Crane Engineering Flow of Fluids Through Pipes Valves Fittings

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE By the Engineering Division CRANE. _ CRANE CO. 200 Pah Sore woe a one | Technical Paper No. 410Bibliography RA, Dodge & M._J. Thompson, “Fluid: Mechanics ‘MetirewFii Books Campanyr Ine 1937, pages 198, 285, ‘nd 407 1H, Rouse, “Elementary Mechanies of Fluids"; John Wiley {8 Sons, Ine, New York, 1938, °BF. Grizale, “Simplification of Cas Flow Calculations by ‘Means of New Special Side Rule"; Petoiaum Engineer Seprember, 1945, HL Kirchbach, “Loss of Energy in Miter Bends”; Trans- auilont of the Munich Hydaule Institute, Bulletin No. 3, Agencan Scciety of Meshanial ‘Engincers, New Yoo m "Doweherm, Handbook Michigan, 1954, page 10 Dow Chemical Co, Midland, "RJS, Pigoce. "Pressure Losses in Tubing. Pipe, and Fic. ‘unas: Transactions of the American Socely of Mechanical Engineers, olume 72, 1950; pages 079 to O88 © Handbook of Chesnistey and Physics", 44th_ Edition 196221983, Chemical Rubber Publishing Co, Cleveland ORF. Steams, RM. Jackson, RR, Johnson, and CA, Larson, “Flow Measufement with Orifce Meters" D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc New York, 1981 Fluid Meters”: American Society of Mechanical Engi- seers, Part |—6th Edition, New York, 1971 “RG. Cunningham, Compeessble Flow "Ale Conditioning Refrigerating Data Book—Design “American Society of Refrigerating Enpineers, Sch Eaton, Rew Yorks 1953, neem ‘Once Meters with, Superriical ASME Paper No SOAS MAW L. Nelson, “Petroleum Refinery Engineering”: MeGraw- Hill Book Co,, New York, 1945, Lionel S, Marks, "Mechanical Enginsers Handbook ‘MeGrawiill Boake Co, New York, Pith Edition, Steam Tables” (page 298), American Society of chanical Engineers, Now York, 1907, 5].B. Maxwell, “Data. Book, on, Hydrocarbons! iostrand Company, Ine. New York, 1950, C.L. Corp and R.O. Ruble, “Loss of Head in Valves and ips of One-Half to Twelve Inches Diameter"; Uniersity of Wisconsin Esperimetl Station Balti, Volare, Na, "GL. Tuve and RE. Sprentle iets Yor Vacoue igs page 201 “LIF, Moody, “Frietion Factors for Pipe Flow”; Trans- actions of he American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Volume’ ’6, Klovember, i984: pages 671 0 OF8 AH. Shapiro. “The Denamies and Terrdynamis of snpresible Fluid Flo The Ronald Press Company T953: Chapter ® an DVL. Streeter, D. Van ‘Onifice Discharge Coefi- Trateumente, November, 199) "Fluid Mechanics", Ise Edition, 1951 MICH. Bei, "Pressure Losses for Fluid Flow in 90 Degree Pipe Bends"; Journal of Research of the National Butea of Siandarde, Volume 21, July. 1938 Standards of Hydraulic Institute”, Eighth Editon, 1947. Bingham, E.C. and Jackson, RLF, Bureau of Standards Balen if: pape 58'20.66 (3. 28, Aoput, 1910) MTR, Wevmouth, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 34, 1912 page 197 OR. J.S, Pigott. “The Flow of Fluids ja Closed Conduits, Mechanical Engineering, Volume 53, No. 8, August, 1933, age 497 ™Emory Kemler, “A Study of Data on the Flow of Fluids In Pipes. Transactions of the american Society of Mechan ‘eal Engineer, Vol 38. 1933. HYDS¥2. eeCHAPTER 1 Introduetion Physical Properties of Fluids. Weight density Specie volume Specific gravity Nature of Flow in Pipe— Laminar and Turbulent ‘Mean velocity of flow. Reynolds number Hydraulic radius General Energy Equation— Bernoulli's Theorem ‘Measurement of Pressure. Darcy's Formula— General Equation for Flow of Fluids ition factor Effect of age and use on pipe friction Pri iples of Compressible Flow in Pipe. Complete isothermal equation Simplified compressible tlow— 25 pipe line formula Other commonly used formulas for Compressible Rose in long pipe Tines Comparison of formulas for ‘compressible flow in pipe Fines Limiting flow of gases and vapors Stean—General Discussion CHAPTER 3 Introduction Summary of Formulas Formulas and Nomographs for Liquid Flow Velocity Reynolds number; friction factor for ‘lean steel and wrought iron pipe ressure drop for turbulent flow. Pressure drop for laminar flow. Flow through nozzles and orifices. Formulas and Nomographs for Compressible Flow Velocity Reynolds number friction factor for lean steel pipe Pressure drop ‘Simplified flow formal. Flow through nozzles and orifies Theory of Flow in Pipe Formulas and Nomographs for Flow Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Table of Contents CHAPTER 2 Flow of Fluids Through Valves and Fittings Introduction Types of Valves and Fittings Used in Pipe Systems Pressure Drop Chargeable to Valves and Fittings eA 5 ‘Description of uppuratas used 4 Wace low es 4 Steam How test my a Relationship of Pressure Drop. to Velocity’ of Flow. Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length L/D, and Flow Coefficient C, Laminar Flow Conditions 146 | Coneraction and Enlargement 1-6 [contraction and Enlargement 1-7 | Valves with Rechced Seats 1-7 | Resistance of Bends 1ST Resistance of Miter Bends 1-8] Flow Through Nazales and Orit General data bd Liquid Now. a Gas and vapor flow 9 Maximum flow of compressible fiuids in a nozzle. 1-10 Flow ugh shore tubes Discharge of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Liquid flow Compressible flow Examples of Flow Problems Introdvetion Reynolds Number and Friction Factor for Pipe Other than Steel or Wrought Tron Determination of Valve Resistance in L, +6 L/D, K. and Flow Coefficient C,. 48. | Chock Valves: Reduced Port Valves. $10 | Laminar Flow in Valves, Fittings, and Pi 312 |p : " Pe Sg | Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems Pipe Line Flow Problems. 3416 | Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems. Flow Through Orifice Meters. 38. Top | Application of Hydraulic Radius Sao | te Flow Problems Determination of Boiler Capacity. CHAPTER 4 —__ at 4 R 43 my +10 a2 +5 416i j AP AE Ree ee re APPENDIX A Physical Properties of Fluids and Flow Characteristics of Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Introdyetion. fai of Fluids Viscosity of steam Viscosity of water Viscosity of liquid petroleum products, Viscosity of various liquids Viseosity of gases and hydrocarbon vapors Viscosity of refrigerant vapors Physical properties of water. Specific. gravity—temperature relationship for petroleum oils. A Weight density and specific gravity of various liquids AT Physical properties of gases. a8 Volumetric composition and specific gravity of gaseous fuels... As Seeam—valc of entropic exponent, & 0 Weight density ond specific ‘lume of gases and pons Propertss of Fluide “Seturaced steam and sacuruted water. Mt ‘Superheated steam. X10 Superhented seam and comaressed water. ol Flow Characteristics of Nozales and Orifices Flow coeficient C for nozzles. 20 Flow coefficient © for square edged orifices A20 Net expansion factor. ¥ for compressible flow. at Critical pressure ratio, re for compressible flow. a2 Flow Characteristics of Pipe, Valves, and Fittings Net expansion factor ¥ for compressible flow through pipe to a larger flow area Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factor for complete turbulence Friction factors for any type of commercial pipe. Ae Friction factors for clean commercial steet pipe A258 Representative Resistance Cosffiients (K) for Valves and Fiecings—"K Factor Table Pipe ition factors Formulas; contraction and enlargement. Formula: reduced port valves and tings Gate, globe, and angle valves (Check valves, ‘Stop-check and foot valves Ball and buterfly valves hog valves and cocks 7 Bends and fetings - Pipe entrance and exit Exquivalene Lengths L and L/D and Resistance CCoatfieent K Nomayraph, Aso Equivalents of Resbtance Coefiient K und Flow CCocfficient Cr Nomograph = ABI APPENDIX B. Engineering Data Introduction Bel Enjuivalent Volume and Weight Flove Rates of Compressible: Fluids, Br Equivalents of Viscosity Absolute (Dynan). Bo nematic B33 Kinematic and Saybolt Universal Ba Kinematic and Saybolt Furol BH Kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Saybolt Furol, and Absolute BS Sayholt Universal Viscosity Chart. Bo Equivalents of Degrees API, Degrees Baumé, Specific Gravity, Weight Density, and Pounds per Gallon By Steam Data Boiler capacity BS Horsepower of am engine BS Ranges in steam consumption By prime movers Bs Power Required for Pumping Bo Equivalents (General) Measure Weight Velocity Density Physical constants ‘Temperature Prefixes Liguid measures and weights Bressure and head Four-Place Logarithms to Base 10. Flow Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe Water . Air a Pipe Data—(Cathon and Alloy Stee; Stainless Stel) Sizes! thru Sinch Bele ‘Sizes 315 thra Inch Bu ‘Sizes 14 thru 22-inch Bs Sizes 24 thra Bsineh Be Fahrenheit-Celsius Temperature Conversion B10 MISCELLANEOUS. Ilustrations of Typical Valves ‘Globe, angle, sed stopchec 3 Life and swing check 27 and 3-26 “Filing dise check and fooe 325 Gate ball, and bute AM Cocke An Bibiography. sce secand page of book Foreword se third page of book Nomenclature see nest pageUnie tere sted, ol symbole uted Nomenclature a Soak sedated oy hone A. = cross sectional area of pipe or orfie, in Ry = hydraubic acs, in fet Beaune ae ieee aur) C= flow coefficient for orifices and noz: pecific gravity of a gas relative to air discharge coefficient corrected for vel the ratio of the molecular weight of the ocity of approach = Ca/ yi= Bi rw ont that of ar on Cx = discharge coefficient for orifices und nozzles T= absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine cy flow coefficient for valves; expresses flow yoo + 0 rate in gallons per minute of to F water with 1.9 psi pressure drop across valve internal diameter of pip incernal diameter of pipe. in inches = base of natural logarithm = 2.718 riction factor in formula h, = fLet/D 2g fr = fiction factor in zone of complete turbulence acceleration of gravity = second per second H_ = total head, in feet of fluid f= static pressure head existing at a point, in feet of fluid ‘otal heat of steam, in Bu per pound loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow, in feet of fluid. static pressure head. in inches of wacer sistance coefficient or velocity head loss in the formula. A, = Kut/2g k= ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume = length of pipe, in feet equivalent length of a resistance to flow in pipe diameters length of pipe, in miles molecular weight universal gas constant = 1545 exponent in equation for polytropic change (p'V2 = constant) pressure, in pounds per square inch gauge pressure, pounds per square inch absolute (Gee age 15 for diagram showing rlaion- ‘hip between gauge and absolute pressure) Y= pressure, in pounds per square foot absolute rate of flow, in gallons per minuce rate of flow. in cubic feet per second at flowing conditions q = rate of flow. in cubic feet per second at standard conditions (14.7 psia and 60F) 4 = rate of flow. in millions of standard cubic feet per day, MMsofd rate of flow, in cubic feet per hour at standard conditions (14.7 psia and ooF), sefh Gm = rate of flow, in cubic feet per minute at flowing conditions qn = rate of flow, in cubic feet per minute at std, conditions (14.7 psia and 60F), scfm R = individual gas constant = MR/M = 1545/M R. = Reynolds number 322 feet per {= temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit V = specific volume of fi pound mean velocity of flow, in feet per minute volume. in cubic feet mean velocity of flow, in feet per second. sonic (or critical) velocity of flow of a gas, in feet per second rate of flow. in pounds per hour rate of flow, in pounds per second weight, in pounds x = percent quality of steam = 100 minus per cent of moisture ret expansion factor for compressible flow through orifices, nozzles, oF pipe potential head or elevation above reference id, in cubic feet per level, in feet Grook Laters 8 = ratio of small to large diameter in orifices and nozzles, and contractions or enlargements in pipes A. = differential between two points Epsilon € = absolute roughness or effective height of pipe wall irregularities, in feet x = absolute (dynamic) viscosity, in centipoise Me = absolute viscosity, in pound mass per foot second or poundal seconds per sq foot we = absolute viscosity, in slugs per foot second or pound force’ seconds per square foot » = kinematic viscosity, in centistokes » = kinematic viscosity, square feet per second o eight density of fluid, pounds per cubic ft p= density of fluid, grams per cubic centimeter hota @ = angle of convergence or divergence in enlarge~ Tents or contractions in pipes ‘Subscripts for Diameter (1). defines smaller diameter (2). defines larger diameter Subscripts for Fluid Proparty (1)... defines inlet (upstream) condition (2). defines outlet (downstream) condition SS So a eCTheory of Flow In Pipe CHAPTER 1 The most commonly employed method of transport- ing fuid from one point to another is to force the { uid to flow through a piping system. Pipe of cir- ular section is most frequently used because that j shape offers not only greater structural strength, but also greater cross sectional area per unit of wall sur- i face than any other shape. Unless otherwise stated, the word "pipe" inthis book wil always feler to a | closed conduit of circular section and constant j internal diameter. | Only a few special problems in fluid mechanics laminar flow in pipe, for example .... can be entirely solved by rational mathematical means; all other problems require methods of solution which rest, at least in part, on experimentally determined coeffi- j cients. Many'empirical formulas have been proposed for the problem of flow in pipe, but these are often extremely limited and can be applied only when the conditions of the problem closely approach the conditions of the experiments from which the formulas were derived Because of the great variety of fluids being handled | in modern industrial processes, @ single equation which can be used for the flow of any fluid in pipe offers obvious advantages. Such an equation is the Darcy* formula. The Darcy formula can be derived rationally by means of dimensional analysis; how- i ever, one variable in the formula . . .. the friction factor .... must be determined experimentally. This formula has a wide application in the field of fluid mechanics and is used extensively throughout this paper. “The Darcy formula ie also known asthe Weisbach formula or the Datey- Weisbach formula: also, 2s the Fanning formula, sometimes mediied s0°that the Irieion factor is one-fourth the Darey friction factor.CRANE Physical Properties of Fluids The solution of any flow problem requires a knowl edge of the physieal properties of the Auid being handled. Accurate values for the properties affecting the flow of fluids... namely, viscosity and weight density... have been established by many authorities for all commonly used fluids and many of these data are presented in the various tables and charts in Appendix A. Viscosity: Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid lows when it is acted upon by an external force, The coefficient of absolute viscosity or, simply, the absolute viscosity of a fluid, is a measure of its resistance to internal deformation or shear. Molasses is a highly viscous fluid; water is ‘comparatively much less viscous; and the viscosity of gases is quite small compared to that of water, Although most fluids are predictable in their vise cosity, in some, the viscosity depends upon the previous working of the fluid. Printer’s ink, wood pulp slurries, and catsup are examples of fluids possessing such thixotropic properties of viscosity. Considerable confusion exists concerning the units used to express viscosity; therefore, proper units must be employed whenever substituting values of viscosity into formulas. In the C.G.S. (centimeter, gram, second) or metric system, the unit of absolute viscosity is the poise which is equal to 100 centipoise. The poise has the dimensions of dyne seconds per square centimeter or of grams per centimeter second. It is believed that less confusion concerning, units will prevail if the centipoise is used exclusively as the unit of viscosity. For this reason, and since most handbooks and tables follow the same procedure, all viscosity data in this paper are expressed in centipoise The English units commonly employed are “slugs per foot second” or “pound force seconds per square foot”; however, “pound mass per foot second” or “poundal seconds per square foot” may also be encountered, The viscosity of water at a temperature of 68 Fis (o.01 poise = 1 centipoiset = {0.01 gram per em second locer dyne second per sq cm {0.000 672 pound mass per foot second H#% = \o.c00 672 poundal second per square foot J, = {2.000 0209 slug per foot second #% ™ Jo.c0o one9 pound force second per square ft Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the mass density. In the metric system, the unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke, The stoke has dimensions of square centimeters. per second and is equi » (centistokes) igrams per cubicem) ~ 5 By definition, the specific gravity, 5, in the foregoing formula is based upon water at a cemperature of $C (09.2F), whereas specific gravity used iS paper is based upon water at 60 F. fh system, kinematic viscosity has dimensions of square feet per second, Factors for conversion between metrie and English system units of absolute and kinematic viscosity are sven on page B-3 of Appendix B ‘The measurement of the absolute viscosity of fluids (especially gases and vapors) requires elaborate equipment and considerable experimental skill. On the other hand, a rather simple instrument can be used for measuring the kinematic viscosity of oils and other viscous liquids. The instrument adopted as.a standard in this country is the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. In measuring kinematic viscosity with this instrument. the time required for a small volume of liquid to flow through an orifice is determined; consequently, the "Saybole viscosity" of the liquid is given in seeonds. For very viscous liquids, the Saybolt Furol inscrument is used Other viscosimeters, somewhat similar to the Saybolt bbut not used to any extent in this country, are the Engler, the Redwood Admiralty, and the Redwood. The relationship between Saybolt viscosity and Kinematic viscosity is shown on page B-t; equivalents of kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Saybolt Furol, and absolute viscosity can be obtained from the chart on page B-S. ‘The ASTM standard viscosity temperature chart for liquid petroleum products, reproduced on page B-6, is sed to determine the Saybolt Universal viscosity of a petroleum product at any temperature when the viscosities at two different temperatures are known, The viscosities of some of the most common fluids are siven on pages A-2 to A-5. It will be noted that, with a rise in temperature, the viscosity of liquids decreases, whereas the viscosity of gases increases The effect of pressure on the viscosity of liquids and perfect gases is so small that it is of no practical interest in most flow problems. Conversely, the viscosity of saturated, or only slightly superheated, vapors is appreciably altered by pressure changes, as indicated on page A-2 showing the viscosity of steam. Unfortunately, the data on vapors are incomplete and, in some cases, contradictory. Therefore, it is expedient when dealing with vapors other than steam to neglect the effect of pressure because of the lack of adequate data. ‘Actually the viscosity of water at oS Fis 1,005 centipote AATHAHATHHHHHAH HAAR AAHhAaAAAAA AsCRANE ‘chartte 1 Physical Properties of Fluids — continued Weight density, specific volume, and specific gravity: The weight density of specif weight of a substance is its weight per unit volume. In the English system of units this is expressed in pounds per cubic foot and the symbol designation used in this paper isp (Rho) In the metric system, the unit is grams per cubic centimeter and the symbol designation used is 9” (Rho prime) The specific volume V, being the reciprocal of the weight density, is expressed in the English system as the number of cubic feet of space occupied by one pound of the substance, thus: Vv In che metric system, the number of cubic centimecers, per gram of a substance can readily be expressed as the reciprocal of the weight density, that is: e The variations in weight density as well as other properties of water with changes in temperature are shown on page A-6, The weight densities of other common liquids are shown on page A-7. Unless very high pressures are being considered, the effect of pressure on the weight of liquids is of ‘no practical importance in flow problems, The weight densities of gases and vapors, however, are greatly altered by pressure changes. For the so- called “perfect” gases, the weight density can be computed from the formula: 144. Pr RT ‘The individual gas constant R is equal to the universal gas constant, MR = 1545, divided by the molecular weight of the gas, = 8s 0) M Values of R, as well as other useful gas constants, are given on page A-8. The weight density of air for various conditions of temperature and pressure ‘can be found on page A-10. In steam flow computations, the reciprocal of the weight density, which is the specific volume, is commonly used; these values are listed in the steam tables shown on pages A-I2 to A-I9, A chart for determining the weight density and specific volume of ‘gases is given on page A-II Specific gravity is a relative measure of weight density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon. the weight density of liquids, temperature’ is the only condition that must be considered in designat- ing the basis for specific gravity. ‘The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of its weight density at specified temperature to that of water at standard vemperature, 69 F. {any liquid at 5-2 lspecified temp ‘ (water at 60 F) [A hydrometer can be used to measure the specific gravity of liquids directly. Three hydrometer scales are common in this country ....the API scale Which is used for oils... and the two Baumé scales, one for liquids heavier than water and one for liquids lighter than water. The relationship between the hhydrometer scales and specific gravity are: For al r ans S (60 Fie F) = apr r 140. $ (G0 Feo F) = 55 Geg Baume For liquids hesviee ‘Shan water, S (60 Fito F) = as. 195 — deg. Baume For convenience in converting hydrometer readings to more useful units, refer to the table shown on page B7. The specific gravity of gases is defined as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to that of air, and as the ratio of the individual gas constant of air to that of the gas. R (air) _ M (gas) 5: Rigas) ~ Mai)Nature of Flow ‘cul ptloranna cored Hamer bing am A simple experiment (illustrated above) will readily show there are two entirely different types of flow in pipe. The experiment consists of injecting small streams of a colored fluid into a liquid flowing in a glass pipe and observing the behavior of these colored streams at different sections downstream from their points of injection If the discharge or average velocity is small, the streaks of colored fluid flow in straight lines, as shown in Figure I-I. As the flow rate is gradually increased, these streaks will continue to flow in straight lines until a velocity is reached when the streaks will waver and suddenly break into diffused patterns, as shown in Figure [-2. The velocity at which this occurs is called the “critical velocity At velocities higher than “critical”, the filaments ‘are dispersed at random throughout the main body of the fluid, as shown in Figure 1-3 The type of flow which exists at velocities lower than “critical” is known as laminar low and, sometimes, as viscous or streamline flow. Flow of this nature is characterized by the gliding of concentric cylindrical layers past one another in orderly fesh- jon. Velocity of the fluid is at its maximum at the pipe axis and decreases sharply to zero at the wall Ac velocities greater than “critical”, the flow is turbulent. In turbulent flow, there’ is an irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions trans~ verse to the direction of the main flow. The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more uniform across the pipe diameter than in laminar flow. Even though a turbulent motion exists throughout the greater portion of the pipe diameter, there is always a thin layer of fluid at the pipe wall . .. . known as the “boundary layer" or “laminar sub-layer" which is moving in laminar flow. Mean velocity of flow: The term “velocity”, unless otherwise stated, refers to the mean, or average, welocity at a given cross section, as determined by the continuity equation for steady state flow 42% ae 7 A (For nomenclature, seepage preceding Chace 1 “Reasonable” velocities for use in design work are given on pages 3-6 and 3-16. Equation 11 \ | Pipe — Laminar and Turbulent Figure 1-3 Turbulen Flow This aration shaw the frbuance inthe Reynolds number: The work of Osborne Reynolds has shown that the nacure of flow in pipe... . that is, whether itis laminar or turbulenc . . . . depends fon the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid, and the velocity of flow, ‘The numerical value of a dimensionless combination of these four variables, known as the Reynolds number, may be considered to be the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to the shear stress due to viscosity. Reynolds number is = Dee Egeotion 1-2 (ether forms ofthis equation; page 3-2.) For engineering purposes, flow in pipes is usually ‘considered to be laminar if che Reynolds number is less than 2000, and turbulent if the Reynolds number is greater than 4000. Between these two values lies the “critical zone” where the flow .... being larninar, ‘urbulenc, or in the process of change, depending upon many possible varying conditions is unpredictable. Careful experimentation has shown, that the laminar zone may be made to terminate at a Reynolds number as low as 1200 or extended as high as 40,000, but these conditions are not expected to be realized in ordinary practice Hydraulic radius: Occasionally a conduit of non- circular cross section is encountered. In calculating the Reynolds number for this condition, the equivae lent diameter (four times the hydraulic radius) is substituted for the circular diameter. Use friction factors given on pages A-24 and A-25, ‘cross sectional flow area Ry TS ational ow area weited perimeter This applies to any ordinary conduit (circular con- uit not flowing full, oval, square or rectangular) but not to extremely narrow shapes such as annular or elongated openings, where width is small relative to length. In such cases, the hydraulic radius is approximately equal co one-half the width of the passage. To determine quantity of flow in following formula: co oenie the value of d is based upon an equivalent diameter of actual flow area and 4Ry is substituted for D. NOTAHHAAAAAAnn nanan aaCRANE 1s General Energy Equation Bernoulli’s Theorem ‘The Bernoulli theorem is a means of expressing the application of the law of conservation of energy to the flow of fluids in a conduit, ‘The toral energy at any particular point, above some arbitrary horizontal By permission, fom Fluid Mchanics"™ by RUA, Dodge and MJ. Thompson. Copyright 1937; MeGraw-Phit Book Company, Ine 9 datum plane, is equal to the sum of the elevation head the pressure head, and the velocity bead as follows If friccion losses are neglected and no energy is added to, or taken from, a piping system (Je., pumps or turbines), the cotal head, Hi, in the above equation will be a constant for any point in the fluid. How- ever, in actual practice, losses or energy increases or decreases are encountered and must be included in the Bernoulli equation. Thus, an energy balance may be written for two points in a fluid, as shown in the example in Figure 1-4 Note the pipe friction loss from point 1 to point 2 is hz foot pounds per pound of flowing fluid; this is sometimes referred to as the head loss in feet of fluid, The equation may be written as follows: qvotion 1. Ea we + the haPr Phy os a ue saaPr Zt All practical formulas for the flow of fluids are derived from Bernoulli's theorem, wich modifications to account for losses due to friction, Measurement of Pressure Ps to gi { | ong Pee At Anca Paseo vac ny Paz Blw Rnephai woneic Press ot “ie kinase Presse Able Presse = Gos Bae Abst Pesie Atte Zo rare Peet Vc lationship Bat nd Ab Figure 1-5 graphically illustrates the relationship between gauge and absolute pressures. Perfect vacuum cannot exist on the surface of the earth, but it nevertheless makes a convenient datum for the measurement of pressure. Barometric pressure is the level of the atmospheric pressure above perfect vacuum, “Standard” atmospheric pressure is 14.69% pounds per square inch, oF 760 millimeters of mercury Gauge pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure, while absolute pressure always refers to perfect vacuum as a base. Vacuum, usually expressed in inches of mercury, is the depression of pressure below the atmospheric level. Reference to vacuum conditions is often made by expressing the absolute pressure in inches of mercury; also millimeters of mercury and microns of mercury. Al pris gees ed ax alarece mars afr tthe Biography ae sacod pope of beakDarcy's General Equation Flow in pipe is always accompanied by friction of fluid particles rubbing against one another, and con sequently, by loss of energy available for work: in other words, there must be a pressure drop in the direction of flow. If ordinary Bourdon tube pressure ‘gauges were connected t0 a pipe containing a flowing, fluid, as shown in Fig ure ‘1-6, gauge Pr Py would indicate a higher static pressure than gauge Py Figure 16 ‘The general equation for pressure drop, known as Darcy's formula and expressed in feet of fluid, is hy, = fLo¥/D 2g. This equation may be written to ‘express pressure drop in pounds per square inch, by substitution of proper units, as follows: afb. 145 Dag (For other forms of this equation, see page 3-2) AP = Equation 14 ‘The Darcy equation is valid for laminar or turbulent flow of any liquid in a pipe. However, when extreme velocities occurring in a pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calculated flow rates will be inaccurate. With suitable restrictions, the Darcy equation may be used when gases and vapors (compressible fluids) are being handled. These restric tions are defined on page 1-7. Equation 1-4 gives the loss in pressure due to friction and applies to pipe of constant diameter carrying fluids'of reasonably constant. weight density in straight pipe, whether horizontal, vertical, or sloping. For inclined pipe, vertical pipe, or pipe of varying diameter, the change in pressure due to changes in elevation, velocity, and weight density of the fluid ‘must be made in aecordance with Bernoulli's theorem (page 1-5). For an example using this theorem, see poge 48. Friction factor: The Darcy formula can be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the excep- tion of the friction factor, f, which must be deter~ mined experimentally. ‘The friction factor for laminar flow conditions (R, < 2000) is a function of Reynolds number only: whereas, for turbulent flow (Re > 4000), itis also a function of the character of, the pipe wall. ‘A region known as the “critical zone” occurs between Reynolds number of approximately 2000 and 4000. In this region, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent depending upon several factors: these include changes in section or direction of flow and obstructions, such as valves, in the upstream piping. The friction factor in this region is indeterminate and __CRANE Formula for Flow of Fluids has lower limits based on laminar flow and upper limits based on turbulent flow conditions, At Reynolds numbers above approximately 4000, flow conditions again become more stable and definite friction factors can be established. This is impor- tant because it enables the engineer to determine the flow characteristics of any fluid flowing in a pipe, providing the viscosity and weight density at flowing conditions are known. For this reason, Equa- tion I-t is recommended in preference to some of the commonly known empirical equations for the flow of water, oil, and other liquids, as well as for the flow of compressible fluids when restrictions previously mentioned are observed. If the flow is laminar (R, < 2000), the friction fac~ tor may be determined from the equation 6s _ Obie 2 Dip osu iy dep If this quantity is substituted into Equation 1-4, the pressure drop in pounds per square inch is ele AP = 0.000 668 — Equation 15 which is Poiseuille’s law for laminar flow. When the flow is turbulent (R, > 4000), the friction factor depends not only upon ‘the Reynolds number but also upon the relative roughness, «/D.. . . the roughness of the pipe walls (¢), as compared to the diameter of the pipe (D). For very smooth pipes such as drawn brass tubing and glass, the friction factor decreases more rapidly with increasing Rey- olds number than for pipe with comparatively rough walls. Since the character of the internal surface of commercial pipe is practically independent of the diameter, the roughness of the walls has a greater effect on the friction factor in the small sizes. Conse- quently, pipe of small diameter will approach the very rough condition and, in general, will have higher friction factors chan large pipe of the same material The most useful and widely accepted data of friction factors for use with the Darey formula have been presented by L. F. Moody'® and are reproduced on pages ‘A-23 to A-25. Professor Moody improved upon the well-established Pigott and Kemler* * friction factor diagram, incorporating more recent investigations and developments of many outstanding scientists. The friction factor, f, is plotted on page A-24 on the basis of relative roughness obtained from the chart on page A-23 and the Reynolds number. TheCRANE 17 Darcy’s Formula General Equation for Flow of Fluids — continued value of fis determined by horizontal projeetion from the intersection of the «/D curve under considera- tion with the calculated Reynolds number to the left hand vertical scale of the chart on page A-23. Since ‘most calculations invoive commercial sted pipe, the chart on page A-25 is furnished for a more direct solution. Ic should be kept in mind that these figures apply to clean new pipe Effect of age and use on pipe friction: Friction loss in pipe is sensitive to changes in diameter and roughness of pipe. For a given rate of flow and a fixed friction factor, the pressure drop per foot of pipe varies inversely with the fifth power of the diameter. Therefore, a 2% reduction of diameter causes a 11% increase in pressure drop; a 5; redue= tion of diameter increases pressure Urop 29%, In many services. the interior of pipe becomes encrusted with scale, dirt, tubereules or other foreign mucter Us if is often prudent to make allowance for ex- peoted diameter changes. Authorities® point out that roughness may be expected to increase with use (due to corrosion or Imerustation) at a rate determined by the pipe ‘material and nature of the fluid. Ippen’™ in discuss- ing the effect of aging, cites a 4inch galvanized steel pipe which had its roughness doubled and its friction factor increased 20% after three years of moderate use. Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe An accurate determination of the pressure drop of 9 compressible fluid owing through a pipe requires @ knowledge of the relationship between pressure and specific volume; this is not easily determined in each particular problem. The usual extremes considered are adiabatic Row (p’Vi = constant) andl isothermal flow (p'V = constant). Adiabatic flow is usually assumed in short, perfectly insulated pipe. This would be consistent since no heat is transferred to or from the pipe, except for the fact that the minute amount of heat generated by friction is ‘added to the flow Isothermal flow or flow at constant temperature is often assumed, partly for convenience but more often because it is closer to fact in piping practice. The most outstanding case of isothermal flow occurs in natural gas pipe lines. Dodge and Thompson’ show that gas flow in insulated pipe is closely approximated by isothermal flow for reasonably high pressures. Since the relationship between pressure and volume may follow some other relationship (p'V3 = constant) called polytropic flow, specific information in each individual case is almost an impossibility. ‘The density of gases and vapors changes considerably wich changes in pressure; therefore, ifthe pressure drop between Py and P. in Figure 1-6 is great, the density and velocity will change appreciably When dealing with compressible fluids, such as air, steam, etc., the following restrictions should be observed in applying the Darey formula 1. If the calculated pressure drop (P1 — P2) is less than about 10°% of the inlet pressure Py, reason= able accuracy will be obtained if the specific volume used in the formula is based upon either the upstream or downstream conditions, which- ever are known, 2. If the calculated pressure drop (Pi — Ps) is areater than about 10°, but less than about 40%, of inlet pressure Py, the Darcy equation may be used with reasonable accuracy by using a specific volume based upon the average of upstream and downstream conditions: otherwise, the method given on page 1-9 may be used For greater pressure drops. such as are often encountered in long pipe lines. the methods given ‘on the next two pages should be used. (contnad on he nest pose)RANE Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe (continued) Complete isothermal equation: The flow of gases in long pipelines closely approximates isothermal conditions. “The pressure drop in such lines is often large relative to the inlet pressure. and solution of this problem falls outside the limications of the Darcy equation. An accurate determination of the flow characteristics falling within this category can be made by using the complete isothermal equation gut 1 [ eet JP 2) wel iL Pp — 0, (E+ ave.B) | Me 1. teothermal flow 2. No mechanical work is done on of by the system, 3. Steady flow or discharge unchanged wich time. 4. The gas obeys che perfect gx 5. The velecity may be represented by the average velocity at cose section 6, The fietion factor is constant along the pipe 7. The pipe line is straight and horizontal between end pois Simplified Compressible Flow~Gas Pipe Line Formula: In the practice of gas pipe line engineer ing, another assumption is added to the foregoing: Acceleration can he neglected because the pipe ine is tong Then, the formula for discharge in 3 horizontal pipe may be written: This is equivalent to the complete isothermal equation if the pipe line is long and also for shorter lines if the ratio of pressure drop t0 initial pressure is small Since gas flow problems are usually expressed in terms of cubic feet per hour at standard conditions, it is convenient to rewrite Equation 1-7 as follows coe FERED mee Other commonly used formulas for compressible flow in tong pipe lines: Weymouth formula feton 18 Panhandle formula? for natural gas pipe lines 6 to 24-inch diameter, Reynolds numbers 5 x 10% to 14x 10 and S, = 0.6 fearon 19 y= y9 eee [!BiE = Pan The flow efficiency factor E is defined as an expe- rience factor and is usually assumed to be 0.92 or 92% for average operating conditions. Suggested values for E for other operating conditions are given on page 33 Comparison of formulas for compressible flow in pipe lines: Equations 1-7, 1-8, and I-9 are derived from the same basic formula, but differ in the selection of data used for the determination of the friction factors Friction fuctors in uecoruunce with the Moody! Jia- gram are normally used_with the Simplified Com- pressible Flow formula (Equation 1-7). However, if the same friction factors employed in the Weymouth for Panhandle formulas are used in the Simplified formula, identical answers will be obtained. The Weymouth friction factor is defined as: 0.032 = SF This is identical to the Moody friction factor in the fully turbulent flow range for 20-inch LD. pipe only ‘Weymouth friction factors are greater than Moody factors for sizes less than 20-inch, and smaller for sizes larger than 20-inch, ‘The Panhandle friction factor? is defined as (se (@) In the flow range to which the Panhandle formula is limited, this results in friction factors that are lower than those obtained from either the Moody data or the Weymouth friction formula. As a result, flow rates obtained by solution of the Panhandle formula are usually greater than those obtained by employing either the Simplified Compressible Flow formula with Moody friction factors, or the Weymouth formula, ‘An example of the variation in flow rates which may be obtained for a specific condition by employing these formulas is given on page 4-11 reples of Compre: (contin Limiting flow of gases and vapors: The feature not evident in the preceding formulas (Equations 1+ and 1-6 to 1-9 inclusive) is chat the weight rate of flow (e.g. lbs/scc) of a compressible Nuid in a pipe with a given upstream pressure, will approach a certain maximum rate which it cannot exceed, no mat ter how much the downstream pressure is further reduced. ‘The maximum velocity of a compressible fluid in pipe is limited by the velocity of propagation of a pressure wave which travels at the speed of sound in the fluid, Since pressure falls off and velocity increases as fluid proceeds downstream in pipe of ut form cross section, the maximum velocity occurs in the downstream end of the pipe. If the pressure drop is sufficiently high, the exit velocity will reach the velocity of sound. Further decrease in the outlet pressure will not be felt upstream because the pressure wave can only travel at sonic velocity, and the “signal” will never translate upstream. |The “surplus” pressure drop obtained by lowering the outlet: pressure after the maximum discharge has already been reached takes place beyond the end of the pipe. This pressure is lost in shock waves and turbulence of the jetting fluid. ‘The maximum possible velocity in the pipe is sonic velocity, which is expressed as: Eqvotion 110 t= VighT = Vig PV The value of k, the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure to constant volume, is 14 for most diatomic gases; see pages A-8 and A-9 for values of for gases and steam respectively. This velocity will occur at the outlet end or in a constricted area, when the pressure drop is sufficiently high. The pressure, temperature, and specific volume are those occurring at the point in question. When compressible fluids discharge from the end of a reasonably. short pipe of uniform cross section into ah area of larger cross section, the flow is usually considered to be adiabatic. This assumption is supported by experimental data on pipe having lengths of 220 and 130 pipe diameters discharging air to atmosphere. Investigation of the complete theoretical analysis of adiabatic flow'* has led to a basis for estabiishing correction factors, which may be applied to the Darcy equation for this condition of flow. Since these correction factors compensate for the changes ssible Flow in Pipe ed) in fluid properties due to expansion of the fluid, they are identified as Y net expansion factors; see page AD. The Darcy formula, including the Y factor, is _ (aE weons Ye Jer Eqvotion 111 (Resistance coufcient K i defined on page 28 It should be noted that the value of K in this equation is the total resistance coefficient of the pipe line, including entrance and exit losses when they exist, and losses due to valves and fittings. The pressure drop, AP, in the ratio AP/P', which 1s used for the determination of Y from the charts on page A-22, is the measured difference between the inlet pressure and the pressure in the area of larger cross section. In a system discharging compressible fluids to atmosphere, this AP is equal to the inlet gauge pressure, or the difference between absolute inlet pressure and atmospheric pressure, This value of AP is also used in Equation I-11, whenever the Y factor falls within the limits defined by the re~ sistance factor K curves in the charts on page A-22. When the ratio of AP/P%, using AP as defined above, falls beyond che limits of the K curves in the charts, sonic velocity occurs at the point of discharge ‘or at some restriction within the pipe, and the limit ing values for Y and AP, as determined from the tabulations to the right of the chares on page A-22, ‘must be used in Equation 1-11 Application of Equation I-II and the determination of values for K, Y, and AP in the formula is demon- strated in examples on pages 4-13 and 4-14 ‘The charts on page A-22 are based upon the general gas laws for perfect gases and, at sonic velocity conditions at the outlet end, will yield accurate results for all gases which approximately follow the perfect gas laws. An example of this type of flow problem is presented on page 4-13. This condition of flow is comparable to the flow through nozzles and venturi tubes, covered on page 2-15, and the solutions of such problems are similar.1-10 CRANE Steam General Discussion Substances exist in any one of three phases solid When outside conditions are y may change {rom one phase to another. varied, t Water under normal atmospheric conditions exists in the form of a liquid. When a body of water is heated by means of some external medium, the temperature of the water rises and soon small bubbles, which break and form continuously, are noted on the surface. This phenomenon is described as boiling’ The amount of heat necessary to cause the temperature of the water to rise is expressed in British Ther- mal Units (Btu), where, [ Btu is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 to 61 F. The amount of heat necessary to raise the cemperature of a pound of water from 32 F (Ireezing point) to 212 F (boiling point) is 180.1 Beu, When the pressure does not exceed 50 pounds per square inch absolute, it is usually per- Imissible to assume that each temperature increase of LF represents a heat content increase of one Btu per pound, regardless of the temperature of the water. Assuming the generally accepted reference plane for zero heat content at 32 F, one pound of water at 212 F contains 180.17 Beu. This quantity of heat is called heat of the liquid or sensible heat. In order to change the liquid sure (I47 psia) 0.4 vapor at atmospheric pres- 970.3 Btu must be added to each pound of water after the cemperature of 212 F is reached. During this transition period, the tem perature remains constant. The added quantity of heat is called che latent heat of evaporation. Conse- quently, the total heat of the vapor, formed when water boils at atmospheric pressure, is the sum of the two quantities .. .. 