eee iehativoon GEORGE FREDERICK McKAY Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1963To my colleagues and to the many students who have shared with ime the adventure of experience and discussion from which this theory of orchestration gradually emerged. fe eee fener emieeeere Sesest Soe a De aCe Ses ORCHESTRAL SOUNDS SUMMONED UP BY THE GEN- iuses of music sometimes seem like sheer magic, but the imagination and flair of the master composer must inevitably be based upon certain principles of tonal relationship and procedure which are the same for both the student beginner and the devel- oped artist. Clear and effective sound and structure stem from applications of unity, contrast and variety. ‘These applications can be formulated into fundamental types of technique which can be understood and utilized by every student of music. The main purpose of this book is to formulate a general theory based on such techniques. There have been too few theoretical speculations on or mn by the composers of the past. Much has been written ts about the technicalities of instrumenta: too little has been said by the creative artists themselves about “how” to write for the orch pioneering effort by Berlioz, ly and evocative and, in spite creative insight. The modem revision by Richard Strauss has further values derived from Strauss’s own experienced crafts- manship. Rimsky-Korsakov, in his Principles of Orchestration, offered many creative suggestions, but fell short of a complete general theory, Richard Wagner began his book On Condueting with the sentence, “The secret of good orchestral sound is sustained tone.” With this fragmentary statement we are left groping at unfulfilled total analysis because there are so many other sources of “good orchestral sound.” Sibelius has been quoted as saying, “The orchestra has no pedal." He meant that while improvising on the piano, use of the pedal produces @ continuous resonance that can be had in , vPREFACE the orchestra only by adding actual supplementary sustaining ‘material. ‘This is also strikingly true, but again, we are left grop- ing toward a cor ing analysis of “how’ to write “good” orchestration that this treatise is directed, ‘The methods of orchestration discussed in these pages, with their emphases upon central principles of effective sound and per- formance by small ensembles, were developed through many years of experience in orchestration. At first, standard books were used for reference and in teach- ing, but these were found to have an overemphasis on factual material and a lack of workable general theory. Later, a method was adopted which emphasized the imita- tion of styles used by various master composers. To learn orches- tration the student was asked to analyze the scores of Bach, Mozart, Tchaikovsky, Debussy, etc., and t cipal styles by writing full-score exampl method and led to much effective technic and the gradual formu- lation of a generil theory. Eventually this method was also abandoned because, in writing for full orchestra, actual perform- ance was t00 difficult to obtain; as a result, knowledge had to , the student was usually ‘on; and his own individuality Finally, through further experiments in teaching, it became clear that the best results came from a freely creative use of gen- eral theory. The most creative orchestration occurred when the student was unburdened from imitating masterworks and was allowed to develop personal expression restricted only by the ‘most fundamental guiding principles and by the sincere artistic criticism of an interested teacher. studies, orchestration can be the most tate sense of creativity can be had only nn can be tried out in actual performance if that which is wri vi PREFACE \ All the formulations contained in this book can be tried successfully on a small ensemble of the type usually avai among members of an orchestration class. (See page 212 for an example of a laboratory-type ensemble used at the University of Washington.) Ik is not necessary to write only for the large orchestra. The basic principles of clear organization and tonal interest are esentially the same for ten instruments as for one hundred. In forming an orchestra for which to write, it is best to have some representation of each family of sound (e.g., two wood- ‘winds, one brass instrument, a few strings, a piano or other per- cussion) or some combination that will make available two or more choirs of sound (three woodwinds, four strings and piano, for instance). Any available small combination of mixed instru: ‘ments wall provide, for the student, much basic experience in the application of general principles. By writing for small groups, much time will be saved and the experience gained can later be applied to writing for the large orchestra, ‘Complete knowledge is method strongly motivated by emphasis upon creativity; (4) | means for testing results by actual performance; (5) an and progressive study plan; (6) analytical discussion which stresses contemporaneity and musical frontiers; (7) prin- ciples of value to listener and conductor; (8) examples trans- posed to actual sound for the convenience of the reader, and (9) charts citing specific pages in standard scores where further illus trations may be found (see pages 218-220), vilPREFACE I wish to express my appreciation to the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Inc., for permitting the use of photographs in this book. Pictures of the orchestra, under the direction of Charles Munch, appear as 2 frontispiece and on pages opposite each of the chapter openings. George Frederick MeKay Contents 1. The Instruments of the Orchestra 1 Ranges and Registers (Actual Sound); Transposition Rati for Bowing and Phrasing; Phrasing for Wind Instruments; jes and Limitations, Instrumental Motion. 1. Pncpls of Clarity 35 Consistency of Unit Organization; Definiteness of Textures Monophonic Texture; Chordal Texture; Polyphonic Texture; Homophonic Texture; Polythematic Texture; Polyshythmic Tex- ture; Heterophonic Texture; Onomatopoeic Texture; Textural Combination; Pitch Distribution; Limitation of Harmony; Vivid: ness of Timbre; Limitation of Melodic Components; Conteol of Dynamics. mm. Pinigls of Tonal Intra 1H Contrast of Timbre CAntiphonal); Instrumental M Doubling for Power; Blend for Subtlet cale; Blend of Differentiated Motion; trasted An 1m; Overlapping; Pointillism; Total Mixture; Contcast of Chord and Line; Motion as a Sustaining Factor, Percussion as Background; Strings as Background; Punctuation; Characteristics; Contrast of Staccato and ; Staceato and Legato (Simultaneous); chestcal Use of Human Voices.w. Structural Values 191 :mental Motion; Sufficient Vigor of Design; lapping of Choirs; “Light and Shade” through Variegat “Thickness and Thinness” of Texture; Sufficient Variety within General Design. v. Orchestral Types 201 ‘The Pre-Classic or Baroque Orchestra; The Classical Or- cchestra; The Modem Orchestra; The Expanded Orchestra; ‘The Chamber Orchestra. Appendix A 2/f Appendix B 2/8 Bibliography 22 Index 225 conrenrs PLATES Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade 44 Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 2 ix B flat Mejor 50 Kodily: Concerto for Orchestra 54 Bartdk: Pieno Concerto No. 3 59 Rubbra: Symphony No. 5 63 Malipiero: Impression’ dal Vero 68 Prokofiev: Lieutenant Kijé Suite 72 Prokoficy: Liewtenant Kijé Suite 73 Respighi: Fountains of Rome 75 Debussy: Téria a Copland: Appalachian Spring 87 “Tehkovsky: Nutoracker Suite 92 |. Beethoven: Symphony No.3 in E-lat Major (“Eroica”) 10 /. Beethoven: Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major 102 Beethoven: Symphony No.5 in C minor 103 Mahler: Symphony No.2 in C minor ("Resurrection") 107 Berion: Syraphonicfantastique 15 Roussel: The Spider's Feast "7 Tehsikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Overture 124 Debussy: Iberia 125 erloe: Symphonie fantastique 129 Martinu: Sinfonia Concertante 132 Stravinsky: Petrouchka 134 Respighi: The Fountains of Rome 137 Blacher: Studie im Piaissimo 140 . Ravel: Repsodie espagnole 43 Petite Symphonie Concertante 147 en: Fang geisliche Lieder 148 Franck: Symphony in D vninor 151 Respighi: The Fountains of Rome 154 Villa-Lobos: Chiros No. 10, “Rasga 0 Coragio” 156 Schumann: Symphony No. Lin Blot Major (“Spring”) 159 Guamieri: Prologo e Fuga 161 Dyoisk: Symphony No. 4 in G Major 165 Mendelssohn: The Hebrides Overture 166 . Mozart: Symphony No. 25 in G minor 169‘CONTENTS XXXVI. Saint-Saens: Danse macabre R. Strauss: Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche Sibelius: The Swan of Tuonela Milhaud: Les Choéphores ‘Varése: Deserts Ravel: Daphs et Chloé ‘Schonberg: Pierrot Lumaire Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No, 5 in D Major 7. Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No.2 in F Major Haydn: Symphony No. 94 in G Major (“Surprise”) Prokofiev: Classical Symphony in D Major Veughen Williams: Symphony No, 4 nF minor inky: Le Sacre du printomps sud: Symphony No. 1 for Small Orchestra Le Printer”) 171 175 176 180 185 186 187 195 203 204 207 208 PROJECTS Project 1 Organizing groups of sound) Project 2 (Monophonic texture) Project 3 (Chordal texture) Project 4 (Polyphonic texture) Project 5 (Homophonie texture) Project 6 (Polythematic texture) Project 7 (Polythythmic texture) Project 8 (Heterophonic texture) Project 9 _(Story-telling orchestration) ‘Balancing melodic components for clarity) Antiphonal techniques) (Motor activity) 17 Three types of dstribation) 18 CTimbre-mixing for subslery) Project 19 (Contrasting high end low pitch) Project 20 (Two types of heterophonic blend) Project 21. (Extremes of register) Project 22 (Articulative mixture) 26 (Chord contrasting with line) Project 28. (Percussion as background) Project 29 (Stings as background) Project 30 (Punctuation) Project 31. (Balancing idiomatic characteristics) Project 32. CApplying contrast of staccato and legato to melodic line) Project 33. (Simultaneous staccato and legato) Project 34 Expanded choirs) Project 35: (Exploring “frontier” areas) ‘CONTENTS: ect 27 (Balancing fragmentarines against continuous motion) 152I he Jnstruments of the Orchestra know: (1) the the instrumer igs, (5) how 6) how to exercise, those unfa one example, corn included below. instruments should each of the‘rae iNsrRUNA ENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE OncuESTRA RANGES AND REGISTERS (Actual Sound) wisi gwet py yg be [4 oS = 2 a‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA ‘TRANSPOSITION RATIOS In order to produce the correct to correspond wit rest of the orchestra, cert patts must be is compared to middle C. To determine how write the part for a specified instru- red for it on the transposition chart © Picolo DP Piccolo A ote Bnglit, Horn EP Clarins = eS SEC SS Ss BP Clarinet {Sere ca: Fe Te ' BP ‘Trumpet Horn in P Double Bass Contra-Basoon Fes eS oS tem EP Al ‘BY Tenor ED Bi sore Sgroptine —Sigorhone ""Soptone 4 72S 5 shay ta ‘maxsvosimiow nant If middle C is lower than the pitch tone (the tone in paren- theses), the part for that i actual sound by 6 [THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA If middle C is higher than the pitch tone of the instrument, the part must be written higher than actual sound by the dis tance shown. For instance, the chart shows that for the G piccolo, middle Gis an octave lower than the pitch tone. ‘The part must there- fore be written an octave lower than actual sound. For the horn in F the chart shows that middle C is a fifth higher than the pitch tone. ‘The part must therefore be written a fifth higher than actual sound. RULES FOR BOWING AND PHRASING Down-bow is marked with this sign: 5 Up-bow is marked with this sign: v In general, there will be two bows to a measure, with down- If down-bow and up-bow alternate continuously this is the most natural pattern and does not need to be marked. ies included under a single slur will be played by[THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE oncHESTRA If a phrase begins with stood without marking th bow is preferced it must be in beat or anacrusis it is under Any desired deviation from the regular alternation of down- bow and upbow must be marked accordingly. Successive down-bows give a powerful hammered effect. =e Successive up-bows are more light and graceful. SS = Separated notes with dots indicate which must be defined for the player by Ialian: spi ied types of staccato ther description in the English meaning: jumping bow,” “hammered,” etc. ith dots may be included in a shur, with the type of dot indicating intensity of artic SSS SSS = n= Whenever dots are used under a slur to indicate suc down-bows or successive upbows, or whenever any deviation 8 be played up-bow. If down- ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA the phrasing, mark tas soon as possible Ics sometimes effect at the end of a bow, but == == j a PHRASING FOR WIND INSTRUMENTS In writing for the wind instruments, indicate the staccato and legato character by dots and slurs, Because winds are more guite long and continuous le- ‘gato passages without too much trouble. Legato passages can be made most effective by shaping them in accordance with those points where the player would naturally pause for breath. SSS‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA Woodwind Effects Brass Effects a Doxble‘onging anise{THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA Harp Effects Glissando (tones to be included indicated at beginning) 2s A. & Enharmonies yb ae Se oo se ts high register, shock- very highest notes. When used too frequently or when used at great length, welcome; but when as a surprise, as punctua- 1 ds a striking newness and brightness. In its extreme low range it possesses a sweet, but wan, quality. ‘The piccolo is quite agile but, because of its minia- 4 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE OncHESTRA ture construction, is not quite as fluent in legato playing as the kovsky's Symphony No. 4. Examples of the use of low range are more rare; there is one very clear and expressive example at the end of the second movement of La Mer by Debussy The Flute ‘The flute tone contains the very essence of lyric and pas- toral feeling. It has great legato fluency and is able to skip about from register to register more easily than any other instrument. ig depth of tone, In its lusion of sounding lower than its medium and lower registers, and it cannot cut through the orchestral ensemble very easily except when played in high regis: ter. Its staccato articulation is not very incisi requires special marking. The flute is parti melodie and decorative passages. For concentrated listening experience related to the charac- teristics of flute tone and motion, hear the Poem for flure and orchestra by Griffes and Night Soliloquy by Kennan. ‘The Alto Flute ‘The alto ute, or fute in G, is a rare instrument mainly used for a certai . ‘The heavy lower tones have unique substan The upper tones are hardly distinguishable from those of the flute in C (the ordinary flute). ‘The alto fute may be thied flute in the movemen‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA The Oboe When well played the obve is unsurpassed for poignancy. Its intense and impassioned tone is ideal for use in simple melody and for the enrichment of other timbres by doubling, ‘The oboist, more than any other player, needs time to breathe and prepare for entrances. Staccato articulation is more definite and interesting than on the flute, but must not be too rapid ot Tengthy. All. simple legato passages sound well but should usually be kept within middle register, since the higher and lower registers are extremely intense and difficult to play. Rap- idly moving accompaniment patterns do not seem suited to the character of the oboe, and skips from register to register should be limited to a few well prepared leaps. Use the oboe mostly ment of Symphony in C by Bizet or The Winter's Past by Bar- low. A ratty is the use of bass oboe in Brigg Fair by Delius. ‘The English Horn ‘The English horn, or Cor Anglais, ited range and its articulation difficulties are similar to those of the oboe. The English horn sounds best in its middle register, where its deeply brooding and pungently dark timbre can ‘most easily produced. ‘The higher and lower registers are stringent and cannot be played softly. ‘The tone is phenomenally be used sparingly. In its , the English hom is most valuable for the expression of the more tragic and meditative moods, It also adds a choice richness when used as an alto voice in woodwind harmony. Good examples of the use of English horn may be heard in the slow movement of Symphony No. 5 by Dvordk (“From the New World”) and in Concerto da Camera for flute, English horn and strings by Honegger. 