9 km (6 mi) thick along the
continental margin (Petford and Atherton, 1995;
Romero et al., 2013). This regime was controlled by
the absolute motion of the upper plate, when South
­America—as a single block with Africa—moved to the
east, and the trench rollback produced extension in
the upper plate (Daly, 1989; Ramos, 1999, 2000; Ramos
and Alemán, 2000).
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 16 Ramos
Retro-arc basins were developed in an extensional
regime during most of the Jurassic and Lower Creta-
ceous in Peru and Bolivia (Sempere et al., 2002), and
subsidence mechanisms alternated between mechan-
ical extension and thermal sag. The locus of the ex-
tension was concentrated along the weakness zone
between Amazonia and the Arequipa Massif (Sempere
et al., 2002), as well as between the Paracas block and
Amazonia (Ramos, 2008). Normal faults were devel-
oped mainly along the upper plate of the sutures not
only with the Amazonia craton but also on the suture
between the Paracas and Arequipa terranes along the
set of faults that define the Abancay deflection (Maro-
cco, 1978; Carlotto, 1998; Carlotto et al., 2009b).
The Arc and Foreland Basin System
Important paleogeographic, structural, and magmatic
changes occurred associated with the Mochica and
Peruvian orogenies (Steinmann, 1929; Mégard, 1984)
at the end of the Early Cretaceous. It is well estab-
lished that the initiation of the westward shift of the
South American plate in the late Albian coincided
with the beginning of contractional deformation in the
Peruvian Andes (Jaillard and Soler, 1996). This change
in the tectonic regime is recorded all along the conti-
nental margin of South America and is related to the
final opening of the central sector of the South Atlan-
tic and the beginning of the absolute westward drift of
the South American continent (Ramos, 2010a).
The widespread Late Cretaceous regression in the
western basins was interpreted by Jaillard et al. (1993)
as the result of the Peruvian orogenic episode. The onset
of this deformation is recorded by fine-grained clastic
sedimentation in the eastern Peruvian basins in the mid
Turonian–earliest Coniacian (Jaillard et al., 2005). How-
ever, one of the main synorogenic episodes produced as
a consequence of the Peruvian phase is the development
of the Ayabacas giant submarine collapse (Figure 6).
This giant mélange is known since the early work of
Heim (1948a), who described these rocks as a chaotic
broken formation. It is worth to mention here that simi-
lar deposits in the Precordillera of San Juan, Argentina,
were also described by Heim (1948b). Studies of these
mélanges interpreted their genesis as submarine chaotic
synorogenic deposits of a foreland basin as result of the
contractional deformation during the Famatinian orog-
eny (Ramos et al., 1996; Festa et al., 2016).
The Ayabacas mélange is an extraordinary unit
formed by the giant submarine collapse of the
mid-Cretaceous carbonate platform of the western
Peru back-arc basin (Callot et al., 2008a). ­According to
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these authors, this collapse occurred at about 90289
Ma in Turonian–Coniacian times. Its origin has proved
controversial through the years, varying from subaer-
ial to submarine landslides controlled by contractional
or extensional tectonics, or exclusively gravitational
mechanism. However, detailed studies of Callot (2008)
and Callot et al. (2008a, b) allowed reconstructing the
distribution of their facies and their precise deposi-
tional environments (Figure 7). The area covered by
the collapse is larger than 80,000 km2 with an estimated
volume of more than 10,000 km 3 (2399 mi 3; Callot
et al., 2008a).
Recent global analysis of the different kinds of
olistostromes produced during the evolution of the
orogenic belts shows different contractional settings
where orogenic uplift produced large collapses (Festa
et al., 2016). The local control of some of these large
olistostromes is triggered by normal faults. The Ayab-
acas c­ ollapse is one of the largest ancient submarine
landslides on a global scale (see figure 8 of Festa et al.,
2016).
The studies of Callot et al. (2008a, b) indicate
­important and rapid changes in thickness of the Ayab-
acas Formation related to synsedimentary deforma-
tion associated with normal faults. The initiation of
deformation along the Coastal Cordillera of northern
and southern Peru was related to the Mochica and
Peruvian phases between 100 and 90 Ma (Benavides
Cáceres, 1999). It is important to remark that large sec-
tors of the forearc have been removed by subduction
erosion, and only part of the original magmatic arc is
presently preserved (Figure 7b). The beginning of con-
tractional deformation produced important flexural
loading and the early subsidence of the adjacent fore-
land basin. The buckling associated with initial con-
traction was linked to normal faults, responsible of the
Ayabacas collapse. The ­Puno-Cusco High, ­although
covered by the sea during the Late Cretaceous, acted
as a positive swell during the sedimentation of the
Ayabacas Formation (Carlotto, 2002).
The distribution of the Ayabacas collapse is outlined
by the Totos-Paras and Puno-Cusco Highs (Figure 6),
which may indicate that the old sutures of Paracas
and Arequipa terranes behaved as unstable weakness
zones. The structures could be reactivated either by
incipient contractional structures by inversion of pre-
vious normal faults, or the uplift could be controlled
by a peripheral bulge linked to thrust loading in the
Western Cordillera further west. The paleo-tectonic re-
constructions of Carlotto (2013) identified the periph-
eral bulge in the Puno-Cusco High at the beginning
of the Paleocene as a consequence of thrust loading in
the Western Cordillera. The continental deposits of the
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  17