180. Bru and 970.3 Btu, or, 1150.5 Btu per pound. If water is heated in a closed vessel not completely filled, the pressure will rise after steam begins to form accompanied by an increase in temperature. Saturated steam is steam in contact with liquid water from which it was generated, at a temperature which is the boiling point of the water and the condensing point of the steam. [t may be either “dry” or "wet", depending on the generating con- citions, “Dry” saturated steam is steam free from ‘mechanically mixed water particles, “Wet™ saturated sceam, on the other hand, contains water particles in suspension, Saturated steam at any pressure has a definite temperature, Superheated steam is steam at any given pressure which is heated to a temperature higher than the temperature of saturated steam at that pressure. FARAH HHR AMAA HAHAnHhannKtaAnannnaannaaeFlow of Fluids Through Valves and Fittings The preceding chapter has been devoted to the theory and formulas used in the study of fluid flow in pipes. Since industrial installations usually contain a considerable number of valves and fittings, a knowledge of their resistance to the flow of fluids is necessary to determine the flow characteristics of a complete piping system. Many texts on hydraulics contain no information on the resistance of valves and fittings to flow, while others present only a limited discussion of the subject. In realization of the need for more complete ‘detailed information on the resistance of valves and fittings to flow, Crane Co. has conducted extensive tests in their Engineering Laboratories and has also sponsored investigations in other laboratories. These tests have been supplemented by a thorough study of all published data on this subject. Appendix A contains data from these many separate tests and the findings have been combined to furnish a besis for calculating the pressure drop through valves and fictings. Representative resistances to flow of va of piping components are given in the ” Table; see pages A-2o thru A-29, types Factor The chart on page A-30 illustrates the relationship becween equivalent length in pipe diameters and in feet of pipe for flow in the zone of complete turbulence, resistance coefficient K. and pipe size ‘The chart on page A-31 may be used to readily deter- ‘mine the Cy llow coefficient of any valve for which the resistance coefficient is known or can be determined from the data presented in the “K" Factor Table ‘A discussion of the equivalent length and resistance coefficient K, as well as the flow coefficient Cy methods of calculating pressure drop through valves and fitcings is presented on pages 2-8 to 2-10,Types of Valves and Fittings Used in Pipe Systems Valves: The great variety.of valve designs precludes any thorough classification If valves were classified accariny to che resistance they offer to flow, those exhibiting a straight-thru flow path such as gate, ball, plug, and utterly valves ‘would fallin the low resistance class, and those having aa change in flow path direction such as globe and angle valves would fall in the high resistance class For photographie illustrations of some of the most commonly used valve designs, refer to pages 3-26 and A-32. For line illustrations of typical fittings and pipe bends, as well as valves. see pages A-26 to A-19. Fittings: Fictings may be cla fied us branchin uch fietings tees, side outlet elbows, ete,, may be Reducing or expanding fittings are those which change the area of the fluid passageway. In this class are reducers and bushings. Dellecting Fittings bends, elbows, return hends, ee. .... are those which change the direction of flow Some fittings, of course, may be combinations of any fof the foregoing general classifications. In addition, there are types such as couplings and unions which offer no appreciable resistance to flow and, therefore, need not he considered here. Pressure Drop Chargeable To Valves and When a fluid is flowing steadily in a long straight pipe of uniform diameter, the flow pattern, as indi cated by the velocity distribution across the pipe diameter, will assume a certain characteristic form. Any impediment in the pipe which changes the direc tion of the whole stream, or even part of it, will alter the characteristic flow pattern and create turbulence, causing an energy loss greater than that normally accompanying flow in straight pipe. Be- cause valves and fittings in a pipe line disturb the flow pattern, they produce an additional pressure drop. The loss of pressure produced by a valve (or fitting) consists of 1. The pressure drop within the valve itself 2. The pressure drop in the upstream piping in excess of that which would normally occur if there were no valve in the line. This effect is small 3. The pressure drop in the downstream piping in excess of that which would normally occur if there were no valve in the line, This effect may be comparatively large. From the experimental point of view itis lificult to ‘measure the three items separately. Their combined effect is the desired quantity, however. and this can be accurately measured by well known methods ttings a Figure 2-1 Figure 2-1 shows two sections of a pipe line of the same diameter and length. The upper section contains a globe valve. If the pressure drops, AP, and AP,, were measured between the points indicated it would be found that AP, is greater than AP. Actually, the loss chargeable to a valve of length “a” is AP, minus the loss in a section of pipe of length “a +h”. The losses, expressed in terms of resistance coefficient “K” of various valves and fittings as given fon pages A-20 to A-29 include the loss due to the length of the valve or fitting AOATAHAHAHAHGHAK HAHAHAHAHACRANE Crane Engineering Laboratories have facil- ties for conducting water, steam, and air flow tests for many sizes and types of valves and fittings. Although a detailed discussion of all the various tests performed is beyond the scope of this paper, a brief description of some of the apparatus will be of interes. The test piping shown in Figure 2-3 is unique in that 6-inch gate, globe, and angle valves or 90 degree ells and tees can be tested wich either water or steam. The vertical leg of the angle test section permits testing of angle lift check and stop check valves. Saturated steam at 150 psi is available at flow rates up to 100,000 pounds per hour. The steam is throt- ted to the desired pressure and its state is determined at the meter as well as upstream and downstream from the test specimen. For tests on water, a steam turbine driven pump sup- plies water at rates up to 1200 gallons per minute through the test piping, Static pressure differential is measured by means of ‘a manometer connected to piezometer rings upstream and downstream from test position I in the angle test section, or test position 2 in the straight test section. ‘The downstream piezometer for the angle test section serves as the upstream piezometer for Crane Flow Tests Flow tet for Tic eet oat nal valve the straight test section. Measured pressure drop for the pipe alone between piezometer stations is subtracted from the pressure drop through the valve plus pipe to ascertain the pressure drop chargeable to the valve alone Results of some of the flow tests conducted in the Crane Engineering Laboratories are plotted in Fig- tures 2-4 to 2-7 shown on the two pages following. erin ot ‘Sale seo Sten Flow Ohio eter ow C30 Be oe ts & i Water Saa4 __enwrt 2 now oF Rus TOUS YAS Mo PNG CRANE Crane Water Flow Tests f { : 4 ; ‘ : ‘ LL ttt k a 1 f { 4 : | if a ity 1 F i) fT ; | Ba i LL 5 ie 7 : ES I LB PCO z 5 yy -- 4 7 ‘EY 7. a f | | = 4 A CI = j | - : tH | | Lo | | | ere 3 : 3 tame 24 ewe Woter Flow Tests — Curves 110 18 Fluid Sarre | Site Valve Type" uw } Clas 150 Cas fo Y.Pater Globe Vale, i a Sar = Clas 150 Brat Angle Valve with Composition Die, ae Flat Seat Water ‘Class 150 Brass Conventional Globe Valve With Composition Dise—Flat Seat Figure 2-5 ‘Class 200 Brass Swing Check Valve 18 | 6 ‘Class 125 Tron Body Swing Oheck Valve “Except for check valves at lower velocities where curves (14 to 17) bend, all volves were cested with die fully ited ANAATAAAAAAAAAAAAARAAAAAAA AAA ACRANE CHAPTER 2— LOW OF MLUIDS THROUGN VALVES AND fiTINGS Crane Steam Flow Tests PY 4 a H i a4 a 2 3 z a q i = 2a ial fo dal a al a a L al Poses ae orn a8 tin Vey Tn Fs po ae Stam Vey, Todt ot pride Fore 28 Mare 27 Steam Flow Tests — Curves 19 to 31 ris | Fre | Gare | Se Valve* or Fitting Type w | 2 Plug Type Seat » | 6 Plug Type Seat u 6 | Clas 300 Steel Antle Valversssssves Plug Type Seat 2 6 | Class 300 Steet Angle Valve. Ball to Cone Seat Figure 2-6 23 | 6 | Cat 600 Steet Angle Stop-Check Valve lremage “ 6 | Class 600 Steel Y-Pattern Globe Stop-Check Valve = as 6 | cass 600 Steet Angle Valve Sopa 26 | 6 | Ctses 600 Sest ¥-Patern Globe Valve a7 | 2 | 90" Shore Radius Etbow for Use with Schedule 40 Pipe 28 | 6 | clam 250 Case Iron Flanged Conventional 90° Elbow Figure 2-7| 29 | 6 | Class 600 Steel Gate Valve 30 6 | Class 125 Case 1roa Gate Valve a 6 | Class 150 Steel Gate Valve “Except for check valves at lower velocities where curves (23 and 24) bend, all valves were tested with die fully lifted.BRU RUBE BEER EEUUCRANE ‘MHOUGH VALVES AN FETS 2-7 Relationship of Pressure Many experiments have shown that che head loss Jue to valves and fittings is proportional to a constant power of che velocity. When pressure drop or head loss is plotted against velocity on logarithmic ordinates, the resulting curve is the lime, In the turbulent (low range, the value of the exponent of » has heen found to vary from 1.8 to 2.1 for different designs of valves and Fictings However, for all practical purposes, it can be as sumed that the pressure drop or head loss due to the flow of fluids in the turbulent range through valves and fittings varies as the square of the velocity. This relationship of pressure drop to velocity of flow is valid for check valves, only if there is sufficient How to hold the disc ina wide open position, The point of deviation of the test. curves from a straight line, as illustrated in Figures 2-5 and 2-6, defines the low conditions necessary to support a check valve disc in the wide open position. ‘Most of the difficulties encountered with check valves, both lift and swing types, have been found to be due to oversizing which results in noisy operation and pre- ‘mature wear of the moving parts, Referring again to Figure 2-6, it will be noted that the velocity of 50 psig saturated steam, at the point where the two curves deviate from a straight line, is, about 14,000 to 15,000 feet per minute. Lower velocities are not sufficient to lift the disc through its full stroke and hold ic ina stable position against the stops, and can actually result in an inerease in pressure drop as indicated by the curves. Under these conditions, the dise luctuates with each minor How Drop to Velocity of Flow pullsation, causing noisy operation and rapid wear of the contacting moving parts. The minimum velocity required to lift the dise to the {ull-open and stable posicion has been determined by tests for numerous types of check and foot valves, and is given in the “K” Factor Table (see pages A-26 thru A-29). [tis expressed in cerms of a constant times 1 specific volume of the fluid being, handled, making it applicable for use with any fluid Sizing of check valves in accordance with the specified minimum velocity for full dise lift will often result in valves smaller in size than the pipe in which they ure installed; however, the actual pressure drop will be litele, any, higher than that ofa full size valve which is used in other than the wide-open position, The advantages are longer valve life and quieter operation. The losses due to sudden or gradual contraction and enlargement which will occur in such installations with bushings, reducing flanges, or tapered reducers ‘can be readily calculated from the data given in the “K" Factor Table Figure 2212 {eth waar and tom Jat ar conc 0 (hs top. |CHAPTER 2— ROW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES ANO FITTINGS CRANE Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length L/D, And Flow Coefficient Cy Pressure loss vest data for a wide variety of valves 1d fittings are available from the work of numerous investigators, Extensive studies inthis field have been conducted by Crane Laboratories. However, due to the time-consuming and costly nature of such testing, ic is vireually impossible to obtain test data for every ype of vaive and fitting. Ic is therefore desirable co provide a means of reliably extrapolating available cest information to envelope those icems which have not been or cannot readily be tested. Commonly used concepts for accomplishing this are the “equivalent length L/D", “resistance coefficient K", and “flow coefficient Cy Pressure losses in a piping system result from a number of systemcharacteristies, which may be categorized as follows |. Pipe friction, which is a function of the surface roughness of the interior pipe wall, the inside diameter of the pipe, and the fluid velocity, density and viscosity.” Friction factors are discussed on pages 1-6 and 1-7. For frietfon data, see pages A-23 thru A-25, 2. Changes in direction of flow path. 3. Obstructions in flow path, 4, Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section, and shape of flow path. Velocity in a pipe is obtained at the expense of static head, and decrease in static head due to velocity is, net vation 24 28 which is defined as the “velocity head’. Flow through a valve or fitting in a pipe line also causes a reduction in static head which may be expressed in terms of velocity head. The resistance coefficient K in the equation, hee kE, Fotos 2:2 % therefore, is defined as the number of velocity heads lost due to a valve or fitting. It is always associated with the diameter in which the velocity occurs, In most valves or fittings, the losses due to friction (Cate- gory | above) resulting from actual length of flow path are minor compared to those due to one or more of the other three categories listed ‘The resistance coefficient K is therefore considered as being independent of friction factor or Reynolds number, and may be treated as a constane for any given obstruction (ie., valve or fitting) in a piping system under all conditions of flow, including laminar flow. ‘The same loss in straight pipe is expressed by the Darey equation, hes (15) 2 fewaton 2-3 It follows thar «= (8) a The ratio L/D is the equivalent length, in pipe diameters of straight pipe, that will cause the same pressure drop as the obstruction under the same llow conditions. Since the resistance coefficient K is constant for all conditions of flow, the value of L/D for any given valve or fitting must necessarily vary inversely with the change in friction factor for different flow conditions, The resistance coefficient K would theoretically be a constant for all sizes of a given design or line of valves and fittings if all sizes were geometrically. similar. However, geometric similarity is seldom, if ever, achieved because the design of valves and fitcings is dictated by manufacturing economies, standards, structural strength, and other considerations. een size aetna S126 5 seats ot einen S128 Figure 223, Goometical diinrty between 2 ond "Binh stndard cont on Banged lbs ‘An example of geometric dissimilarity is shown in Figure 2-13 where a 12-inch standard elbow has been drawn to 1/6 scale of a 2-inch standard elbow, so that their port ‘diameters are identical. The flow paths through the two fittings drawn to these scales would also have to be identical to have geometric similarity; in addition, the relative roughness of the surfaces would have to be similar Figure 2-14 is based on the analysis of extensive test data from various sources. The K coefficients for a ‘number of lines of valves and fittings have been plotted against size. It will be noted that the K curves show a definite tendency to follow the same slope as the (continued on nat 099) ANNO KAHAAHHAARARGAnnAAAnAAeAaannnan5 ” CRANE Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length L/D, And Flow Coefficient Cy — continued 0 ita Fr) + i § 70) sa Bsa Lo 2a 3 3 2B yp 20 = fm § g z 5 yp Sx Eh 3 Ema B4 sd’ § aout 34 24 ee 4 2/3 3 Zi¢e 4 rd 3uf "8 aa) is 2 3 4 39 1 1s 2 es 78310 K ~ Resistance Coefficient Figure 2-14, Vatiation of Resistance Coofficent K (=f L/D) with Size ‘Symbol Product Tested Authority © — Schedule 40 Pipe, 30 Diameters Long (K = 30 fr)*. Moody ASME. Trans, Nov-19ss" © — Ghats 125 Iron Body Wedge Gate Valves {ni of Wise. Ep. Se, Ball, Vo. 9:No. 1922 @ — Claes 600 Sel Weds Gate Valves Crate Tete © — %0Degree Pipe Bends, R/D = 2 Pipa ASME. Tans, 1950 3 — sDegre Pipe Bends, R/D = 3. Pigatt ASME, Trans, 1950 © ~ %0Degree Pipe Bends, R/D = 1 Pigott ASME, Trane. 1050 @ — Claes 0 Stel Wedge Gate Valven Sent Reduced... Crane Tes ~ Chas 300 Sel Vent BalL.Cage Gate Valves Crane-Ameur Tests @ — Chu 125 Iron Body Y-Putern Globe Valves Crane Amer Tests 1 — Clas 125 Bras Anal Valves, Comaposion Die. .-.-----Crie Tete Hl _— Clas 125 Bras Globe Valven, Companion Disc... Crane Tots “Fr = friction factor for ow inthe zone of complete curbulence ee page A-26. (comin trom the pacing peas) AL {D) curve for straight clean commercial stee! pipe ‘at flow conditions resulting in a constant friction factor. It is probably coincidence that che effect of geometric dissimilarity between different sizes of the ‘same line of valves or fittings upon the resistance coefficient K is similar to that of relative roughness, oF size of pipe, upon friction factor. Based on the evidence presented in Figure 2-14, it can be said that the resistance coefficient K, for a given line of valves or fittings, tends to vary with size as does the friction factor, f, for straight clean commercial steel pipe at flow conditions resulting in a constant friction factor, and that the equivalent length L/D tends toward a constant for the various sizes of a given line of valves or fittings at the same llow conditions, On the basis of this relationship, the resistance coefficient K for each illustrated type of valve and fitting is presented on pages A-26 thru A-29. These coetfir cients are given as the product of the friction factor for the desired size of clean commercial steel pipe with Hlow in the zone of complete turbulence, and a con stant, which represents the equivalent length L/D for the valve or fitting in pipe diameters for the same llow cortlitions, on the basis of test data, This equivalent length, or constant, is valid forall sizes of the valve or fitting type with which itis identified.Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length L/D, And Flow Coefficient Cy — continued The friction factors for clean commercial steel pipe with flow in the zone of complete turbulence (fr), for nominal sizes from 1/2 to 24-inch, are tabulated at the beyinning of the "K” Factor Table (page 4-26) for convenience in converting the alzebraic expressions of K co arichmerie quancicie There are some resistances to flow in piping, such as gudden and gradual contractions and enlargements, and pipe entrances and exits, that have geometric similarity between sizes. The resistance coefficients (K) for chese items are therefore independent of size, as indicated by the absence of a friction factor in their values given in the "K”” Factor Table. As previously stated, the resistance coefficient K is always associated with the diameter in which the velocity in the term v#/2g occurs. The values in the "K" Factor Table are associated with the internal diameter of the following pipe schedule numbers for the various ANSI Classes of valves and fittings ‘Class 300 and lower. Schedule 40 (Clase 400 and 60) ‘Schedule £0 Class 900, ‘Schedule 120 Cass 1500, ‘Schedule 160 Class 2500 (izes 18 t0 67) XS ‘Glass 2500 (sizes &* and up) ‘Schedule 160, When the resistance coefficient K is used in flow equation 2-2, or any of its equivalent forms given in Chap- ter 3.as Equations 3-14, 3-16, 3-19 and 3-20, the velocity and internal diameter dimensions used in the equation must be based on che dimensions of these schedule numbers regardless of the pipe with which the valve may be installed, ‘An alternate procedure which yields identical results for Equation 2:2 is to adjust K in proportion to the fourth power of the diameter ratio, and to base values of velocity or diameter on the internal diameter of the connecting pipe. Keke (3) Subscript “a” defines K and d with reference to the internal diameter of the connecting pipe. ewan 2.5 Subscript "b" defines K and d with reference to the internal diameter of the pipe for which the values of K were established, as given in the foregoing list of pipe schedule numbers, CRANE When a piping system contains more than one size of pipe, valves, or fittings, Equation 2-5 may be used to express all resistances in terms of one size. For this case, subscript “a relates to che size with ref= erence t© which ull resistances are co and subscript “b” relates to any other system. For sample problem, see Example 4-14 Te has been fou valve industry ‘onvenient in some branches of the particularly in connection with con- rol valves, to express the valve capacity and the valve tlow chai tics in terms of the flow coelfi- cient C,, The Cy coefficient of a valve is defined as the flow of water at 60 F, in gallons per minute, at a pressure drop of one pound per square inch across the valve By the substitution of appropriate equivalent units in the Darey equation, it can be shown that, pod? OR Alo, the quantity in gallons per minute of liquids of low viscosity® that will fow through the valve can be determined from Jap (B28 “Go ae Ero 27 Q- Gry ap ( a ) i > Q-r90ry/ and the pressure drop can be computed from the ‘same formula arranged as (ollows: -d(8) aa le, a Since Equations 2-2 and 2-7 are simply other forms of the Darcy equation, the limitations regarding their use for compressible flow (explained on page 1-7) apply. Other convenient forms of Equations 2-2 and 2-7 in terms of commonly used units are presented on page 3-4 *When handling highly viscous liquids determine flow rate or required valve Cy as described in the ISA Handbook of Control Valves. Oo 0CRANE CHAPTER 2 = OW OF HUIOS THROUGH VALVES AND FITINGS 21 Laminar Flow Conditions the usual piping installation, the low will change from laminar to turbulent in the range of Reynolds numbers from 2000 to 4000, defined on pages A-24 and A-25 as the critical zone. The lower critical Reynolds number of 2000 is usually recognized as the upper limit for the application of Poiseuille's law for laminar ow in straight pipes, hy = 0.0962 (#2) which is identical to Equation 2-3 when the value of the friction factor for laminar flow, f = 64/Re, is fac- tored into it. Laminar flow at Reynolds numbers above 2000 is unstable, and in the critical zone and eveton 2.8 lower range of the cransition zone, turbulent mixing, and laminar motion may al ernate unpredictably Equation 2-2 (hr, = Kv#/2g) is valid for computing the head loss due to valves and ficcings for all conditions of flow, including laminar flow, using resistance coefficient K as given in the “A” Puetor Table. When Equution 2-2 is usec! to determine the losses in straight pipe, it is necessary to compute the Reynolds number in order to establish the friction factor, f, to bbe used to determine the value of the resistance coefficient K for che pipe in accordance with Equation 24 (K = fL/D). See Examples, pages 4-4 and 4-5. Contraction and Enlargement e to flow due to sudden enlargements ewan 2.9 andl the resistance due to sudden