16 ay ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA ‘The Clarinet ‘There are several sizes of clarinets, each of which is identi- ere are clarinets in E-lat, Bat, and A; et in Ela, and a bass clarinet in B-flat. ‘one most commonly used, an wwatm, expressiveness. ‘The A more tragic. “The sheill, gay and prankish F-fla in pitch and is rarely used except for special dram tonal grotesquerie. ‘The Blat bass clarinet has a particularly dark and deep tone, Te can be used for tonal surprise in its low register, and it adds vital reinforcing power when doubled with 1gs, bassoon, or tuba. “The bass clarinet should carry mel- jelly, because ofits intensely vivid roundness and sub- al tone. Like all low instruments, it must articulate and move more slowly, The bass clarinet has the most authentic depth of all instrumental timbres, and its use could well be restricted to its deep low and middle registers. ‘The upper tones are more difficult to play and are somewhat dry and grotesque in effect is known mainly as a moderately deep timbre which adds mellowness and depth to woodwind harmony. ic written for the clarinet can be very agile. Clarinetists skip about easily from high to low re a flutists, can easily execute runs and rapidly moving legato de- signs. ‘They can also maintain a sustained tone or 2 slow legato, ‘Ason the flute, staccato articulation will be played Jarinet is disappointingly upper tones it becomes strikingly bright and po the chalumeau or low register it has an unequalled rich, mellow, deep quality much 17EEE AEH ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ONCHESTRA treasured for its poetic power. The extreme high notes should be used with caution because of a disagreeable shrillness that increases markedly as the player approaches the top of the range. ‘Outstanding illustration of clarinet use can be heard in the Premiére rhapsody for clarinet and piano by Debussy and the Quintet for clarinet and strings by Brahms. ‘The prankish E-lat clarinet can be heard in Concertino for piano and orchestra by Jandcek, in Till Eulenspiogels lustige Sireiche by Strauss, and in El Salén México by Copland. Bass clarinet can be heard in “Dance of the Sugar Phim Fairy” from the Tchaikovsky Nut- cracker Suite The Bassoon ‘The bassoon has a timbre of great individuality. It has a certain ungainly charm that lends itself to comic effects, but it in the upper part the bassoon supplies a thickening ingredient for the bass in passages where fullness and power are needed. ‘When used as foreground or melody its value is mainly in the addition of dramatic characterization. Because of the grotesque character of its sound the listener's interest is soon lost when the bassoon timbre is overused. “The bassoonist can make skips wi playing is possible but does not sound quite as comfortably fluent as on the flute or the clarinet. As with the obve, florid design goes somewhat “against the grain,” but staccato effects are very natural and are easily produced. “The bassoon may disappoint if expected to sound softly in low register. As the player progresses down into this register there is an increasingly sharp edge to the articulation that works against the possibility of playing softly. For typical examples of bassoon use hear the very opening measures of Le Sacre duu Printemps by Stravinsky, the opening 18 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA Sorcier by Dukas, and the beginning of " from The Planets by ns The Contrabassoon nteabassoon is pitched an octave below the bassoon. tone is somewhat dull and harsh, and it i for special dramatic characterization: eg, to represent the beast in “Beauty and the Beast’ from the Mother Goose Suite by Ravel The Saxophone 4, the saxophone is a each with its own charact ences of tone quality wit marked than these within the clarinet family The E-flat alto is the standard saxophone. It is relaxed and normal in its sound, whereas the Brflat soprano instrument is rather nasal and grotesquely high in sound. ‘The Bat tenor saxophone has.a nobler depth and a certain heaviness, while the E-flat baritone has an especially deep resonance which ean add ible in several sizes, ic pitch and timbre, ‘The differ- the saxophone family are less works against variety of dynamics and register. In small groups it tends to be garishly prominent, but in the large orchestra it tends to disappear into the generality of the full sound without adding to its character. It does have certain unique solostic and has been used for a certain soft izet’s L'Arlésienne suite; for a high Ravel's Bolero; and to characterize a gala mawhish wistfulness—as in Prokofiev's Lieutenant i. richness of tone—as in festive brilliance—as 19‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA saxophone tone poten to the many uses made of it in jazz and popular recordings. The Horn ‘The hom is the most difficult instrument to articulate and, care must be taken to allow the player to ind to prepare for his next entrance. The hom ip from one register to another very easily. The to move smoothly and consistently within itch locale. a limited use. The modern hom has a much wider capability and need no longer be thought of as a subordinate or background instrument, IF given sufficient time between each entrance, the modern hom player is capable of playing almost any reasonal ten part. Legato demands must allow for sufficient breath- ing. Staceato design must not be too rapid ot too long, ‘As the top of its range is approached, the tone of the horn becomes extremely difficult to produce, and therefore can get too tense and vivid, Because of the extra long tubing of the horn it is possible for the player to produce certain unique and won: derfully deep low tones. ‘These bass clef tones are rather uncommon most players, but they cannot be cr with a pointed staccato, When writing for this unusual regis: ter, give the player time to find, produce and terminate each tone. When the horn is muted the tone is surprisingly insub- stantial but, because of the mysterious, distant effect, very attrac i serting the hand in the bell the horn may be par causes a sound which is mellower is effect, write “stopped hom” at the Tess distant. point where The ordinary horn tone may be made bland ot raucous, de- pending upon the amount of “ratte” or “buzz” that the player 20 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA ask for varying degrees imparts to the tone, and the composer can 2 i character of sound de- of gentleness or vigor sired: eg, sotto voce, " " ete Hear the famous and challenging hom solo at the beginning of Till Eulenspiegel by Suauss. Also listen for the vigorous use of horn in th 1s Dance” from The Three Cornered Hat by de Falla, the long solo line at the beginning of Pastorale d! &é by Honegger and the opening hom call in the Oberon overture by von Weber. The Trumpet In his Symphony in D minor, Franck has written for the two types of trumpet: the standard orchestral trumpet, which i strident and martial tone that results and the comet, with its mellower tone which results from a more graduated igh the timbres are different the playing techniques should not be used too often. As the top of the range is ap- proached the tones become excitingly stringent and furnish an 21THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA intensity well known to composers of dramatic music. Good players like to produce these tones, but because of the effort required they should be used sparingly. The trumpets are the loudest of the instruments and thi aust be taken into consideration when marking the dynamics, are surprisingly weak. trumpets have been thought of as instruments of fanfare, and composers of the past too often limited use of the trumpet to a detached articulation. Modem players, however, can do surprisingly well with legato effects and should be chal. lenged more often by legato melodies and designs. When playing legato the player will need to pause for breath, and this should be considered when marking the legato phrasing. Rapid staccato is possible but not easy, and should be lim- ited to brief pattems which allow the player time to prepare for each active segment of the pattem, th-Century developments in the use of mutes have the variety of trumpet timbre. For instance, the sm to the tone; the cup mute produces slightly mocking distortion. When it had only its t tone the trumpet was doomed to either Fore- ‘ground or silence. With the invention of the mutes it became possible for the trumpets to play a more subtle role and to con- tribute a new, more fluid and legato action to thythmic and harmonic background, For the most striking and modem use of mutes and other trumpet effects, listen with analytical curiosity to all dance band and jazz recordings, Ie will also be profit 22 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA serve the remarkable use made by Stravinsky of both open and muted trumpets in Petrouichka. In this score there are many s of trumpet effect which are given the foreground for s D minor there te a richness of impets and comets to harmonic effect. The Trombone lyric and ponderous. It connected with the the player can never be completely at case . The trombone staccato cannot be very biting, rapid or pointed, Music written for trombone should, therefore, have a certain epic breadth and dignifiedly moderate pace The tone of the trombone is in Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6, and in the opening of The Russian Faster Overture by Rimsky-Korsakov. ody. Its real co give to the bass line when needed. Its shortco y and its difficulty with staccato articulation. It is ver fe when needed for unusually deep power, but otherwise should be used with caution. Unless it is given a part which it can articulate with enough ease it will slow up the pace for the other instruments. ace Tubby the Tuba by Kleinsinger, a childeen’s piece, illus- trates tuba potentialit ties. ba{THE INSTRUMENTS OF TH OncHHESTRA The Violin the instruments the vi ies. It can be used either for melody or accompaniment. The player can shift easily from register 10 register and can execute the most subtle musical designs, either in staccato or legato. ‘The violin responds readily to demands for dynamic change. Special effects possible on the violin are: Ca) the pizzicato the most delicate and pointed staccato sound) which is made by plucking the string — the pizzicato can be deli depending upon the way it is produced; (b) the tei tremolo Ck C@) chords, which can be played by ye ings or bowing — chords are not possible unless each tone of the chord is produced by a different string and unless the finger positions re pasteles = af aoe (impossible) (awhward) (e) harmonics, which are produced by stoy ; ed by stopping the string at 4 puis mba or one-quarter of its length and then drawing = = (half-way on G string) (one-quarter of A string) which produces a flatesike tone — harmonics cannot be played in rapid succession and, because of extceme delicacy, must be 24 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA more sustained than staccato; (E) the special sound of each in- od by indicating that the 8 dividual string, which can be player is to execute a passage Sul G (on the G —— — soe ‘The string tone has a special for softness and gentleness that makes it particularly suited for use as general background. ‘The woodwinds, brass and percus- sion have a more insistent vividness and force of impact. Be cause of this difference in tonal character, the ear can tolerate the string tone for longer periods of continuous use. ‘When writing for the violin, give the player time to make the change from pizzicato to bowed sound, or vice versa. In legato passages two bows per measure are generally required to ensure that the player will have enough bow for a full, free tone. Be reasonable in asking for rapi to low register Cacross the strings). Be inv the bowing (mixing staccato and legato) to avoid a monotony of articulation, To hear the essence of vi cordings of the principal violin concertos played by famous artists and also to the string quartets of the classic masters (such as Beethoven, Haydn and Mozart), as well as those of Barték. The Viola ‘This mellow alto instrument has all the versatility of the violin, but it responds a litte less quickly to demands for motion and is more’ subdued in tone. You cannot expect power from the a5{THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE oncHESTRA but you can expect a highly a and much usefulness in accompanimental design. ‘The lower and higher registers are most unusual because of the gruff, slightly hoarse, charm of the Cstring, and the poignant and nasal, but poctically expressive, timbre of the high Astring, ‘The Suite for viola and piano by Bloch reaches deeply and originally into viola effect—be sure to hear it The Cello Tr can play rapi viola. It can play chords, but in the orchestra they tend to blur. The cello has an especially good melodic register on the A- string, The first octave of this A-string register is easy to pla and is expressively eloquent. Higher up, extreme intonation dif ficulties begin. tis poss to do all types of bowing and produce all the trlls, remolos and harmon and violist are able to, but he needs just a little more time to prepare for the problems peculiar to cl ing. ‘The composer ‘ust take into consideration the need for heavier finger pressure on the thicker cello strings, the slower heavier bow, and the larger The middle register of the use nor eff lower tones, while typical upper register. For listening experiences in effective cello writing, hear the concertos by Saint Saéns and Schumann and Schelona by Bloch. The String Bass When the bass is played without support from other in- struments it sounds somewhat incomplete, struggling and gro- 26 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA WB, one octave ‘bass requires .. Since the bow is relatively detached bowing will be more natural For most passages, and the amount of legato indicated should be moderate. To illustrate the orchestral use of basses without doubling, hear the opening measures of the slow movement of the Sym- phony No. 3 by Beethoven. the cello, ‘The ponderous ‘be not too elaborat ‘The Harp ‘The harp furnishes excitement and motion principally by means of the glissando. To create this effect the hands sweep freely over the strings. Before this is done the strings must be set into the desired tonal pattern by shifting the pedals. ‘Once the strings are set the harpist is free to ereate any rapid or unusual glissando pattern, It is necessary to indicate the tones desired for each of the letter names of the sale, C can be pitched at Crnatural, C-sharp or lat; D can be pitched at D-natural, Disharp or D-flat, etc. ‘These must be indicated at the beginning sglissando. Any up or down motion should be indicated by (see page 14). Before any new tones can be introduced, the foot pedals player must be given sufficient time to rake this adjustment A variety of delicate pattems are possible through the use of the staceato or plectrum sound made by plucking the strings. Harmonies are effected by stopping the string lightly at 2 point one-half or one-quarter of the distance up its length. When har monies are to be played, the player must be given time to prepare for each tone. For orchestral purposes the harp is ess sis in the part can slow up action. ‘The most imaginative writing should almost always an instrument bd‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA feature either relatively elaborate glissamdo motion or rather simple, pointed and dircet staccato motion. ‘The harp tone is weak and easily obliterated except when set in motion by vigorous glissando playing, To hear the harp in action as an orchestral ingredient, such scores by Debussy as La Mer, Ibéria and Danses sacrée et profane are outstanding. The Harp Concerto by Gliére, a recording (as are most of the works mentioned in il writing for the harp as used ‘An interesting recording which shows the possibilities of the guitar Canother member of the plectrum family) is Concierto de Aranjuez by Rodrigo. The Piano In the high register of the piano there are marvelous poten- is for belllike chordal complexities that no other instrument can equal, In the middle register there are resources for a fluency of motion that can add subtle elaboration to accompani- background (Manuel de Falla has made much of this in El Amor Brujo). In the low register there are extraordinary marcato percussive intensities useful for punctuat- ing and thickening the bass sounds. When the piano is used the orchestra native part. Works which show a particularly inventive and effective use of the piano as an orchestral instrument are El Amor brujo by de Falla and Petrouchka by Stravinsky. The Harpsichord nishes a staccato in- ingly resonant and continuous. tensity that is st 28 ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA Hear the Harpsichord Concerto by de Falla and Pe Symphonie Concertante by Martin. Percussion Instruments ‘Although they are immediately exciting when they first enter, the idiophonie (percussive) instruments become somewhat wearing if overused. Like seasoning, they must be used sparingly ‘and in just the right amount. When they enter briefly for sud- den emphasis or punctuation, there is a keenness of impact and a sense of happy surprise. The rhythmic excitement of percus- sion adds a mysterious substance and glamor to orchestration, but only when the percussive timbres chosen have a fitn music being played. Avoid routine use of the noisy struments and experiment with the more subtle and delicate percussive sounds. Some percussion instruments, like the snare drum, bass drum, and cymbals, are naturally loud, and must be given dynamic markings that ‘The timpani can be played in various pitches (see the ex: ample on page 5), but these pitches must be set in advance on two or three drums; if new pitches are needed the player must be effect mechanical changes ed by hand. ‘The pedal timpani can ze quickly by improved mechanical means but the player must still be given enough time to adjust the pedal. ‘Tim- pani can effect dynamics ranging from an utter pp to a thun- derous ff Drums and cymbals can be struck with “hard sticks’ or “soft sticks,” depending upon the degree of harshness or gentle- ness of effect needed. “Two works which may be studied for illustration of imagi- native use of ordinary percussion instruments are Music for Strings, Pereussion and Celesta by Barték and Toceata for Per- cussion by Chaver 29‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA ‘There are certain orches il works which intentional ics of the various instruments valuable for further experience in analyzing bre and motion. Scores ly recommended for further listening are The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra by Britten, Concerto for Orches- tra by Barték, and Peter and the Wolf by Prokofie. INSTRUMENTAL MOTION Do not take the supposed incapabilities of players and in struments too seriously. Challenge players with stimulating musical designs. Nor all the Jong sustained tones, but ion and compl Although vigor of motion and adroit (a) the trill: ®) the tremolo: SSS 30 ©) reiterated staccato: @) staccato arpeggiation: 4) the run: (® wave pattem {THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA oe oe eee cat) egagy (h) reiterated rhythmic pattern SS tt 31‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTA G@ leaps: eS i = G) alteration of entrance: alternation of staccato and legato: e222 Ste $ eS @ expansion 32, ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA (n) combination: ‘Much of the glamor and individuality of the music of out- standing orchestrators comes from invention of patterns which seem fresh and attractive but which are derived from types of n that are natural and typical. Fully developed knowledge in orchestral techniques requires much experience. Study vari- ‘us orchestral scores to see how the elements of design have been transformed into new and original patterns, Take advantage of every possible opportunity to hear orchestral music in rehearsal. ‘Analyze the relation of instrumental motion to listening experi- ‘ence, and whenever possible discuss, with players, orchestral parts you have written for them. To know, experience; to learn, do, 33IL Principles of Clarity RCHESTRATION 1S EFFECTIVE ONLY WHEN IT 18 CLEAR ot effective when the re- perimentation. ‘The exercises written for com not be long. A few measures wil ciple, The object is to do many exerci experimentation over the total range of bi ind rings placed at the bottom (wood percussion, strings) ‘After you have written and heard your own example, through the works of some of the master composers — part larly such recent composers as Barték, Stravinsky, HindemithHE ae [PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY and Prokofiev —to see how they have applied the same tech: nique. ‘Those with less experience in music search out piano music to arrange as exercises, This is quite acceptable, but it should be kept in mind that it may take more time to search out 2 suitable example to arrange than to write a few measures directly adapted to the project. Also, it is more of an adventure to write your own original example. The simplest of diatonic harmony will suffice for testing out the various techniques. ting may prefer 10 CONSISTENCY OF UNIT ORGANIZATION The ear naturally tends to separate the different families of sound into units of tonal action and to focus similae timbres into unified meaning. Because of this tendency, achievement of clarity demands that instruments of ibre (woodwinds, brass, ‘There are no immutable laws governing this grouping, since matters of preference will always enter into the writing of any music. However, certain general suggestions can be offered 1) Groups usually consist of instruments of related ot similar timbre: eg., four horns, four strings, three wood- winds, ete. (2) Each group should be rhythmically consistent and harmonically complete, and should make musical sense when played separately. (3) Groups may be made up of any-number of voices, but two, three, and fourvoice units are the most common. A single line may be used as a representative grouping, since obviously consistent in design. 