Figure 6. The beginning of the Andean deformation in the Late Cretaceous in the Central Andes. The Mochica deforma-
tion in northern Peru seems to be earlier than the Peruvian orogeny in southern Peru and northern Chile according to
Benavides Cáceres (1999). The outline of the giant submarine collapse of Ayabacas is based on Callot (2008), but it is
interpreted following Carlotto et al. (2002, 2009a) as result of the Late Cretaceous orogeny (see discussion in the text).
Note the inherited control of the previous sutures.

Vilquechico Group were associated with the Peruvian
phase by Jaillard et al. (1993).
The main orogenic deformation in the Central
Andes of Peru and Bolivia corresponds to the Incaic
orogeny (Steinmann, 1929, 1930; Mégard, 1984; Jail-
lard et al., 2000). As a result of that, the Eastern Cor-
dillera was uplifted and different foreland basins
developed between 52 and 30 Ma (Carlotto, 2013).
The basin foreland evolution indicates that the dep-
ocenters in the Paleocene were located in the central
western Altiplano and shifted to the east during the
Eocene. The main orogenic deformation phase took
place between ∼43 and ∼30 Ma ­(Carlotto, 2013), and
exceptional growth strata developed in the Ayaviri re-
gion (Figure 8) at 29226 Ma in the central Altiplano of
southern Peru (Perez and ­Horton, 2014).

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 18 Ramos

Figure 7. The Ayabacas giant submarine collapse. A. Ayabacas Formation in southern Peru Altiplano (courtesy of V ­ ictor
­Carlotto, whose permissions is required for further use). B. Scheme showing the collapse during the Peruvian deformation
­controlled by the highs related to the sutures. C. Broken mélange near Santa Rosa (after Callot et al., 2008a). D. Scheme
of the western back-arc basin of southern Peru, and the potential control of the Peruvian phase on the collapse (based on
Carlotto, 2013 and Alonso et al., 2015). Note that main structures within the basin are extensional faults.

Flat Slab Subduction Leading to Crustal Delamination
It is well established that a series of tonalities and
granodiorites were emplaced during the Late Cre-
taceous (82286 Ma) along the Arequipa segment
parallel to the continental margin (Carlotto et al.,
2009a,b). These calc-alkaline rocks were uplifted by
tectonic inversion during the Late Cretaceous, with
important contraction produced by faults like the
Cincha-Lluta thrust described by Vicente (1989),

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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  19

Figure 8. Growth strata of the Puno Group of Late Oligocene age in the foreland deposits of central Altiplano near
­Ayaviri, southern Peru (courtesy of Nicholas Pérez, whose permission is required for further use).