contractions, by getion 210 Subscripts 1 and 2 define the internal diameters of the small and large pipes respectively. It is convenient to identify che ratio of diameters of the small to large pipes by the Greek letter 8 (beta) | Using this notation, these equations may be written, Sudden Enlargement Ki-@- 8? ston 2.94 Sudden Contraction Ky 2050-8) avon 2103, Equation 2-9 is derived from the momentum equation together with the Bernoulli equation. Equation 2-10 uses the derivation of Equation 2.9 together with the continuity equation and a close approximation of the contraction coefficients determined by Julius Weisbach. ‘The value of the resistance coefficient in terms of the larger pipe is determined by dividing Equations 2.9 and 2-10 by 6, K-% fevotae 20 “The losses due to gradual enlargements in pipes were {_ ) investigated by A. H. Gibson," and may be expressecl \ J as a coefficient, C,, applied to Equation 2-9. Approxi- mate averages of Gibson's coefficients for different inclided angles of divergence, #, are defined by the equations: yates 212 It, a z45 Cy=20sin $ It, 45° <0 180". Cea Fevolon 2121 The losses due to gradual contractions in pipes were established by the analysis of Crane test data, using, the same basis as that of Gibson for gradual enlargements, to provide a contraction coefficient, C,, to be applied to Equation 2-10. ‘The approximate averages of these coefficients for different included angles of convergence, 8, are defined as follows: Is, 9 45°. Ceenbtin® — emainaie Ie, 45? <0 180"... Com /sin® — Favoon 21 The resistance coefficient K for sudden and gradual enlargements and contractions, expressed in terms of the large pipe, is established by combining Equations 2-9 to 2-13 inclusive. Sudden and Gradual Enlargements oe rosin’ 02 45 Ko= ¥ 45° 88 180°. Ky EEO ees 2343 SetinwasCrta ga coon osy/sin= (1-6) 49° <2 180". Kye 7 B2-12 Valves with Reduced Seats es are often designed wich raduced seats, and the transition from seat to valve ends may be either abrupt or gradual. Straight-through types, st and ball valves, so designed with gradual cra sition are sometimes referred to as venturi valves Analysis of tests on such straight-chraugh valves indi San est results and calculated values of K based on the summation of Equations 2-11, 2-14, and 2-15 cellent correlation between Valves which exhibit a change in direction of the tow path, such as globe and angle valves, are classified as high resistance valves. Equations 2-14 and 2-15 for gradual contractions and enlargements cannot be read~ ily applied to these configurations because the angles of convergence and. divergence are variable with re- spect to different planes of reference, The entrance and exit losses for reduced seat globe and angle valves are judged to fall short of those due to sudden expa sion and contraction (Equations 2-14.1 and 2. at 6 = 180°) if the approaches to the seat are gradual. Analysis of available test data indicates that the factor 8 applied to Equations 2-14 and 2-15 for sudden contraction and enlargement will bring calculated K 1 globe and angle valves into reasonably close agreement with test results. In the absence of actual test data, the resistance coelficients for reduced seat globe and’ angle valves may thus be computed as the summacion vf Equations 2-11 und 8 times Equations 2-14.1 und 215.1 at @ = 180°, The procedure for determining K for reduced seat globe and angle valves is also upplicable to throttled globe and angle valves. For this case the value of 8 must be based upon the square root of the ratio of ove where ay. defines the area at the most restricted point in the Hlow path ae, . defines the internal area of the connecting. Pipe. Resistance of Bends Secondary flow: The nature of the flow of liquids in bends has been thoroughly investigated and many interesting facts have been discovered, For example, when a fluid passes around a bend in either viscous for turbulent flow, there is established in che bend condition known as “secondary flow”. This is rocat- ing motion, at right angles to the pipe axis, which is superimposed upon the main motion in the direction of the axis, The frictional resistance of the pipe walls and the action of centrifugal force combine to produce this rotation. Figure 2-15 illustrates this phenomenon. Figure 2: Secondary Flow in Bonde Resistance of bends to flow: The resistance or head joss in a bend is conventionally. assumed to consist of... (1) the loss due to curvature Q) the excess loss in the downstream tangent... . and (3) the loss due to length, chus he whip the the Fava 218 where ‘hy = total loss, in feet of fluid hy ~ excess loss in downstream tangent, in feet of fluid hy = loss due to curvature, in feet of fluid thy = loss in bend due to length, in feet of fluid if: hy hy the then: he who the satin 2.17 However, the quantity hy can be expressed as a fune~ tion of velocity head in the formula: ye KE where: Ks ~ the bend coefficient = velocity through pipe, feet per second 4 = 322 feet per second per second vain 2.18 CRANE HAHAHAHAHAHA HAAAhAAnAAAAnAA aeCRANE Resistance of Bends — continued Voge! (08 and voineh ‘The relationship between Ky and /d (relative radius") is not well defined, as can be observed by reference to Figure 2-16 (taken from the work of Beij"). The ‘curves in this chart indicate that Ky has a minimum value when r/d is between 3 and 5. Values of K for 90 degree bends with various bend ratios (r/d) are listed on page A-29. The values (also based on the work of Beij) represent average conditions of flow in 90 degree bends The loss due to continuous bends greater than 90 degrees, such as pipe coils or expansion bends, is less than the summation of losses in che cotal number of 90 degree bends contained in the coil, considered scpa~ rately, because the loss h, in Equation 2-16 occurs only once in the col The lass duc to length in terms of K is equal to the developed length of the bend, in pipe diameters, multiplied by the friction factor fr as previously described and as tabulated on page A-26, Kenan = 5 fee(§) ewan 239 In the absence of experimental data, i¢ is assumed that A, = he in Equation 2-16. On this basis, the total Value’ of K for pipe coil oF expansion bend “The relative radius of a bend ig the ratio of the radius of che bend 2 the intemal diameter of the pipe. Both dimensions must be in the same oaprcmce ‘made up of continuous 90 degree bends can be determined by multiplying the number (n) of 90 degree bends less one contained in the coil by the value of K due to length, plus one-half of the value of K due to. bend resistance, and adding the value of K for one 90 degree bend (page A-29), : qvton 2-20 Kaa (0-1) (0.5 fer 5 +05 Ki) + Kr Subscript | defines the value of K (see page A-29) for one 90 degree bend, Example: A 2" Schedule 40 pipe coll contains five complete tums, ie., twenty (n) 90 degree bends. The relative radius (r/d) of the bends is 16, are! the resistance com efficient K; of one 90 degrce bend is 42fr (42 x 019 = 80) per page A-29, Find the total resistance coefficient (Ka) for the coil, Ky = (201) (0.25 x 0019 x 16 $0.5 x 08) +08 -13 Resistance of miter bends: The equivalent length of miter bens, bused on the work of H. Kirehbucht, {s also shown on page A-29.Orifices and nozzles are used principally to mecer rate of law. portion of the theory is coverel! here, For more vomplere ata, reter co Bibi ‘ography sources 8, 0, and 10... or to inlarmation supplied by’ the mecer manufacturer. Orifices are also used to restrict (low or co reduce pressure. For liquid flow, several orifices ure sometimes used co reduce to avoid cavitation, Overall resistance coelicien con page A-20. For a sample problem, see page IC for un orifice is given The rave of flow of any fluid through an ori may nozzle, neglecting the velocity of approach, may be tion 2. expressed by pressure, faken from page A-20 if iy or AP in Equa- 3 is taken as the upstream heal or gauge 9 CAVIg he evton 2.21 Flow of gases and vapors: The flow of compres sible tluids through nozzles and orifices can be expressed by the same equation used for liquids except the net expansion factor Y must be included. Velocity of approach may have considerable effect on the quantity discharged through a nozzle or orifice. ‘The factor correcting for velocity of approach, vaca, BO er es aon 236 The expansion factor Y is a function of may be incorporated in Equation 2-21 as follows Y The cic het ra ge A Ge emu ce =) The ratio (BI of orifice oF trout diumeter 10 inlet diameter. 3. Ratio of downstream to up pressures, The quantity This factor!™ has been experimentully determined A ton the basis of air, which has a specific heat ratio of T [L4, and steam having specific heat ratios of appros- fi- imately 1.3. The data is plotted on page A-21 v efficient C. Values of C Yulies of for some of the common vapors und gases is defined a5 the flow coefficient C, Values of C \aues otk for some of the commen rapes ifie heat rutio, &, may vary slightly for ditferent pressures and temperatures, hut for most practical problems che values given will provide reusonably accurate results. for nozzles and orifices are shown on page A-20. Use of the flow coefficient C eliminates the necessity for calculating the velocity of approach, and Equation 2-22 may: now be written: Ewoioe232 uation 2-24 may be used for orilices discharging a= Ca Sah = Ca f HORE compressible luids to atmosphere by using: 1, Flow coefficient C given on page 4-20 in the Reynolds number range where C is a constant Orifices and nozzles are normally used in piping sys- OTe tems as metering devices and are installed with ange taps or pipe taps in accordance with ASME 2. Expansion factor Y per page A-21 specifications, The valuesof hrand AP inEquation 3. Differential pressure AP, equal to the inlet 2-23 are the measured differential static head or gauge pressure. pressure across pipe taps located 1 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of This also applies to nozzles Jischarging compressible the orifice plate or nozzle, when values of Care taken fluids to atmosphere only if the absolute inlet pres from page A-zo. The flow coefficient C is plotted sure is less than the absolute atmospheric pressure for Reynolds numbers based on the internal diameter divided by the critical pressure ratio re: this is of the upstream pipe. discussed on the next page. When the absolute inlet pressure is greater than this amount, flow through For nozzles and orifices discharg- nossles should be calculated as outlined on the Flow of liquid: ing incompressible Muids to atmosphere, C values following page. ONONHHH AHA AT AH AR HAH ARAN AAACRANE Flow Through Nozzles and O: Maximum flow of compressible fluids in a ni zle: A smoothly convergent nozzle has the property of being able to deliver a compressible uid up to the velocity of sound in its minimum cross section or throat, providing the available pressure drop is sulfciently high. Sonic velocity is the maximum velocity that may be attained in the throat of a nozzle (supersonic velocity is attained in a gradually divergent section following the convergent nozzle, when sonic velocity exists in the throat). The critical pressure ratio is the largest ratio of downstream pressure to upstream pressure capable of producing sonic velocity. Values of critical pressure ratio r,, which depend upon the ratio of nozzle diameter to upstream diameter as well as the specific heat ratio &, are given on page A-21 Flow through nozzles and venturi meters is limited by critical pressure ratio, and minimum values of Y to be used in Equation 2-24 for this condition, are indicated on page A-21 by the termination of the curves at P4/P', = re ‘quapTER 2— PLOW OF MUIDE THROUGH VALVES AND FITINGS. ices — continued Equation 2-24 may be used for discharge of compressible fluids through a nozzle to atmosphere, or to a downstream pressure lower than indicated by the critical pressure ratio r., by using values of Y |... minimum per page A-21 Co... page A-20 AP... PU(L = 1); reper page A-21 ° weight density at upstream condition Flow through short tubes: Since complete experimental data for the discharge of fluids to atmosphere through short tubes (L/D is less than, or equal to, 2.5 pipe diameters)" are not available, ic is suggested that reasonably accurate approximations may be obtained by using Equations 2-23 and 2-24, with values of C somewhere between those for orifices and nozzles, depending upon entrance conditions, If che entrance is well rounded, C values would tend to approach those for nozzles, whereas short tubes with square entrance would have characteristics similar to those for square edged orifices. Discharge of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Liquid flow: To determine the flow of liquid through pipe, the Darcy formula is used, Equation 1-4 (page 1-6) has been converted to more convenient terms in Chapter 3 and has been rewritten as Equation 3-14. The form of Equation 3-14 which is most applicable Figure 2617, Prowure messramenis mode of satgic points fn evolve In order 10 ablsh optimum dein. to liquid low is written in terms of Row rate in gallons per minute. 2.00259 KQt hay = SES Solving for Q, the equation can be rewritten, Fyuaion 225 hat [he = Vases R ~ Equation 2-25 can be employed for valves, fittings, and pipe where K would be the sum of all the resistances in the piping system, including entrance and exit losses when they exist. Examples of problems of this type are shown on page 4-12. Compressible flow: When acompressible fluid flows from a piping system into an area of larger cross section than that of the pipe, as in the case of discharge to atmosphere, a modified form of the Darcy formula, Equation I-11" developed on page 1-9, is used. 4 onan 1 aE The determination of values of K, ¥, and AP in this equation is described on page 1-9 and is illustrated in the examples on pages 4-13 and 4-14.Cr eeFormulas and Nomographs For Flow Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe CHAPTER 3 Only basic formulas needed for the presentation of the theory of uid flow through valves, fittings, and pipe were presented in the first ewo chapters of this paper. In the summary of formulas given in this chapter, the basic formulas are rewritten in terms of units which are most commonly used in this country. ‘This summary provides the user with an equation which will enable him to arrive at a solution to his problem with a minimum conversion of units, Nomographs presented in this chapter are graphical solutions of the flow formulas applying to pipe. Valve and fitting flow problems may also be solved by means ‘of these nomographs by determining their equivelent length in terms of feet of straight pipe. Due to the wide variety of terms and the variation in the physical properties of liquids and gases, it was necessary to divide the nomographs into two parts: the first part (pages 3-6 to 3-15) pertains to liquid flow, ‘and the second part (pages 3-16 to 3-35), pertains to compressible flow. All nomographs for the solution of pressure drop problems are based upon Darcy's formula, since it is a general formula which is applicable to all fluids and can be applied to all types of pipe through the use of the Moody Friction Factor Diagram. Darcy's formula also provides a means of solving problems of flow through valves and fittings on the basis of equivalent length or resistance coefficient. Nomographs provide simple, rapid, practical, and reasonably accurate solutions to flow formulas and the decimal point is accurately located Accuracy of a nomograph is limited by the available page space, length of scales, number of units provided ‘on each scale, and the angle at which the connecting line crosses the scale. Whenever the solution of a problem falls beyond the range of a nomograph, the slide rule or arithmetical solution of the formula must be employed.CRANE Summary of Formulas To eliminate needless duplication, formulas have been wriccen in terms of either specific volume V or weight density’ 9, but not in terms of both, since one is the reciprocal of the other These equations may he substitueed in any of the formulas shown in this paper whenever necessary © Bernoulli's theor Exeaton 31 AHP Oe Ly oe A tg © Moan velocity of flow (Continuity Equotion) Peet enn veh = hs , 8 w oo v= 0286 2 = 183.3 SP = 0.0509 0S, 0.003 8 TF » = ooo ay SA Ry = 1 419.000 = 5160 57 = 304 a © Viscority equivalents: fevaton 34 , 7s lead loss and pressure drop in straight pi Pressure loss due to flow is the same in a sloping, vertical, or horizontal pipe. However, the dil: ference ‘in pressure due to the difference in head must be considered in pressur Doreys term: Equation 365 AP = c.000 000 007 26 L-Tig’sSe fLla'arS,t AP = 0.000 000010 59 ase For singled compranibe id foo, a0 pope 322, (@ Head loss and pressure drop h laminar Flow in straight pipe For laminar flow conditions (R, < 2000), the friction factor is a direct mathematical function of the Reynolds number only, and can he expressed by the formula: f = 64/R,. Substituting this value of Fin the Daréy formula, it can be rewritten Exvotion 2-6 3 aLW e008 99 AT = onnns Ht 7 LQ AP = 0.000 275 i AP = oc oo EY rane AnH OOF AAA AAA PHA AAACHAPTER 3— FORMULAS AND NONOGRAPNS FOR LOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE Summary of Formulas — continued @ Limitations of Darcy formula The Darcy formula may be used without rescriction for the flow of water, oil, and other liquids in pipe. However, when extreme velocities occurring in pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapor Pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calculated flow rates are inaccurate, comers When pressure drop is less than 10% of Pi, use por V based on either inlet or outlet conditions. When pressure drop is greater than 10% of Py but less than 40% of Pi, use the average of » or V based on inlet and outlet conditions, or use Equa- tion 3-20 When pressure drop is greater than 40% of Pi, use the rational or empirical formulas given on this page for compressible flow, or use Equation 3- (for theory, see page 1-9) @ Isothermal flow of gas in pipe Hines we o371 pees Fem © Simplified compressible flow for long pipe lines Equation 3.78 [ET ae © Maximum (sonic) velocity of compressible fluids in pipe ‘The maximum possible velocity of a compressible fluid in a pipe is equivalent to the speed. of sound Equation 2.8 {© Empirical formulas for the flow of water, steam, and gas Although the rational method (using Darcy's formula) for solving flow problems has been recommended in this paper, some engineers prefer to use empirical formulas Hazen and Willams oan ate (2 where 140 for new steel pipe 130 for new cast iron pipe 110 for riveted pipe Equation 2:10 (deletes) pres lear than on pound gousel Bie \/5in(+ Af +o018) Flowing temperature is 60 F. 3550 Weymouth formula for high prestore oan aeae( at 7 ces om 5 where: gas temperature = 60 F 5, = 06 E = flow efficiency E_ = 1.00 (100%) for brand new pipe without any bends. elbows, valves, and change of pire diameter or elevation E_ = 095 for very good operating conditions E = 0092 for average operating conditions E = 085 for unusually unfavorable ‘operating conditionsCRANE Summary of Formulas — continued (@ Head loss and pressure drop through valves and Altings Head loss through valves and fittings is generally given in terms of resistance coefficient K which indicaces static head loss through a valve in terms of “velocity head”, or, equivalent length in. pipe diameters LD that will cause the same head loss From Darcy's formuta, head loss through a pipe is mot hE vation 25 and head loss through a valve is: n= K feat 3.16 us 2 L therefore: K =f 5 eqaton sts To eliminate needless duplication of formulas, the following are all given in terms of K. Whenever necessary, substitute (f L/D) for (i wm BAKE oon so KO eqnten 214 hy = EE 03 so KE a = coor yo KB o ccon ojo; KY fy = 0.001 270 KB = .o00 ayes AME AP = 0.000 1078 Kpst = 0.000000 0)00 KeV? = 6 Kot . Kee LL AP = co oot Kel KW AP = cccoce sto KW? AP = 0000 000 000 bos Ka TS: 7 AP = 0.000 200 0018 633 A ate Laat Se For compressible flow with ht. or AP greater than approxi- mmatcly 10% of ine “bsolute ‘pressures the denominator should be multiplied by Y® For Values of Y, see page A-22 © Pressure drop and flow of liquids of low viscosity using flow coefficient Equotin 346 Resistance coefficient, K, for sudden and gradual enlargements in pipes - “Eevotion 3217 gant Resistance coefficient, K, for sudden and gradual contractions in pipes Ie, 67 45° *Eaation 318 *Eevotioe 3.183 “Note: The values of the resistance coefficients (K) jn equations Jrt7-t, 318, and 3-18.1 are wsed on the velocity in the small pipe. To determine K values in terms of the greater diameter, divide the equations by gt through valves, filtings, and pipe; Darcy's formula Une tows featon 317 a = coast at fF = ons ot sf RE Re ar Q = 965 f= ne [GP w = conse] Em osssae [SEP Wm asront] Hm i801 af Pe APP, q's = 40700 Ye VRrS Equation 3:20 ve [BPR , Ye ta = on ¥e [ere hea a Sie = vns0 va (BPEL « 60) 12 BP wn ons re [EE wasp ve BE AP decermination, sce examples on pages 413 and 414, ww marr MO RR OOM OM RO MAN RRA ee J &Summary of Formulas — concluded @ Flow through nozzles and orifices (hr. and AP measured across pipe taps atl diameter end 0.5 diometer) Q = i9bsdtC VI, w = 0.043848 C Viz pf = 0.525 d#C VAPp W = 1576.d8C Viz gt = 1891 dt C VBP 9 Values of C are shown on page A-20 Equation 222 Values of C are shown on page 20 Values of Yare shown on page A2I cand pressure drop 145 OP he Kok) ae Subscript a refers eo pipe in which valve will be insalled. ‘Subseripe brefers to pipe for which the resistance cosfclent ‘Rewas exablshed, © Specine gravity of liquids Any aul Fquoton 3.25, any liquid a 69 F, » (uniess otherwise specified) - ‘water at 60 Fr ou Equstion 3:26 hig + Deg API Sle FtoF) = Liquide er han wer: quotion 227 0 Feo F) = ——o _ See eae 130 + Deg Baumé S (bo Feo F) = rr © Specife gravity of gases Rai) 333 Rigas) ~ R (gas) Migas) _ M (gas) Mair) ~ 29 S, ao (© General gas laws for perfect gases Ve = we RT Be Be MEP evion 331 eV RT ORT sas 144 PL Rn SS 2.92 Fqvotion 3.33, PIVe = mMRT = ng isqsT = $6 15457 PM _ 170 P'S, T We, pM, PV,” isasT ~ i07 where: ny = we/M = number of mols of a gas @ Hydraulic radivs* Equation 25 Ay $88 seztonal flow area (99, feet) wetted perimeter (feet) Equivalent diameter relationship: D= Ru d= 4BRe "See page 1-4 for limitationsExample 1 Given: No. 3 Fuel Oil at 60 F flows through a 2- inch Schedule 4o pipe at the rate of 45,000 pounds per hour, Find: The rate of flow in gallons per minute and Find the mean velocity in che pipe. Solution 1 p= 56.02 { Velocity of Liquids in Pipe ‘The mean velocity of any flowing liquid can be calculated from the following formula, or, from the nomograph on the opposite page. The nomograph is a graphical solution of the formula, : Q w ye 1853 ~ 048 2 = oo509 & (oe values of d, sce pages BuIb to The pressure drop per 1c0 feet and the velocity in Sched- ule 40 pipe, for water at 60 F, have been caiculated for commonly used flow rates for pipe sizes of 14 to 24-inch these values are tabulated on page B-14. w ae ale Example 2 CRANE Given: Maximum flow rate of a liquid will be 300 gallons per minute with maximum velocity limited to 12 feet per second through Schedule 40 pipe. velocity through the pipe Solution [— Connect Connect | A | @ = s00 | ven | daa The smallest suitable pipe size and the Reasonable Velocit For the Flow of Water through Pipe Service Condition Reasonable Velocity Boiler Feed 8 to 15 feet per second Pump Suction and Drain Lines. ...4t0 7 feet per second General Service. 