36 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY 4) Harmonically full groupings of more than four voices are o ‘offen used, but it should be remembered that rich sounding chords tend to obliterate clarity of design. If one group has many harmonic voices, other groups sounding at the same time should ordinarily counter this by using few voices. (S) The harmonic spacing of a group can be open or close, depending upon preference, but once a spacing has been established it should, as a rule, continue | 2 i 1 = £ === f f + (too sudden except for grotesque effect) (6) All groups should ordin: ic progression, but each can independent di position of parts. IE each group is harmonically complete in its ‘own right there is no further harmonic organization needed. wwe heh A se the same general har (cach group is ehythe and harmonically consistent) = 37Hee ai eee PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY (7) Different groups sounding simultaneously may have different chythms or similar rhythms, but the rhythmic relation- ship of two or mote groups should be inclined toward either contrast or similarity. Project 1 Organization of the families of sound i sistent groups is the most Fundamental of Use only two groups at a ties are manifold: eg,, two futes and three violins; or three woodwinds and four brass, et. Dissonant or clashing melodie and decorative tones are softened and absorbed when groups of contrasting timbre are sounded simultancously (see the example on page 150), structurally con- (Woodwinds) (Strings) in io) (im unison) (Woodwinds! new atest ee | de dn 38 [PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Analyze the unit organization in the foregoing example, neously sounding multiple groups of your own. Analyze the group organization in some of the classic and modern scores. Tn writing out the separate parts for performance it will be necessary to transpose certain parts. For instance, hom in F must be written a fifth higher, and B-lat clarinet must be waitten a whole step higher. For explanation, consult the transposition chart in Chapter 1 (page 6). DEFINITENESS OF TEXTURE, ‘There are certain elementary types of unity which are necessary for clarity of musical meaning. ‘These will be re- ferred to as textures. ‘They are types of “togethemess” in musical action, and are particularly necessary to orchestral writing be- cause of the many diverse sounds and motor potentialities which, |, would incline toward confusion. The or- and definite design (positive texture). There are eight fundamental a) monophonic texture: Fett OT gg (concentration of action into a single reinforced line) (b) chordal texture: gada concentration into vertical blocks of sound) 39PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY 40 ©) polyphonic texture: (unity through line si (@) homophonic texture: unity through contrast of role) © polythematic texture: eee WIIIMIIIVIVO, Cunity through contrast of motive) ED polyrhythmic texture: unity through blended rhythmic action) (g) heterophonic texture: oe, SS unity of theme and variation played simultaneously) PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Ch) onomatopoeic texture: (thunder) unity through nature imitation) ‘The application of the wor to be defended. ‘The main defini is: “texture — the peculia of any body; the manner in cd; structure in general.” Surely this definition includes sources of unity. MONOPHONIC TEXTURE OF the eight types of phonic, Monophonic means jon can ba composed of chara sagle of octave doubling. wie £Ge ee f Sar fi SfPRINCIPLES OF CLARITY unison,” with all instruments doubling Gottom of preceding page); may be used to produce an intense and concentrated sing idle register (uch as viola, cello, hom, high bassoon, or low clarinet). éi> = = qa eS gk Cp eee eee, ie = = Piccolo) (Bascom SER = > qa SF SS ‘The doubling may include register and timbre variegation. (Clarinet) eo i ae s) — (Full Orch.) 42 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘There may be differentiated articulation. iene na nS pos we toa needed variety. If the experi- includes variegation of timbre, it can be seen that the possibilities for monophonic interest are far-reach- ing indeed. ‘The creative and historical importance of the monophonic texture is evidenced by the emphasis thar it received in early European and Oriental ‘A study of the music of India and China gives a vision of to be explored. The student is referred to the Louisville Symphony recording And The Fallen Petals by Chou Wen-Chung. This is an outstanding example of essentially monophonic procedure, intensely varie- gated, especially by variety of timbre, with much use of per cussion Project 2 Write a short monophonic example. ‘The unison line will furnish such a tight and intense unity thet the music will be monotonous unless enough variety is brought in as a counter- acting force. Make full use of variety of register and timbre. Use some percussion to intensify the effect, and alternate be- tween octave doubling and unison line 43PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY from nisix-Konsaxov: Scheherazade (Eulenberg) Allegro molto 4-152 Pa. CHORDAL TEXTURE Flanto piccolo 2 Flauti 2 0boi ie. Chordal texture is the opposite of monophonic texture Monophonic texture results from a concentrated horizontal em- phasis. Chordal texture results from a concentrated vertical 2 Clarins emphasis. ‘The unity of the monophonic texture is a focus ‘of musical action into line, The unity of the chordal tex: 2 Fagotti SY ture is a focus of musical action into blocks of sound. These a blocks of sound have two ot ies: (1) har eeen - monic impact, and (2) r rhythm in the several voices. mL 8. Note these characteristics in the example below. 2 Trombe in A hi 2 Tromboni Tuba a Se eee This miraculously simple theme, from Beethoven's Sym- Tanineino phony No. 7, has a certain restricted and hymn-like motion that arse pieslo fy natutal to the chordal texture. However, chordal texture has Piel other more active possibilities and most of these will come into oy tia action because of the need of the extremely compact unity of a2 the chordal texture to be balanced by variety. This variety can be supplied by the chythmic content. Observe the four examples Delow, which illustrate types of rhythm: (a) active rhythm; (b) varied phrase pattern; (c) groups with similar chythm; and A) groups with dissimilar chythm. Soe re | re le F ly = Ia (Woodwinds) Contrabassi eoerrie Seage] i re eee eta Fe papePRINCIPLES OF CLARITY (Tepes) pas Any number of groups may be added together if each has its own harmonic completeness and if together they have an effective thythmic coordination, Because of their somewhat limited ranges, trumpets and hos will often be in close har- mony, depending upon the expressive intensity needed. ‘As long as the very strongly unifying force of the chordal texture isin aetion almost any spacing or pitch emphasis will have some special flavor part writing will be desirable as in previous harmony exercises, In this next example the third has been included in each choit Since each choir is harmonically consistent and complete, the sound is effective. 46 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY erihepitic Bassoons i * Sibelius features low string harmony in order to let the woodwinds through. Brahms often seems to prefer certain the mellow middle register (bas- the upper and lower parts of the w. seems fond of a concentrated highsound- the middle of the range open. Beethoven 47PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY likes his woodwinds harmonically rich, but keeps the strings and brass consistently open in sound. What type of spacing do you prefer? Project 3 ‘Write a number of brief examples illustrating chordal tex- ture. Begin with the natural spacing of any trio or quartet com- bination and continue the spacing consistently through a short (Woodwinds) = GE Following this, experiment with the combination of two groups at once or write a short freely experimental composition ir chordal texture for any avaiable performing group. Whew ever possible divide the instruments into choirs of similar timbre, but if only a few mixed instruments are available, divide them into any groupings for which one of the commonly used spac- ings is practicable. Fi a evan 2 Tom Bisson. 2 Scam 48 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Beginners in composition should keep the thythms hymn- like and uniform in the two groups. Those with more experience in composition technique may attempt some of the rhythmic variety and motor interest suggested in the general discussion on chordal texture. ‘Almost any standard masterwork will have some manifesta- tion of chordal texture, Find several instances of chordal texture and analyze the harmonic spacings used. POLYPHONIC TEXTURE To aid theoretical understanding it is important to poi out, again, that the organizing power of the several ccomes from their ability to create types of unity. ‘The pri Simple line unity of the monophonic texture and the eoncen- trated vertical simultaneity of the chordal texture are easy to observe and acknowledge as sources of The source of of the polyphonic texture is perhaps less immediately Polyphonic means “many-voiced” when it is literally trans- lated, but in musical terminology it has come to imply a simi- of pace and in the “many voices.” ‘The unity of 1¢ polyphonic texture could be compared to that of dramatic stage onto which twins, brothers, or other recog 1 characters enter at different times and by dif- In polyphonic lines which are nearly similar but which enter and leave the musical fabric constantly, action of several simultaneously continuing voices. ‘The results from the fusion of the several voices into a single impression "There is a dominating similarity of design presented by the over- ‘draws attention to motival or linear charac- 49PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY eee eer Nothing sounds more warmly sonorous and firmly clear than good polyphony. However, before examples are written for performance, the essential values of polyphonic texture must be clearly understood. ‘Three or four strongly melodic lines sounding simultaneously are not necessarily polyphonic. Unless there is enough open space (sculptured silence) in each of the pparts, unless the voices enter and leave the musical fabric by turn, and unless beats other than the first beat of the measure ighlighted as points of entry, the effect will be only par- successful as polyphony. Every outstanding composer, from Bach to Webern, has used the polyphonic texture in orchestration. It is timeless and absolutely basic. Tt can contain any reasonable number of au thentic voices, but the composer will leam early that a structure made up of only two or three strong lines can have amazing interest and clarity when projected by orchestral sound. Polyphonic lines may be in unison or octaves, and choice will be determined by the amount of power desired. For variety, some lines may be in unison while others are doubled in octaves. Choice of timbre is an entirely personal matter, but variety is of great importance. ‘Too continuous use of timbre of any one kind may result in monotony. On the other hand, a too frequent change of timbre may result in a rather “serappy” sound. + Sometimes a too prolonged use of pure polyphony can be come tiring because of lack of harmonic effect. To counter this, ‘composers sometimes supplement the sound with a small amount of supporting harmony, motivally insignificant and usually lim- to two or three voices. Study the three examples on the next pages ‘The amount of harmonic support given will depend upon personal taste and the dramatic or climactic need of the m ‘endangers the effectiveness of the polyphonic texture, the main glory of which is clean, clear linear design. , 51PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY a)" unison lines: (B) lines in octaves: vin. ee as tye he ls aS (C1, Hom) A SS te fcc Cate, Basen a 0 52 PRINCIDLES OF CLARITY © mixed octave and unison lines with thin supporting harmony: (bee), aa tS SSrSe. (Viola Project 4 Orchestrate any short phrase which employs the polyphonic texture. Use reduced scoring as in examples above, and try to achieve variety, melodic interest and growth. Apply nic sections in the works of various masters of orchestration (see the charts on pages 219-220). Examine the scoring meth- ‘ods used by Stokowski, Schénberg, Respighi, Webern and others in transcribing the music of Bach for orchestra. HOMOPHONIC TEXTURE In each of the textures previously explained (monophonic, chordal and polyphonic), the unity of action resulted from simi- larities of line, chythm and motion. , 53from sonny: Concer for Orchere (Copyright 1942, Revd Eton 1958 —repeinted by permission of Beosey & 2 se eee |tier yao [Pree Pero PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY this combination of differing action in the homophonic texture that dominates page after page of the orchestration of Rimsky Korsakov and also the many illustrative examples in his treatise on orchestration. Observe the contrast of roles in this example, from his Scheherazade Andantino quasi allegretto CoS SSS deri SF wae ty SS vor bap Seat aie Although this balance of roles has been associated with much commonplace Romantic music, it is misleading 10 suppose that all homophonic music is necessarily dull. The homophonic texture represents, in fact, the most complete and subtle of all orchestral balances, and it has been constantly used with marvelous elaboration and ramification in the orchestration of imaginative composers such as Debussy, Ravel, Prokofiev and others , 55PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY thas been a fundamental resource through all style periods and, in various manifestations, has been used more than any other orchestral texture. If balanced by significant melody and adequate harmony, the rhythmic accompanimerital material is free to expand into ex pression and design of great interest. This potentiality for fresh- ness and inventiveness in the accompanimental material is a constant challenge to ingenuity and motor sensi “The homophonic texture is not really as old-fashioned as is sometimes implied by those who reject it in favor of more “con- temporary” types. Since the homophonie clarity results from a more developed and subtle perception Can understanding of the value of contrast), it represents a mental advance coward struc- tural awareness, Homophonic texture will therefore remain as a major factor future music. ‘To mairitain a balance of textures, a composer might well alternate homophonic texture with the other more pri simple (monophonic, chordal and polyphonic) types. In writing for performance, a few variants in the applica tion of the homophonic texture should be kept in mind, For example, an accompanimental pattem sometimes com: bines both the motion and sustaining Factors into one compound design. 0 Andantino = Ome et oe ~~ aS 56 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Sometimes the melody may be expanded into a harmonized inforced melody is still a sufficient line in terms of mn of homophonie texture Ccontrast o ine, sustain- the less harmonic the accompanimental pattem will need to be. Sometimes a homophonic texture will inchide what is commonly called a counter-melody. As it relates to the main ‘melody, it is roughly contrapuntal and by itself is melodically incomplete. It must merge into the melodie action without drawing t00 much attention to itself — as shown on page 58. Project 5 ‘Write examples to illustrate homophoni cial care to assure that your design plan pos sign, and chordal sustaini D. In the sustaining choir, chords do not always need to be full; sometimes a single sus tained tone .will sulfice. Use percussion freely, as it is very 57from nantéx: Piano Concerto No. 3 ( 1947 by Boosey & “Hawkes Ltd. reprinted by permission of ‘& Hawkes, Ine.) Melody Counter-melody Sansining chee SSS i P == = -Accompanimental Leg sft o4d| — design 2 + from sentumenr: Serenade Carranged) effective as part of the accompani simulate sustaining effect by and certain gongs and cymbal sticks). SI — For concentrated practice use four staves, as in the above example. Thi cep the contrasted action of the basic ele- — 4 ments clearly before you as scoring proceeds. 