Figure 9. Maximum extension of the main Paleogene arc with the subduction related magmatic rocks and a ­ ssociated
­porphyries of Paleocene and middle Eocene-early Oligocene age (after Perelló et al., 2003). The Z­ ongo-San G
­ abán
­“inner arc” rocks are exposed in the Cordillera de Carabaya and Cordillera Real according to Sandeman et al. (1995);
terrane boundaries after Ramos (2009). Numbers within brackets indicate mineralization age.

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 20 Ramos
where the basement overthrusts the sediments of the
Arequipa Basin.
The magmatic arc located in the western slope of the
Western Cordillera shifted to the east in the latest Cre-
taceous–Paleocene, emplacing a belt of important calc-­
alkaline igneous rocks and associated porphyries along
the western margin of the Arequipa basin in southern
Peru (Figure 9) known as the Toquepala arc (85245 Ma;
Mamani et al., 2010). These calc-alkaline rocks are rep-
resented by porphyries such as Cuajone, Quellaveco,
Toquepala, Cerro Colorado, and Spence (57252 Ma),
a belt of important mineralization of Paleocene age in
southern Peru and northern Chile (Clark et al., 1990;
­Carlotto et al., 2009a).
An important change in the subduction angle of the
Toquepala arc occurred at about 53 Ma, followed by
an important eastward shift recorded between 50 and
42 Ma. A phase of normal subduction, with the arc lo-
cated about 300 km (186 ft) from the trench, gave way to
the onset of flat-slab subduction, as proposed by Sande-
man et al. (1995), James and Sacks (1999), and Perelló et
al. (2003). The main arc was characterized by the Anta
volcanic rocks and the Andahuaylas-Yauri calc-alkaline
batholith, emplaced further to the east between 48 and
34 Ma (Carlier et al., 1996) and bounded by the Abancay
deflection in the northeastern corner of the Arequipa
terrane (Figure 9). An important phase of mineraliza-
tion is related to dacites and andesites in the last phases
of batholith assembly and defines a belt of porphyry
copper and skarn mineralization of middle–late Eocene
age (42232 Ma) according to Perelló et al. (2003).
The Paleogene shift in the position of the main arc
was associated with the most important orogenic phase
of this part of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: the Incaic
orogeny (Steinmann, 1929; Megárd et al., 1984). Intense
deformation took place in the Western Cordillera and
in the Altiplano, shifted to the Eastern Cordillera, and
was related to the shallowing of the subducted slab be-
tween 43 and 30 Ma according to Carlotto, 2013, and
references therein. This deformation was linked to
northeast-verging thrusts that produced important up-
lift, crustal shortening, and exhumation leading to the
formation of thick synorogenic deposits in the foreland
basins. The reactivation of the Huarinas backthrust
belt also contributed to crustal shortening west of the
Cordillera Real in Bolivia (Jiménez et al., 2009) and
west of the Cordillera de Carabaya (Perez and Horton,
2014) during the Oligocene.
The geochemical, isotopic, and geophysical studies
of Mamani (2006) and Mamani et al. (2008, 2010) con-
tributed to understand the petrological processes as-
sociated with the trench retreat of the main magmatic
arc related to the steepening of the Benioff zone after
30 Ma. These authors recognized the volcanic front
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shifted westward toward the trench, as defined by the
location of successive arcs: the Tacaza (30–24 Ma), the
Huaylillas (24210 Ma), the Lower Barroso (1023 Ma),
the Upper Barroso (321 Ma), and the active volcanic
arc ( 61 Ma), located at ∼230 km 1 ∼143 mi2 northeast
of the trench and 115 { 5 km (71 { 3 mi) above the
Benioff zone (Mamani et al., 2010). The volcanic rocks
erupted in the Tacaza arc consist of primary mantle
melts represented by shoshonitic and high-K mafic
lavas, and subordinate andesitic calc-alkaline mag-
mas, followed by voluminous ignimbrites between
29 and 26 Ma as result of crustal melting (Mamani et
al., 2010). Large ignimbritic plateaux were developed
during the Huaylillas arc further to the west, ending
with the Barroso arcs along the Western Cordillera,
close to the present volcanic arc. The time variation of
the flattening of the subduction zone is indicated in
Figure 10.
It is important to note that after the shifting and
the expansion of the magmatic arc, Clark et al. (1990)
identified “inner arc” magmatism on geochemical
grounds related to crustal melt with localized ex-
tension. The rocks of the “inner arc” are not sub-
duction related, and they are similar to previously
described Triassic weakly peraluminous granitic
rocks of the Cordillera de Carabaya (see Figure 4).
Peraluminous monzogranitic stocks were generated
at 29228 Ma by high-temperature crustal melt-
ing after the broadening of the main Paleogene arc
along the Zongo-San Gabán area in southern Peru
and northern Bolivia (Clark et al., 1990; Sandeman
et al., 1995). These Oligocene granites are emplaced
along the Zongo-San Gabán belt in the Cordillera de
Carabaya and in the Cordillera Real (Figures 10, 11),
similar to the previously described peraluminous
granites associated with the Arequipa–Amazonia
boundary. This boundary was described as a first or-
der weakness zone, an inherited basement feature,
which controlled the location of crustal extension
(Ávila Salinas, 1991; Sempere et al., 2002; Carlier et
al., 2005; Jiménez et al., 2009). The structural set-
ting of the Huarinas fold belt, a Famatinian series of
backthrusts located west of the Cordillera Real fault
zone, and the reactivation of this belt during Andean
times, led Ramos and Jiménez (2014) to propose that
the suture between these cratonic blocks was the lo-
cus of lower crustal extension. The “inner arc” mag-
matism continued with the mantle-derived Picotani
(26222 Ma) and the peraluminous silicic Quenamari
(1726.5 Ma) volcanic rocks in the Eastern Cordillera
of southern Peru. The voluminous 530 km3 (127 mi3)
Quenamari rhyolites, although coeval with the main
arc, were crustal melts not related to subduction
(Sandeman et al., 1997).
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  21