40 10 feet per second City. to_7 feet per second 2. |W 43000] p= soor | Q = 100 2 344" Schedule 4o pipe suitable 3 |Q = 100 | 2" Sched yo] = 10 | x | Q= 300 |3}4" Sched 4o| » = 10 we no ana nnnnnnnnnannnnnaneRenae @ & Ww ntCHAPTER 1~ FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THEOUCH VALVES, FITINGS,ANO FIRE iquids in Pipe (continued) Velocity of Li ” 0 5 9 s a 5 a 103 9 puosos sad 00g a4 bree Bee 68 2 See em oneee A oO oN ~ z 7 1 4 | wo = = 9 ° e [009 FE = Hl ‘ ofo = # | xapuy ‘ xepay_| oF poqag ys | coo FF = + [er pauag,F [ecocoe = a] + ooo sk = mi | 108 = Fo = £ A] roy = ¢ | viral © (eeeeramre| ~ eeuHED, ov tonne oonn ws =d weg = dt 10198) uondtsy 242 pup “soquunu 40108) uo}.o4) 242 pue “saquinu uday ayn ‘ano sod spunod ul axes Moy 3, -PULy —_splouday ayp ‘anoy sad spunod ul 911 ROY 2YL :PUIL, sanuru 19d suo}/88 201 Jo 2101 8 ae adid foaxs OF aInpaYPS J 09 w EON Jo 2184 8 2@ odid jaar oF oot 18 Jone) uaa 1 erduoxg Friction Factor for Clean Steel Pipe Reynolds Number for Liquid Flow 242 Jo woos yonydes? © 5} yesBouoU 24 fed sytodde my uo yee on wos) 0M synaua a osypavyeayen 24 Ke loquin spouse,CRANE CHAPTER 3— FORMULAS AN NOMOGRAPAS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PPE 3-9 Reynolds Number for Liquid Flow Friction Factor for Clean Steel Pipe (continued) Joo4 21989 Jed spuney ui “Kisuag WII ~ cee 7 | § z exon ut adig op atmayes yo 225 yeulaoy | asradueg ur usoasa an80y i T TTIL ToT a i & 8 BRS Spueshoyy ut “aQunH sproufoy ~ “ ! Index snow 996 spunog jo spuesto4a w *AoId JOEY ~ 888 Sssene So Defuub TP Gotu UL ‘yun sd sue}e9 w "Hols 3 ay ~ 8288 8 S33 98 8 S06 ree -3% tii phe tt er tat thet ttt “ "Rae in 9435 8 588 99 8 pucaas iad yoog 21GN9 ‘MOY 19 a1eY ~HEHEHE eee CRANE Liquid Lines for Turbulent Flow g é g 3 & ‘1g 98nd uo parenqer aye sonyea asaya ‘youre 01 %{ Jo sous adid 40] soye1 moy pasn AjuoUNWHOD J04 32189 U70q PARY 1 09 Ie J91eM J04 ‘adid oF aINPayIS i00]9A atf1 PUP 399} Cot sod dosp sanssoad oy], a “pasn aq pinoys £1-£ affed uo ydesowou aya pue suru] Paropisuca s1 Moy ‘coo wey? ss2] JoquiNL SpjoUcay 404, dog at ‘fed Suiposaid ay) uo ydesBowou 2y2 2sn 40 3 03 19AUOD 02 uoFTeNbs SurMoffo} ) anoy 190 spunod ur uaai8 st 9984 Moy UY A, vex =o (616101 91-4 £38 208 'p Jo sanj08 104) 2 DT ff 000 = gttoo = mig Poser = —B_ torv0 = 001 sp ot = +6 dv ‘adid yo 399) 001 sad dosp aunssasd ayy spur “neue 923 j0 rydeu8 e sj ydesBowou ay “280d uo ydesBourou 243 wosy “io ‘smO] not] 39d 25 Yat jo ares wae adid oars wou SmOY .] OOF IB JOIeA\ -URAID rdwoxa 3q ue spinbyy Suymoy jo dosp aunssoad auf, u 2 rya aad Pressure Drop in Liquid Lines for Turbulent Flow x (continued) be OTT OOTY TPT ry bt & ean Ree Rk a eas ae uy sien 19 spunog w “e04 00L 198 dug otnssang = YT tog 21980 iad spunog ut Misuag iebion = o a? 2 s 2 t i i bas 0 @ seyouy ur fodig jo jeuerg jewqay =p eh ade tH S SS ioleg estoy g synq 04 suoeg tra yo ey =D 25 ae ihn i cit “Y saan g Index 1 ropse4 vonsug = JCRANE Pressure Drop in Liquid Lines for Laminar Flow Pressure drop can be calculated from the formula below or, from the nomograph on the opposite page, only when the flow is laminar. solution of the formula. The nomograph is a graphical Flow is considered to be laminar at Reynolds number of +000 of less; therefore, before using the formula or nomograph, determine th Reynolds number from the for ‘mula on page 3-2 or the nomograph on page 3-9, APs = 0.0668 4 nas 4 “ 33 2 cory 4 (oe values of see pages B-L6 co B-19) Example 1 Given: SAE 30 Lube Oil at 60 F flows through a 6-inch Schedule 4o steel pipe at a rate of 500 gallons per minute. Find: The pressure drop per 100 feet of pipe. Solution: 1p = $6.00 page AT 2 w= 450 age AS Rem 550 page 3.9 4 Since Re< 2000, the flow is laminar and the nomograph on the opposite page may be used. Connect n= 450] Q AP Example 2 Given: SAE 10 Lube Oil at 60 F flows in a 3-inch Schedule 4o pipe at a velocity of 5 feet per second, Find: The flow rate in gallons per minute and the pressure drop per 100 feet of pipe. Solution 1p = 5405 page 7 Q= us te 3.7 B= OS page A R, = 1100 rae Since Ry < 2000, the flow is laminar and the nomograph on the opposite page may be NAAT ANA HA HAHAH ANHaeHAA a ~ nn =Pressure Drop in Liquid Lines for Laminar Flow (continued) gs saxout a adi OF empe49s Jo z]s yeurBow = eee ao we , RF ~ LH t Mere aa 8 ca 2 S888 astodnveg w aisensia amesey ~ a an = Lu i s Lu LET3-14 CRANE Flow of Liquids Through Nozzles and Orifices The flow of liquids chrough nozzles and orifices can be determined from the following formula, or, from the nomogeaph ‘on the opposite page. The non graphical solution of the for Example 1 Given: A differential pressure of 2.5 psi is meas ured across taps located 1 diameter upstream and 2.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of a 2.¢00-inch [-D. nozzle assembled in a 3-inch Sch 80 steel pipe carrying water at 60 F. Find: The flow rate in gallons per minute Example 2 Given ut bo F through a 6-inch Schedule 4o pipe. is co be restrieted to 225 gpm by means of a square edyed orilice, across which there will be a differential head af 4 feet of water when measured across taps fected! ¢ diameter 4 anc 0.5 ameter downstream, The size of the orilice opening, Solution a7 rae Rowe re 3 2. Re = 105 000 © (1.05 x 10) spe 39 4 Assume a8 ratio, say 0.50 5h = 6065 8 th = of0ch = (0.50 x 6265) 7 C= 0m (Set 7 ° » orifice diameter of 3 inches will be satisfactory, since this is reasonably’ close to the assumed value used in Step 6. 11. Ufthe value of dy determined from the nom- oxraph is smaller than the assumed value used in Step 6, repeat Steps 6 to ro inclusive, using reduced assumed values for d, until i€ is in reason able agreement with the value determined in Step 9. Example 3 Given: A differential pressure of 2.5 psi is meas lured! across taps located 1 diameter upstream and 2.5 diameter vlownstream from the inlet face of a tooo-inch 1.D. square edged orifice assembled in ty-inch Schedule So steel pipe carrying SAE 30 lubricating oil at 60 F. Find: The How rate in cubie feet per second, ‘ Solution Sohution. Pro or 1p = shox pase Ae Ge oe ee 2 dy = 1378 AY Sched AD pipe: page BH eee ee wc 1000 + 1.278) 5 3. C= 1.15 turbulent How assameds page A20 Bal + = 480 ‘appt tw ie lminar since ee rae ‘emi hgh pe AS C= 105 cvswmed: page 1.20 5 |BP=as]e = San] = 58 |___cenneet | 6 | wes8]C= 43 | Index 6 | AP = o5| p= soon] he = 19 x. [Tones [aS noo | @ = 218 a sue index 4. Calculate R, based on 1.D. of pipe (2.900").. 7 [4 4 = 0.052] 8 eeu oye AS 10. Ry = nx io ge 3-9 11, C= 1.13 comet for Ry = 2.4 % 10s pote 20 12, When the C factor assumed in Step 3 is not in agreement with page A-20. for the Reyn olds number hased on the calculated flow, the factor must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 3 t0 11 inclusive 9. Caleulate R, based on I.D. of pipe (1.278") 10 Remus page 39 rr, C= 1.05 ceotreee for Re = 110: rage A-20 12, When the C factor assumed in Step 5 is not in ajreement with paze \-20. for the Rey: ‘olds number based on the calculated flow, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 5 to 11 inclusive Sw mnanmnmrnmrnanonnannnannaAannnnnnnnns nwE « [7 T EL LTT 4004 910n9 10d spunog wi “Aiisuag 1WIeR - g inuig 12d suotteg jo spuesnous ut “Moid jooten ~ 0 8 puosss sed ya04 210ng 1 ‘weld yo stew ~ Flow of Liquids Through Nozzles and Orifices (continued) CHAPTER 3 ~ FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPNS FO FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITINGS, AND PIE o £ Tory T To ; sa]zz0n pue $8911N0 49) ua!U}909 MO}d =D . g 4 40 184 09807 pea = 77 ul i if § 5 Et a were a oo z ULE LEED LU EIhT Bafta d i 420 aenbs 194 spunog v1 "dg amnssard = 7 & 2 ata ae et a 2 ReWW UAL K ERED REDE Zz z - ee = 000 02 °3 9002 [ae pee coz | _panwounsdng & eiomet casey ‘000 01 &3 000 9 eaieseae povermaes 09 000 | _ ue eas aos aunseaig wortpuen, ~~ sdig WBnoIyy WoDig Jo mola 10) SONIDEIOA eIGDUESDOy Sages nad =P] ome] or) sap eo ot = oad ot = fy fuisn ‘990 t= aM ‘panuyuu Jou 199) | §3190[94 342 pur snoy Jad spunod UL ares MOY 24, (4 09 pur er yoo piepuers 2 snoy sad 329) 21q) ae adid oF aynpayag yout smoy 2.69 pur afine# yout azenbs Jad spunod cot 3e sy -uaa}5) ‘anu sod 129} 000'g 01 pony £2190) 242 YaEm snoy Jad spunod coo'a€ yo 9161 2 ae adid og 2inpoyss e ysnon moy 01 st 4 O59 pue a8ne# yout auenbs Jad spunod 009 38 ulpaag -uanD uBnoiy Aaopa aya pur zis adid 2 z ejdwoxg Velocity of Compressible Fluids in Pipe 1 orduroxg (61-€ 02 of-€ sed 208 Jo sanyen sos) ee ee Ao AA we ‘pjnuss0g a4 Jo uoRINjOs jporydesd w st ydeusowou 24], aed anisoddo ay uo ydesfowou ox, Buisn £q ‘40 ‘ejhinoy BuLno|joy axp Jo suBUL Kq parnduso> 2g wea adid ut spiny ajqissasdwiog Jo A1z0jea UeaUs 24, =ACRANE (CHAPTER 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THOUGH VALVES, FIMINGS, AND Pie 3-17 Velocity of Compressible Fluids in }. (continued) soqou] u adhg jo youeya jeusiay = p ‘nay sa8 spunod Jo spuesnouL uy “wats 10 ste = At re eee Jiifuuros bit t tatids betula tid 3 i mT Tm 3a S suman 96 204 Jo spuesomuy uw MyD0124 ~ 1 04 21999 124 spunog wt “Kyusuag WHEN ~ J sea ~ Pore fate nh asad LE Ppp py LT Ca AANA Specific Volume of Steam SS 300 ao 7m) — B00 f= Temperature, in 0 a0 aeCe Inc CRANE Reynolds Number for Compressible Flow Friction Factor for Clean Steel Pipe BuUbEUU pup saquunu spjousay] uJ, “Pulp ‘anoy 9d "0 Jo ares Rap adid jays og ainpayag youl uous) eerduexg oe) uopoty pute “oquin spouse aooye aso sey soe Jo oneal Ba eee a1.8:0 | yl a =F] SL gB 5 ocoonos = [mio =s| GohiSrioy [orcs =a] -¢ (000 000 ¢="y|aloF pays yg] xopUE a toon | oe al si 5&0 = *g Buisn ‘990 69 may Jorsey uonstiyy 242 pue “sequin splouoy 242 ‘snoy Jed spunod wi 2124 moy 24) -PUly 95) suorapuos pirpuess 32° nay Jad 399) a1qn9 o00'00% es 8 aw adid jaaas Us2}9 -9 UP Ysnos smoy '$2°0 Jo Arad “129 pun Ss oe an Se [rmiPny uaa 1 eydurexg axysoddo at uo ydesBowou 242 wo4y 10 mojaq epnt uy Wiosy PaUIUaI9p aq ABU s9qUINU sp|OUSY 94, UUBUKUbueCRANE Reynolds Number for Compressible Flow Friction Factor for Clean Steel Pipe sayouy 01/26. oF aynp04sS 1021s jee1UON 8 o a= inal copper perry waa ep eee lee ae oo Sieaee Ie 1 “8 8 a 8 a easiq aynosgy = | i : inv io ymneg fo somttOU a 'ang eI = mere TITTTTT TTT Trey TET TT 28888 2 RR SaeR R Re eee WH Han RECRANE 20 Pressure Drop in Compressible Flow Lines ~ levo-gg| r= z [sz- ay | veep |e vx Foo =f ° [papa 2 x9pu ° Txapul | adid oF pues 2 5 ex2pu) _ p [oot = al + —Ts spon [pew 1 ere wi At too =f “fe 6too =" oe outs po 00069 = a ones add jo 1993 001 sad dosp aunssaad at “Pures uid jo 1994 008 + snoy Jou -soid 24) pur anoy sod spunod ur aes moy 2% $2'0 81 Kayaeall oytoads S91 ‘anoy 49d ay SMoY ef 09 pUue Bisd O$e ae sO [INIA “UII 1 oiduioxg Spunod ooo‘ Jo 2a 28 aid fot 08 =IMPOHOG oe ys 1 069 pur this 009 10 wtworg ? 1 erduioxg, ‘61-gafled 298° 09 pur Bisd 001 38 stv 40} ‘adid oF aynpayag Jo 193) cot sod yout azenbs sad spunod ut ‘doup aunssaud Jo :34y tsb tgloo = ay (A\) snoy Jed spuned 01 uaauos 01 t afed uo ydesBowwou 247 jonenba Huymoio} atp 950 “(,8) suolpuos prepuels anol] Jed 399} 21qh> UT UDAMH st xed OU 3tf UOYAL (61-€ 02 of-€ soe 208 p Jo snyen 303) 056 100 cove = Ig op, : ££ 000% = OHH ap of dv a "7 Wi inu0y 241 Jo uornyos yeorydesd 8 st Udewowou au, 980d arisoddo ay uo ydesSowou 242 wiosy “JO “MoJaq PIUIOJ K2xBq] 242 wHOI} Pare{A2Ie> 2q wee spiny ajqisszidusos Surmoy yo doup aunssasd 94], po od be Bo Be Ba wo poe ow we a _CRANE cua 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGEAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITINGS, AND PIPE 3-21 Pressure Drop in Compressible Flow Lines (continued) no} 124 spunog QOOT Ut MOL 0 2124— 4 BS 538888 8 Sa2228 8 fecnrm wo aa enen Toei Gotu hhh oli dss laulseiblate bs Lssslandiet sojpe4 voNDUs—j -2s 8 3 8 s : (oy ainpauss ~adig puepueys) sauou ul ‘seyeweIg jeUWON ZS S22 » on ho By SE - FR SK FF . f rt ™ Deena aba aa pie pease Sap ago un oust : {you atenbs sad spunog uy 3804 QOT J8d doug amssang—'g SLRMIME ee eP 5 z i a ‘gna ut ‘pin Sumo} ® aun ads — 4 ee ee ee ee re aes Petes eta errata elie a en Sor arene ted 403 agng sad spunog us" AySuaG WYBIaM — d9-22 CHAPTER 2 ~ FORMULAS AND WONG. Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids Pressure Drop, Rate of Flow, and Pipe Size wea The simplified flow formula for compressible fluids is accurate for fully turbulent flow; in addition, its use provides a good approximation in calculations involving Values of C, uid flow through commercial steel pipe for most normal flow conditions. w If velocities are low, friction factors assumed in che a) simplified formula may be too low; in such cases, the formula and nomograph shown on pages 3-20 and 3-21 may be used to provide greater accuracy E iso ‘The Darcy formula ean be written in the following form ae Sf = w Wro-y( 23800 ma ate ww _ ofa a0 C= Wot 138 000, fa 5 G = Whe C, = Ubgook ee i ad The simplified flow formula can then be written es 2 mt so 1 mec Ea as Fa DPia = GOV = SS 4 “3 _ « co = BPisn , AP? (eine APeee ae eis eee 1 = Ges We Ge B sean sta 2 mete Ci, = discharge factor from chart at right 3 $x 3 fa Cy = size factor, from table on next page = dy, sta £ The limitations of the Darcy formula for compressible 3 flow, as outlined on page 3-3, apply also to the simplified : flow formula, é Example 1 uta Given: Steam at 345 psig and soo F flows through 8-inch Schedule 4o pipe at a rate of 240,000 pounds per hour. + Rate of Flow, ~ Rote a Flo, u-Ee Find: The pressure drop per 100 feet of pipe. Solution: C= 57 Eom Ey Ce = 0.146 Est 5 Vom vas page 317 oF Aco Ee 5 Eo APis = 57 x 0.146 x Las = ‘ ee Fos Eis ‘ 5 Example 2 ofm a fw ins Given: Pressure drop is 5 psi with 100 psig air at 90 F aE at flowing through 100 feet of 4-inch Schedule 40 pipe. Far © os Find: The flow rate in standard cubie feet per minute. Solution: APw» = 5.0 fyi noonnonnonn ne = saz en ge A10 C, = (5.0 x 0.564) + 5.17 = 0.545 ‘For Ci values and on example on determining pie size" amis Feterenaiesy Oe dn W + (4.58 S,) page B-2 " Gm = 23.000 + (4.58 x 1.0) = 5000 scfmCRANE ‘CHAPTER 2— FORMULAS AND NOMOGEAPHS FOR FLOW THOUGH VALVES, FITINGS, AND PPE 3-23 Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids Pressure Drop, Rate of Flow, and Pipe Size — continued ‘ Valves of Ce | Shedule | Value | Nomipal | Schedule | Value [[ Nominal] Schedule Value Number | ores | BpeSite| Nostee | Seer | Nese] Maem Yale — Inches 40s | 7ago0. | s | ws | ts | a | 10 | v.00 a | 2b 00000, si | ia | | ocond Ss | 20 ie | | Is, ocongoe % 408 1.590.000, | 160 3.59 a 0.005 49, Soe | LB eae x | a8 Gent % aoe | ai90m. 6 | ws | oso 0 0.0070 aoe | Hono aos | 078 | Oogae 0 ‘ors i Group % aoe 93500 160 rae Ho bro Bs | elon m= | iat | to) bone 18 3500 | | x [utmon: | os | 2 | ow | i 3 sibs] as || ooo | we | oe | Bm | oceans % wos a. || so” | ote + | Oboe ae iam, || fx | ois sie | O80 eo xopim0: | | x | Sonar x | oon: w | om aa | O80Rs 1% oe | 1 ‘0s 5990 | i ed 0.0035 ae Sea0: | ee | 83H S| tise eo asm: | iso O38 oo | oot we | thio | | Oost » | 2» 0.0397 Mo | ges m | we 1403. 3 sont | to | 088 ae ai, ws | Sear | \ 8 di: @s | oak | xx 13 640. | 80 0.056 9 20 10 | 0.0014 Bs | Bm | 100 0.0652 ios | Oconee m | as a | it oss | scabs as Soa: i) 8.090 3 | | Boorse eo 68a i | octos3 | = 1680 0 o.oo 2 | w cos? | wo | Scans 2 wos 169 x oes io | oconzar as Es + | olaizs Ho een 86 8 ie 6 o0180 io | Sagas = 3 x | Os | “ sano aan || ae 62 | | 0.000534 wt a3 ‘0 cont | } Be) 080088 10 163 10 scone? | Oe | Boo se7 = 30.0 1 Sant ae | Sloot tio S80 | | tltonest i sons so | Scono zal 2 aos ae u | w 0.00949 so | o.on0a5 16 2 0:00 98 io | Scon0ges = be | Goose | i | Sear 175 2 scaio%8 | Ho | Scan ure ™ x | songs | te | Scoot 8 w oon . ‘ Py 01418 Note 8 ScO1G39 ff The tetera «2 Set ax inthe cle 8 SOURS |) cu ot Saati Nba cits iB Grants” || Standarg, Bara Song. and Bebe 8 oS Eire Srone pre Wapertivey Example 3 Given: An 85 psig saturated Solution: AP = 10 Venus page 3-17 oF 413 steam line with 20,000 pounds Gmoy Cem ioe 4x4) = 5.56 hour flow is permitted @ haximum pressure drop of to. Reference to the table of C: values above shows that the drinch size is pal per toe feet of pine the smallest Schedule 40 pipe having a Cs value less than .56 Find: The smallest size of The actual pressure drop per 100 feet of srinch Schedule 4o pipe is: Schedule 40 pipe suitable. APine = 04 x57 x48 = 9.3(CHAPTER 2— FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THEOUOH VALVES, FINGS, AND PIPE CRANE Flow of Compressible Fluids Through Nozzles and Orifices The flow of compressible fluids through nozzles and orifices can be determined from the following formula, or, by using the nomograph on the next page. The ‘nomograph is a graphical solution of the formula. W = 1891 YC = so [BP m= 1891 YauC,| (Pressure deop is measured across taps located diameter upstream and 0.3 diameter down. Scream from the inlet faze of ee nozzle or otfes) Example 1 Given: A differential pressure of 11.5 psi is meas- tured across taps located 1 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of a 1.000-inch [D. nozale assembled in a 2-inch Schedule 40 steel pipe, in which, dry carbon dlioxide (COs) gas is lowing at 100 psig pressure and 200 F Find: The flow rate in cubic feet per hour at standard conditions (seth). Solution: 1 R= asa ears 3 k= 138 Steps 3 through 7 are used to determine the ¥ factor. 4 P= Ps ig7 = 100+ 147 = 147 5. OP/PY = ans £1147 = 0.1003 6 dh = 2.067 2" Sched 40 pipe; page B-16 7 B= 1.00 + 2.067 = 0.484 3. Y = 093 page AI 9. C= 1.02 turbulent flow assumed: page A-20 to. T = 460 +1 = 460 + 200 = 660 mh son page A-10 2 a7 | Index + 13. [tndex: [© = 10 | Index 2 | 1 2 | d= 1.000] Index 5 1 16. q’y = 44000 seth page B-2 17, = 0.018 pepe AS 18. Ry = 860.000 oF 8.6 x 10° page 3-2 19. C = rot is correct for Re = 86 x 10 page A20 20. When the C factor assumed in Step 9 is not in agreement with page A-20, for the Reyn- ‘olds number based on the calculated flow, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 9 through 19. Example 2 Given: A differential pressure of 3 psi is: measured across taps located) 1 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face ofa 9.75. inch ID. square edged orifice assembled in inch Schedule 4o steel pipe, in which, dry ammonia (NH) 12s is lowing at 40 psig pressure and 50 F. Find: The flow rate in pounds per second and in cubic feet per minute at standard conditions (scfm). Solution R= 908) » S. = ost 3 k= 129 Seep 3 though 7 are used co determine the ¥ factor. 4 Pr = P+ iar = 404 147 = 547 5. AP/P, = 3.0 + 54.7 = 00549 6. d = 1.049 1" Sched 40 pipe: page B-16 . 4 ° for NF gas: page A-$ B = 0750 + 1.049 = 0.716 Y = 098 Cor age ADL turbulent flow assumed; page A-20 10, T= 46041 = 460 + 50 = 510 1 y= oar ge A-10 = ‘Connect Read | nm [AP = 3 = 017 | Indexa 1. [Linder [C= o71 | Index 14. Index-2. O75 Index 3. 1s. | Indexy | Y= 098 [w = 0.148 16. | Indexs [Y= 098 [W= 520 . w 520 dn = = peg gas = 195. pe 2 18 2.010 pam AS 19, Ry = 310000 oF 3.10 x 10% page 3-2 20. C = 0,702 is correct for Ry = 310% 16 page AO 21. When the C factor assumed in Step 9 is not inagreement with page A-20, for the Reyn- ‘lds number based on the calculated Row, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 9 through 20. ANAT ANON AA ANAT AHA ATTAFlow of Compressible Fluids Through Nozzles and Orifices (continued) doses voyeuedes — 49) warsyyee9 wold ~ 9. 2 Tap a ESS SRR Bee 28 See wm ce ae stg puonas sad spunog ut ‘noid joamey ~ Wath i on 194 spenog gaat ‘word ye view ~ At TT Tar owt asenbs 126 spuneg wf vg aunes eee 3 a 2 Pitta ta tl | Fs 3Ee CRANE Types of Valves UU oo oo oo ok wuuueunvnnneeeuHeLe (lobe Type LM Check Valve Clearway Swing Check Valve Cenvenitonol Swing Check ValveSolution: Find: The Reynolds number and friction factor. Examples of Flow Problems ‘Theory and answers to questions regarding proper application of formulas to flow problems can CHAPTER 4 be presented to good advan- tage by the solution of practical problems. A few simple flow problems were presented in Chapter 3 to illustrate the use of the nomographs. Other problems, both simple and complex, are presented in this chapter. Many of the examples given in this chapter employ the basic formulas of Chapters 1 and 2; these formulas were rewritten in ‘more commonly used terms for Chapter 3. Use of nomographs, when applicable, are indicated in the solution of these problems. ‘The controversial subject regarding the selection of a formula most applicable to the flow of gas through long pipe lines is analyzed in Chapter 1. It is shown chat the three commonly used formulas are basically identical, the only difference being in the selection of friction factors. A comparison of results obtained, using the three formulas, is presented in this chapter. ‘An original method has been developed for the solution of prab- lems involving the discharge of compressible fluids from pipe systems. Illustrative examples applying this method demonstrate the simplicity of handling these, heretofore complex, problems, Reynolds Number and Friction Factor For Pipe Other Than Steel ‘The example’below shows the procedure in obtaining the Reynolds number and friction factor for smooth pipe (plastic). The same procedure applies for any pipe other than stee! such as concrete, wood stave, riveted steel, etc, For relative roughness of these and other piping materials, see page A-23 Example 4-1 . . . Smooth Pipe (Plostc) Given: Water at 80 F is flowing through 7o feet of 2. p= 62.20 page A8 s-inch standard wall plastic pipe (smooth wall) at; ga a rate of 50 gallons per minute, 067 pag: B6 + wn o8s page A 0.8 x 50 x ba.az9 5 Rem o07 x08 Ry = 89 600 oF 8.96 x 10° 6. f= 0.0182 for smooth pipe page A422 HATER 4~ EXANRES OF LOW PROBLEMS CRANE Determination of Valve Resistance In L, L/D, K, and Flow Coefficient Cy Exomple 4-2...1, L/D, and K from Cy for Example 43 Conventional Type Valves contin Given: A brinch Class 125 iron Y-pattern gle valve 2903.86 has a flow coeficent, Cy, of boo vis ing: Resistance coefficient K and equivalent lengths 5-59 {for arapieal solutions /D and L for flow in zone of complete turbulen = BE si (orate they Copia cu eee e017 ages ARO and AST Solution ene , 150% 3.826 1. K, L/D, and L should be given in terms of 6 7 b= = 47.8 nch Schedule 4o pipe; see page 2-10, 2K as e page 3-4 or ASL a oxen Extimple 4-4... Ventr Type Vives De ososs Given: A 6. 4-inch Class 600 steel gate valve with oe _ inlet and outlet ports conically tapered from back k= 581 X13528 _ 5 55 {essed on of body rings to valve ends. Face-to-face dimension . boot Scheo “pipes 2a and back of seat ring co back of seat ring is kK about 6” 5 BaF pie Find: K, for any flow condition, and L/D and L for 2 ffor 6065" LD. pipe in fully flow in zone of complete turbulence. {turbulent Row ranges page AS Example 4-3...t, 1/0, K, and Cr for Conventional Type Valves Given: A grinch Class 600 steel conventional angle valve with full area seat Find: Resistance coefficient K, flow coefficient Cy, and equivalent lengths L/D and L for fow in zone of complete turbulence. Solution: 1. K, L/D, and L should be given in terms of inch Schedule 80 pipe; see page 2-10. 2 Ka 150 fr page A-27 oon 4 Ke. rk BD é- & page 3-4 (naerpe “Trlr ow eo mpc Sores, ! 3. d= 3.826 page BAT fro.0i7 page A26 4 Ka yoxooir =255 (erctoa. Solution: 1. Ka, L/D, and L should be given in terms of 6 inch Schedule 80 pipe; see page 2 Kin 8 fe kee Kittin $08 (1-9) +2664 699 & ve + Valve seat bore 6" Sched. 