5 vl POLYTHEMATIC TEXTURE = The unity of the polythematic texture also results from |” (EERE Eee characteristics in two or rc o ¥ — == = th will pit curve against angle, leap- 58 #PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ing energy against steadiness, agitation and rapidity against calm, staccato against legato, or fullness against thinness. Since it offers such an opportunity for live and interesting use of the various motor characteristics of the instruments, the polythematic texture is being used more and more in modern orchestration. In the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries the mechanisms of the brasses, woodwinds and percussion were greatly improved, and the playing ability of the average orchestra player increased markedly. Its natural, therefore, that modem composers should es for technical manipu ‘This interest in instrumental motion for its own sake has led 10 an emphasis on polythem: lead" parts in polythematism, for to ic this texture requires strong and imes. For this reason it can be espe- ers. Observe this moment of polythematic texture Cmotival con- trast) from the Symphony No. 6 by Beethoven Allegro (is Vion Age AGT ze He (2nd. Viatine) P gee Fr ee In this example both motives are written for sections of string tone. It is more usual, however, for the polythematic contrast to occur between contrasting timbres — as in this quote from the Concerto for Violin and Orchestra by Tchaikovsky: 60 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Allegro vivacssimo pizzicato accompaniment is neutral Usually two such live motives on a given page are quite ‘enough for the average listener. If a third motive is brought into it must necessarily be rather inconspicuous and be character of accompanimental 52, which ofthe three motives is aaccompanimental mate Project 6 In preparing for experimentation with polythematic texture it is helpful to practice invention of motival ideas for each of the 61from nunnna: Symphony No, 5 CLengnick) f=, motion by designs that make the mos ities. The scores of Stravinsky are part in this direction and should be studied for the stimulating ex- amples they afford. ing some of them into polythematic textures. Or, after you have become 62 ae etPRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ccato against legato, angle against curve, smooth motion against angular or disjointed motion, etc. Usually a contrast of basic pace between the opposing motives is desirable. A rapid and agitated motion should ordinarily be contrasted by one that is ‘more moderate and slow. Tn the Tchaikovsky example on page 61, a slight amount of accompanimental material was also added. If such accompani- POLYRHYTHMIC TEXTURE ‘The characteristic unit f the polychythmic texture results from a dominating rhythmic “drive” or unified kinaesthetic im- pact which enables the listener to merge differing threads of instrumental motion into a single impression. There can be quite a number of si tiated threads in this composite, but the action of each of these threads of motion must be non-m factor will predominate. tunity and its almost hypnotic chythmic excitement, originates from a time as far back as it is possible to trace African drums and other orgiastic percussions. Although common to ancient and primitive music, poly- rhythm became almost extinct in the music of the Classic and Romantic Periods. It has had a revival in the music of Twentieth- Century composers sud insky and Debussy. Tt also has had an influence on “The modem use of poly- 64 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY rhythmic texture grew partially from a widening of musical expression to include a certain primitive energy drawn from attractively naive folk cultures, Analyze the opening pages of Stravinsky's Petrouchka— with its exciting “hurly burly” of instrument the opening pages of Ihéria by Debussy ai passages in his La Mer that tend toward the polyshythmic. The example be- low exemplifies the characteristics of the polyehythmic texture. Allegro vivo Ri gee 2 wn ~ - Sz ¥ Harp = 2 Zz Horn Reels shag af Com See Project 7 ‘Write a page of polyrhythmie score. Start by inventing a particularly active chythmic pattem, for any instrament, or any thinly harmonized unit of similar timbre. Combine this with 65PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY other thinly harmonized or singleline shy pattems which will contribute variety and interest “The concentrated rhythmic focus of the polyrhythmic tex: ture can cause it to become monotonous after a short time, unless there is some element of variety. ‘There may have to be some vestige of melody, thematic interest or phrase conti but these should be kept at a minimum, so that the ovei pression of exciting motor action will dominate the musical effot HETEROPHONIC TEXTURE ‘The word “heterophonic” when literally translated means “with differentiated voices.” When applied to orchestration, it implies a principal mel .¢ sounding with other concurrent lines which are recognizably similar yet different enough to create internal surprise and variety. ‘The hetetophonic texture could be said to be “a melody with simultaneous variations.” ‘One or more such simultaneous variations may be added, depending upon the degree of complexity desired, In the fol lowing two examples, the variations are more complex than the melody to which they ate added ‘This and the next example from maxovest: Violin Concerto in D Major Alege no oppo Saget ovves fie = nis eam ! ‘ota Seer terererrs = 66 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Stcings ‘The variation added is often moze simple than the melody, rather then more complex. If more than one variation is added, 1 certain balance between simplicity and complexity is desirable. If it has sufficient unity and enough surprise and variety of mo- sion, the resulting heterophonic effect will be both clear and in- teresting. Primitive peoples made much use of heterophonic tech- co Vilna = + Vis 2 pte and Cave) | mg » SS 67PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY from ssssrno: Inpro! dal Vero Cy pemision of the copyright cwnets 1 8'W. Chenee Lads London) ea onic is mainly a melodic phenomenonPRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Swanee River by Foster and Humoresque by Dvoték. The im- pression of unity results from the natural clarity of meaning of the readily recognized tunes. The polyphony will be rough, harsh, and perhaps incorrect, but the resulting variety will have an attractively vigorous and rough-hewn quality of unique interest. A well-known example of this vertical application of hetero- phony occurs in Wagner's Die Meistersinger Overture, at the point where the composer finally brings together three main ‘motives which have previously been heard separately — shown in the reproduction below. Each of these is memorably tuneful. ‘They are rather similar in motion, but different enough to make sufficient variety in combination P marcas Still another illustration is this moment in the Shostako: viteh Symphony Here the first and second themes have been brought together. Each is authent right. Note the rough-hewn vigor of the design and the inde pendence of the harmony (see example on page 71). Project 8 Write some pages of reduced scoring to © the two types of heterophonic texture (horizontal and vertical). In the 70 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ise Ste Allegro (Weodwinds Strings, Piano) a (Horns) ¢3ue3 oe # er tensity of motor interest. In the s will have already put such a strain on the attention, other demands can hardly be added without endangering clarity. Study scores and search out as many examples as you can of heterophonic texture types. Observe the necessarily stark and linear character of the design, also the relative sparseness of sustaining and accompanimental material. Good heterophonic examples may be found in the Liew- tenant Kijé Suite by Prokofiev and in “Farandole” from the L’Arlésienne Suite by Bizet. ONOMATOPOEIC TEXTURE The word onomatopoeic implies ‘When oschestration employs such strongly programmatic, the resulting unity creates an “onomato- poeic” texture. 7so esta i st Spr: ea yePRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ___ When Respighi causes a “fountain of sound” to rise and fall cpp oumery nef Heme By peminin fC. Riot & in the score of The Fountains of Rome, or when, by use of a phonograph, he brings the actual song of the nightingale into the score of The Pines of Rome, or when he has the trombones imitating the roar of the lions in Roman Festivals, the music has a texture that may be said to be “onomatopocc. Such a texture is not easily definable in terms of archi- tecture, except to say that the resulting shapes and pattems reflect the contours and motions of nature, It is the deamatie verity of these contours and motions that convinces the listener and gives meaning to what might other: “Turbulence No. 2, gl smashing sound to be entitled A Punch in the Nose”; if the audience were dramatically con- vinced, mere chaotic motion, random turbulent action, or sudden savage impact would be seemingly clear and meaningful. ‘Sometimes a score will combine onomatopoeic patterns with ‘more structurally clear textural prototype, as in The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner (essentially homophonic). Project 9 orchestration. In addition to the Respighi scores already mentioned, analyze others such as Impressioni dal Vero by Malipiero (the owl, the woodpecker, cypress, ete.), Peter and the Wolf by Prokofiev, certain sec by Ravel), and Pacific 231 by Honegger. Attempt ti sounds and actions from everyday life: such as children at play, machines at work, church bells ringing, waterfront sounds, and so on. It is said that Leo Jana8ek frequented the market place ‘0 write down actual speech sounds to be used in his music. The 4 = relation of canine ‘movingly clear. Puate x, omonaTonoeto TaXTURR 74 ,PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY TEXTURAL COMBINATION Control over group organization and the ability to invent clear and positive t veloped orchestra but the techniques of mn should be thoroughly understood and practiced before going on. Throughout all future stages of orchestration study, it will be important to analyze scores constantly to observe the forma- e textural prototypes. Such analysis will keep alive an understanding of the creative force and organizing power of these elemental unities. They must be understood as protean sources, structurally necessary to any textural manifesta- tion. All discussions thus far have presented textures in theie most elemental forms, but as scores are analyzed covered that there are many variants of these fundament ounding and hyby ies are possible. ‘PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘A compound texture is a texture with two or more choirs, each of which is organized by a different unity principle. In the example opposite (from Franck's Symphony in D Minor), the composer has organized the homs as a chordal texture. At the same time the trumpets and trombones together make a polyphonic texture. A hybrid texture is a texture that blends the characteristics of two different For instance, there might be two essentially chordal textures, one in woodwind and one in brass, overlapping in a polyphonic way: eg, Moderato Woodwinds Horns — 8 r Why is this chordal? Why is it polyphonic? Why is it not a compound texture ‘These possibilities of compounding and hybri endless, and further study in orchestration could well include ith the simple ones in the development of technical understanding is pertinent to re-emphasize that the choice of timbre or “tone colo:” is very much a matter of personal preference. There is rno need to be overly concerned yet about choice of timbre; succeed first “At this 77PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY clarity of struct the textures mysterious quality. Certainly, choice of tone color makes a real difference and is, in a way, the very heart of orchestration; but achievement of clarity should come first in the earlier stages of study. comes first If the groups ate consistent and ive, almost any timbre takes on @ fascinatingly PITCH DISTRIBUTION The placement of tones into effective pitch locales has much to do with clarity. Melodies, accompaniments and har- monies must be placed in the registers in which they can be most clearly heard in relation to one another, Extremely high pitches tend to obscure lower tones. Extremely low tones are difficult to hear clearly and produce a blurred effect when used har- Middle register tones are weak and easily obscured. the staff there is a central area located among the tones, closest to middle C— see the example below. This is the tonal area that is most inconspicuous and the most naturally suited design and han e horns, violas, ly nonstringent, normally relaxed and fluent. When wri sher, accompanimental material takes on brightness and shrillness; and when written lower, harmonies become progressively blurred and vague as the lowest tones are approached. ToT =f { Normal accempanimental distribution 78 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Competing factors in similar pitch locale have a tendency to neutralize one another and to obliterate design. When melody, accompaniment and harmony, or competing motives and lines are located in different non-competing pitch locales, the result is crystal-clear and vivid, To , let us suppose that there are two motival lifferent tone colors sounding together as follows: Trp Because they are in the same register, neither motive can be heard clearly, since the two tend to “eat each other up.” At one time or another, every novice composer will have suffered from this ineffective sort of ers, One way to improve the result would be to move the violins up an octave, so that the trumpets can have the middle register to themselves. Or, if the trumpet design were played by flutes, a the pitch locale, the two opposing designs would no longer interfere with one another. tensity of extreme high pitch or the gruff “fog giness” of extreme low pitch becomes tiring if allowed to con- tinue for too long. If both high and low pitches sound together for any length of time, the danger to clarity is further increased. “The foregoing analyses lead to the following general recom- mendations for the restriction and control of pitch distribution 79PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY @) Use the natural and moderate middle register much of the time, alone or in combination with either high or low pitch, ) Use high and low pitch together without middle register) only for (©) Use the high, hile and low pitches, sounding to- tether only for minum intensity and only For brief pers of time, (C4) High pitch alone or low pitch alone are very expres: sive but incomplete and tiring. ©) Competing motival ideas should be in different regis ters. @ There should be sulficient variegation of pitch locale to ensure growth, variety and interest ‘When a certain composer said “All symphony orc! scream," he was, no doubt, thinking of the tendency posers of the Romantic Period to overuse the high sounds for dramatic excitement. they are sounded together. ‘This means sounds to high will enrich the high sounds, but the addition of too many high sounds to low will tend to block out the low sounds. If low sounds are to be featured they should be heard rather isolated structure. What registers would you choose the accompaniment in a concerto for double bass? Project 10 of middle reg- ch differentiation content through of competing motives; (c) surprise, change and climax through alteration of high, low and middle register; and (d) limited use of extremes of high and low pitch Bo from nznussy: Ibéris (Permission for te aris, France, copyright owners; Elkan a,, agents)ff Debussy, Mozart, Mendelssohn and ‘Tchai- idence of conscious control of pitch dy the worl relation of pitch locale to cl (see the charts on pp. 219-220) LIMITATION OF HARMONY Orchestral instruments are so naturally rich in overtones that when they are sounded together harmonic effects are in- tensified. Even when played in unison there is an illusi harmony. ‘The hi performance, so danger structural cla Study of scores to the conclusion that master com- posers often restrict the harmony in order 10 allow essential design to come through clearly. “The music of Beethoven is typic: Te serves especially well as a genera ‘The outstanding clarity of harmonic limitation which may be stated as follows: Ca) in design wi ter; (b) rest G) concentrate th Observe the application of this formula in this excerpt from the Symphony No. 6 of Beethoven (opposite page). It is when played by the brass choir that harmony has the intense harmonic impact, If the harmonization ated there, hardly more will be needed, especially since the woodwinds and strings can be heard PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Im tempo d'Allegro (Ob) 4 Wh Strings only with difficulty. If all three choirs are harmonic at the same the effect will be to0 full, too cloying and too undifferen- ed. Even when the harmony is limited to the brass, care must be taken not to fill up too wide a tral range with brs time, will tend to obstruct the possibility for other timbres to le Baty heard,PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Most other composers do not concentrate the harmony in the woodwind section as Beethoven did. More often, they alter nate the harmonic role among the several choirs even percussi If three degrees of harmonic intensity are categorized into: 1) close harmony (strongly harmonic), (2) foundational open harmony (moderately harmonie), and (3) linear design (non- harmonic), a general law may be stated as follows: The most normal balance in the use of harmony will re- sult from a combination of three different degrees of harmonic intensity The three different degrees (strong, moderate and non- harmonic) should be distributed among differing fami sound. Six optional distributions are possible, degrees of intensity can be combined in six different ways. "TABLE 1 1. Woodwind (close) ‘Strings Clinear) 2. Woodwind Celose) Strings Copen) 3. Woodwind Copen) Strings Celose) 4. Woodwind Copen) Strings Clinear) 5. Woodwind (linear) Brass (close) Strings Copen) 6. Woodwind (linear) Brass Copen) Strings Cclose) ‘Any one of these distributions of the harmonic emphasis would produce an effect ‘words, a normal harmonic I 84 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY harmony should be kept a) When played on a piano, quick changes of complex harmony are easily and clearly heard, but if harmoni rapidly in orchestral music they are more dificult , Orchestral harmony, therefore, needs to be based upon a slower hhacmonic rhythm than does harmony for other media. (®) Orchestral harmony normally maintains a consistency of choir action (number of voices and type of spacing), but the umber of voices and type of spacing may be varied if varied within @ design which is sufficiently clear and purposeful, jue and contrary motion in harmonic fon where thee are two or more Choirs there will be # need for supplementary difference. If all choirs move upward or down: ward at the same time there will be an imbalance which, if continued over a long period, could make both players and audience “seasick” with parallel motion. Since the orchestra is such a massive entity, orchestral mu- sic needs some kind of “keel” action at the center of things, so that parallel and contrary motion in other groups can be steadied or stabilized by their relation to it. 85[PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Play the following parallel structure: ayes Play it agai ing or “keel” action added by the hors. Note the increased strength and interest in the effect. SS In further scoring, trary motion might be added. This would give st and movement, harmony is pethaps only a ment, which often becomes stronger in effect