Figure 10. Variation through time of the flattening of the subduction zone in southern Peru and Bolivia from the Oligo-
cene to the Pliocene (based on Jiménez et al., 2009; Kay and Coira, 2009; Mamani et al., 2010; Garzione et al., 2017,
and cites therein). There is also indicated the location of the “inner arc,” which is developed coevally with the steepen-
ing of the subduction and it is getting younger to the south. The position of the lower crustal melts associated with the
“inner arc” approximately coincides with the Arequipa–Amazonia suture weakness zone.

Further south, Jiménez et al. (2009) described
in Bolivia (Figure 10) voluminous ignimbritic
eruptions such as Morococala (826 Ma), Lichiv-
ico ( 827 Ma ), Condomasa ( 7 Ma ), Los Frailes
(925 Ma to 322 Ma), among others. Note that Cerro
Rico de Potosí (13 Ma) lies within the “inner arc”
zone. These eruptions are along the “inner arc”
according to Kay and Coira (2009), and their ages
indicate that this ignimbritic phase youngs to the
south.
Crustal and Lithosphere Delamination
The need for mantle removal and the loss of lower crust
were quantified by the pioneering work of Roeder and
Chamberlain (1995, and references therein) based on
restoration of regional structural cross sections in the
Central Andes (Figure 12). A similar conclusion was
obtained by Kay and Kay (1993) and Kay et al. (1994)
who identified on petrological grounds evidence for
lithosphere delamination in the magmatic products.