89 pipe; page BAT for 6” size; page A-26 8 048 Bw 0.23 tan. 10 sin oppo je Kaw BXOS1S# 0110108 x 0.524 2.60524 oa Ka= 1.06 L106 ze = 70 fiameters 6° pipe 6 5B iametr 6" Sched 80 7 La DAS 34 fet of 6 Schl 9 pipe ~~ wee eee meme ene mmr YCRANE. CHAPTER 4— CANPLES OF FLOW ARORLENS 43 Check Valves Determination of Size Example 4-5....Lift Check Valves Given: A globe cype lift check valye with a wing. guided dise is required in a -inch Schedule 4o horizontal pipe carrying 70 F water at the rate of 80 gallons per minute The proper size check valve and the pressure drop. ‘The valve should fe sized so that the dis i fully ited a the specified flow; seepage 27 for discussion. Solution: 1 tin = VT page ADT 9 - Se spe 32 ap Bx1e* Kuh = Ki = 600 fe page AT ky Ket Blos OC 6) yan a eo me A -2 26 2 dun 2.469 for 234 Sched. 40 pipes page B16 dh = 5.068 for 3 Sched. 40 ping page BIS + V = o.01605 TOF wate page AS p= 62.395 70 F wate: page AS fr - 0.018 for 214" or size; page A-26 3. Min = 40V/0.01605 ~ 5.1 2.408 x 89 . 9 2b os for 5 valve Inasmuch as 9 is less than tin, 2 3-inch valve willbe oo large. Try a 2¥einch size. 2.408 x 89 Po abt 759% Based on above, a 2!4inch valve installed in j-inch’ Schedule 40 pipe with reducers is advisable for 284" valve + BER 080 B 0.64 Bie ogt (00% 018 +.8 fo.5 (1-064) +(1 0.6414) a Ot Kaa 6. ap = 18X10 x 27 x O2.305 x80" _ 9 5 Reduced Port Valves Velocity and Rate of Discharge Example 4-6... Rec 4 Port Ball Valve Given: Water at 60 F discharges from a tank with feet average head to atmosphere through 5° Stheclule 40 pipe (05% standard go* threaded elbows 13" Hlanged ball valve having a. 136" di ameter seat, 10° conical iniet, and 30° conical Gutlet end, Sharp-edged entrance is ish with the inside of the tank, Find: Velocity of flow in the pipe and rate of dis charge in gallons per minute. Solution 1 heeKZorve ¥ veoust SoeQeaasiat cmt 2 Kaos entrance; page A29 K-10 xi page A-29 fr =0.018 page Al6 3. For K (ball valve), paye A-28 indicates use of Formula 5. However, when inlet and outlet angles (@) dilfe, Formula 5 must be expanded to: Ke Bin nf ay Ke dy 2375 . co 8 7 5068 O77 page A-26 5. sin a/2 = sin 8° = 0.14 valve inlet 6. sin a/2=sin 15° = 0.26 “valve our Kk, -A018 408x014 (1-0 2.0 «0.26 (10777 oar K = 6 x30fr = t80 x 9.018 = 3.24 “6 bows: p. AID 2058 wale L 0.018 x 200 x 12 RB os ‘Then, for entire system (entrance, pipe, ball valve, six elbows, and exit), K-05 +1408 +05843.24+ 1.0 = 194 9. ve VEE xt) = 104 = 8.5 Qa 24st x 8.5 x 3.008" = 196 ro. Calculate ee number to verify that friction factor of 0.018 (zone of complete curbulence) is correct for flow condition .. . or, use “vi scale at top of Friction Factor chart on page A-25, ud = 8.5 x 3.068 = 20 1, Enter chart on page A-25 at od = 26. Note f for 3-inch pipe is less than o.o2. Therefore, flow is in the transition zone (slightly less than fully turbulent) but the difference is small enough co. forego any correction of K tor the pipe. 14.08 pipes p34CHAPTER 4~ ELAMPUES OF ROW PRonLENS CRANE Laminar Flow in Valves, Fittings, and Pipe In flow problems where viscosity is high, calculate the Reynolds Number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. wna Example 4.7 Example 4-8 Given: SAE. 10 Lube Oil at 60 F tlows through the Giten: S.A.E. 70 Lube Oil at 409 is towing st fem described in Example 4-o ut the same Jif che rate of woo harreis per hour throwsh son tect ferential head of S-inch Schedule 0 ape, in which an S-inch cons ae ventional globe valve sity fall area seat is instalicd Find: The velocity in the pipe and rate of flow in jans per minute a Find: The pres pipe and valve re drop due to low through the Solution: Solution: pueda poge 3-4 R da ps pone 32 page A-27 ine page 3-4 pape 32 6 R Ue 64 pt pee liminerfow pa ease A? ait s F ; Kapk es S090 at 100 page AT Kafg i: page 34 = 7.981 8° Sched. 40 pipe: page BT 2 Kross valve; Example 45 is Seen Kasay 6 elbows: Example 45 ee? K-05 entrance; Example 46 a Ke10 cxig Example $s p= 54.64 age AT w= 100 page A3 heats Example 45 3. *Assume laminar flow with v= 5. + Pipe Ry BEX 3.008 5465 Oe 109) Ky = 340 x 0014 = 4.70 valve f= 04+ 1040 « 01062 ie 20% 2091 2.062 x 200 x 12 Toso Las K 006 xem tt 5 vine Ba . 479+ 60.14 «04.0 toca sytem Ka 48s +058 4324405 41.0 Ka 538 encitesystem 5, Ap 4 B8EX 10°" x 04.0 x 50.1 x Goot sash TREE an y/ P22 5.15 : ra AP = 2.85 5 Q= 2.451% 5.13 x 3.088% = 118 *Nas: This problem has ewo unknowns and, therefore, eis atl apdior sluon Two etree ump wi sacally Bring the solution and final assumption oes eee ‘mene within desired linnits. _ . AOA AAA AAA AAA ACRANE CHAPTER 4— EIAMPLES OF FLOW PHORLENS 4-5 i Laminar Flow in Valves, Fittings, and Pipe — continued | | } In low problems where viscosity is high, colculate the Reynolds Number to determine whether the Row is laminar or turbulent, Example 4-9 Given: SAE. 70 Lube Oil at 100 F is flowing, through s-inch Schedule so pipe at a rate of 600 gallons per minute, as shown in the following sketch, 5 Clas 160 Stet Anse Valve wih ful area ‘sat—vie open 5 Class 150 tea Gate Valve wit fll are pp, sateide open ‘erabon 0 Find: The velocicy in feet per second and pressure between gauges P; and 0.6 x 600 x 5.047 x 470 R, < 2000: therefore flow is laminar. pees? Rew -718 page 32 loss due e9 Bows page 34 422 Ags due to elevation changes page 35 «6» Summarizing K for the entire system (gate rs valve, angle valve, elbow, and pipe), 2 Kis 8h se valve poge A27 K = (8 x 0.016) + (150 x 0.016) + (20 x 0.010) Kis 150fr nde valve; page A27 180 x 300 x 12) K=20/r low; page A29 s0s7 8 Pies rage M4 e.4o8 x 600 7 Sout 88 pipe pase 32 gp _ 18X10 66.3 x 561 x 600", 50 x 50.4 3 d= 5.047 5" Sched. 40 pipe; pace BAT 5047" 148 S= 0.916 at 60 F =o page AT AP = 56.6 . oral S=.0.90 at 100 F cove pate AT We cere page AS p= 62.371 x 0.90 » 56. Jr = 0016es CRANE Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems Example 4-10 Steam Piping Syst Given: 66 feet of hor of g0.000 pounds per psig steam at 850 F flows through 400 edule 80 pipe at a te The system contains three go a I elbows, having a relative radius of 1.5, one fully-open 6 x 4- inch Class 600 venturi gate valve as described in imple + inch Class 600 y-pattern globe valve. Lacter has a seat diameter equal to of the inside diameter of Schedule 80 pipe, disc fully lifted, Find: The pressure drop through the system, 28x 18 KW 1 AP a one 4 2. For globe valve (see page kyo Keb B fos (1 — 63 (1-88) if Kin ssh Beoa 3 Kesh 90° weld elbows; page A-29 Kak rive poe Rnb e poe 32 4 dasz6r 6 Sched. $9 pipes pge BAT Vesa 600 pt ea, 850 F page A-17 me oo7 age At fr~o015 page A26 5. For globe valve, K, 5x01 + of 5( Kae 14g 6310 200 : 0 Ren Srer moony 7 POS 10 Kk S8lbxseoxtt pie 57 K=3% 1420015 = 06) 3 ebows page A29 Kin tas 6x4" ae valve; Erol #4 7. Summarizing K for the entire system (globe valve, pipe, venturi gate valve, and elbows), Ko 14st 1254063 149-10 Example 4-11... Flat Heating Coils—Weter Given: Water at 180 F is flowing through a flat heating coil. shown in the sketch below, at a rate of 15 gallons per minute Wz rf Find: ‘The pressure drop from Point A to B. Solution 1 ap 8X1 Keg? F page V2 ihe pipe: page 34 das pipe bends Kee = 04 fr 90° bends page 2 Ka = (nt) (25 ae 4.5 Kn) 4 Ky Ka 6 Slr 5 +5 Kun) + Koy 180° bende rage A 57 water, 190 F; page 46 woos water, 189 F; page d= 1.049 1” Sched. 40 pipes page ThI6 Jr~0.03 1 Sched. 40 pipes rage A:26 $0.0x 15 x60 3 213 x 108 reso xogs 1? froory rine ke 20M IS x12 Kp SOIREE 05 18 srsighe pipe ory Keaxigx oor obs 70 90° bends 4. For seven 180° bends, Ka = r[(2-1) (0.259 «0.023 x 4) + (0.5 x0.32) +033] = 387 5. Krom, = 4.04 +0. 18x to“ x 0.45 x 60. Toga 6 AP nO J NAA AAAs ts enmnanan nmCRANE Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems — continued Example 4-12. .. Orifice Size for Given Pressure Orop and Velocity \ rinch Schedule 4o steel pipe ¢o feet ‘ining a standanl wate vulve 16 feet from the entrance. Uischarges eo I* water to atmosphere from a reservoir. The entrance projects inwaru into che reservoir anid its venter line is 13 leet helow the water level in the reservoir Find: The diameter of chin-plate orifice that must he centrally installed in the pipe to restrict the velocity of flow to 16 feet per second when the wate valve is widle open, Solution: pte eee R, - ade page 3-2 Ky = 8fr gate valve; page A-27 i Kef5 pipe; page 3-4 5 ene — fr= 0.013 page A-26 p= 62570 page AS p RoiBsenaiees ty Ba Joos ne 5. Total K required = 64.4 x 12 + 108 = 7.72 Kye 8x0013 - 010 ste valve K = 60x 0.014 = 0.84 . pipe ‘Then, exclusive of orifice, Kenai = 0.78 + 1.0 +0.1 40.84 = 2.72 6. Kocitee = 7.72 = 2.72 7 Konto ge 420 S. Assume B07 C07 page.Aan then Ke 4.3 Bs too large @ Assume # = 0.05 +. C= 067 page \20 then Ka 7.1 2 Bis e00 small a. Assume 6 = 0.07 4. C = 0.082 page A20 thenKar58 1 we d= 08 1. Orifice si ~ 11938 X 008 = BL" Example 4-13... Flow Given in Internationel ‘Metric System (SI) Units —Oil Given: Buel oil with a density of 0.815 grams per cubic centimecer and a kinematic viscosit: centistokes is owing through 52 millimeter LD, steel pipe (30 meters long) at a rare of 7.0 liters per second. Find: Head loss in meters of fluid and pressure drop in kg/ems, bar, and megapascal (MPa). Solution: 1. Define symbols in St units as follows: ‘A, cross-sectional area of pipe, in meters D.. internal diameter of pipe, in meters acceleration of gravity = 9.8 meters /see/see Ihe. ead loss, n rezers of ful Length of pipe, in meters orate of flow, in meters/second 9 mean velocity of flow, in meters/second Maid density, in yrams/centimeter? AP (xg/em) pressure drop, in kilograms/entinetert SP (bas) «pressure drop, in bars ‘AP (MPa) | pressure drop, in megapaseals Use metric-imperial equivalents as indicated be- Jow and on pages B-10 and B11 meter (1) = 3.28 feet = 39.37 inches bar = 0.98067 x kg/em* ‘megapascal = 0.098067 x kg/cm? A ccolumn of fluid one square centimeter in cross- sectional area and one meter high is equal to a pressure of 0.1 p kg/em?; therefore AP (kg/cm) equals. AP (bar) equals AP (MPa) equals. out he 0.98067 3P (kg/cm) 0.098087 AP (ks/em) Pe es + A” Geax sore tot "OF page 32 py» MaoxaD2p38" Doe pate 32 Rx 22523500108 go op 27 =o page 25 L st cor xjox 3.5008 ete 8D aggcomaanaSaaes 5 poe 34 AP (kg/em*) » 0.1 x o.815 x 8. 0.729 AP (bat) = 0.98067 x 0.729 = 0.715 AP (MPa) ~ 0.098067 x 0.729 ~ 0.07154-8 _ _ CHARTER C= AMPs OF RoW PRORLENS __ Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems — continued Example 4-14, . .Beroull’s Theorem—Water Given: Water at 60 F is flowing through the piping system, shown in the skecch below, at a race of 400 gallons per minut 5° See CRANE ice pe ADS 5° Welding Elbow ” Schedule 40 Pipe Pp gp. tae * 5.047 a =715-0=75 fect i vy = 10.08, 4 pipe, page 14 (=ne —| ‘5° x4” Reducing Welding Eltow t= 6.42 5" pine, page Het Find: The velocity in both the 4 and s-inch pipe Ba O40 = 10.08 oo ey sizes and the pressure differential between gauges ie ears Py and Py. 5. For Schedule o pipe, Solution (Res oe xo Cn ZU aera 1 Use Bernoulli's theorem (see page 3-2) FORK TE # pipe wh vag Ps +e PS SKOOL 5047 x Lt 5 pipe ( Beth) f=oor8 405" pipes pone 25 2.002 50K@ . 6 18 x 225 x 12 2 hy 2G age 34 fon . K-96 fons R, - 2600 pare 32 ° aeaeee te A K 2218 11012 K-ik pur 34 “4026 kK. «for LO’ of 4 Sched 40 pine k-& fect je ince ot id 1 of Sched 40 De Harter pipe: page 2-11 With reference to velocity in 5" pipe, Kah. 90° elbow: page A29 Ke=59) +08! 10g Kata fe OP eee Ke 14x0016 -022 5° 90" elbow Note: In dhe absence of test data for Ineeaing elbows, the . ost? Seance sconserrately catinated co be cal tthe guration Keo2 +e cosy 5x4" 90° ebow ‘of the resistance due co a straight size elbow and a sudden 0.8! cnlangement. a 7. Then, in terms of 5-inch pipe, a os 2 A16 p ar ine Kroral =96 4 144 4022 boss = 248 pba ceceeeee page 20050 x 24.8 « 3 pa bn37t pucAS 9, 9.00250 28x10 15g wet eee page AS. bel dy ~ 4.026 4¥ Sched. 40 pipe: page B-I7—_g, Pin Pew 2324 75 094 + 15.8) = 39.0 FAA AAA ATA AAAAA HAAR Oa aniwnnen‘CHAPTER 4 ERAMMES OF LOW PROELENS 4-9 Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems — continued Example 4-15 Power Required for Pumping Given; Water at 70 F is pumped through the piping system below at a rate of teo gallons per minute. on 2 0 het Regret ‘a —| ‘ 2 ORL ca ae wit in a oe tt wa acon a Find: The total discharge head (H) at flowing conditions and the brake horsepower (bhp) required for a pump having an elficieney (e,) of 70 per cent Solution: 1. Use Bernoulli's theorem (see page 3-2 43P, of as Ps te Ce ee eae epee 2. Since #1 = Pe and oy = vs, the equation ean be rewritten to establish the pump head, H. 1a (Pi = Ps) - 2) the Sooig9 KG phe = 22088 poe} R= 133.922 page 82 - oot Qi bhp ~ Oe 9 P Taz 0006, e + Kes0f $0" chow: page ASP Ky 8fr ae vals pgs A Kak 2 1 scl pos: pee 34 koe es page 429 5. d = 3.068 3" Sched. 40 pipe; page B-16- p= 82305 pm 46 aos pare 83 fr= 18 pase A6 2.48 x 100 69 498 139.9% 5.008499 262305 1 gp 0.05 froon pase A25 a K = 430% 0.018 = 2.16 four 90° elbows Ky 8x0018 «0.14 sare ave life check valve with K-20 eaiscers; Example +5 hedule 40 pipe, = 41.00 9 Ha goo + at 421 100 x 421 x 62. bhp = SPARE x B2.305 P= 74700 0.70 Example 4-16....Air ines Given: Air at 65 psig and 110 F is flowing through 75 feet of t-inch Schedule 30 pipe at a rate of 100 Standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). Find: The pressure drop in pounds per square inch and the velocity in feet per minute at both upstream and downstream gauges. Solution: 1. Referring to the table on page B-15 read pressure drop of 2.21 psi for 100 psi, 69 F ait at a flow rate of 100 sefm through 109 feet of t-inch Schedule 4o pipe 2. Correction for length, pressure, and temperature (page B-5) 75) (100 + 14.7) (so 110 AP = 22 ono) (EH) 4) AP = 2.61 3. To find the velocity, the rate of flow in cubic feet per minute at flowing conditions must be determined from page B15. Gane) ron ses a2) -109 age 3-2 page B16 fe upstream gauge at downstream gouge Note: Example 4-le may also be solved by use of the pressure rap formal and nomograph shown on pages 32 and 3-21 Fespectvely or the velocity formula and/nemograpi shown, ‘onpages 3-2 and )-17reepesevely“charter 4~ OUANRES oF Flow FRORLEHS CRANE Pipe Line Flow Problems Example 4-17... Siting of Pump for Oil Pipe Lines of 75 Universal Saybolt seconds is flowing through a 13- inch Schedule 30 steel pipe at 2 rate of 196 hour. The pipe line is 50 mile discharge at an elevation of 2000 feet above the pump inlet. Assume the pump has an efficiency of 67 per cent. Given: Cr oo barrels per long wit Find: ‘The brake horsepower of the pump. Solution. floBt Equation 3-5 on 1 BP =0.000 1058 or afer concetng Sto, & Vuse nomojraphon page 3-11 te 8ter ae poe B10 8 Rem ssa ip pape 3-2 or 3.8 hyo AAP brake hortpowe = = GH — 2 a(S ish) 2 pa stb poe 067 S = 0.8762 page B-7 dene powe 7 oP = 258 505 5. 75USS = 12.5 centipoise page BS BAN 1900 5.4.64 i. R 12,09 * 12.5 a 7 fmoors ane Aas Apu 22281058 x 0.025 x 50 x 5280 x 54.65 x 1900? 258 304 AP «533 10, The total discharge head at the pump is H 1405 + 2000 = 3405 2) (GE) (Sha) - 12, Then, the brake horsepower is mn Q 30% 3405 X $4.04 _ SEF OO Ep 7 N96: OF say 1500 OnTHAH HAHAHAHAHAHA ARAAAAARRATHAGiven: A natural gas pipe line, made of s4-inch Schedule 20 pipe, is ico miles long. The inlet pressure i 1300 psia, the outlet pressure is 300 Psa, and the average eemperature is 40 F The gas consists of 757% methane (CH), ethane (CH.), and 4% propane (CiHs) Find: The flow rate in millions of standard cubic feet per day (MMscfd) Solutions: Three solutions to this example are presented for the purpose of illustrating the variations in results obtained by use of the Simplified Compressible Flow formula, the Weymouth formula, and the Panhandle formula. Simplited Compe ls Flow Formula are LS Fer iF 6 oho any PTE] 0 2 d= i376 pase Bt B= 428.185 3 f= 0.0128 turbulent flow assumed: page 4-25 4 T= 4b041= 4604 49 = 500 5. Approximate atomic weights Cartoon C= 120 Hydrogen... H= 10 6. Approximate molecular weights: Methane (CH) M = (1x 12.0) + ($1.0) = 16 Ethane (C:Hs) M = (2x 12.0) + 6x10) = 30 Propane (CFs) M = (3% 12.0) (81.0) = 44 Natural Gas M = (16 x 0.75) + (30x 0.21) + (44 x 0.04) M = 10.06, oF say 20.1 M (gas) _ 20.1 7 Si" Bain) 39 (joo = 00%) 428185 [0128 x 100 x $00 x 5.69} 'n = 4.490.000 = 0.693 pane 3-5 8 giye nga 2.482 x 4 490 000 x 0.693 Ri 10 190.000 oF 1.019 x 107 13. feoors page A 14. Since the assumed friction factor (f = 0.0128) is correct, the flow rate is 107.8 MMscfd If the assumed friction factor were incorrect, it ‘would have to be adjusted and Steps 8, 9, 12, and 13 repeated until the assumed friction factor was in reasonable agreement with that based upon the calculated Reynolds number. 16, B87 = 009 (13008 = se0%) 0.693 « 160) 17. qln= 28.0 x 1009 508, a's = 4 380.000 Jan (e8es22tt) (28) «0s 18, gen (S828) (42) 05.1 Panhandle Formate see pove 33 seseazenn[ Cte 20. Assume average operation conditions; then efficiency is 92 per cent: E= 002 ar, ttt = 89 x= 5.570.000 1,» (5379-00084) (24 br) ode (HSE) (#)CRANE Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems Example 4-19...Weter through the piping sy a constant head of 1.5 feet. »——_1 Find: The flow rate in gallons per minute. tL» R= oe page 32 B= di/dy age A-26 sodden contraction; page A2? {tie inc: pat 33 K-4 {ar tae pe 3 dw 2.067 2 Sched. 40 pipe: page B16 d= 3.068 Schl 40 ip age 6 wet par AS er pose A6 fr-o019 2 ipso A258 fr= 0018 3” pipe: page A26 4 B= 2.067 + 3.068 = 0.67 Kaos 3" enreance K = 60 x 0.018 = 1.08 3" mee bend Kix 8x 0018-014 3" gate valve ven: Water at 60 F is flowing from a reservoir w. ‘The reservoir has fee, 3 pipe inch pipe, in cerms of -inch For 2-inch exit, in terms of 3-inch pipe, Kat v0.67 25.0 For sudden contraction, Ky 25067) and, Krotat = 0.5 + 1.08 + 0.14 +0,70+ 109 + 5.04137 = 19,7 5 Qa 19.65 x 3.068 Vis = 197 = 14t (this solution assumes low in fully turbulent zone) 6. Calculate Reynolds numbers and cheek: friction factors for How in straight pipe of the 2-inch 50.6% tat x 62.371 R 2,067 x 11 96 x 108 fxoon page A25 and for flow in straight pipe of the 3-inch size $0.0 x Lat x 6: 4 Re KT EIEIO foo page A25 7. Since assumed friction factors used for straight pipe in Step 4 are not in agreement with those bbasedion the approximate flow rate, the K factors for these items and the total system should be corrected. accordingly ey eee For 20 feet of 2-inch pipe, in terms of j-inch pipe, 2.067 x67" 1" and, KrotaL = 0.5 + 1.08 $0.14 +0.78 + Tht 4 5.04137 2410 8 Qm 19.65 x 3.068 VT. = 2t = 137 ANH AAPAA AAPA APA AHA AAA AAR AHACRANE CHAPTER 4 HAWES OF ROW PRORLEMS 4-13 Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems — continued Example 4-20... Staom ot Sonic Velocity Given: A header with 170 psia saturated steam is feeding a pulp stock digester through 30 feet of 2-inch Schedule +40 pipe which includes one standard 90 degree elbow and a fully-open conventional plug type disc globe valve. The initial pressure in the digester is atmospheric Find: The initial Row rate in pounds per hour, using both the modified Darcy formula and the sonic velocity and continuity equations ‘Solutions—for theory, see page 1-9: Sonie Valocty and Continuity Equations w= Vigiag PV page 3. 1 eo 9 wes ge 3-3 w ans Equation 3-2; page 3-2 10, P= Py - AP Prim 170-1335 = 365 80" elbow: page A29 AP determined in Step 6, Keos ‘entrance from header; page A-29 tt, hy = 4196. ..170 psia saturated steam; page A-14 : ° exe todigrter: page A29 Oy 12. At 36.5 psia, the temperature of steam with e ea! ing total heat of 1196 Btu/lb equals 517 F, and de 2cb7 d= 4272.2" pips par Bis aes pages 013 and 816 freooig page A-26 Woe Vin16938 : penn BI NRRAKHONTES HTS K -SOHOx OK say ext, 2 pipe 1652 x 4.72 . 20679 a w- SB As07 11 390 Ki= 340 x0.019 - 6.46 2 globe valve K~=30x0019 =o. bow 30 x 0019 = 0.57 $0 dow ore and, for the entire system, ia in Steps 11 and 12 constant cotal heat he is assumed, Ka 331 $6440.57 405 +100 11.85 But the increase in specific volume from inlet to outlet requires that the velocity must increase. Source of the 5 AP wom 47 155305, kinetic energy’ increase isthe internal heat energy of Pi a7 "170 the fluid. Consequently, the heat energy actually decreases toward the outlet. Caleulation of the correct hhgat the outlet yields a flow rate commensurate with the answer in Step 8. 6, Using the chart on page A-22 for k= 1.3, its found that for K-= lS, the maximum AP/P%, is 0.785 (interpolated from table on page ‘Acr2). ‘Since AP/P% is less than indicated in Step 5, sonie velocity occurs at the end of the pipe, and AP in the equation of Step 1 is: . AP = 0785 «170 = 133.5 72. Yeono exept {cise A } 8 We 181 eon naar) Ww 117804214 CHAPTER 4— DXAMRES OF FLOW OBLENS Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems — continued Example 4-21...Gases at Example 4-22... .Compressible Fluids Sonic Velocity ‘at Subsonic Velocity Given: Coke oven gas having a specific gravit Given: Air at a pressure of 19.3 psig and a 0.43, a header pressure of 125 psig, and a temperature of 100 F is measured at a point 10 feet perature of 140 F is flowing through 20 feet of 3- from the outlet of a 4%-inch Schedule 80 pipe dis inch Schedule 40 pipe before discharging to atmosphere, Assume ratio of specific heats, k = 1.4 ‘a of snetie Pot Find: The flow rate in standard cubic feet per hour (seth). Solution—for theory. see page 1-9 APP VETS, 1. qu= 40700 Yat, pe 34 at K=I5 a 2. Pheiaseia7 3 fr 0.o17s page A25 Note: The Revrolés number need not be cal ulated sinee gas discharged 10 atmosphere ‘through a short pipe will Rave a high Re, and flow will always be in a fully curbulene renge in which the friction factor is eonstane Bm 9.413, +d = 3.068 Da 0.2557 page B16 = 1309 .for pipe for entrance: page A29 for exit; paye Ac29 369 +05 +1.0= 287 total a 19.7 147 1350 _ 1907 139.7 "9895 7. Using the chart on page A-22 for k= 1.4, it is found that for K = 2.87, the maximum AP/P': is 0.657 (interpolated from table on page Aca). Since AP/P’, is less than indicated in Step 6, sonie velocity occurs at the end of the pipe and AP in Step 1 is: AP = 0.657 Py = 0.657 «139.7 = 91.8 8 Tr 140+ 460 = 600 oa (essere 10. q’y is equal to: q’y = 1028 000 charging to atmosphere, Find: The flow rate in standard cubic minute (scfm) Solution: feet per pane Jot page 34 page B16 page ADS for pipe ae forex: page A29 K total, AP 103 Pr 5407 0588 8. Y=o76 page A-22 9. Tr= a604 = abo +100 = 560 a= CoEs Ca 10. an 678 x 076 x02981q/ 1998S — n= 878% 078 x 0298 INF 04 x sl0 x 62.7 nA AA ACRANE _onurtek 4 ANNES OF ROW ants Flow Through Orifice Meters Example 4-23...Liquid Service Example 4-24... Laminor Flow Given: A square edged orifice of 2.0-inch diameter fran wh the icy gh ate s installed in a 4-inch Schedule 40 pipe having @ ais mmber 9 letemne te te an diameter upstream and © ed between taps located er downstream Find: (a) The theoretical calibration constant for the meter when used on 60 F water and for the Row range where the orifice flow coefficient C is constant. . . and (b), the flow rate of Go F water when the mercury deflection is 4.4 inches. Solution ~ (a) [AP Qe gett SE. agers er338 2, To determine differential pressure across the taps, Dhe p rearrs aP= page 15 where! Sha = difoential ead in inches of mercury 3. The weight density of mercury under water equals pelSuy ~ 5u), where (at 60 F) 4. And p of H, under H,0 = 62.371(13.57 ~ 1.00) 84 Ib/ft? Ahal784) 5. BP = StaltBl 454 ihu vee ah 6. dy = 4.026 page BAT aac 2 BBS our Ca asas roe Aa ate 3 Qa a36x (20)*o0ns HEE Q-504V Eh, Solution ~ (tb) 10. Q= 504V Ahm = so4V a4 = 106 pet jab x 106 62378 4.020% Ry 75 500 oF 7.55 x 104 13, C= obas is correct for Re = 7.55 x 10%, pet page A-20; therefore, the flow rate through the pipe is'106 gallons per minute. 