than was intended. Young composers sometimes dote upon the harmony which they conjure up from the piano and use improvisation as a resource from which to evoke intensity of feeling. In writing for orchestra this tendency must be somewhat guarded against for the sake of strong design. Harmony can be magnificently poignant and from corr: Applchion Spring (Copsgh 1945 by Hawkes & Son (Rondon ted" by fomion il Ae a —F ———————— |e | ae at = Spt = Seas = yest pesPRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Play the following parallel structure: Play it again, this time with a stabilizing or “keel” action added by the homs. Note the increased strength and interest in the effect. SS is design and movement, harmony is perhaps only a lesser or minor ele- ment, which often becomes stronger in effect than was intended. Young composers sometimes dote upon the harmony which they conjure up from the piano and use improvisation as a resource from which to evoke intensity of feeling. In writing for orchestra this tendency must be somewhat guarded against for the sake of strong design, Harmony can be magnificently poignant and ‘Wagner and Franck prove by their music. suggested that for healthy growth in the tion the highest aim should be flourishing de- ion with somewhat meager harmony—not the ing harmony with meager design) which is often the “easiest way.” 86 from corzann: Appalachian Spring ( {London} Led. — reprinted by permission) 1945 by Hawkes & Son fpfetete 28 #08 tetetete ips #33 | tetetetel tetetete ra o = = ie. fe Pa Pap eres hae t a 3,112 a ae hee gpettes f= Se ti re a SS = tePRINCIPLES OF CLARITY VIVIDNESS OF TIMBRE ‘A melody or pattern is strengthened and made clearer when it is presented to the ear by means of a vivid timbre. When timbre is non-vivid, structural elements have a tendency to be absorbed into the general background. Vividness can be partially achieved by loudness or softness, of the English horn, which always makes a striking effect with its dark, brooding tone. However, unusual timbre is most warm and dramatic, and it has a distinctive character that cannot be duplicated by any other instrument or register. The viola and cello also become charac teristically vivid in high or low register, while becoming more neutral in the middle register Allegro legsiero (cin) ge High register eer e = Middle register ai a Low register = = * Hap PSF OF 88 ‘PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘These differences naturally suggest the use of middle regis- ter for background material when the aim is to effect a sort of jet obscurity. If the aim is to vivify soloistic or motival ma- high or low registers should be used. In performing groups in which all voices have relatively imbre (eg, the male chorus and the string orchestra), it clarify design by means of vividness of timbre. ‘This in these media speci tion should be given to methods of ensuring clacity. The symphonic band, the mixed-voice choral groups and the pipe organ have a less oppressive similarity of timbre than the male chorus and string orchestra, but they, too, must depend principally upon structural means for clarity or upon conscious use of strikingly opposed registers. In the band, the sound is too often neutrally bland because of the constant sounding together of brass and wood- ‘wind. When the brass and woodwind are antiphonally separated, the sound immediately becomes more vivid and therefore clearer. Opportunities for clarification through the use of vivid timbres are naturally offered by the orchestra because of its va- riety of tone color resources unequalled by any other medium. This vast palette of tone is a natural challenge to experimen- tation. Timbre becomes more vivid when hi contrast. In Table I a few types of tone q contrasting pairs, ‘TABLE I Dy (snare drum, pizzicato strings) Liquid Galockenspiel, ute, clarinet) Sibilane Cratle, ute Auttertongue) Solid (wood-block, xylophone, trumpet) Mellow viola low clarinet) Harsh Ctrombone futtertongue, eymbal rash) 89PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Other contrasts which might be categorized for possible use are smoothsharp, brittleplastic, ethereal-vulgar, shrill-mellow, etc. Categorization of tonal contrast is technically difficult and is a relatively unexplored psychological realm, as is evidenced by the groping terminology that must be used to describe tone qu: contrast is of such importance to the the future will bring psychological clarification and a more posi tive terminclogy. Although this categorization is a psychologis’s scientific problem, it is nevertheless a musical artist's practical problem ‘which must be met, in spite of the present lack of scientifically established terminology. Practical experiments with timbre con- trast will lead to the following general principle: Opposing timbres in differing design tend to become par- ticularly clear trumpet or xylophone sounding against a Jerange strings would effect a contrast of subdued tone. Or, a pizzicato line in the strings choir of lute sound would effect a contrast of dryness muidity Project 12 Write examples in reduced scoring which illustrate the 1g effect of vividness of timbre. Speculate into the nature ributes of tone” and try out some contrasts that come Contrast of any kind will be increasingly recognized asa central orchestral resource almost as fruitful as orderly de- sign in ensuring clarity, 90 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘The world of percussion sound, in particular, has @ wealth of fascinating timbres that invite exploration, After hearing some percussion works of composers such as Chaver and Varise, make experiments of your own in use of percussion timbre. Increase your knowledge about the percussive “attributes of tone” by try- ing out various opposites. Use duo combinations of pure per- cussion, or duo combinations which combine percussive and sustained timbres. LIMITATION OF MELODIC COMPONENTS In music, some elements of design require very little atten- structure, tion for comprehension. Because they are simple briefly stated and repeated, they are intell ther elements of design are more lengthy and without ‘They acquire their meanings from a set of consecutive which may be compared to those of syntax in a sentence, cis this rela attention and ment words or musical symbols that demands effort. In language, this consecutive mean- ing results in the sentence. In music it becomes the melodic line, theme, motive or phrase. If a succession of words without syntax is presented to the attention, as in the statement “rain, rain, rain,” litle effort is needed for comprehension and the mind can pass on to some- thing else. However, if an elaborate syntax is presented, as in the statement “because of certain low pressure systems converg- ing from the south, it will probably begin raining today at 2 be some snow and hail, and you had better carry loser attention is required demands varying de- ing rhythmic pattern because the state- grfrom tomarkovsny: Nuteracer Suite (Kalmus) ‘PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ment of the measure is is contained in a single measure and this ed. It is intentionally relaxed and non-consecu- tive in its meaning, 4. 4, aaa any one time. The memory are limited. I se he really wants to comprehend. 93PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY In music, the psychological facts are comparable to those just described. The averag er can follow only one line musical training. Given a specific de oped attention power, the progressive knowledge about the an almost instinctive he scores of Beethoven to analyze this limitation of ‘melodic demand. Choose any one of the Beethoven symphonies and go through the score, under components, but the second should be less demanding. secutive content than the principal third melodic component is added, it ison E, McKay, “Multiple TonePattem Discrimination” (Mas- ters Thess, Purdue University, 1958) 94 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Allegro on troppo (gon.motigal) ~~ ae vom 73 tH bf in ¥ * fecha, nels asanyree Sh He op ps t=} abies ar ce nl —¥ $$: swings {| (rnc! metatc component a a : 7 we a = important voices—are these not melodic com- ture often has four, five or six threads of differentiated rhythmic action —are these not melodic com- ‘ponents? Let us answer these questions. In the polychythmic texture the purpose is a kind of “oneness” of oversl tive threads of design which merge int tive and have the basic simplicity of accompanimental material I seems that if the ear is not expected to heat any of the sepa- rate threads of musical action as consecutive thought, the whole composite of mo 95PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY The polyphonic texture usually has such similarity of motion in the voices, particularly characteristic quality of good polyphony is an “an- tiphonality” which permits the ear and attention to shift from one line to the other as principal motives come into the fore ground, while lesser designs are comfortably absozbed into a of background motion. Any Bach fugue or invention strate this alternating entrance of motive in polyphonic ‘music, and will support the contention that a polyphonic texture is heard as one complex, developed, melodic component (a su- preme example, of course, is his Art of Fugue). The example on p. 97 is offered to illustrate the use of both polyphony and polyrhythm as components. ‘The woodwinds are polyphonic Cprincipal melodic component), the hors are polythematic (secondary melodic component), and the strings are polychythmic and non-melodic. There will still be an essen- tial clarity when this compound texture is heard, because of the “oneness” of impression given by the unities of the polyphony and the polyshythm, Asa final exampl melodie components, the my own experience. In my Evocation Symphony (1951), there isa passage in the finale which was difficult to clarify in rehearsal. Examination of the score will show that the rehearsal diff- culty was caused by insufficient limitation of melodic com- ponents (even the tuba part has some small bit of consecutive meaning). The strings and horns are too similarly definite in melodic content, and the extremely active brass design also de- mands melodic attention. Since only two such attention-de- manding elements can be successfully heard at one time, one of the three competing components will have to be modifi Either the brass has to be softened to pianissimo, so that become mere background, or the horn part has to be ma melodically definite, so that the listener can hear the string line and trumpet-trombone unit in combination as foreground, 96 PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY Alle (Polyphonic une) UAB eS [a Principal melodic component = a = - z Ss Secondary melodic bake ae = condary melo component Se Potyrhythn Non-motival bey background (HE 3 4 3: ean viz ESS = FE Project 13 for clarity. On a page of reduced scoring, write first a principal 97of et vita SES = 7. 7 74 leg mg Strings f Cantante appassionato Tron,en add a secondary com went that makes only demand (material that is sustaining or accompanimental in type). is maintenance of balance of melodic compone chnique. If the has created the main melodic component and secondary component, the essence of rch is in ss. Design of suppor matters of pitch locale and tonal color are subject to freedom of choice and may be varied as personal preference indicates, But the need to achieve clarity throug) melodic components is fundamental to all och 1lodic components, idy the works of some of the master composers (the three which follow are fine examples) and observe however complex seldom be more given time. CONTROL OF DYNAMICS important factor in the achievement of clarity is the calculation of dynamic balance. Even the clearest design can be destroyed and made incomprehensible if some instruments playing 100 feom ausxovan: Symphony No. 3 in E flat Moor, “Exica” (Kalmas)PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY powerful timbres. A thundering timpani or drum roll can smother almost any other sound, and the fortisimo of the trum: pets can wipe out all ele like the “Day of Judgment.” The ‘woodwind section of the orchestra is particularly delicate when compared to the brass section, or when competing with a string group. Conductors are constantly confronted wi achieve dynamic balance. There is an old story Toscanini rchearsal. In going over a the bassoon player 1¢ player did not play at all and the con- ‘Ah, just right!” Control of dynamic factors requires a knowledge of the relative strength of tone of the various instruments, When the dynamic markings are precise, the impact of any design will be clarified. In a carefully marked score, timbres and groups will often be marked differently. Woodwinds may have to be marked f to balance brasses marked p. Similarly, mark a clarinet in middle register ff to enable even when brasses are marked p). There are certain balances that can be approximately calcu- lated, such as the need for two French hors to balance the power of one trumpet or one trombone, but orchestral music varies so much in context and in use of registers that any “scien- tifically approximate” calculation of dynamics is not too trust- be the best teacher. As you hear your music performed (by any small laborato with such markings as forte, piano, sforzando, crescendo, di minuendo and marcato, 104 [PRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘The following general evident facts about dyn (a) Trumpets and trombones are scaly powerful when en; when muted they are surprisingly weal i (b) Woodwir re esl overpowered by either the Drasses or the f ae (©) Timpani an instruments (snare drum, ‘bass drum tnd eymbal) are vigorously powerful and must be held in check. (4) Middlesange clarinet is especially weak and can easily become obliterated, (e) Harp, harpsichord, and certain are weak and need to be brought forward. ) French hors are moderately strong and must some times be held in check. (g) In full orchestra, strings playing mf may be consid- ered the norm or standard degree of dynamic intensity against which the dynamics of other timbres must be balanced. Brasses ‘and percussion are the strongest, while woodwinds are the weakest, In order to be heard in balance with strings marked ‘mf, woodwinds should be marked f. In order to be heard in balance with the same strings, the brasses will ordinarily have to be marked p. By the same token, if brasses are playing mf, will have to play f and woodwinds will have to play ff. food: winds are playing mf, strings will have to play p to balance, while brasses must play p or pp. atements outline some of the more stepercussions Project 14 Experiment with control of dynamics by writing exercises ‘especially planned to test the comparative power of the various instruments and the effect of dynamic marking on their balance. Tt is not necessary to write for the complete ensemble. A simple unison of two tones, an interval played by two instruments, or a chord played over and over with different fectly suited to experiments in control of dynamics. 105PRINCIPLES OP CLARITY While attending orchestral concerts pay particular attention to the sound of the orchestra in relation conductor has balanced the dynami will be clear provided it has been we written) and no design ther hand, the design and blurred, there has been either insufficient bal- lynamics in rehearsal, or lack of sulicient dynamic indications in th russiness” of design. In a ‘and elaborate composition the most wonderful m be some particular! AA page of score sounds twice as elaborate as Experiens effectiveness in i duced tone. Nothing oboe tone sust pizzieato and a natui le register. Add a touch of tractiveness has been created! Oboe pin Cello = 106, from warten: Symphony No. 2 én C minor, “Resurvection” (Kalmus) i be Y if i = = : i Se ae =r =F Le heen, wan cal cms | = =— lz z. = * 4 z = z = > = ? sal sah a _ => pos a=, 7 = oa om -- 2 ness sdPRINCIPLES OF CLARITY ‘The survey of principles of clarity has now been completed. eis hoped that, as the result of exercises done thus far, clarity of design has become a natural and continuing outgrowth of mu- sical thought. 108TIL Pp hinciples of Tonal Snterest [HAT MAKES FOR INTEREST OF TIMBRE HAS LONG BEEN somewhat of an unsolved mystery. All ost sublimely and reach of rational explanation. Never- a tnglncfngyen banal obaerrng ths son fundamental processes and formulating them into inciples “allure” of timbre comes from its association ion and structure. Contrast also plays a very creative role in tone-mixing. Consciousness of[PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST fundamental to choice of ingredients for tonal blend. When these three major sources (motion, contrast, and register) are studied as they combine into tonal phenomena, it will be noted that certain usages constantly recur, This frequent recurrence points to the existence of fundamental processes of creating timbre interest. These fundamental processes will now be ex: plored and explained. CONTRAST OF TIMBRE (Antiphonal) Antiphonal means “with contrasting voices” or “with con- trast of timbre.” Contrast of timbre is keenest when presented with the sur- prises of sudden changes of tone color and register. Antiphonal entrances can be made by a group of instru- ments, as in the first example, or in melodic form, as in the (Clarinet) PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST second one. It is not necessary to change register as in the first example, but this is usually done. Note that the changes come rather rapidly and that there is recourse to the natural contrast in timbres between the instrumental families. Occasionally the contrast will be applied more mildly, as in the next example, which features change of register within a family of instruments. ‘The antiphonal effect is most desirably stark when each new timbre can be heard without interference from any other clement, Nevertheless, antiphonal altemation is also striking when acting in conjunction with another design element, as shown here! FL) (ch) rided] J# bp SS SS aS Still another type of antiphonal interest is that which re sults when groups are placed off stage in different parts of the auditorium and then are heard alternately as they answer back and forth. Good examples of this “stereophonic” effect are to be found in the use of offstage trumpet in the Beethoven Leonore Overture No. 3 and in the Berlioz Requiem; the latter specifies performance with different groups stationed in various parts of the auditorium. The full excitement of such antiphonal music can be experienced only in actual performance. 