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 22 Ramos
Figure 11. Main Paleogene structures in northern Bolivia based on Martinez et al. (1994) and the extensional intra-
plate granites of the “inner arc” after Jiménez et al. (2009). Note that intrusive age is decreasing to the south: Illimani
(28227 Ma); Quimsa Cruz (26224 Ma); Santa Vera Cruz (23 Ma).
The recent synthesis of Garzione et al. (2017) em-
phasizes two different end-member processes for the
removal of mantle lithosphere during Andean defor-
mation. The removal of dense lower lithosphere be-
neath the Central Andean Altiplano can be explained
by ablative subduction of mantle lithosphere on the
foreland side of the system; this is a continuous pro-
cess in which the lower lithosphere is removed during
flattening of the subducted slab, associated with
crustal thickening and gradual plateau uplift over tens
of millions of years. This process is equivalent to the
mechanical removal of pieces of lithosphere proposed
by Kay et al. (1999), during shallowing of the seismic
zone and thickening of the crust, to explain the mass
balance between crustal shortening and the excess vol-
ume of mantle lithosphere.
The second end-member process described by
Garzione et al. (2017) is the rapid removal of a thick
portion of the lower lithosphere as proposed by Bird
(1979) and Sobolev and Babeyko (2005), among oth-
ers. The rapid removal of lower crust and mantle
lithosphere occurs after significant crustal thickening
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and the formation of a high-density eclogitic crustal
root. The delaminated block would consist of litho-
spheric mantle and eclogitic lower continental crust
as inferred in the Central Andes by Kay et al. (1994).
­Evidence for this process was imaged through differ-
ent seismic experiments (Beck and Zandt, 2002; Schurr
et al., 2006; Calixto et al., 2013, among others). This
fast block delamination produces a rapid surface up-
lift of more than one kilometer over a short period of
time (Garzione et al., 2006, 2007).
The application of these concepts to the Cenozoic
tectonic evolution of the Central Andes of Peru and
Bolivia clearly shows that shortening during the
Late Cretaceous and Paleogene was accommodated
by ablative subduction. The crustal thickening and
uplift the Western Cordillera and western Altiplano
was followed by the uplift of the Eastern Cordillera
after the shallowing of the oceanic slab, as envisaged
by Sandeman et al. (1995). A remarkable feature is
the giant Ayabacas submarine collapse as result of
the Peruvian orogeny controlled by the reactivation
of previous sutures. The shortening of the Western
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  23

Figure 12. Balanced structural crustal sections of the Eastern Cordillera and the sub-Andean belt of northern Boliv-
ian Andes. A. Present state showing the double-wedge style of Huarinas and sub-Andean belts and the required
lithospheric delamination for accounting the orogenic shortening. B. Restored section prior to the beginning of Neo-
gene deformation (after Roeder and Chamberlain, 1995). Note the partial melting of the lower crust associated with
lithospheric delamination. The initial stage is similar to the hypothesis of Isacks (1988), which needs a thin mantle
lithosphere for the thermal uplift of the Altiplano.

Cordillera, the Altiplano, and the Eastern Cordillera
amounts to about 185 km (115 mi) according to re-
cent estimates of Anderson et al. (2017), and it was
mainly developed during this time interval of abla-
tive subduction.
The steepening of the subducted slab after 30 Ma
produced the retreat of the main arc toward the
trench and almost synchronically the “inner arc” in
the Zongo–San Gabán area. Several authors empha-
size that the “inner arc” magmatism was the result of
lower crustal melting. It was explained by James and
Sacks (1999) as hydration of the metasomatized litho-
spheric mantle in contact with hot asthenospheric
flow during shallowing of the slab at about 40 Ma in
the Incaic phase. The new available ages constrain the
“inner arc” magmatism as coeval or postdating the
last stages of Incaic (including Aymará) deformation.
The most voluminous volcanism is associated with
the peraluminous Quenamari ignimbrites of middle–
late Miocene age, erupted in the hanging-wall of the
suture between Amazonia and Arequipa within the
Cordillera Real fault zone. It is interpreted as the re-
sult of the interaction of hot asthenosphere with hy-
drated lithospheric mantle. The voluminous silicic
volcanism would be the expression of delamination
along the Zongo–San Gabán area. In a similar setting
across the Altiplano–Eastern Cordillera, the crustal
roots have been delaminated according to Beck and
Zandt (2002), and the ignimbrite field of Los Frailes
would be the evidence of such delamination. The
“inner arc” magmatism is younger to the south and
several domes and ignimbrite fields are described
between 18 and 20°S by Kay and Coira (2009). These
authors include in the “inner arc” the Los Frailes, Mo-
rococala, and Vila Vila volcanic rocks varying in age
between 25 and 5 Ma, being the most voluminous
Los Frailes field with 7,500 km2 (2896 mi2) erupted at
about 925 Ma.
The partial melting of the lower crust associ-
ated with localized crustal melting along the suture