14. When the C factor on page A-20 is incorrect, for the Reynolds number based on calculated flow, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 9, 10, and 12. calibration constant page A na Ree Gicen: SAE 10 Lube Oil at go F is flowing through fa y-inch Schedule 40 pipe and produces ¢.« psi pressure df tial between the pipe taps of a :.r5-inch LD. square edged orifice Find: The flow rate in gallons per minute Solution 1 g=noare,® pXa pane 35 oe 31 50.600 rage 322 or 3-8 2 spect mana flow pe A) 3 pase eto theca : Jags 20 assumed val x C= 08 Bed on lunar ow 6 $0870 bo F rage A = 087 at ooF rage 7 7 pn 8r4x087= 543 ra 7 2 °. 0. Cw 09 for Re= 1768 page A20 Since the assumed C value of 0.8 is not correct. it must be adjusted by repeating Steps 5. 8,9, and 10. 1. C= 087 assumed pte AZO fi [oa 1. Qa a30 x25 0879) 24 = B15 $0.6 81.5% 54:3 5,008 38 14. C= 0.87 for Re» 1920 rane 20 Since C = 087 is correct for the flow, the flow through the meter is 81.5 gallons per minute, Re = Ig204-16 cnarrey &— eraunts OF Row MonENs CRANE Application of Hydraulic Radius to Flow Problems Exomple 4-25. ..Rectongulor Duct Given: A rectangular concrete overflow aqueduct, 25 feet high and 16.5 feet wide, has an absolute roughness («) of 0.01 foot i Find: The discharge rate in cubic feet per second when the liquid in the reservoir has reached the maximum height indicated in the above sketch, Assume the average temperature of the water is 60 F. Solution. 2 (| iL’ 1 hm S (Kok) =B(Kek) | sg oRer Ko BLK |, na 6. Equivslen diameter relationship | D=sRu= 3497 = 19.38 page 3-5 | d= 48Ry = 48%4.97 page 3-5 fi j 3 qroonsa [he 4 4 “3 NKGK pe Relative roughness, «/D = 0.0005 page A233 ‘ally curbulene Ale . froo7 ‘assumed: page A-23 q=8o5a,[—te 9 7 = Bos x25 x 185 7 S817 1605, Vike Vie ae 4Ry 4730 500 where; K, « resistance of entrance and exit cae Ky = resistance of aqueduct and check, f=0.017 for 500 cfs flow i pe baz pum A’ To determine the friction factor from the Moody * diagram, an equivalent diameter four times the! = 1-1 page AS hydraulic radius is used: refer to page 3-5 i R, ional flow area 4971 ~~ wetted perimeter 164 000 600 OF 1.64 x 108 Assuming a sharp edged exit to atmosphere, Keto page A29 Then, resistance of entrance and exit, Ksostiomts 7340 pes f= 0017 for calevlated Ry: page 4-24 15. Since the friction factor assumed in Step $ land that determined in Step 14 are in agree- 4. Assuming a sharp edged entrance, ment, the discharge flow will be 30 $00 cfs, Kaos page ADD 16. If the assumed friction factor and the friction factor based on the calculated Reynolds number were not in reasonable agreement, the former should be adjusted and calculations repeated until reasonable agreement is reached, FORMA AAR AAA AAPA PAAR RRR ARRCRANE CHAPTER 4 EANPLES OF ROW es 47 Application of Hydraulic Radius to Flow Problems — continued Example 4-26...Pipe Partially Filled With Flowing Water Giren: \ east i Hof stealy, 10, The cross seetional ow area equals Uniform Mowing water (09 Fi. The pipe has un inside Cee cliameter of sa inches anil a slope ul 34-ineh per foot. Note the sketch that follows, a] ra hy= She nipe is ewo-third SE5 gobs fe per fe 15. The wetted perimeter equals (GS) Find: The flow race in gallons per minute. Solution 1 Qe rg6sur bP pag Since pipe is flowing partially full an equivalent iameter based upon hydraulic radius is substituted 15, Equivalent diameter d= 88x for D in Equation 1 (see ate 1-3). d=s8(0.589) HTMHE SS 16 Relative roughness $5 = 0.00036... page 423 fhe Ru * rts rc fice fossuming fully eur i, fwoenss lent flow; page A-23 lo.cb25 x0.586 3 page ss 8 pnEET cE page 219, Caleulate the Reynolds number to cheek the friction factor assumed in Step 17 5. Depth of flowing water equals 20. pe essrt page A 4 (aa) = vo in awe ame AI 7 va, Ree 54X24 $00X62.171 6 Ee os80X1-1 520 000 or 2.52 x 108 ° sohya! = 19th? ° 23. fa ociss we = go? = 7092! = 19°28! = 19.47 o Pape Aza wat P ido sox 24. Since the frition factor assumed in Step 17 7 AreaC= 1 [We=x 10471) and thae determined in Step 1) are in agree- 3 rent, the low rate will be 24 500 gpm. 2s (218. 5 Fi (x82) arsint 25. If the assumed friction factor and the friction V z factor based on the calculated Reynolds num- 8 be VET Fe ITI «natin ber were not in reasonable agreement, the former should be adjusted and calculations repeated until 9. Area = ArcaB = !y(4b) = }5(4201-10) —feasonable agreement is reached. Area A or B= 22.0in*Determination of Boiler Capacity Example 4.27 jperating at 300 psia saturated steam has a maximum capacity of 100,000 pounds per pour. Find: The boiler capacity in both kilo Btu per hour and in boiler horsepower. Solutions ile Bl per Howe Wh, ~ by) 1, Boiler capacity Iya tts Biu/lb J hy heat of tigi Fen y= 3940 Beu/lb 80 890 io Bsr Y= Boiler horsepower = WO = Md mets ? 970.3 * 34-5, 1° B. 6. For values of hy and hy, see Steps 2 and 3 970.3 x 345 = 2420 39401 Boiler horsepower = CRANE PAAR AAA ARRAN anrnnAAe AAA AAA aPhysical Properties of Fluids and Flow Characteristics of Valves, Fittings, and Pipe The physical properties of many commonly used fluids ate required for the solution of flow problems. ‘These properties, compiled from many varied reference sources, are presented in this appendix. The convenience of a condensed presentation of these data will be readily apparent. Most texts on the subject of fluid mechanics cover in detail the flow through pipe, but the flow characteristics of valves and fittings are given little, if any, attention, probably because the information has rot been available. A means of estimating the resistance coefficients for valves, deviating in minor detail from the standard forms for which the coeffi cients are known, is presented in Chapter 2. ‘The Y net expansion factors for discharge of compres sible fluids from piping systems, which are presented here for the first time, provide means for a greatly simplified solution of a heretofore complex problem. APPENDIX AViscosity of Steam and Water TTY a Sava Wee nie ge ; sx wae oor | sae fa [ats [an co| om beet se eem.oi0 | ‘oro | “ott | oie is} ott 9] as | wsoor J ost | “ost | oa | con ont | oie] ore] ome] | | i | go tise | ‘oi | ‘ou | bua | oo on oti] om] om} ter | “a tioo | ae | 800 | aap | tos ow | “bia ou oar] tue i390 | Stan} ‘toe | t36 | tba oo tm | Gat} ox] owe] ous too | cost] ctor} ast |r ot os | two) oa] os] ow 1250 | 03s | 085 | 09s | 0x5 036 ost) ose} 012} 045 | ova tipo} ose] “toe | te | te ost te | toa} bat | 8 | Oe miso | pe] ‘ans | | on os oss | “tsr| on} ows | ow too | ‘ase | ‘sz | os2 | ‘nae 2 vst | 037 ‘om | 045 | “oso taso | ‘oot | ‘ont | “tah | sr oat oss | tue) a | cat | se so00 | ow | oso } x0 | ‘oso 0 coz | ass} ost | ogy | ss 30 | ‘tao | ‘ba | ‘tay om ost | “as| be | tea] oe soo | ‘tue | oe | ‘tas an om | 035) | os eso | ‘tas | ae | “toe a tos | ns a | ea soo | ins | ‘ns | ‘os | oes oat | to) az so | oat} oat | cae oa vig ost} on fo | nm | coe | 028 oa oor} ont] am 0 | in| ‘2 | ‘te | ‘ az | oa soo | ‘eat | ‘eat | ‘ta wal | oot | tbe So | fom | | tes 20 caty| ons | ov | “f08] top | 113 300 | 019 | 919 | L019 O18 wi) ie} any | nae 0 | ‘oe | oa | ‘oe arr tan] ut] in] as 400 | .016 | .016 | 016 O16 138] 143] az | 130 | 318] cts | is too} “tot | “ies | “tat soo | ‘os | cs | as v0} int] “ion | at 250 | os | ois | is 2ss| ame] ae) 2 x oie | a wo] Si | 3B] Sie = oo Br] an cat | a9 ioo 00 | “ato sot | ‘aga | a | “has 30 |u.a9 | ao | 209 ° vm | iat] ae | as 2 ssa | vas fuses [as [us © coca point OPM HHAAAAAAAAAHAAAARARARARAA ARRROW CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVE, FITINGS, AND ne As3 Viscosity of Water and Liquid Petroleum Products” fnone (CHa 2. Propane feu) 3. tatone {Cau 5. Govoine 4, Water 9. 48 Deg. APL Crude 10, 40 Deg. AP crude 11, 35.4 Deg. AP crode 12, 326 Dog. AP Crude 1, Salt ee Cre 4. Foal 3 (on) 15, Feat 5 (ind 14, SAE 10 tube (100 Vad 17, SA8 30 tube (100 Vi} 18, Foal $ on or Ft 8 ind 19. SAB 70 Lobe (100 VA) 20. banka € Fs Mon) ond eRe ‘Daca extracted in part bby permission from the ‘land Gs Journal FEO REE 10 2 30 40 © 60 80 10000300 400 600 800 1000 tf ~Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit } Example: The viscosity of water at 135 F is.0.52 centipoise (Curve No. o) ee3 2 in Centipoise — Viscosi Carbon Oixide. Mary Chloride Shor Dioxide. Viscosity of Various Liquids’ * FY Jae | ) 7 rr eee 0s ace 120 a0 70240 a «32080 = Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit 9. By Ashe 10, hopropyt Accel 11, 20% Shred.» 20% H:SOy 12, DowthernE 13, Doctherm A 14, 20% Sodom Hydronde..20% Noo 15, hercry 14, 10% Sodion Chovde bine. 10% Nac 17, 20% Secium Corde Brine 20% Nach 10% cach, rine 20% Cah Example: The viscosity of am- rmonia at 4o F is.o.14 centipoise. _CRANE e = ze e& & & = e = = = = =e = = S = = = = = = & e S > 5 & &CRANE _Arrevou TIES OF FLUIDS AND FLOW CHARACTE Viscosity of Gases and Vapors + Viscosity of Various Gases 's for hyurocarhon vapors and al gases in the chart at the upper ight are taken from Maxwell”; the curves fr all other gases (except helium) in the chart are based upon Sucherlank!'s formula, as follows » GSEs) (7 2 where 5 = viscosity, in_centipoise at nee, . temperature T ee : fe = viscosity, in_centipoise at y= Lo "ests : temperature Te 3 T= absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine (460 + deg. F) 3 for which viscosity is desired Tz = absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine, for which viscosity is known, 2c = Sutherland's constant 5° --Note: The variation of viscosity with ; Pressure is small for meat gases, For ti | i LI e Bases given on this page, the correction ‘0 100 200 300 300 500 600 700 800 $00 :000 «Of viscosity for pressure Is less than 10 eee cae = per cent for pressures up to 500 pounds 7 © per square inch . Viscosity of Refrigerant Vapors'! 3 a 2 : 3 au ais|— i $0. ile 304 i Na, : Hy | ao a Zon Upper chart example: ‘The viscosity a % of sulphur dioxide gas (SO,) at 100 F > gy 4g Beto centiptse : ax g Lower chart example: The viscosity onl of carbon dioxide gas (CO) at about 80. \.___ Fis 0.015 centipoise, os i on | ee (= Teper in Dees Fant was onPhysical Properties of Water Temperature |) Sgeuration Specific Weight of Water Pressure Volume Density Square loch | Cubig Feet Per Pound 0. 0.016022 o42is | 0.016019 04779 | o-016023 02561 0.016033, 0.36202 0.016050, 0.300 | 0.018072 desis | 0.018089 dove | O:016130 12780 o.or616s 1.6927 o.o16204 | rho | oie | 2852 0.016295, amie | ose Vad eas Siem S.olesst ysis | O.a1ss10 330 soteere 200 1.826 oiess7 | me of tie | Rote a ike | Geng | moj iris | tater mo ff 4.968 | .o16826 iso Bie | ages io | 8300 | aizaes io foes] aes! sso | 134.608 oor | 58.5 foo | M7289 coe | j 450 422.55 0°01943 7 | so | Gao o.0t083 aoe | CBR 530 toss o.on7 sos | ae 00 Bot aise 2301 Sage $0 Hos 4 nent Yer 303 500 ose ose | 37307 As03 Specie gravity of water at 60 F = 1,20 Weight per gallon is based on 7.48052 gallons per cubie foot. All data on volume and pressure are abstracted from ASME Steam Tables (1967), with permission of publisher, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. N.Y CRANE ces eee men OHHH HAH RAARRRRARRPRaeCRANE [APMNOIK A~ PRYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND FIOM CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES, FITINGS, AND Pre Specific Gravity-Temperature Relationship for Petroleum Oils’ Reg radveed by permision fram the Oil and Cas Journal) 0.7} 05} LT] ul 03 epiticat 0. 2g I Cite=thore a ae { Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit cor toa To find the weight density of a petroleum oil at its flowing temperature varies Thcapecic any When the specie gravity at 60 F./00 F is known. multiply the specific Example: The eciizgrovcy Gravity of the oll at Aowing temperature (see chart above) by 621. the Speticirata at WOE 08 Sensity of water at 60 F Weight Density and Specific Gravity” of Various Liquids Tsar |Temp.| Weight | Specific} Liquid Temp.|Weight|Specific Densty| rs PPP pBenss[ ey “Lge ped ee iP ls a ps leer | AMIIk has a weight don- =a Ear My of O43 toot vrmonis, Satur 03 | eeu t = Ee || Mercury 1100 Visecsey index Brine 10% Caci | 32_| e80s_| Mercure “Beine-102 Na Cr ore ‘Mercury Values in the table at Bumkers CPucl vax oy Mie 5 Girton Disuphise'| 32 | S03 Sie Ot 23 | visi the left were taken ate oo _| 52:99 _Pentane | 389 | dots from Smithsonian Ficl J Ma eo] F302 SAE (OTs Far Owe Physical Tables, Ful § Min % | 033 SAE 3olube: | | F002 | 098 Migtt's “Engineers! Fuel 3 Max | sr | 0995 | Ste otimet |S | sit | cote Ful oMi oo | ott | 0993 | SiiececkGawe | 0 | 525 | Osis Handbook, and *Nel- Getting [RA | OF | TGEAPL Grace |W] 5377 | DARE — son's Petrolewn Re- GEelin, Nowra | co | azar | oon &@ | F281 | 08 finery Engineering & | Soa | o8iy eo | Stas | os | 533% | 0935 oo | oie | om f=Physical Properties of Gases” (sporosimate values of 68 F and 14,7 ps specific heat at e cant pi CRANE ‘Name [chemical | Approx. | Weight | Specific] Indi- | Specific Heat | Heat Capacity | & of Formuia | Molecu-|Densty | Gravity} viguat | “st Room per | equat Gis or | Mise | Pounds | Retar | "Gus" | Temperature | cubis Foot | “to Symbot | weight | per | ‘tive. |Constane) “Brajtb | otee bie | eo hie | | Foor {_____1 ("| s | ke fe flelel« ‘Acetylene|ethyne) | CoH. | 260 | 02 | oou7 | 594 [oaso | 0269 | 079 | 018s | 1.30 aie =) goo | tree | tooo | 333 joa | care | cover | O19 | 130 Ammonia wa, | i270 | ‘us | os | sro jo'sea | olsge | tase | “ous | 132 ‘Argon ja" | so9 | tear | irs | 57 |octas | olor | tas | ‘oor | er Butane | 1 ose | coors | oss | ai Carbon dioride wo igs | ‘one | oer | 30 Carbon monoride | ‘CO | no o.173 | ‘oy | “oia6 | 130 Shiorine &, | is Oiobe | ‘oars | ‘over | 133 Eehane oo ois | aans Ethylene cy 032s | oasa Hells 49 0754 | ‘oi30 Hydrogen chloride 365 | os | ates Hiysrogen a | 20 zane | ova Hydrogen sulphide | HS | 3 ote | oai7 Methane Gt | ia a9 | nar Methytchtoride | cic: | 503 C300 | 322 | Nacural gas — Tass | oer | omen Niewie oxide xo | 309 | 0565 | “oreo Nitrogen x, | Be | 936 | “bi80 Nitrots oxide no | #0 | tes | ons Oxysen 0, | 20 | 55 | 0180 Propane ca. | Hr | 0.340 | “o4ee Bropene(propytene) | Gay | ta | ois | “381 Suiphur dione So. | er | one | thet Molecular Weight, Specific Gravity, Individual Gas Constant, and Specific Heat values were Hl Abstracted from ot based on, daa ia Table 24 of Mark's “Seandard Handbook for Slechanical Engineers" (Seventh edition) Weight Density values were obrained by multiplying density of air by specific gravity of gas For values at 0 F, multiply by L013 Natural Gas values are representative only. Exact characteristics require knowledge of specific WAAR RR RRA ARKHAM MRR ARR ARMA Volumetric Composition and Specific Gravity of Gaseous Fuels" ical Con 7 _ Specific Sev Mouwre Reiter Type of Gas Hysro- [Carbon Muminants Niero-iGarbon} to Air sen a | [Par] os. | onde Fret] Ech [Exiyh] Bem \ ‘ne | ane [ene | sine | Natural Gan Pittsburgh aapmal | oa] vst Producer Gas fomBituminovs Coat] 14.0 | 27.0 ] 3.0 | o6 | 503 | 4s) ose Blate Furnace Gas to | ws | | coco | a0:s | on Blue Water Gas from Cake ws | wo [1s or | as] sey 097 Carbureted Water Ges wos | 40 | 02 ea] ae | os | as | 30} ols Goel Gas (Cont, Vertical Retortsy [54.5 | 10:9 | 24:2 us La3 {02 | a4) 301 ose Coke-Oven G a5] 6.3 [| a0 3s os) oa | 61] 2p on — Refinery Oil Gas (Vapor Phase) |} iat | 12 | 23.3 | a7 | 3956 12 | a1 | 089 Oi Gan, Pacific Const ase | | 263 a7 | ii {os | 36] 47] osCRANE __APPENOOK A~PHYSICAL PHOFERIES OF FLUIDS AND FLOW CHABACTERISTICS OF VALVES, ATTINGS, AND PIPE Ad « Steam Values of Isentropic Exponent, k"* | Law ToT plea TOT a go I ‘k= Isentiopic Exponent \ : | eee gs BS SP PRP P'~ Absolute Pressure, Pounds per Square Inch For small changes in presaure (or volume) along an isentropic, pok = constantAz10 APHNDIG A= PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ANO ROM CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES, fITINGS. AND PIPE CRANE Weight Density and Specific Volume Of Gases and Vapors The chart on page A-t1 is based on the formula. tas P’_ MP’ _ a.70 P'S, "yet ey RT T where: P' = 15.7 +P Problem: What is the density of dry CH, if che temperature is ico F and the gauge pressure is 15 pounds per square inch? Solution: Refer to the table on page A-8 for molecular weight. specific gravity | or individual gas constant. Connect 96.4 of the R scale with 100 on the temper | ature scale, ¢, and mark the intersection with the index scale. Connect this point with 15 on the pressure scale, P. Read the answer, 0.08 pounds per cubic foot, on the weight density scale p Weight Density of Ai [hie] Wet Desiey of ie in Pound per Gubie Foot Tem. For Gauge Presures Indleated Deg F (Based onan atmosphere presse of 16% snd rseclar weight of 28.97) %) 0) | 7%)» # |, 0] m0 | 1 | 10 m[ pu | ow | om | oo | ow tom | oe | pt | po | ot Sa ae a a ass | eT 395 [See “aoe | “ie | “sta | Se | io | “SPE | Fas | Pea | 3 |Bt |e Se) Bio | 8 | See | a | hs Be | 338 Sua | “Soe | “ete | Fat | “ab 32 | 398 Sot | 3 | 738 88 ae [ae eae ae we Pa Pat ie |e Sis | Set | “ets | eee | att | “Za | ee | ie Sas | “as os | 3 | o 36 | Tas 5 | 02 3 or | Fa 0 17 | 2663 | 08 for | ‘ss: | “oor ‘a 7 | “et | 6 | 46 8 |G | Ss 8 st | 98 | 38 a3 ‘S| at | 810 | 3 ts | at | “S09 | 388 $55 | S52 | 8 | 3 | “io | Sas | “0 38 4s | a3 Sie a SS ARS ase [an] oo | “$80 | ss | | a | cle | os 9 | “iar | “se | Hoge cam | a | “igo | “sept | he | Sy | aS | oa | Sig | Saat | Say | Sop 8 | 38 |e | oo | 700 | 500 RLS TS a oa Fat 3 [30 | 33 ‘The table at the left is cal: a js table at the left is cal- ig | 3 [3% [Ae culated for the perfect. gas 75 06 Sop Pa law shown at the top of the So |i a [SE page. Correction for super S19] 00 [34g 297 3.45 Compressibility, the devia- ismn| kao 12:86 [33 tion’ from the ‘perfect gas jras | reat sos TST PIT] LT ees| law, would be less than g(t-e68| 2.33 277 (3.32 43 | three percent and has not Eos |El9 Fa |x 43 | been applied. +e eee pa “ryaoo| The weight density of gases C6te ETE [Pa ery kor} | The wei it 1 [t50! 3 [Ea ‘@ |i | other than air can be deter- Egg |iess 6 | zat 3 |} | mined from the cable by 13017203 [28 45 | 3:39 | multiplying the density 1305 [ele Taare FETE listed for air by the specific Pee eee Ba 2 | 301 | gravity of the gas relative Tio | Ear 16a | st 48 | 253 | toair, as listed in the tables ogy [139159 | 33 123 | on page As AnbFHAAAAAAA AAA AWAA AAR ARR RRA> Weight Density and Specific Volume Of Gases and Vapors — continued index . { 5 : 5 | { 10 | é Zor, fo | 3 5 of? 5 i fis 3 00 » | z 2 ie fia BF og = 2 2 so tw kh” 2 2 & S 3 wy 2 i 7 2 = = Tim SF o 8 | Le a z gb poems | 2 z eee sho s a 5 | 2B aat ste a % 24 Stn 2 j a \ 3 a2 ela ts 2 g2 Ele 2 Pa HP Ease | soto PMs | soba é | 6 | 150 | ~ | | q 300 ql s vin tn ewe ba 4 srplenaion on the prcedig poe. a Malet wil, spect orev, ond intoAYPENOUK A= PHYSICAL MOPERTES OF LIDS AND OW CHARACTERSICS OF VALVES, FINS, ANO HE CRANE. Properties of Saturated Steam and Saturated Water* Society of Mechanical Engineers, 38 East 42th Stet, New York, New York 10017 ‘Absolute Pressure | Vacuum | Temper | Heat of | Latene Heat Specific Volume Tbs per | inches) incher | ‘ature | the fa . Safe | ‘ott | oF He Liquid | Evaporation | om : ‘ hy Water [Stearn P Deyeert. | sews | tov Ga ttrper th | Caste per tb ona | OOF Hos) —o-000y | Tarss | 1075.5) o.owson? | ss07-+ oie) a0 350 | Som | 10738 | tomes | noiso20 | 204s 3 os oot Bas | ts toat’s | o.reo20 | 0087 020 oat Saco | 77 tose? | oconeoas | 180633 033 ost 3503 Toa7.4 9.16007 030 oat oa tos? | n.bieoso 035 on $3339 ose | o.o1eo88 O40 71889 03 | o:o16056 O43 387 toss | O.063 as 7536 10%: B.016071 0 tn ass 016085 530 13 50.09 oore099 | 30 cas 3438 ooteta 530 183 36.24 Ooieit Ta Tor T0178 T016i36 tr BH 1079 Hoisiss a 285 1325 Sones tS 58 | 738 hoisids 13 360 122 ze 407 36.07 2 is L61 Pt 3 1285 rs 529 13538 | 23 550 138.78 ote | a0 Sar ue Tor6300 a8 a 1736 ooisa3t 3 aa 15136 O.btease 43 ou i578 Oote38s 53 10.18 ena Satea07 33 1:0 166.39 ‘areas 63 a2 17008 o164st 83 3 133535 o1ea72 33 133 ess notes 53 32 179.93 6510 ao 16.37 1288 0016897 a3 frat a3 Soles 58 132 188.7 eset 58 4 190.80 O.t6s77 10 36 ist Stes Ta Ta 1778 Cores? u 201.98 S.016850 th 20588 S.016876 rx 209.56 one702 Hest of | Latene Heat Toral Heat ‘Specific Valume Ls. per Sq the Of | of Steam —aprataee | Ga | Liquid | Evaporation P ews | __ deep fpr To 180.17 [970.3 | 0.119 150 wn | 9687 016726 igo tage | 676 oer a Tree | 9688 oer 180 oss | 9607 e793 189 t9us3_| 9618 Scteaia m0 196.9] 960.1 7.016834 219 190 | S584 O.016854 no doves | 586.7 O.o16873 Bo oss | S88:1 onesat 28 doo.a4_| $55.5 1.016909 Bo mes} ——aSET 3016927 269 naz 9808 Stes a0 229 88.3 Stes 380 iss on 0.016977 380 79 54633 0.016995. Too Tia 2 17008 30 nos 545.9 017028 uo m7 3823 8.017039 so Tas Sas 0.017058 340 2s a0} 8.017069 *Abstraced rom ASME Steam Tables (1967), with permission ofthe pale, The Amerian AAA AAA AAA AAA RAHACRANE _syenove Arica mores OF HIBS AND HOW CHARACTENSICS OF VALVES, FITINGS. AND APE__—__A= 3 Properties of Saturated Steam and Saturated Water—continued i —Praure | Temper [Heat of | Latene Hene] Tori ticoe | Specie Volume Lbs per Sayin sure the oe | ‘or Steam 7 se8ea| ae P| uletia | Evaporacon) °F") i P| Pe Degrees _| Brust | “ | Ha [yea | i ii-3059 i 3 3 | toss | er ouiz09 15860 i 30 na | Gers |B sown tas yo | BS) tee | io | ont rated uo wesze_| te W787 aa 7. ef 10.3965 | 2s: az | fo.ases neat Wart hoe | cove | "Sa int oatzate 33001 355 auras 73088 ae | oor 93070 tee 017238 Sonat ie 01725) sues | | ies | ooi76. Ser70 | 0.2 x Doar i 363 3515 ontras ya 238 017296 | 33 354 017307 m3 | iss2_ | oor7316 a3] 3564 Dara i a3 sr corso | 1 a3 iss | Sor733t ; a3 3393 o173e2 i 4S okt ois Bs wrt Torre i Pa 263.3 ‘1017393 i 3 eat D170) & 1685 oir i 3 2868 _on743 sa Doras Hel ours a onrns a tar Ba oni [33 TOUT sea 017381 cal 901301 23 017310 33 eos | ay D172 a3 a3 a3 a3 Biter ey Tors ce 017560 23 1761 3 1.017600 23 1.017608 7 767 aa Ain AS 8.017604 aS Sven aS 8.017651 Ft 73 nS So | a so | 73 0.017692 359] 03 ‘17700 369 aa eiz08 oro 23 ooze 563 53 Sootzzas 359 a3 ot77ae Bs TTA a3 23 m3 33 or a3 a3 a3 a3 isProperties of Saturated Steam and Saturated Water—continued CRANE wane Pressure Temper Heat of [Latent Heat Total Heat Specific Volume Lbs. per Sq In sture | the of of Steam ; : Liquid |Bvaporation) OS™" | v | | Water Siem Derees | oust | Bouts pours. | cateperi | caste seri, 3479 05.8 883.1 0.01787 335546 Sees) aer's o.ov782 sea a2 | aaa. 01783 33678 3073 see otras 38 308% a0 o-oi78s 38.08 | “oa. ‘0. ‘ora 33873 3003 | ama | o.01786 339.37 310s 57953 o.orrar 340.01 ss | wea o.01787 Sosa | 13 83 | o-01788 HL 3126 ‘78 | ‘o.017a9 3a189 303 a3 | o.01790 esr | 39 | 0.01790 MOB | us onze f 3182 i oom 7 aise 0.01792 36a otras 37 one 307 sou | 383 owas 319.0 0.01786 — 3106 sous | 02 Sour 6.01798 I el 001799 o.o1s02 T.180s o.ot803 o.91808 01803 congas 0.01806 0.01805 Sco1sor 01808 o-oo O ‘0.01809 01810 01812 o.tets o.oets ‘Omnis ooui7 1818 ois S.ouea0 0.01825 o.o1826 ‘9.01837 1828 01830 Sst 6.01832 ‘1833 ots Sotsas 0.01836 oes SEEEER SESE SEDBERSERS ‘0.01839 Soousat Do1sss Sous 8.01850 RREBEESE ‘01882 ‘o.018ss 1857 0.01860 o.01863 CCRANE _s7rex00x A-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ANO FLOW CHARACTEISICS OF VALVES, FITINGS, AND PIPE ALS _Properties of Saturated Steam and Saturated Water—concluded Pressure Ls. per Sa) P a > “Temper | [Heat of the Liguid er ‘of Steam \ evaporation)“ j. Beupt esi, Latent Heat] Toral Heat | Warer v Specific Volume wo 35:0 260.0 263.0 270.0 T50 280.0 asso | 290.0 ass 403 ass 350.3 2553 0.5 ass m3 Bs3 280.3 “00.7 az oe pirat 407.80 209.45 suco7 We. 380 33 317 386 385.4 sat 3389 "5.0 i jis | ar6 ae \ ‘0.01863 0.01868 01870 01873 b.01875, ‘O.01878 D088, o.o1se2 oloises 0.01887 Tay 1130802 Uae Uyals? C1013 17978 tag049 Ron 139482 1336895 0.01889 Tart 188801 1640s C2810 77 16008 110873 105535 Lo092t 6.86677 1 —o.1975 o.01982 0.01990, ‘O8276r 9°39137 o.as771 0.82657 79712 0.76978 0.74408 071988 oa728 ogra 0:38497 0.30896 0°s5408 0°53988 O°s2631 0°51533. 