113[PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST Project 15 Write some examples which apply antiphonal techniques Include both harmonic and melodic entrances and apply changes of register whenever possible At first, illustrate antiphonal contrast in its purest form, with the entering groups of voices sounding without interference from supplementary design. Later, apply it in combination with some simple supporting background, For cally against a pizzicato background INSTRUMENTAL MOTION Music may be defined as “sound in motion, within a span an aura of attractiveness arises. A sudden flurry captures the tion, and any characterfully active design or live and con- jous chythmic pattem mysteriously magnifies the allure of a of instrumental motion are as rich and harmony or melody. These two facets have analyzed, but the processes and values of instru- hhave remained largely untouched by practical important theoretical frontier! ‘brought about 2 revival of interest in kinaesthetic values, 114 from unniso2: Symphonie fantastique (Kalmus) bere gee alePRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST tis special emphasis upon new frontiers in idiomatic in- guishes modern from classic orchestration. Stravinsky is especially noteworthy for modern-day instrumental from nousset.: The Durand et Cie, Philadelphia, Pa, ler's Feast (Permission for see, copyright owners; Elkan Debussy and RimskyKorsakov were also very gifted ae Sra es. Study some of the scores by these = j masters to analyze techniques of instrumental motion: such as os ae ae Stas sky Korsa- = uke kov and Petrouchka, Le Sacre du printemps and L'Histoire du soldat by Stravinsky. = Project 16 Ao Mee Albee Fal tft After preliminary experimentation in invention of atten- . goa = == tion-getting motor activity for each instrument, use the best of F wm which to develop a number ~ which afford contrasting mo- £ ss CAute - a SS to staccato (saxophone and a ae acy Girumpet asl ~ Ss iano or the harpsichord a in some of the duo combinations, since these are natural instru = ments of motion. When instrumental motion is featured, the Xylophone Animes trba pou B ae 2 : Harpsichord 116PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST texture often will tend to be polythematie or polychythmic. ‘There isan illustration of this type of combination on page 116. DOUBLING FOR POWER ‘When two instruments are played in unison this is known as doubling. Indiscriminate doubling results in rather poor and characterless sound. A cardinal rule should be this: Unless the purpose of the composer, he should avoi doubling is theoretically clear to There are only two good reasons for doubling: (1) for tonal power, and (2) for tonal subtlety. Even when chosen, a doubling which continues for too long tiring to the ear. Use no doubling or unison blending except for definite dramatic, structural or colorstic purposes. Before scor- fy : isneeded. IF you cam unmixed tone color. ‘Acquaintance Debussy, prefer the pure, unmixed tone colors. Others prefer the richness of blended tone. Beethoven uses a great deal of octave doubling; note that it is most often related to moments ing, and there are striking examples of blend for subtle Ravel's Rapsodie espagnole. ‘The degree and type of doubling depend upon personal preference and artist “The most common type of doubl ‘An intense and powerful sound results from mul timbres. This unison may be writen either in a single line or in octaves. The more the doubling can be concentrated into one line (toward the middle register), the richer and more varied 118 PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST the effect will be. The more the octave doubling is utilized, the more powerful the effect will be. mo FES E Ss fr Ha (ce) (sone) (anasive) eeeie an pepe ofp pp es Ta Teer Project 17 Write examples which illustrate the three types of distribu- tion shown just above: (a) actual unison, (b) unison with rate octave doubling, and (c) unison with maximum octave ing. As an exercise in transposition, scoze these illustea- tions of doubling with all pars correctly transposed, Since the brass instruments tend to dominate, to become tiring, and do not have the natural of the woodwinds and strings, it is usually more effective in these unison passages we brasses to sound only part of the time. This will make ct of their power, when they do enter, much more fresh ing (see p. 120). ‘This same limitation should be applied to the use of bell- toned percussion instruments Cpiano, xylophone, glockenspiel,from romarkowsiy: Romeo and Juliet Overture (Bote and Bock) pelt ae Spies eh tatesPRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST BLEND FOR SUBTLETY ‘The most subtle sounds result from the mixing of dissimilar timbres. A striking instance of the mixture of opposites is found in Théria by Debussy. At thie beginning of the second move- ment, “Les Parfums de la nuit,” Debussy blends the soft gentle- ness of the low register of the Bute with the commonplace, solid “clink-clank” of the xylophone. The result is an unusual new sound, rich and alluring like a distant bell, Another striking instance of subtle blend is found in Tchaikovsky's Romeo and creates a sound of moving and memorable richness. Te seems that the most striking blends are derived from the combination of only two opposing timbres or, at most, the timbres of two contrasting melodic instruments combined with one diyer, percussive sound such as snare drum or pizzicato strings. When three or more sustained timbres are heard in son, vividness of tonal character seems to merge into a general sound usually identified with reinforcement rather than subtlety. ‘The most usual type of blend for subtlety is doubling which uses contrasting timbres sounding as a single line. PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ‘When a line is doubled with contrasting timbres an octave apart, there is less blend, but a striking freshness results, aaes fee Aft te oe 2 Piccolo. E ¥ =e ¥ Oo, a SS ¥ from Moeay: Tlingit Suite ‘When exact doubling is applied to choirs of contrasting timbre, the harmonic resonance has a less blended effect than that which results from a slight differentiation of action in the Flues choirs (see the two examples above). Richard Wegner ap- plied such a differentiation in his scoring. His main lines (main melody, bass line and counter melody) are doubled fully, but each supporting harmonic unit has its own independent design and spacing. This differentiation produces a delicately blended, yet not routinely exact mixing of resonances, which gives the impression that a superior type of toneblending is deing heard. 123PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST from pusussy: Théria (Permission for eprint by Durnnd et Cie, Paris, France, copyright owners; Elkan-Vogel Co,, Inc, Philadelphia, Pa, agents) on each instrument, are examples of instru- mental groups which show a consciousness of new subtleties afforded by is increase in resources for diversified timbre. 18 ations to show the use of timbremixing for mapa te one example to illustrate melodic use, — examples on p. 149). Study the soores of . the Prelude to Tristan and Isolde and the Prelucle to Lohengrin = = = ee by Wagner, to see how he has applied doubling to his melody oe as principally for strengthening) and subtle differentiation to the omen - harmony. ‘PLATE XX, BLEND FOR SUBTLETY 124fom naver: Rapsodie espagnole CPermision for reprint Durand et Ci Par, Fence copyright owners Elkan Vag Philadelphia, Pa, agents) Il,_Habanera PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST CONTRAST OF PITCH LOCALE Contrast between high and low pitch is a basic form of tonal interest. Extreme contrasts, such as piccolo and bass clari- net, produce a special bizarre effect: be: yp veo bE See flee te It can be used in simultaneous action as part of any textural type, as shown on the next page. Project 19 Write examples using some contrast of high and low pitch. avoid interference with the main material.PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST Allegro moderato z a f te oF Piccolo Bassoons from newamoveny: Nutracker Suite BLEND OF DIFFERENTIATED MOTION alternated activity. Moderato_parlando ent, a subtle complexity of seemingly simultaneous yet, from wentsoz: Symphonie fentastique (Kalmus) Pebeete sfeetee —_ hate y depte| ef tote, —— ae ireiee| = oe ine pa — —— — Se Ar uate x1, CONTRAST OF PITCH LOCALS Chigh and low)PRINCIPLES OF TONAL ENTEREST This heterophonic type of interest was common to primitive music and has become more and more a characteristic of Twen- tieth Century orchestration. In the works of Debussy, Stra vinsky, Martinu and others there is a subtle and glamorous quality to the motion that seems to come from elaborate design. In trying to equal this the novice composer will often writ page with too many unrelated pattems of activity and motion, “The elaboration in the music of the master composers is usually unified by the central force of principal rhythmic moti have been expanded by simultaneous heterophonic To is procedure, a pri Note that in the character of the princi: ants to produce an over version is greatly diversified, it has the impact of a single uni- fied action Project 20 Experiment separately with two types of heterophonic blend: (1) melodic, and (2) rhythmic, In accordance with the great central artistic principle of balancing complexity against simplicity, itis preferable that both melody and accompaniment not be complex at the same time. If the melody is heterophoni- cally complex, keep the accompaniment simple (even sketchily delicate). Conversely, if the accompaniment is to be hetero- phonically elaborate, the melody should be stable and direct. EXTREME REGISTERS ‘The interest created by use of extremes of register results from a certain stringency of timbre rather than from vividness 130 PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ora Giteeeee = Allegro vivo @ Fh eat SS Ee rant ll vine eons z f Vilas = ito = FE|| from scaxrrsu: Sinfonia Concertante (Copyright 1953 by B. Schot’s Sochne sion of tbe orignal copyright owner and is Ste epelinve”Asocaied Miaic Peale tao Ne PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ‘The opening measures of Sacre du printemps by Stravinsky make extraordinary use of the extreme upper tones of the bas- soon. The Afternoon of a Faun by Debussy begins with a flute solo in the excee tractive lower register. In the first Rome Respighi achieves a stunning ing up the intensity of many vivid instruments all the norma sweetness, and genth Project 21 experimentation be to explore the use of clear unmixed tone color, rather than blend, which has been dealt with in Project 18, CONTRASTED ARTICULATION snare drum and wood supply a harshness and zum (plucked) in- sustained tone, 13There are, therefore, six degrees of articulative intensity, ranging from harsh and vigorous to soft and gentle. 1. Harsh and vigorous C@ry percussion) 2, Pointed and vivid rem 3. Moderately intense 4. Less intense 5. Softened by harmonic resonance i 6. Soft and gentle Groodwinds) ‘This scale of intensities leads to a formula for tonal interest: The most striking blends of aticulative types will result from combinations of the most extreme opposites. combinations of relatively opposite combinations of the most neazly Next in interest ‘work, by blend- ing harsh percussive sounds with those of the blown instru- 135struck (hardstick) Flutes Celesta from arspicit: The Fountains of Rome (By permission of G, Ricordi & (Co, copyright owner) Gyebat ee s oe ‘Trombones ments, the composer has added an exciting dissonance to harmonies which, by themselves, are relatively consonant. An- other good example of articulative mixture by Respighi are also notable — the former for its vigorous com bination of articulative types, and the latter for certain delectable blends (Bute and harp, for instance). Project 22 Experiment in the realm of articulative mixture. It will not be necessary to write full orchestral textures, since the knowl- edge about combinations could be tried out on a single melodic Tine. A single brass chord to which the roll of a snace drum is OVERLAPPING ‘The tonal interest of overlapping stems from a type of “ight and shade" which comes from altemation of blended and clear tone. 136 | piavemay, cowmasrep anicaratton (flute and harp)PRINCIPLES OF TONAL nvrEREST The process may be symbolized by the following visual design: Pete [eee [eee eee suins ZA EZ, At first, only the woodwinds are heard. At another point, ‘woodwinds and strings are heard together. Ata third point, only the strings are sounding. Allegro commodo ah PP ip Woodwinds bets sib = SS eS Strings P 2 = iz =i ! Hl Project 23 In reduced scoring, invent some illustrations of overlap- ping: (a) between woodwind and string choirs, Cb) between 138 PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST the three choirs (woodwind, brass and strings), and (c) between two melodic voices over an accompaniment Chomophonic tex- ture). It is desirable to have interesting varieties in overlapping, ‘That is, as in polyphony, the entrances must not be too monoto- nously regular or mechanical. The freedom and variety of the overlapping action of cloud forms, as they pass through the sky, will have an affinity to the values of overlapping in orchestration, For practice in ique it is best to use choirs of sound rather than sing] though overlapping succeeds equally when applied to melodie lines. Study some of the ex amples of overlapping listed in the chart of examples for refer- ence (see Table IX in the Appendix on page 220) Study as many other scores as you ean, to find and analyze les of overlapping. Ability to apply this principle should from ight acquired from ordinary contrapuntal Sibelius, for example, shaw very litle ey have a wealth of che larger polyphony 1d departure of the various choirs scoring. POINTILLISM cechnique borrowed from the “Impressionis- id transferred to music by Debussy and then seen from a distance, points of design seem to merge into @ impression; separated primary colors form an impression of a subtle blend. To approximate this in music, a series of fragmentary de- signs must be sounded in clear timbres and in differing registers. Entrances should be heard only briefly and in rapid order. ‘These splashes or points of sound are separated in space and time, but in the mind of the listener, they merge into an impression of lended tonal beauty. Analyze the use of this technique in 139from sxacten: Studie im Pianissimo (With authorization of Bore & Bock, Beclin/Wiesbaden, Germany) PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST La Mer and Ibéria by Debussy. Successful pointillism demands a special clearness of timbre. ‘Too much sustained sound should be avoided, but sometimes a motion may be added. Thi will balance a certain “serapy supplementary thread of mot mt er ana tp oti ——— yf 7 Shoo z ee v Sux BE Drum =e * Project 24 the scores of Debussy for Further ic” techniques. Write @ page of score 141PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST which employs this technique. Use points of clear, unmixed have them enter rapidly and briefly. Locate each ing pitch locale, Some sup- ing sort may be added. For TOTAL MIXTURE ‘There has already been a discussion of mixture by douting (118). Minture without doubling has a TABLE 1V “Soft” woodwinds (utes and clarinets) “Harsh” woodwinds Coboes and bassoons) “Warm” brass Ghoms and muted brasses) piano, celsta, ete.) snare drum, woodblock, tambourine, et) from nave: Repos eepagrle (Peminion for rept Fe ok eas ome Durand et Cie, Philadelphi, Pa, agents) eres ref poe ed by ~ = a =a a = = “= St eee eee ae . dees : =a ‘ 5 mtn = mes ie E Ft =ePRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ‘The most com; fore, include one Through s belltone and plectru guitar, certain orchest te small instrumental group would, there- yer for each of the above timbres. ations, which can include unusual uments such 2s vibraphone and —following in the footsteps of ing toward an ideal of total mixture. ‘The smallness of the groups used ensures vividness, while the addition of unusual instruments adds vigor and allure through variety and contrast guitar, trombone and double bass be? Try to think of several such ensemble combinations with relative complete ness of mixture in mind, Project 25 To experiment with the effect of total mixture, choose one instrument from each of the eig a piece (a few measures) in at some types of timbre are sounding simultaneously, as in the example on page 145, Listen to Le Marteau sans maitre by Boulez, and to the complete works of Webern (recorded by Robert Craft). Also compare the instrumentation of various modem dance bands and other small combinations, in order to make objective theoretical judgments as to their relative degrees of “total mixture.” Britten's Serenade for Tenor, Horm and Strings, Vardse's Octandre and the symphonies of Milhaud are valuable for such analytical comparison. tis interesting to observe how certain ingredients of “total mixture” have come into and gone out of fashion, Plectrum in- 144 Category, © bas Chae, @ Hom @Q Tm © Violin @ Xylophone Tambowioe ® (struck) PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST pt Fe SS 145[PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST Handel's Water Music was played on a barge floating down the Thames. The orchestra was made up of oboes, bassoons and strings, a jolly but incomplete instrumentation. In the Classical Period, there was almost an over-emphasis on the strings. In America, in the early Twentieth Century, the strings almost withered away and disappeared from dance bands. The sym- phonic band has shown a one-sided over emphasis on the clarinet and brass sounds. CONTRAST OF CHORD AND LINE. When a melodic line cuts through a mass of sound, the contrast which is has inherent tonel interest. The usual homophonic manifestation of melody and accompanimen contrast of chord anc i the subtle tone:mi results when the line cuts through a in a similar pitch locale. ‘This brings about a blend of tone and action that can be derived in no other way. ‘The Midsummer Night's Dream Overture of Mendelssohn the first wo examples on p. 149) shows considerable as does the Tannhéiuser excerpt of Wagner in each case is a strangely appealing warmth and richness. Analyze the examples on p. 149, 146 asco from samme: Petite Symphonie Concertnte (Universi) Pe as "4 —|fip 2 ip te 2 = = iphe td wep be61 d@ (aon) (romans muna rvz0e ovr “marx anv34 —————— a 4) TePHOD ou pr04 oy a [omrennos mow u; uouvaddod] A Cesena) s9pery oxen fun sues toy = = Som yp oxdony dat Peas ee anpis # onrsg ‘uz0H1 Spurmpoo.a) ltt oor Tr i ASMELNI TVNOL 40 SHIaIONNAit; or woodwinds in harmony, sounding in the same pitch I ‘The above example shows how dissonance can be absorbed and softened by contrast of timbre and contrast of chord and line. Try this out. MOTION AS A SUSTAINING FACTOR , fragmented or “ parently to lac lition of too sound tends to from PRANCK: Symphony in D winoe (Kalmns) n = iad, | —— o fe 2 Ly —tT =| a re Se a. BE 2 | eS on Ee RES HB » SS op ple gst Pie | ié se al wg = = pisdd |stt!PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST obscure delicacy of design, but there is a way to achieve founda- tional feeling without adding actual sustaining material. This can be done through the use of some simple continuous motion pattern: eg, (Vietin) ) SS SS ae ae SSS == cea SSS If there is some stabilizing motion of this kind in the score, the rest of the music may be very “fragmentary” Ze and it will still seem satisfyingly unified. Without this thread of ‘motion there might be a feeling of breathlessness and uncertainty. ‘The line of motion may be in any pitch locale, but should remain thin and delicate (a unit of one or two voices only). Respighi makes effective use of this principle in The Foun- s still another representation of contrast in iness contrasted 10 stability and steadiness izing action of the violas, the sound would be very fragmentary. Project 27 Experiment with the balancing of fragmentariness against a thin line of continuous motion, as in the following example. 