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 24 Ramos
Figure 13. Structural evolution of the sub- fold-and-thrust belt in southern Bolivia (after Baby et al., 1994, and Moretti
et al., 1996). Note the rapid deformation after 6 Ma in coincidence with the main volcanic episodes in the “inner arc”
at these latitudes.
between Amazonia and Arequipa triggered defor-
mation in the sub-Andean belt and important short-
ening occurred after middle–late Miocene times. This
second wave of deformation is related to the Quechua
orogeny with its many different phases (see Fig. 13),
responsible of the development of the sub-Andean
fold-and-thrust belt that accounts for about 152 km
(94 mi) of shortening (Anderson et al., 2017). The early
work of Baby et al. (1994) and Moretti et al. (1996) and
subsequent fission track data indicate that major short-
ening occurred mainly in late Miocene–present times
(see Garzione et al., 2017, and references therein). This
shortening may have been enhanced by the change
from arid/semi-arid climate to hyperaridity, occurred
between 4 and 3 Ma as proposed by Hartley (2003).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The analysis of the different tectonic events that have
affected the continental margin of the Central Andes of
Peru and Bolivia shows a protracted evolution, where
their tectonic framework is strongly influenced by
previous inherited structures. The sutures developed
during the Grenvillian orogeny have a primary control
in the formation of younger oceans, the inception of
sedimentary basins, the successive hanging-wall rifts,
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the Andean structural styles, ore mineralization, and
in many other geological processes. A brief appraisal
of the different orogens will be made following the
main inherited properties in each stage.
Grenvillian Orogen
There are at least two orogens developed along the
continental margin, the autochthonous Sunsas oro-
gen along the Amazonian margin being the best
known (see Cordani et al., 2000; Cordani and Teixeira,
2007). The eastern Sunsas belt is patchily exposed in
Querobamba and Río Picharí at the Eastern Cordillera
of Peru, and in the Serranías Chiquitanas of Bolivia,
east of the sub-Andean belt. A second Grenvillian
orogenic belt was developed in the continental frag-
ments amalgamated to Amazonia during the forma-
tion of Rodinia (Ramos, 2010b). Basement remnants of
the magmatic arc of this orogen have been identified
in the northern offshore of Peru, as part of the outer
shelf high of the Paracas terrane (Romero et al., 2013),
and all along the western margin of Arequipa–Anto-
falla terrane of southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern
Chile (Tosdal, 1996; Loewy et al., 2004). Large parts of
this Grenvillian basement have been eroded away by
subduction e­ rosion. The sutures that bound these two
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 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  25
terranes from the Amazonian craton were recognized
on geophysical and geological grounds (Carlier et al.,
2005; Mamani et al., 2008; Ramos, 2009, and references
therein).
Famatinian Orogen
The orogenic deformation that took place during the
Ordovician has been identified all along the Gond-
wanan proto-margin of the Andes. The metamor-
phic and magmatic rocks are well exposed from the
Mérida Andes in Venezuela to central Chile–Argen-
tina Andes and are well dated in this central segment
(Chew et al., 2007, 2016; Cardona et al., 2008, 2009).
The important changes along-strike in metamorphic
grade and the crustal structural level of the Famatin-
ian orogen, parallel to the proto-margin, are directly
related to the collision of allochthonous and paraau-
tochthonous terranes. The occurrence of paired meta-
morphic belts, ophiolitic assemblages, and magmatic
arcs shows that these terranes have been detached
from Amazonia, probably reactivating old Grenvil-
lian sutures, and later collided again in Ordovician
times. Some of the continental blocks such as Areq-
uipa–Antofalla were only partly detached, but oth-
ers like the Paracas terrane developed oceanic crust
between this terrane and Amazonia. In the first case
where the terrane was partly detached, the Ordo-
vician rocks in the Amazonian side are preserved
in sedimentary facies, whereas in the second case
when oceanic rocks are consumed and the terrane
collided against the craton, middle to high metamor-
phic grade is dominant. Among different segments