0.02182 ‘0.02185 ony 0.02195 ois 0.02232 9.02250,A186 Properties of Superheated Steam” V=specifc volume, cubic feet per pound CRANE hy =tota heat of steam, Biv per pound T Set — Temp Total Temperature—Degrees Faleneit(¢) 3s0" | soo | soar | ooo | 700° | 300° {947 | tooo | 00 | 1300" | 100° a jo | _ 23.03 / T | s1.938 [33.963] 37.985] 41.986] 45,978 | «.964| 5346] 69.358 | 77.807 | | hy | dt6.2| 1239.9] 1267.3 | 1335.2) 1383.8 | 1435-2 | 1480.4] 1693.2) 1803.4, 200 | 5.3] 27.96] 7 | 23.900 25.428] 28.487 | 31.456| 34.45) 37 458| v0.47] 43.435| 46.420 | 52.288 5.352 Js, | 121s} 255-2] e's] Tain | tas | 14303 | Mabe | 19043] Tein | teat | t8003 soo] 153] 280.34] 7 | 15859) 16.400] 18.909 | 24.952] 26049] 23.943| 30.006 | 24.918] 38.296 i } a, | tis%| tear] tase | M05] 8808 | TEE | See Bsn | 18052 soo] 253] 267.25] 7 | 11458/ 12.604) 14165 18.60| 20.199] 21.497] 23.194) 26.183 29.168 | 4, | ity | deal Maso 181] t4sn3] f585.7| 138s | 189E7| Tao 50.0 | 353] 261.02] 7 | 9.428] 10.062| 11.306 14.947 | 16,150] 17.350| 18.549 | 20.942 | 23.332 | fy | nis'9| 12383) 12887 Hat] 14in2] 1555-4] 1565 | T0525] Tans i 60.0 | 45.3] 292.71] 7 |) 7.915] 9.354] 9.400 12446 | 13.450 | 14.452] 15.452 | 17.448 | 19.441 | fy | tan | 13333) 2882 wor | Mg | 18502 | 18683] sna) go's roa s53| 302.93] 7 | 6.664] 7433) 009 10859] 11.372] 12.382| 13.240] 14,982| 16,661 4, ) sf0m'0) 12380) 12802 Man] Mars gin5] 13861 | tsa | 18006 | soo | 653] 12.05 7 | seo] 6219) 7018 9319 029] 11.80 13.081 | 14.577 | hy | nw | 08) aan 103 4sin2] 1s | tw | 1808 soo | 73] 300.28| 7 | sre] sos! 6223 gar 621 19200 | 11.25] 12.956 | hy | ona |) 03 180.1 18323) 19848 | Lean | Leon ooo | 85.3| 32782] V | 4590] 493s] s.s90 7483 3655 | 9.258 | 10.460| 11.659 | fy | ris83 | ira) 93 197 15320] 1888-4 | tote | 1800.3 t200 | 053] sa.a7| 9 | s2ms| ase] ast! sass] gaia] oun e7ue| 72m] 220 | e710] azn | fh, | Vins | taza] ta) Aine] 137s] Wines | aos | Taunt | Teen | toes | don 0 400 | 1253] 353.08] 7 a,gs1| 3.9526| aarr9| 4.8588] 5.2505 | 5.7304 6.1709] 6.6036] 7.4652 | 8.3233, | Ma i.s| 12785] Tate.8| 1377-4| tas.0| (a.t| USi0s | Raat | 109009 | Tao 1600 | 145.3) 33.55] 7 24,0060 3.4413 | 3.2480] 4.2420] 42295] 5.132 s.ao4s| 57741 | 6.5293 | 7.2811 4 inira| tira | taasee| tives | ta 103 | 15809 | aso.s | Toor | 1800 | 165.3) 373.08] 7 2474] 3.0433] 3.4083] 3.7621] 41088 4z307| 5.1289 | ss 6.4704 | 8 iid.) 12713 | Tite| 1375.3] tines 18h. | 1ss2a | 902 | Tanne i 200.0 | 1853] se1.20| 7 2.3698| 27247| 3.0585] 3.3783] a.0915 4ga77| 428 | 5.201 s.n19 is taro i680 | t3t2.8| tiza3 | tns's i8p9 | 18813 | Toss | 1300.3 200 | 205.3] a9.88 | 7 21240] 2.4538] 2.7710] 3.0642] 3.3508 3175 | 405 | 47426] 5.2013 5 Thoes| 13669 | nu.2| tvs | net 13263 | Tesi | Teed | 1800.8 tog | 2252] 97.29] 7 1.9168 | 2.2460 | 2.5316] 2.9024] 3.0661 a.sest| 3.305 | 4.3456] 4.8402 5 ona] Taek | Tans] faved | nas 1627.9 15809 | eos. | tao. 2600 | 2453] 4044s | 7 2.0619 | 2.3280] 2.5808] 2.8286] 3.0563 | 3.04 3.s108 | «.0007| 4.4750 if ago fite.2| 1a7ut | an3.0| tavaa| 1517 | sock | Tene | Tato. 280.0 | 2653] au.07 | 7 4.9037] 2.1881 | 2.3809} 2.6198] 2.0437 | 0655 | 3.2855 | 3.7217 | 41543 ‘ 1600 | fite.8| 1370.0| tana | tars | tones | taza. | Yeaeca| 19608 sooo | 2853] a17.35] 7 29044 | 2.2263 2.4407 | 2.6509] 2.0585 | 3.0643 | 3.4721 | 3.5764 5 13182] taos.9| 1adt3 | Tanne | Hano.a| tape | toseo | tae sin. | 308.3] 423.1] 7 1.8725] 2.0823] 2.2843 | 2.921 | 2.6774] 28708] 3.2598 | 3.6332 y 13183 | tiers | tats | Tarn | tease | tare | keer | ta so | 3253} 4289] 7 1.7501 1.9552) 2.1463 | 2.3333| 2.5178) 2000] 3.0611 | 2.4186 6 in| 1866.7| Tate | i722 | eas.0| 1570 | tears | 9.0 600 | 3453] 0401} 7 1.6525] 1.8421 | 2.0737 | 2.2009| 2.3755 | 2.542 2.8898 | 3.2079 5 Bios] ties | Tair | rn | Tate | tors | Tose | 188 “Reapaed gm ASME Stem Tables UW) ih amon of he poly te (ronal oe ‘American Society of Mechanial Engineers, 305 East sth Serve New Fork YOO mst boos) iu) wa TAMARA ARARARRRARProperties of Superheated Steam — continued V =specic volume, cubic feet per pound y= total heat of steam, Btu per pound “Pressure | Sat be per | Temp, Total Temperature Degrees Fahrenheit (¢) Sq. fe. ‘Abs. ] Gage 500" oon | 700 | soot | star 1000 | s200"| ono] 1300 140" 1S pi Pele i 380.0] 365.3 | 439.61 13606] 1.5598| 17410] 1.9199) 20825 23484] 2a1n4| 25750] 2730 29973 a7. fh, [1877] Hox] 13645] tir 3] 14708. tans) 7. fbste] teees T7an2 T7585 sooo] 853] aens0 | |r.aial 12763] 1609) uanst! 9759 2999| 2250) 24s aver a.zs1s- 9007 faa] EPS) a] 8) PT BN] HSE) RE GAS TRS 429] s0ss|canso |v [ize] nator] use| uzasy| 1.9796 20204] 2195] 22273] 19739) 2696 27687 jM| A fa] SRS] SS] 3] TE) Ha] BETS TS Hoo] ass | seas | 7 frasiz| vano| ree reais] zou x9153| 2070| 22009] 50s) 2.408 24084 1, (ti87] Sock) SUE] S| eae S| Tas] Hee] PAE TAPS YS | n, [ttes| faohs| So. |taras| eso | sans] 18784 tenes) Tabet 09 sr 400] 4653] a.07 | ¥ [x0] v2ns| rasis) usa} uesse| 7716 1200) 2.0339] 2.1619 | 2.290 | 24173 juibet) Bans) 5] 14k2] eS e's tare fea) ta ane. tava 500.0] 485.3 467.01 | jagera| sasee| sans) tase] 1.708 .6nn| tans6| 1 asur| 2.0740 21977 | 2.3200 v | | PRBS] RS] 180) ARES a) a) | als’ sao} s0s3| 71.07 | 7 foots! ss004| 12504| 12619} suns) 6s) 1.7542| 9746] 1.9000 | 21125 2.3302 fa] BPS] E88) aS] ARS 8a) Na) Ha | TA tb swoa] s2s3| zs. | v +640| aot 1.284! 1.406 3704) 16980| 1 9042| 19103 | 2.0336 ' 2.3471 y HRS |S | Re asa ee] a NP TAR seao| sis3| areas | 7 1.0117| 1.1850] 1.2787} 1.3972| 1.5129 | 16298 1.7388| 1.8500 | 1.9605 | 2.0699 5 45] S03) 10) BCA eine) hs a] 1a |e Re s«s.3| s82.57 | 7 9924] tras] 12324) 1.3473 | 1.4593| 15699 | 16780) 1.7885 | 1.8601 | 1.9960 is sed | HARD) Lond) RN? | Aste | Lapea| IAG] Tass | teat | ees 600.0} ses: |4ss.20 | V7 019456 | .0726| 1.1992! 1.308 | 14093 | 1.5160] sant] 1.7282 1.8284 1.9300 % e805] ses Hows Keno |za| arto) 1a] ke HAR LB 6500] 62s | 409 | 7 o.3634| o.935| 1.0928| 1.1963 | 12579 | 13969| 14944] 1.5900/ 1.6864 | 1.7013 % Tixk | 1887 | How sta | tas | to | Law| aot) boska ae 700.0 | 685.3 | 503.08 | 7 0.7928 | 0.9072 | 1.0102 | 1.1078 | 1.2023 | 1.2948 | 1.3858) 1.4757 | 1.5647 | 1.6530 i PEs] S] RT|) AAR) AB) AES] 0.7313 0,8409| 0.9386 | 1.0306 | 1.1195] 1.2063 | 1.2916] 1.3759 1.4892 | 1.5419 Wa76.1] 134258 | Ws | 1457.5 1512.5 | 1568.2 1623.8] 1670.8 | 1736.4 | 1798.6 0,6774| 0.7828] 0.8759] 0.2631 | 1.0470] 1.1289] 1.2093] 1.2885 | 1.3669 | 1.4446 Ya71.| 1330.5 | 1398.1 | 1455.8 | 1511.4) 1565.9) 1622-7| teres | 1735.7 | 1792.9 0,6296| 0.7315 | 0.8205 | 0.9034 | 0.9830) 1.0606 | 1,1366| 1.2118 | 1.2865 | 1.3588 1265.3 | 1336.0| 1596.8 | 1454.0] 1510.0 1868.7 | 1621-5| 1678.0 | 1738.9 | 1792.3 0.5869 o.6858| 07713] 0.8508 | 0.9262| o.9998| 1.0720] 1.1430 a.2131 | 1.3825 eo | 13907 | 139d] LaBDa | nes | eet tetog| errr | Abe |e 0.5488] 0.6449) 0.7272] 0.8030 | 0.8753] 0.0485] 1.0142) 1.0817 | 1.1484 | 1.2143 1285.1 | 1329.3) 1592.0 | 1480.3 | 1507-0 | 1865.2] 1619.5) 1676.2 | 1733.3 | 1791.0 0.5137 | 0.6080 | 0.6875 | 0.7603 | 0.8295 | 0.8066 | 0.9622 1.0266 | 1.0901 | 1.1529 12453 | 1325.9| 1589.6 | 14485 | 1505.4 1861.9 | 1618.6) 1675.3 | 1732.5 | 1790.3 0.4821 | 0.5748 0.6518] 0.7216 | 0.7881 | 0.8824 0.9151 0.9767 | 1.0373 | 1.0973 Yeas.d] 13224 | 1387.2| Tso. | 1805.9 | 1560.7 1617.4] Tera | 17348 | 1789.8 0.4831 | 0.5440} 0.6188 | 0.6565 | 0.7505 | 0.8121 | 0.5723] 0.9313 | 0.9804 | 1.0468 1257.3 | 13188 | 1394.7 | 14447 | 1802.4 | 1550.4 T6163 | 1673.8 | 1731.0 | 1789.0, 750.0 | 735.3| 510.84 00.0 | 735.3 | 518.21 50.0 | 836.3 | 525.24 990.0 | 885.3 | 531.95 950.0 | 935.3 538.39 1000.0 | 995.3 | 544.58 1050.0 | 1035.3 | 550.53 1100.0 | 1085.3 | 556.28 1150.0 | 1135.3 | so1.82 0.4263] 0.5162 | 0.5889) 0.6544 | 0.7161 | 0.7754 0.8332/ 0,889 | 0.9486 | 1.0007 1230.9 | 1318.2 | 1382.2 | 14828 | 1800-9 | 1856-1 | 1618.2| Vo72<0 | 1930.2 | 1788.5, FoFdrordrardedsdFsA-18 APPENOIK A PHYSICAL ROPERTIES OF RUIDS AND LOW CHARACTENITICS OF vALNES TGS, AND Mint CRANE Properties of Superheated Steam — concluded specific volume, cubic feet per pound Bt per pound total heot of stea AANA PARA AAA Pressure | Sat. Erorees [ae] | Total Temperature—Degres Faheenei Sk FY = aia [eso | 700° [ 70 | 00 | 00 | roo nor] tao var | 00° 1200.0] 1188.3 | 567.19 7 [0.4497] 0.4905] 0.5273] 0.5615] 0.6250 | 0.6845] 0.7418 | 9.9055 | 0.9584 fy [t7i.8) 1311.5] 1346.9) 13797] 1440.3 | a8 13569 wis. 1787. 1300.0 | 1285.3 577.42 7 }o.4052| 0.4451] 0.4808) 0.5129] 0.5729 | 0.6187] 0.6822 0.8345 | 0.8856 fy | 1261.9} 1303.9] 1340.8) 1374.6 | 1457.1 | 1356.3] 1854.5 1717.8 | 1786.3 1400.0 | 1388.3] 587.07] 7 | 0.3667] 0.4059] 0.4400} 0.4712 | 0.5282 | 0.5809] 0.6311 0.7737 | 0.8195 | fy |tista | 1296.1] 13385) 133.2 | 1495.2 | 18818 1736.3 | 1785.0 1500.0) 1485.3} 596.20) 7 }0.3828) 0.3717] 0.4049 Yiso.2 | 1387.3] 1328.0 Y Josor6 | 0.3415] oars A, |t26.3| 1379.4) 13eh.4 0.4894 | 0.5394 | 0.5869 | 0.6327 | 0.6773] 0.7210 | 0.7639, 1409.2 | 1490.1 | 1549.2 | 1607.7| 1666.2 | 1724.8 | 1789.7 1600.0 | 1585.3] 605.87 0.4555 | 0.5031 | 0.5482 | 0.5915| 0.6336] 0.6748 | o.7153, 1425.2 | 1486.9 1546.6 | 1605.6] 1664.3 | 1725.2 | 1782-3 Y Jo27ss| os1a7| 0.3368 A, |1i183| 13705) (3145 1700.0 | 1685.3 613.13 0.4255 | 0.4711 | 0.5140 | 0.5552] 0.5951 | 0.6341 | o.6724 1a2i.2 | 1483.8 1544.0 | 1605-4] 1662.5 | 17207 | 781.0 0.3088 | 0.4426 | 0.4836 | 0.5229| 0.5609] 0.5090 | 0.6343, wat7at | 1490.6 | 154t.4 | t601.2| 1660.7 | 1720.1 | L707 1800.0| 1786.3 | 621.02] 7 }o.2505| 0.2906) 0.3223 Ay |rio.2 | Vista | vor. 1900.0] 1886.3] 628.56 | [0.2274] 0.2687] 0.3008 0.3749 | 0.4171 | 0.4865 | 0.4940 | 0.5303 | 0.5656 | 0.6002 4 fine? | 81'3| 3b aia | taza Res | tant tries | Yank 2000.0) 1985.3] 635.80 V }.0.2056| 0.2488) 0.2805 | 0.3534 | 0.3942 | 0.4320 | 0.4680 | 0.5365 | 0.5695 | &, [sige | teas) Can tans? | at) te | Be tare | tere 2100.0 | 2085.3 | 642.76] V | 0.1847] 0.2304) 0.2624) 0.3339 | 0.3734 | 0.4099 | 0.4445 0.5101 | 0.5418, a [tise | tes] ibe Mana | tzo.9| tne | 5 tga] Gao 2200.0 2185.3 | 649.45 | V | 0.1636 | 0.2138] 0.2458| 9.3161 | 0.3545 | 0.3897 | 0.4231, 0.4862 | 0.5165, A, [tins | tik] (ie Tio. | Rr | tn | (8 taba | eee 2300.0 | 2285.3 | 655.89] V 0.1975] 0.2305 0.2999 | 0.3372 | 0.3714 | 0.4035 0.4643 | 0.4935 4 tines) {es 1597 | Saou | 18a | 8805 tas | wt 2400.0 | 2385.3] 662.11] 7 0.1824| 0.2164] 0.2850 | 0.3214 | 0.3545 | 0.3856 0.4443 | 0.4724 xy iste] Be A391 | Sen's | ates | Haan tos | ae 2500.0 | 2485.3 | 668.11) 7 0.1681) 0.2032| 0.2712 | 0.3068 | 0.3390 | 0.3692 0.4259 ] 0.4529 4 tied tian 15887 | 187 | 322 | Sao too | oa 2600.0 | 2585.3 | 673.91] V 0.1544) 0.1909| 0.2585 | 0.2933 | 0.3247 | 0.3540 0.4088 | 0.4350 if fib] ta Aan | Cas | ao | 187 tor | eat 2700.0] 26853] 679.53) 7 aagit| 0.75 3368 | o.2809| our] 0.399 ozs fo.iss n dz] tiara ASpes | tad | airs | 13803 Vide | tre 2900.0 | 2785.3 | 684.96) V 0.1278) 0.1685] 0.2358 | 0.2693 | 0.2991 | 0.3268 0.3785 | 0.4030 h tia] tians| {sre | tai | fates | roa | te.5 2900.0 | 2585.3 | 60.22 1138 ose 0.3286 | 02585 | 02077 | osta7 0.3649 | 0.387 foses3| Tite ome | as | ted | tae tos. 602 3000.0 2985.3 | 695.33 0.0982} 0.1483] 0.1759 | 0.2161 | 0.2484 | 0.2770 | 0.3033 | 0.3282 0.2522 | 0.3753 1060.5] 1197.9) 1367.0 ) 1363.2 | 1440.2 | 1809.4 | 167s. | 1638-5 | Vor | 1360.8 3100.0 3085.3 700.28 | V7 0.1389] 0.1671 | 0.2071 | 0.2300 | 0.2670 | 0.2927] 0.3170] 0.3403 | 0.3638 he iss.4) 1259.1 | 1358-4 | 1436.7 | 1306.6 | 1572.6] Ted6.7| Looe.a | ens 3200.0] 3188.3] 705.08] 7 0.1300] 0.1888 | 0.1987 | 0.2301 | 0.2576 | 0.2827] 0.3065] 0.3291 | 0.3510 i723] 1350.9 | 1353.4 | 1453-1 | 1803.8 | 1870.3] Te34.a| To9e.3 | 1961.2 3300.0 | 3285.3, 0.1213] 0.1510 | 0.1998 | 0.2218 | 0.2488 0.3187 | 0.3400 1is8.2| 1342.8 | 1348.4 | 1429.8 | 13000 1696.7 | 155.9, 3400.0 | 3385.3, 0.1129] 0.1435 | 0.1834 | 0.2140 | 0.2405 0.3088 | 0.3296 vias.2] 1383.7 | 1543-4 | 1525.9] 14983 1698.1 | 1758.8CRANE Properties of Superheated Steam and Compressed Water* V= specific vot ume, cubic feet per pound hy=totel heot of steam, Btu per pound Absolute otal Temperature—Degrees Fahrenheit (e Pressure] nee Deer GD fae per| [ae [soo [soo [oor [ree [sor [or [voor [vee | a | an | on on ~~ 3500 | ¥ [o.a164] 0.0183] 0,0199| 0.0225 | 0.0307 | 0.1368 0.1764| 0.2066| 0.2326! 0.2563 | 0.2784| 0.2995 | 0.3198 A/a) SR] aes) as] | aS A) aS) a] aah] ake] aes] ae 3600 | V |0,0164) 0.0183) 0.0198) 0.0225) 0.0302 0.1296 | 0.1697 0.1996] 0.2252! 0,2485| 0.2702] 0.2908 | 0.3108 ‘hy | 176.3] 379.3] 487.6] 608.1) 775.1 1215.3] 1335.0| 1418.6] 1492.6) 1561.3) 1627.3| 1692.0| 1755.9. | 3800 | 7 Joos o.ors 0.0198] 0.9724) o024| 0.1169] o.157¢| 0.1868] o2116| o.2340| 0.2519|a.1796| 0.2936 4 Pinhay arms| “a7, “sors) "st tse] int) it) ‘oss | 88 | a BRS 4000 | 7 Joo1s| 0.0182} 0.0198 0.223) oa7| 0.1052] 0.1463 | 0.782] 0.1994] 02210| 0.241 | 0.201 0.2783 thy | 177.2] 379.8] 487.7] 606.9) 763.0) 1i74.3| 1311.6 1403.6] 1481'3) 1852.2 | 1619.8 | 1685.7 | 1750.6 4200 | 7 Joo16s| 0.0182 0.0197) 0.222] aaa | ooe4s|o.1362| 0.2647] 0.1883] o,2093| 0.2287] 0.270] 0.2655 Pins ani) “ral "Sec ake ibe | tsa) ie) Tze irs | Tae | aa) RASS tice | 7 foaua| ona! o2ye|ogze| ase |ones| os aise exe exee| oral oxst|agero fy | i781) 380.4) “487-9) “605.3 7548 | 1127-3] isn | 1386.3) 1460.7| 1243-0] ToIzs) Laesed| WAS sean | lovee] oie] oor] oor ons] arse] o.14| 146s] 0361] 1s] 07 o20| o0s fn, [rss “aso “ier “Goss “si HHoo.o| tz7s| 1380s] Ciegs| bene| tows Nazess| wae si | ¥Joaisal eat! oars! eax] azz |e se] oats case! esas] ose] ease ease Pos B03) “N) aia) a) fre a |) A) S| | CT) TAS 200 | ¥ Joois4|o.o181| 0.0196) 0.219| o0265| 0.0531] 0.0973 0.1244] 0.1458 o,t612| 0.1810) 0.1966) 0.2 she | i799) 381.5] 488.2/ 604.3) 743,7| 1016.9] 1240.4 1356.6) 1446.2) 1524.5] 1597.2] 666.8 | 1734.7 5600 | VJ0.0163} 0.0181 0,0195| 0.0217] 0.0260) 0.0447] 0.0856) 0.1124) 0.1331} 0,1508] 0.1667 | 0.1815 0.198 ‘| ts | “sez. “aBs4) 60.6) 73509) 975.0 Hane | 1340.2) 1454.3/ 1815.2] 1389.6 | 60.3 | 1720.3 000 | ¥ Joor63| 0.0189 0.0195 0.9216] 0.0285 o.2357| o0757| 0.3020] o.221| 0.1308 o.1684| 0.18 | isi| °3ba7| “dace| “sons | “et| “ae | tisha) VSane| W3) fakes ese) nd 500 | V7 Jo01s3|o,0180 0.0194) 0.215) o,02s2| 02358] 0,0555| 0.0909] o.104| 0.1266 outsis| 0.1669 Pith | “sa] anes] “Sous Sie Sts] tis] tions a's] bak tele | AS 7000 | 7 Jo.0163| 0.0180] 0.0193| 0.0213] 0.0248| 0.0334] 0.0573) 0.0816) 0.1004) 0.1160] o.1433| 01542 nh, tso| at] asa) eou| a9 “ous| taka | et| Tas] Pals teohd | Hn 7500 | V |0.0163| 0.0179] 0.0193) 0.0212| 0.0245) 0.0318 | 0.0512 | 0.0737! 0.0918| 0.1068 0.1321 | 0.1433 1, | ins) °3083] “daa| “sous | es | sac} tra) toto| tira] tir Tako | oR 8000} V Jo.0162) 0.0179} 0.0192) 0.9211 | 0.0242) 0.0306 | 0.0465 | 0.0671) 0.0845) 0.0989 0.1230, 1, |inors| °ans7| “iova| “co's | 43) San | ara | tatio| Weta] tise teat 9000 | V [0.0162 | 0.0178| 0.0191) 0.0209| 0.0237 | 0.0288 | 0.0402 | 0.0568 | 0.0724] 0.0858 0.1081 [inna 3073] bos) baa’) o-4| “aoa | Yooh | ta | tise] Tort tons 10000 | V Jo.0161 | 0.0177\ 0.0189] 0.0207 | 0.0233 | 0.0276 | 0.0362 | 0.0495] 0.0633) 0.0757 | 0.0963, 4, |'isoa| Sora) abies] ann | zs | iB | anes tivee| tanks) Cares ta 11000 | V|o.0161 | 0.0176] 0.0188) 0.0205 0.0229 | 0.0267] 0.0335 | 0.0443) 0.0862] 0.0676 0.0868 4, |"isa| °Sous| “ions| “so | Et] “Ses | met | Cae] tise] ise tre 12000 | V |o.0161 | 0.0176] 0.0187) 0.0203 | 0.0226 | 0.0260 | 0.0317 | 0.0405| 0.0508] 0.0610 0.0790 A, |iss's| out] “dons) “Soa | CARS| Sica} Sane CiBus| Wiseo| fiou9| fare | Sea 13000 | V Jo.0160 | 0.0175] 0.0186) 0.0201 | 0.0223 | 0.0253} 0.0302 | 0.0376| 0,0466| 0.0558| 0.0645 ines] ious] “ipea| “soo} nes) “Se Css] Chess] Tees] Lees| ss 14000 | 7 o.160| e174] «0185 0.0200] 0.0220 o.0243| 0.021] ,0354| .0132] 0.0815} 0.0595 [ino | 3985) apes] “soos | tis] Sse) sea | Tost] ance] tao | ees 15000. | 7 Joois9| otra] oor84| o.0198| .on18|o.0244| 0.082| 0,0337| 0,045] 0.079] 00852 A 'anea] nd] ase] c's} abs| sted| Sse’ | Lanna] Toes Saco] Ses 18500 | V Jo.is9| 0.0173] o.ors4| o,c198| .0217| o,0242| 0.0273) o0329| 0.0393 o.ota| 0.0504] 0.503) 0.008 4 Panta] Bea] “aa | ka | ama || tre) ato) ise) Cs] Tate) els “Abstract from ASME, Scam Tables (1947) with gerision cf ths publi. The “American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 Eas eh Seoee, New York, NV 10017 iA-20 APPEND A-PNTSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ANO HOW CHABACTEISICS OF VALVES, MITINGS. AND Pint CRANE. Flow Coefficient C for Nozzles” cocffi- «| ids B of 0.60 at a Re} “| umber of 39,900 fs 10" oad TH cau CCE En "ee = Reyols tamer batesa8 Flow Coefficient C for Square-Edge Orifices”” = Ryans Nomber nasa ono: ol nd f im “ | Kegs we at a 4 Kuta 58 “ iu a ie 3 ‘= Royals Hunbr based on dy HOT HHH FAH AA AAA AAR RRR RRR RRA‘ £ CRANE Arrewoix a~mrsicat rroreenits OF UIDs AND NOW CHABAETEISICS OF VALVES FITINGS, ANO FFE A-2 Net Expansion Factor, Y Critical Pressure Ratio, r- ' For Compressible Flow through For Compressible Flow through 4 Nozzles and Orifices” Nozzles and Venturi Tubes” f 7 1 i k= 1,3 unpmsimatele “ i$ ; huey, $04 TAL HIS. NT, NO, Ch, Cy and | | ; ; > A PSS 7 i os | f | Pee i x7 rors To i i \ TP spon | ERT ae as 5 : 5 Sw E - 258 “ — e: 3 ge - RS =e i oe | ae RSS : ae . Set 5 . Z + | f \ SERBS! | : E— + = : ‘ i | % Presue Rain — SP 5 k = 1A approximately | (or Ait Hh, Op Np CO, NO, a HC 5 . | : | z & a snag | 2 gu | s 3 ce | a S We | Ee Ps N ] 2 \ | = | wy “ rm = we 2 Pressure Ratio ~ SP j 3 \A-22 APPENODK A PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AHO LOW chARACrENsTICS on YAS TINGS, ano rng CRANE Net Expansion Factor ¥ for Compressible Flow Through Pipe to a Larger Flow Area ee e = Ee k 1.3 CO}, 905 HO. LS. NI, NYO, hand Ee 7 T T] Liming Factors | \ For Sonic Velocity = . ba 13 | Litt — = 4114 ra | clely 0.85} - — + a = } | 12] osfen | aa | 13 | seo | Soot a 20 | os OE 3 | re | ss | ea + [isle | PA 6 | 685 j : + | zl omn F cha | yas | 9457 so | | 2» | aa | ze i o [ela as ie | 100 | ‘520 | “718 ~ OL 02 OF Oe Os OF Oe 09 1.0 AP = | kas =z | (ke =approximately 1.4 for Air. Hy, Os, Np. CO, NO, and HCN | T — T ] Limiting Factors = | i Ti l ] For Sonte Velocity i aus : kaa = & T | TT 7 i ! i t aT COU sa ss = | = ool ¥ ee e+ | = 0.70} 1 . | ] { ro | Z| Sess 85 | 15 818 | 702, s 20 | 839} 710 oa |e | 70 ys asl 10 | ‘326 | 10 ST a a 5 & ®CRANE _srrenour A ra¥SiCAL PROPERTIES OF AUIDS AND ROW CHAEACTERISCS OF VALVES, HTRINGS, AND Fl 05 00001 000008] 200006 ‘0000s Dara exerueged eye Frxtign Problem: Determine absolute an! relative roughness, and frietion fac- acts Tar Pe Fe tor, for fully turbulent flow in to-inch cast iron pipe (ILD. = 10.16"). praxis The Ameniaan Soot: Solution: Absolute roughness («) = 0.00085... .. Relative roughness EQ" Atcchinieal Engines (¢-D) © 0.001... Friction factor at fully turhulent flow (J) = "0.0100, Relative Roughness of Pipe Materials and Friction Factors For Complete Turbulence Pipe Diameter, in Feet ~ D> L Deen crecey Parente (yO tea neem ceatus etn) OW AC Se 80 100 200 300 Pipe Diaawier, in Inches ~1 2 ole ole o12 ol 09 008 lence, Re J ~ For Gonplete TuVe ee ee ee 24, dorntos, CRANE sto Friction Factors for Any Type of Commercial Pipe | = sg eo “won | f | io 3] sw i so z Sstiguanay sana wisunl Aivaeas SPSL cae Al “SNOZ ina yeanL ret 60" re SSP PS ae 8 FFF EF é < (S3HON! MI waLaHvIO x "938/44 NI ALIOOTIA) 4 509 AY wau¥HK Hod (1) 40 sanT¥Az < [APN A~ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ANO FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES. FITTINGS. ANO PIPE Friction Factors for Clean Commercial Steel Pipe Irey moy #20 adid of 2IF. oy aurusarg "wr{qoLg, tm saquny spjoukoy ~ 247 M8 9S e 72 sOlessys Z EEE SPOR (saNoWi MI ApIaWWIO x -3aS/I4 MI A4IQOTRAD 4.08 Jy LYM os (HH) JO SaNTWHSICAL MOPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND ROW CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES HTTINGS AND 7E___ CRANE "K" FACTOR TABLE—SHEET 1 of & e Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fittings Represental (°K bound on oof shade pipe old on page 2-10) PIPE FRICTION DATA FOR CLEAN COMMERCIAL STEEL PIPE WITH FLOW IN ZONE OF COMPLETE TURBULENCE Nominal Size Tee Le 21S Le [aie [ae Lear Fon 023 [027 | 21 fore o7 [are fors] ov | oa | o12| FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING "K” FacTORS* FOR VALVES AND FITTINGS WITH REDUGED PORT that tage tod Ky Ke a * Formula Formula 4 — Rivas yan B= 4c ; Lo as osm Yin? x ky EIN a & Formula 7 Ferma Ke ~ 54 8 (Formula 2 » Formula 4) when @ = 180” . a Ke e B (Fe Tt Fe 4) when @ = 180° Ne _ aye ke sefins)t BFK K+ 8 fos e+ C6" Ky- Formula 4 & «Formula 1 + Formula 3 Subserige 1 defines. dimensions tnd counts with reference 69 Ky +sin fo (1 ~ 69) +2.6 (0 ~ B)] ee Kya the sealer dlameter, Subscript 2 refers to the SUDDEN AND GRADUAL CONTRACTION Ih e245? 49° <8 Bo! a Ky = Formula 1 Ky = Formula 2 SUDDEN AND GRADUAL ENLARGEMENT Its 02 43° 45° <0 180? Ky = Formula 3 Ky = Formula 4 RHP HRA R RRR RRR RRRRANE _APPENOK A~PHYSICAL ROFERIS OF HUIDS AND FLOW CHAEA "k FACTOR TAB Representative Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fitfings for fool ond rion doe, 8 poge A26) SH (ie bom onus of cede pipe fied on page 2-10) GATE VALVES SWING CHECK VALVES Wedge Dise, Double Disc, or Plug Type K-s0fr 8h Minimum pipe velocity Minimum pipe velac Formula 5 (fps) for Full ise life” (fps) for full dise life 180"... Ky = Formula 0, wus VV LIFT CHECK VALVES I dat..Kr oe Bet. Ky= Formula 7 Minimum pipe velociey (fpsi for full dise life spe VV fay 7 Wie bat Kuss he 461. y= Formula 7 full diet Minimum pipe [Bet Kis tsofe Ie Bet Riess fe ph | nor - solr | aor Al globe and angle valves, ror | bof whether reduced 2 OF throtled Minimum pipe veloc Ih Bet Kee Ronn (fps) for full dise VT |: V0PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND FLOW CHARACTERISICS OF VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE CRANE 1" FACTOR TABLESHEET 3 of 4 Representative Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fittings (tr tra ad tn dee, ee ge £28) (Rie Bou on we of scheduled pipe lied on page 2-10) STOP-CHECK VALVES FOOT VALVES WITH STRAINER (Globe and Angle Types) Poppet Dise Hinged Dise bd [# 4 mt Sut f If Bet... Ki = 400 fr B= t...Ky= 200 fy sir Bc. Ke=Formulay 8 Sizes 2to 8"...K=45 fr Sizes 10 t0 147...K = 35 fr ‘Minimum pipe velocity (fps) for full disc lift = 0 8 VV Sizes 16 t0 247K = 35 fe nf A FORA RAPA AAAeu ut ee uu wow ai aa buge ow ow bs CRANE —_Arrenor s—pinsical rroremies OF 110s °K" FACTOR TABLE— SHEET 4 of 4 Representative Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fittings (Ri ated on ue of chal pipe o ated on pape 2-10 STANDARD ELBOWS 4s f K=j0fr K-16 fy PLUG VALVES AND COCKS Straight-Way 3.Woy In 8 Ky ofr STANDARD TEES a Ju MITRE BENDS Ks & Ben It Ky = 8 fr Ky We pet Flow thru run K-20 fr Flow: thru branch... K = 60 fr 90° PIPE BENDS AND FLANGED OR BUTT-WELDING 90° ELBOWS Inwerd Fush Projecting co The resistance eouficint, Ka, for pipe bends other than go® may he determined as follows: For K, se ; “ i see table Kae (n-0) (025 * egeos k) ik a= muber of bands —— a RCRA tor on bend (per abe __ PIPE EXIT Projecting Sharp-Edged Rounded CLOSE PATTERN RETURN BENDS

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