152 PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST PERCUSSION AS BACKGROUND Because of its aural vividness, the pulsating timbre of a percussive clement can supply a stabilizing effect. ‘The striking sound and penetrating force of percussion rhythm so engages the attention and so definitely — and almost hypnotically — fills up the sound space that everything else seems almost incidental. If a drum beat such as the following is begun, mmamm even random shouts and noises, if added, seem to merge into meaning, through the unifying power and dominating energy and impact of such a motor pedal Cchythmic ostinato) 153from nasercs: The Fountains of Rome (By permission of G. Ricordi & Co, copyright owner) Cre are de [PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST Project 28 On any vivid percussion instrument, start a “beat,” of thythmic pattem, and then add any random or fragmentary ma- terial. Use only small combinations, as in this example, and serite several short examples of your own. Allegro grotesco eee “he 2 Tepe oe Sf Timp. f PPP St STRINGS AS BACKGROUND Throughout the Classic and Romantic Periods, the strings were used as the mainstay of orchestral sound. ‘The woodwinds ‘were secondary in importance and often doubled or reinforced the strings, while the brass and percussion were used as support- ing steength on forte passages. Mozart and von Weber began to k through its limit b in the Debussy certain mechanical ingerings for the woodwinds and valve systems for the brasses), that a more developed use of brass and woodwinds began. , 155fm pens dh i ng Cl Cie 8 Serge ee to esi (age enraged Ser Fentative, Associated Music Iie, New York) - celitimeen = res ee Lee ke ie woe ot dbewthe dibawne ee EC Sa PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST As the woodwinds and brasses became more soloistic and individually capable, the roles of the instruments were reversed. ‘The strings became background (they can, indeed, make a won- derful background) and the brasses and woodwinds (particula the woodwinds) became foreground. As will be explained later, this use of the woodwinds as foreground, with strings as back- ‘ground, is a more nearly natural balance of the idiomatic charac- teristics of the choirs Debussy nearly always included the harp in his orchestrat- ing; and Manuel de Falla included the piano to make a more balance of character in the sound, and to approach the “total mixture” Cnon-doubled) already discussed, String sound can be so delicate and varied that the inven- tion of string patterns for background has endless and fascinating possibilities. As rurally fluent, vague and active back: ground mater s with a foreground of definite wood- ‘wind and brass timbres, there is a new liveness and attractiveness of sound in the whole orchestra Listen, with score in hand, first to a classic work and then to a Debussy work, in which strings recede to the background and woodwinds take over the foreground. ‘The live and luminous guality of the Debussy score will be immediately apparent. Study many contemporary scores to analyze the techniques that produce this special type of tonal interest, to see how subse- quent composers have utilized the ideas explored and revealed by Debussy. Scores especially recommended for this are La Mer and Ibéria by Debussy, Escales by Ibert, the Daphnis and Chloé Suites by Ravel, and Trois Potmes Juifs by Bloch. Project 29 Invent a background of string motion, using the entire string, nn add woodwind and brass melodies, as in the follow- ing illustration: , 157from scurusanse: Symphony No. 1 in B flat Major, “Spring” (Kalmus) Aller esi a ‘a noe PE sec - Hom PEF =e . : a ° — = F faa b——4}.4 ee = = ny (eS Poe = P —= == SS P = === Strings but is more briely applied, consecutive meaning. ‘The ch of emphasis, but the tonal effect gives extra strength and variety to an orchestral idea. Strik- 158PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ing suddenness can bring a feeling examples below show this principh Allegro. pesante Tm. BS f Union = =: — oe Jade ottagee eo = Flutes 2 a . gals Project 30 Search in various scores for illustrations of punctuation; then write some examples of your own. See the novel use of flutes for punctuation at the very opening of L’Apprenti sorcier by Dukas; the single explos tte. jle¢ Ce a from cusnns: Prolgo « Fg (Copeight 1951 by Asediated Masi Pubs Ines New foo" bf peetaoe)PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST BALANCE OF IDIOMATIC CHARACTERISTICS ach family of instruments has a particular kinaesthetic of instruments are used together, lementary and somewhat contrast ing kinaesthetic roles (woodwind melodic — brass sustaining — strings in active design). ‘This “good sound” can be said to result from simultaneous fulfillment of natural “oles” or, in other ‘words, from a balance of idiomatic charac For special effects this normal interplay of ‘kinaesthetic qualities may be reversed. The brass might become melodi strings harmonic and slow-moving, and the woodwinds agile and ive, The effect would be striking, as are ticulative speed and mal hand, prefers to have the i a sort of musical democ- rogressive and tends to mal balance. The No, 6 shows an old-fashioned, but healthy, balance of articuls- tion and motion. Note that the strings are active, the woodwinds moderate in speed, and the brass slow and sustaining 162 Piccolo Flutes Strings a oe he + pease % 2. F Sore: foe ° 163[. £ ry ty Almost equally dull is this version, in which there is a u —: |— Thank, evoll endceentie lager £ ueeet fe fe ca = + —-— os — = oe = ae eS eS be How much more characte: en when staccato and legato contrast is added to ssh ping! a iia — = TS per Ss = SSS SS —— re ——= te 7 164PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST from suusourssoun: The Hebrides Overture (Kalmus) "This inner contra —— a as fae fh = eS ee ees] r iF aay £ je ig ‘. az on SS iy ——_] = =e a2 a = SSS Se — > as : the staceato and legaio Fe $s = i Symphony: Nov 6 Vitin 1 Violin 2 ————= == oF | seaeerneese lee af vo = a 7 WA i cate SetePRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST in which contrast of staccato and ie. Also write any number of uni- son or single lines Fea taceato and legato in contrast. STACCATO AND LEGATO (Simultaneous) Nothing sounds more live and interesting than a musical structure in which continuous staccato and continuous legato sound simultancously, as in this excerpt from Brahms's Piano Concerto No, 2: Allegre sppenioata — = i te £2 te F, 0», Vein CE=—* 2 é tg ta2 ta a The scores of Saint-S of this principle. Composer legato. Some, like Franck, neous contrast, asin the above example. Project 33 Invent some structures using simultaneous staccato and legato. Keep in mind that the individual lines need not be as 168 from mozanc: Symphony No. 25 in G minor, K. 183 (Heugel & Cie, Eciteute, Paris) SSS rave wevir. Staccato axp Legato mv coxtnast (consecutive)PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST thematically important as are the two themes in the above ex- ample. In a homophonic texture, the accompaniment could be quite subordinate, and still supply a very vital staccato element against a legato melody; or there could be a legato accompani- ment against a staccato melody, EXPANDED TONAL GROUPS ‘The rich fullsounding harmonies of Wagner and other late Romantic composers brought about an expansion in orches- taal instrumentation. To the wind choirs, new and deeper timbres were added; the strings were often divided and the mum- ber of voices multiplied in both high and low registers. To the woodwind section Wagner added a third flute, the cor anglais, bass clarinet, and a third bassoon. Each woodwind timbre could then have its own independent three-part harmony, as shown below. This created a new depth and richness in the (Classic) (Wagnerian) ES 2 Fes G—— a Clarinets He * = Bascom SE 170 from sansrsaiine: Danse macabre (Kalmus) trenprsbia pS SS = at +p SEMPRE manag — — + + : = = SS SSS re, 7s = === tees o«fi ‘i : = - = =a = Sa T id : = Lars xxvit Staccato axp Legoto 1 cowmnast (simultaneous)PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST ‘woodwind choir. Villa-Lobos and others have occasionally added saxophones for even further deepening. ‘Tt was in scoring for the string nificant expansion took place; her ic orchestra was entra strength octave lower). Wagner at times wrote for an ensemble in which each string timbre sounded as an independent choir—as shown here: (Classic) Wagnerian) von = viotn 2 = # 3] lab Viola on [== tun BE (cual ound) ‘There are a great many possiblities for spacing such divisi strings. It is largely a matter of personal choice and dramatic 172 [PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST fitness, but each harmonic grouping must have structural and harmonic consistency. Wagner's Lohengrin Prelude shows a highly effective use of divided strings; so does The Swan of Tuonela by Sibelius. Another major work for strings is Fantasia on @ Theme by Thomas Tallis by Vaughan Williams, which ‘employs two string orchest usual variety in string writing. Still another outstanding work of this type is the Concerto for Two String Orchestras by Mar- tina, Divided strings produce an enjoyably full and creatively expressive tone quality. A significant enrichment takes place from the strengthened lower registers. On the other hand, when the higher strings are divided without the foundation of the lower string tone they become particularly “etherealized,” as in the opening of the famous Lohengrin Prelude, While there were important additions to the woodwind choir and expansions in the string choir during the Wagnerian period, the groupings in the brass section showed less change. ‘The band profits from the use of Aligelhoms because of the more truly deep trumpet sound; but, as a general rule, the piling up of brass timbres too often results in a heavy, qualitatively inferior sound. ‘The power of the brass is so striking that two trumpets and one trombone ean create the illusion of a multitude and “blow down the walls of Jericho” without further aid. For this reason the brass choir has not often been expanded. “The baritone horn, or tenor tuba, is an unusual brass instru- ment which is sometimes added. For an illustration of expanded brass section, study the final movement of The Pines of Rome by Respighi. For an example of the use of both cornets and trum- pets in the brass , study the Franck Symphony in D ‘minor. use of baritone hom, examine The Planets Mars”) by Holst and the arrangement of When Johny Comes Marching Home by Roy Harts. doubling of the lower trombone part when deep power is needed, 173PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST but it is inevitably slow in articulation, and its too constant use ind to retard action and blur sonority. Project 34 ‘The most effective exer will come from writing smal in the use of an expanded choir compositions for: (1) the full ‘woodwind choir, (2) the full brass choir, and (3) the string orchestra. For the woodwind group use the fullfedged Wag. nerian or “modern orchestra” woodivinds, with the inclusion of third flute, cor anglais, bass clarinet and third bassoon, Add any saxophones that you need for experiment, Use the chord ture for these expanded unit exercises, as this will supply addi- tional concentrated practice in organizing for unit consistency. In the brass example use the standard “modern orchestra” grouping — four horns, three trumpets, three trombones and tuba. Add baritone horns if you wish, Here again, use a texture which is “chordal” in type. ‘This will give additional experience in spacing and unit organization. For the string ensemble use the string section of the stand- acd symphony orchestra — first and bassi. Experiment with some divisi Because the strings have so. many poss ‘more textural variety and imagination will Or some may be harmonic groups while others is gives the orchestrator much more freedom of The basses are usually used for doubling of the bass line, but in rare instances have also been used for harmonic choirs, Such bass harmonies have usually been scored to sound separately, so that their rather delicate timbre will not be ob- seured 174 aft eyfrom sinetsus: The Swan of Tuonela (Kalmus) b= SF) PLATE KOWEE. EXPANDED STRING SECTION PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST FRONTIERS its, explored in of the “frontiers” of tonal interest. Other carly stages of exploration are: fuller use of percussion instruments; total mixture total mixture (vertical); “musie concrete”; elec- but may only merge lished instruments s wertheless, the composers who have been most strikingly inventive and who have therefore dominated the realm of famous tured them into musical magic. drove players to new levels of creased independence and wr difficulty. Although no specific technical projects are offered, recommended that the study of orchestration inchide experi- these several “frontier” areas. IF electronic devices band together to pro- 1g works of more technical , 177PRINGIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST THE FULL AND SUBTLE USE OF PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS Although, for centuries, the music of primitive, ancient and oriental peoples had a highly developed art of percussion, the familiar European orchestral music has been somewhat under developed in its use of percussive timbre. At some point in his tory European composers began to introduce certain consider. A commonplace set of sounds — the snare drum, bass drum, cymbal and timpani—continues to dominate our music, One of the saddest of this writer's memories is the performance of by a high school band, with the f sry instruments, almost completely negating the poetry of this beautiful folk song. Carlos Chévez and others have made use of unusual native American percussion Ce.g., Sinfomia India), and certain arde” composers, notably Cage, have made use of vari ous unheard-of combi on the shock scientific analysis es of percussion timbres and a systematic cate- gorization which will make available to the composer a much wider choice of percussion types. ‘The future will also certainly bring into our music the already established and extraordinarily varied and subtle timbres of Asian and African musical tra- ditions. ‘There is a most valuable section in the Thesaurus of Or chestral Devices by Gardner Read, in which he has listed the 178 PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST many subtle ways of treating the familiar percussion instru- ments. This book includes references to specific measures in many scores where particular usages can be found. Complete knowledge end experimentation should eventually “cure” West- em music of its t00 frequi TOTAL MIXTURE (Horizontal) This terminology best describes a technique applied by An- ton von Webern in orchestration. If a given line maintains a tone color only briefly and kal ly changes from one timbre to another, a horizontally rixtuce is effected. This is @ rarely used technique, rich in possibility. In the Co- lumbia recording of Weber's complete works there is an ex- ample of this technique in his orchestration of a Bach fugue —listen to this recording, ‘The ordinary orchestrator would have shown a tendency to follow through with che same tone color throughout a given segment of melody, but Webern changes the melodic timbre frequently and rapidly. The result is a sound that possibly violates the sturdy spirit of the music of Bach, but no one can deny the richness and tonal interest of this variegation, or fail to note that it is of “frontier” significance. In a much moze expansive way Concerto for Orchestra by Bari6k sets out to ensure that all the instruments of the orchestra will be heard in tum as melodic voices. Over a very large span, this achieves'a similar total inixture 179PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST TOTAL MIXTURE (Vertical) ‘This has already been discussed as a principle of tonal in- terest (total mixture non-doubled) but sized asa in the use of studied as tal mixture, along with those of ‘but rather gropingly, reaching out in this direction by exploiting a great variety of small combinations, “MUSIC CONCRETE” ‘The term music concrete refers to a music which makes use of sounds recorded from nature — bird calls, waterfalls, car brakes screeching, water gurgling out of a bottle, etc, ‘These sounds are transformed by tape recorder techniques. New effects are created by transposing realistic sounds to higher and lower ‘octaves, This distortion, by slowing down and speeding up the vibration, results in a new, sometimes sensational and grotesque tonal character. The Louisville recording Music for Tape Re- corder and Orchestra, by Ussachevsky and Luening, is an at- tempt to reach o is direction, ELECTRONIC MUSIC This is machine-produced music, with the tones played and created by electronic devices. Electronic music, as composed by Stockhausen and others, envisions a music which is no longer limited to the tonal systems of the various instruments, Such @ 182 [PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST music explores a world of sounds and timbres no longer limited by human inabilities. Almost any rhythm, any pitch, or any timbre that can be scientifically calculated can be manufactured by combining various frequencies, Sound and motion will be completely freed from the human « of the orchestra tionary possibility will be deplored and com- batted by those who treasure “humanism” in its old-fashioned Il be welcomed by those who see in it a new “humanism” in terms of the expressive possibilities of the con- trolled machine. Here, again, is