a transitional domain is identified as in the Cordil-
lera of Vilcabamba, where these rocks are preserved
in greenschist facies. Based on these data Famatinian
deformation should be more pervasive in the north-
ern sub-Andean basins where the collision of Para-
cas terranes is recorded than in the south where there
was no collision at that time.
The Gondwanide Orogen
The Gondwanides are well defined in the southern
part of South America along the Patagonian margin
after the classical proposal of Keidel (1921) followed
by Du Toit (1927) and many others. The term was pro-
posed for the Central Andes of Peru by Chew et al.
(2016), identifying two different episodes at ~305 Ma
and ~260 Ma, as early and late Gondwanide, respec-
tively. It is important to note that none of these epi-
sodes is related to consumption of oceanic crust. The
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13972_ch01_ptg01_001-034.indd 25
granitic orthogneisses represent Carboniferous and
Permian batholiths inboard of the continental margin
and can be explained like in the Sierras Pampeanas,
as a response to the collapse of the previous orogenic
deformation with extension of the crust and mantle
upwelling (Grosse et al., 2009). The only Late Paleozoic
tonalitic orthogneisses that may represent a magmatic
arc are in the Tahuín terrane along the continental
margin of northwestern Peru. This magmatic belt has
been interpreted by Ramos (2009) following Feininger
(1987) as an allochthonous terrane, whereas Bellido et
al. (2009) and Timoteo et al. (2012) considered these
metamorphic rocks as part of Gondwana. Both alter-
natives fail to explain the occurrence in the Cordillera
de Marañón, inboard of the continental margin, of
another belt of metamorphic rocks with similar ages
more than 350 km (217 mi) from the present continen-
tal margin. If a conservative assessment of the crustal
erosion by subduction is considered, the Late Paleo-
zoic rocks were formed near 500 km (311 mi) inboard
of the margin.
The regional distribution of these late Paleozoic
metamorphic belts shows that they disappear to the
south of central Peru, where either in southern Peru
or in Bolivia the late Paleozoic rocks are preserved in
sedimentary facies. North of Peru metamorphic rocks
of these ages are exposed in the Cordillera Real of Ec-
uador, the Central Cordillera of Colombia, and in the
Merida Andes of Venezuela. This pattern may suggest
that these metamorphic belts are more closely related
to the Alleghenide orogeny than to the Gondwanides,
formed during the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian
collision of Laurentia and the northern part of South
America.
The Late Paleozoic granitic rocks, now preserved
as orthogneisses, were emplaced in an extensional
regime not related to subduction (Clark et al., 1990),
and the uplift of middle crustal levels at the surface
could be related to the Laurentia–Western Gondwana
collision in the Late Paleozoic. The tonalitic metamor-
phic rocks of the Tahuin terrane (Romero et al., 2013)
may represent the magmatic arc of this collision, ei-
ther as a detached part of Laurentia or as autochtho-
nous part of Gondwana. The east vergence of these
rocks and the tectonic contact with sedimentary rocks
of the same age in the Amotape area favor the first
interpretation.
The Late Paleozoic rocks of the Cordillera de Cara-
baya and its continuation in the Cordillera Real of Bolivia
were defined as the “inner arc” of an eroded away mag-
matic arc belt along the margin (Boekhout et al., 2015).
These acidic rocks could represent an early delamination
of the lower crust during an extensional period in Late
Permian–Early Triassic times, as recognized in many
11/05/18 12:18 PM
 26 Ramos
areas along the continental margin of South America
(Ramos, 2009; Sato et al, 2015; Spikings et al., 2016). This
delamination again took place along the hanging-wall of
the suture between Arequipa and Amazonia.
The Pangea Breakup
The development of the Pucará Basin during Late
Triassic–Early Jurassic times and the associated earlier
Mitu Triassic hanging-wall rift was clearly controlled
by Famatinian sutures (Ramos, 2009), which are in
turn an inherited feature from the Grenville amalga-
mation of Rodinia. The boundary of this basin and
their deposits matches the suture between the Pucará
terrane and the Amazonian craton, as recognized by
several authors (Sempere et al., 2002; Carlotto et al.,
2009a, b, among others).
The development of the Arequipa basin was con-
trolled by the Abancay fault zone, coinciding with the
northern suture between Paracas and Arequipa, as
well as with the suture with the Amazonian craton to
the east. Two highs (the Totos-Paras and Puno Cusco
Highs) developed along these sutures (Carlotto et al.,
2009a, b) and controlled extension within the basin.
These highs were active until the beginning of the Late
Cretaceous, when they controlled the Ayabacas giant
submarine collapse.
There are no doubts that during the extensional
subduction regime, these sutures were an important
structural control in the extent of the basins and the lo-
cation of the magmatic rocks, as described by Sempere
et al. (2002) and Jiménez et al. (2009).
The Andean Evolution
The early work of Marocco (1978) and Carlotto (2002)
emphasized the control of the Abancay deflection in
the emplacement of the different igneous rocks, in the
tectonic inversion of the Andean structures, and in the
sedimentary synorogenic basins developed in southern
Peru (Carlotto, 2013). Several other workers studied the
control of the eastern contact of Arequipa terrane with
the Amazonian craton (Carlier et al., 2005; Mamani et
al., 2008, Carlotto, 2013) in the magmatic rocks, the syn-
orogenic deposits, and their structural styles.
The changes in the subduction zone during Paleo-
gene times, mainly in the extensional periods of retreat
of the magmatic arc during steepening of the oceanic
slab, again reactivated the old suture that controlled
the “inner arc” magmatism in almost the same areas
as in the late Paleozoic. The delamination of the lower
crust, associated with removal of the lithospheric
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13972_ch01_ptg01_001-034.indd 26
mantle, coincides with the suture between Arequipa
and Amazonia and was later exploited by potassic-­
ultrapotassic mafic rocks, which delineated the two
lithospheric mantle blocks (Carlier et al., 2005).
The shallowing of the oceanic slab migrated from
southern Peru to the south into Bolivia and northern
Argentina (James and Sacks, 1999; Kay et al., 1999; Kay
and Coira, 2009). This wave of flattening of the oceanic
slab produced not only a foreland expansion and mi-
gration of the magmatic arc but also a continued shift-
ing of the “inner arc” magmatism as depicted by Kay
and Coira (2009).
Several geophysical studies have shown that lower
crustal delamination and mantle removal that con-
trolled this “inner arc” magmatism along the suture
of Arequipa and Amazonia. Important “inner arc”
magmatic rocks as in Potosí during the Miocene and
Los Frailes in the Pliocene are related to world-class
ore deposits (Petersen, 1999), emplaced close to the
suture. Similarly the late Paleozoic Cerro de Pasco ore
deposits are related to analogous geological process.
The occurrence of delamination in the lower crust
triggered lower crustal ductile shortening as orig-
inally proposed by Isacks (1988) and simple shear
shortening in the upper crust in the latest stages the
sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt. Many authors have
described the migration of the thin-skinned deforma-
tion in the sub-Andean belt from north to south (Perez
and Horton, 2014, as well as in different chapters of
this volume).
As a final remark, it should be stated that the com-
bined location of the “inner arc” magmatism, lower
crustal delamination along the sutures, and removal
of the lithospheric mantle led to pronounced deforma-
tion in the sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt. However,
processes well exhibited in the Andean deformation
phases were also active during the Paleozoic and
controlled the early deformation in the sub-Andean
­basins of the Central Andes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wants to acknowledge several colleagues as
Victor Carlotto, José Macharé, Darwin Romero in Peru,
and Néstor Jiménez, Ramiro Suárez Sorucco, Ramiro
Matos in Bolivia, among many others, for many years
of interchange of ideas and discussions that signifi-
cantly contributed to the present manuscript. The man-
uscript was improved by the careful reviews of David
M. Chew of Trinity College Dublin and José Macharé
del INGEMET (Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúr-
gico del Perú). This is the contribution R@237 of the
­Instituto de Estudios Andinos Don Pablo Groeber.
11/05/18 12:18 PM
 Tectonic Evolution of the Central Andes: From Terrane Accretion to Crustal Delamination  27
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