a grand hope which may eventu- ally be only partially realized. Perhaps electronic timbres will merely merge with already established sounds, to make a newly enriched total orchestral art. As mankind entered the age of science, it was natural that the artists and theorists should try to create new tonal types by scientific and mechanical means. For ie, around 1920 to 1930, there was much experimentation. such things as elect produced tone, scratchin; sound track, aluminum violins, glass clarinets, the Theremin, the Ondes Martenot, and the Hammond organ. At this time there was great machine-age hopefulness that 4 whole new world of timbre would arise from new inventions such as these. Some of these temporarily exciting and unusual sounds were tentatively used for dramatic purposes, and serious composers began to be interested in them. “These inventions and experimental sounds failed, however, to make a very lasting im- pression. Why was this? A comparison of basic timbres with the primary colors will help to explain this relative failure. Tn visual experience, we are familiar with the seven colors contained in the rainbow (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red). Other colors, however marvelous and subsle they ‘may be, are merely combinations of these, In the world of sound, there scem to be timbres which are been chosen as archtypes after cent The flute, the oboe, the horn, the trumpet, the harp,PRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST basic types of timbre so positively selected by the ear from hun- dreds of early timbre types that any tonal effect or combination of tone, or newly invented device, will inevitably sound like a xe of these prototypical timbzes. The Theremin and other ical instruments sound like odd, imperfect flutes, while the lammond organ too often sounds like a generalized mixture of ings and oboe. ‘The saxophone is an interesting case in point: lisappears into the ensemble sound because itis neither a brass nor a woodwind but ly bland mixture of the two. It would be no surprise to find that all future inventions of timbre must inevitably refer back to the present ones for queli- tative definition, just as all colors must refer back to the spectrum. Nevertheless, as more analytical experimentation takes place and as psychological knowledge about “attributes” of tone becomes firmer, there will be constant attempts to invent new sounds and tonal devices. Successful use of electronic devices can be heard in Tu- rangalila by Messiaen, Poéme Electronique and Deserts by Va- rése and Differences by Berio. ‘The latter can be especially commended for opening up new frontie phonic listening and for a more musi timbre and motion that are typically electronic. ORCHESTRAL USE OF HUMAN VOICES In his Three Nocturnes, Debussy adds a choir of feminine voices to the instruments of the orchestra. In the movement ines” they sing harmonically as though they were a choir of instruments but use only ” Holst in The Planets (“Neptus ‘of human voices. Vaughan Williams uses the human voice as a solo instrument in the Pastoral Symphony and uses choral sound instrumentally in Flos Campi. 184 from vanisn: Desorts (By permission of , Riconti & Co, copyright owner) EDGARD-VARESE DESERTS INSTRUMENTATION 2 Fats (Al Pics) 2 Chine in Bb (one Ale BC, one Ale Base CL) 5 Teampess ‘aio D ed and Sd ia C “The eopoeer a the magocophoce will ign the condor for entra of ia “This work my abe performed intently without the inmerpotton ofthe ‘ape (lecooeally organized sound) if thee ae nee sablePRINCIPLES OF TONAL INTEREST Theoretical analysis of the characteristics of vocal timbre sion that voices are not really suitable as judged by what they add to the con- Nevertheless, there are interesting ies for combining orchestral and vocal frontiers in the poss timbres. Project 35 Write at least one example which explores a “frontier” area. Have open-mindedness toward all new possibilities, but at the same time keep alive an understanding of fundamental values. Stravinsky, in his Six Lessons in the Poetics of Music, defines tradit I succeeds in bringing forth the miracle of arti f the principles of clarity and tonal interest wi “work” as long as man is psychologically the creature that he is. However, language ala and, since musical expression is also a “language,” it will similarly grow throughout the future, as new sounds and new ways of producing them are constantly sought. 188| IV Structeral | Values }W ADDITION TO CLARITY AND TONAL EXCITEMENT, THE best orchestration wi Le structure is s sign. and techniques of ve analysis of what ld require @ separate treatise t to consider a few of the larger such a complete analysis.STRUCTURAL VALUES instrument. Simple motion can be characterful, but even within a simple action there must be a purposeful design and a sense of latent spontaneity. In scores which manifest elaborate motion there is nearly always a simple inner design which is the real unifying force. The score of Ravel's Dephnis and Chloé (Suite No. 2) is an illustration of this. At first glance there seems to be ‘unparalleled elaboration; but upon further anal seen that the elaboration coalesces tonal action which are essentially simple, in spite of all the ap- parent surface “busyness.” SUFFICIENT VIGOR OF DESIGN The value of sufficient design is illustrated in the follow- ing three examples Allegreto ritoico bg: ues ie: PEt o Vina = ¥ Here the viola design is rather blank and has almost no significant structure. If a mere grace note is added to the viola part, as in the next example, the design is strengthened and made more tangible, and the musical feeling immediately becomes heightened. B= a ff 192 STRUCTURAL VALUES If the viola part is further strengthened by more definite design, as shown below, the result will be even more striking. o Re eh =] SUFFICIENT OVERLAPPING OF CHOIRS If the entrance of the choirs (woodwind, brass and strings) is merely antiphonal, or if the choirs constantly enter together, the result may be somewhat crude or monotonous. ly simple unity of action can be used i strong and purposeful effect. However, most must be an essentially polyphonic plasticity of choir action de- rived from overlapping ‘There is always a need for open space in any musical de- sign, and this can be effected by the entry and departure of choirs from the fabric of sound. Such “sculpnured silence” gives the mind of the listener more time to fasten upon the tang! ‘motive and pattern. Also, pauses for breath are always desirable for the various players “LIGHT AND SHADE” THROUGH VARIEGATION OF “THICKNESS AND THINNESS” OF TEXTURE ‘Thickness or thinness can be regulated and varied by in- creasing or reducing the number of voices. A too thin scoring, too long continued, becomes disappointing. A scoring, many voices, too long continued, becomes wearing, Si ceventfulness is dependent upon a balance between these two extremes. Such a variegation of thickness and thinness can be 193STRUCTURAL VALUES applied to any of the textures, Even a monophonic texture can be thickened by adding the sonority to a singl ge from brings about a feeling of relaxed clarity and pleas Sudden change from thin to thick brings both surpr citement (as in the overtures of Weber), Debussy creates cres- cendi and dimtinuendi by gradually adding or taking away various instruments In general, however, the problem is to create a relaxed va- riety of thickness and thinness of texture that is fitting to each kaleidoscopic change of musical mood. The Brandenburg Con- certi by Bach illustrate the application of such vatiety to polyphonic texture. In certain movements of these concerti the rhythmic and m y that variety through light and shade is a natural neces kes advantage of smeorlike” variation in the number of voices. SUFFICIENT VARIETY WITHIN GENERAL DESIGN tiveness depends upon suf- plan. A too longcontinued use of any one general plan, ments of form, will cause mi organizations which can be alte the best source for illustration of such prototypes mn. His scores show an alternation of four basic wre shown on p. 196. Such a balanced relation in structural organization may be defined as normal alternation of organizational prototypes. Study as many scores as you can, to become familiar with this principle. Every composer must use some degree of variety 194 from nace: Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 in D Major (By permission of Universal Edition AG, Vienna)STRUCTURAL VALUES TABLE V 1) Monophonic statement (2) Twofold organization q (Fall orchestra (3) Onenes of organization of ath of this procedure. Four excerpts from Beethoven's Symphony No. 6 illusteate these four types of prototypical organization rate ») 196 Woodwinds ‘Woodwinds STRUCTURAL VALUES eae 2 +4 S SS Se Ree EEE SS a a? # ; os Fe A a 7STRUCTURAL VALUES Woodwinds and Hors Strings by B Cone Kalmus (Antiphonal) 5 5 ih a le ie rahms. At the beginning of the slow movement (page 64, on) the first few measures are monophonic. “These red by a oneness of organization of harmony and design melodic component), in which the woodwind and horn theme is doubled by the pizzicato strings. At measure 15 a two- nents); tion appears (two supplementary melodic compo- isis followed by a return of the “onefold” statement. ‘At measure 36 a striking antiphonal passage enters the scene. A study of this sequence of organi a clear and inspired example of continuing vi Study of ng principle (normal alterna- tion of organizational prototypes) 198v Orchestral Shpes MPOSER MAY DE EITHER EXPERIMENTAL OR his choice of instrumentation. In either ind some knowledge of the history of the orchestra and the evolution of the standard in- centuries. At the time of Bach and 1750), the concerto grosso type of established, This orchestral ensembl led a body of ac- struments, and the ized the orchestra into sof sound: woodwind, cboes, two clarinets, two bassoons) and ted to two natural homs and two natural trum- pets (without valves),from maxon: Symphony Major, sd (Kalmus) ae (Aiiegro) 1792-1809) rout fee oe ae a @ = Sito ee ey [> te tm). SESS a) Sener regen tefiom exoxorav:, Classica Symphony in D Major (Copyright 1926 by Eltbor Bae’ de Magar’ orbeel by porunet o Beacy Hives, Ines aslgnees of the copyright ako Uy permison of Kalaus) Serge Prokofieff, Op. 25 2 Fier 2 Hautes 2 Clasnetas 2 Bassons 2 Trompetter 2 Cons ‘Tiebatos Bi Viclns 1 aos |ypspee ers teetet hE esceteeseetitlteeeeeel > are P nso (pape fe # 2 ORCHESTRAL TYPES ‘The Romantic Period (1800-1850) added the standard brass, grouping (four horns, two trumpets and three trombones), and the late Romantic Period (1850-1900) Wagner expanded the woodwinds to groups of three (three flutes, two oboes and cor anglais, two cl also experimented with the addition of various types of tubas In the music of Wagner the French horn came into its own with wention of the valves, and brought in new melodie pos in the early Romantic Period, was a great Gurre-Lieder with instance). ‘The next major development in orchestral instrumentation came from Russia in the late Nineteenth Century, through the music of Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, and— eventually — Stravinsky. The orchestra was not significantly expanded by these composers, except in certain works by Stravinsky which demanded larger brass and woodwind resources. What these composers were most si for was their pioneering of a new consciousness of the vitality of tone color and instrumental motion, and for an emphasis on instrumental action for its own sake Debussy and the other “Imps velopment to orchestration by also gave new life and lished the harp as an reappearance of the 1m" sound supplied by the harp brought back into music an ingredient that had formerly been supplied by the harpsichord. ‘oday, all of the orchestral types mentioned in this short ical survey continue to influence composers to some degree, bbut the most recent tendencies are toward smaller, more varied, 205ty Pres, London) R. VAUGHAN WILLIAMS a” ees ee wo! Sas — be oe Fe 7 ul —SS= 7 a PFE TE pe —2 = a = = atORCHESTRAL TYPES rom sts sn: Symphony No, | for Small Orchestra, "Le Printemps” Etnies) Darius Milhaud, “a meaning of the compo- rurous interest of the composer. A tendency Weber, cemplified by Pierre Bou contain almost the total Allant. added to the history of instrumentation. Worthy of re certain extended and woodwind ranges, the several brass mutes, new percu: effects, novel small and experimental combinations of ments, and a certain textural fantasy that results from gifted improvisation,Appendix A IE 21 MEASURES IN THE EXAr trate instrumentation for ensemble of this book, ‘These 21 measures also furnish a concentrated exercise in analysis, and show how it is possible to illustrate a large number of basic principles in one exercise TABLE VI Meesure Principle 1 Punctuation and Heterophonic Unison 1-5 Contrast of Extreme Registers (high clavinet fol- lowed by low born) Contrast of Staccato and Legato horizontal) Pointltism Overlapping Restriction of Harmony (thin harmony throughout) Unison for Power Monophonic Texture 19-21 Contras of Timbre (antiphonal) 7-11 Homophonic Texture 9-11 Total Mixture Cnon-doubled) | 14 Instrumental Activity | 9-11 Polyphony. 7-15 Unit Consistency Ctwovoice units —in strings and hams) 19.21 16-18 7-15 Strings as Background 5-6 Percussion as a Sustaining Factor 71S Staccato and Legato in Contrast (vertical) 1-21 Normal AlternatAPPENDIX a APPENDIX A |aS 32). 5 wes tashattnd “ Sena (ge pp # ee ge ae = é Sete Te == ona oS —— = i. who. | SSE el = —— Fe (ome) 2 aaa 0! 6 ee Ze SS 0 SS a ae a oS aaa Vita === = = vou | SH EHS Pig ia = : Piano East = EE Fe =~ Fe eS 2 => oo —«_———— e =| 8 0 u 3 214 APPENDIX A APPENDIX A,APPENDIX A FL p= = = SSS pe Otc f= = = a + Se vole = aa io (open) i toms ia F if—$=e z SSS ; = = Violin —— = SS Bees von Sr Se Piano sz De. Se ae 6 Violin A 6 Fee z I" oe eS ez - SE = f° iy 4 = F ee Se x |Orf = st = ¥ vot |= z tb Raa SSS mp beAppendix B Examples for Reference [MOST IMPORTANT PART OF ORCHESTRATION STUDY 18 the examination of scores to analyze the orchestration techniques of outstanding composers. ‘The three charts which ly arranged to supply several examples of ea the page number for an example, fist Toca the will find the specific page number. ‘The miniature scores chosen for this list are all standard ‘ensure uniformity of page ceference, all scores are E. F. Kalmus editions, The charts refer to examples from these scores. TABLE Vil Bach Brandenburg Concerto No. Haydn Symphony No. 1 Moract Symphony No. 40 in G minor Beethoven ‘Symphony No, 8 in F Major von Weber Oberon Overture Berlioz ‘Symphonie femtestique Schumann Symphony No. 1 in Bb Major ("Spring") Brahms Symphony No.4 in E minor Wagner Tristan und Isolde (Prelude and ““Isolde's Love Dea Tehsikovsky Symphony No. 6 jn B minor (*Pathétique") Rimsky-Korsakov Scheherazede Debussy Prélude d Leprés- mid: d'un foue Stravinsky Petrouchka ‘TABLE VIL One-Voice Unit Twe-Voice Unit Three Voice Unit ‘Multiple Unie ‘Monophonic Chordal Palyphonie Homephonic Polythematic Polyshydnie Heterophonic Onomatopocie Pitch Distribution Farmonie Limitation Vivid Timbre ‘Two Componenis| Control of Dynamics1. Pedagogical books which are obsolescent but of interest to students of music history: g sal Ba § i 2 b TABLE 1X aiiiid beyedet ibliography FEIEAP PETE LE ‘Aatiphonal Gonsease | 25[47]37] 49[11[ 156] 8]155) 5[159] 3223] 63 Instrumental Activity lary of motion) | 30{29|| So] 2|121| 76|137]12]180|139}23] 99 : e = : rai g3taalaai rial oo strovlaodhal as Gevaert, Frangois Auguste, New Treatise om Instru- Detling hee Bowes | Thiet ‘mentation. Paris: Lemoine, 1895. Blend for Subdery | 9[2q—| 6al—] 71] 68) o5|—| 77]17i/29] a0 Contrasted Pitch 3i|—| sol 22] 49] —|—I170] 84] 9fias gies eet — ne ion. New Blend of Differen- ss o ne " tiated Motion | —[39] 21 9933 41] 32 —[2n| sslaos]i8) 53 Prout, Ebenezer, The Orchestra. London: Augener, ‘Extreme Registers J iai| | J ail ans 1899. Contested Artcula- Wi les Marie schnique m sion r7fealua| 46] 51| 71] 64|—| 80|187| 9| 88 idor, Charles , The Technique of the Moder Orchestra. London: Joseph Williams, 1906, 46, 53]35} 5] 37,15 105 &4] 9) a] 11] —Ja0fiss —f29) so—fi79) 84] 73|—lr30] | 9f 43 Tol Mite a oto a 2. Books which are of importance to formulation of general ‘Chord and Line 15| 46 25) —| 25/213] 14] — theories of orchestration: Mason ia Sur Berlioz Strauss, Treatise on Instrumentation and Mod: taining Factor | 15}31|57|_1|—101 158|165|—|178] 84] 3|125 erm Orchestration. New York: E. F. Kalmus, 1948. Percussion as Back: Ekman, Karl, Jean Sibelius, His Life and Personality. foes = Fp fe 1 S6L—| BS New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1939. rings as Back: ahead 48|49| 22| 86|27| 89 Guiraud, Emest, Traite Pratique d'Instrumentation. Punctuation 153, 2/140]177)25| 51 Paris: Durand, 1933. Balance of Fai Kohs, Ellis B., “An Aural Approach to Orchestration,” Characteristics | {29/11} 41] 171143] 52|134145] 25]192]27| 65 The Musical Mercury, Vol. VI, No. 3-4 (March, Sraceato and Legato 1939), New York: E. F. Kalmus Consecutive) | 47]44[11] 63134 90] 47] 84 95] |_| 55 Semmes lame Malipiero, Gian Francesco, The Orchestra. London (simultaneous) 329117] 37|20)117| 71) 64—| 79] 28/26] 42 Chester, 1921. Eepanded Tonal Piston, Walter, Orchestration. New York: W. W. Groups 44 4-150, | 450] —| 27 h36 + Norton & Company, Inc., 1955. 220BIBLIOGRAPHY RimskyKorsekov, Nicolas, Principles of Orchestration. Berlin and New York n Russe de Musique, 1923. Rogers, Bemard, The Art of Orchestration. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1951 ger, Joseph, The Sel ‘omposition, Book XII, New York: Carl Fischer, Inc,, 1941 Stravinsky, Igor, The Poetics of Musi in the Form of Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947. Wagner, Richard, On Conducting. London: William Reeves, 1919. Wellesz, Die Neue Instrumentation. Berlin: M. Hesse, 1929. 3. Books which contain encyclopedic discussion of instrumen- Read, Gardner, Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices. New York: Pitman Publishing Corp., 1953. 4, Recent books with pedagogical emphasis: Anderson, Arthur Olaf, Practical Orchestration. Bos- ton: C. ©, Birchard, 1929, Heacox, Arthur, Project Lessons in Orchestration, Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson, 1928. Jacob, Gordon, Orchestral Technique. London: Ox- ford University Press, 1931. ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY Kennan, Kent Wheeler, The Technique of Orchestra- tion. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1952, Wagner, Joseph, Orchestration: A Practical Hand- book. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959 5. Books on the history of the orchestra and its instrumente- tion: Bekker, Paul, The Story of the Orchestra. New York W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1936. Carse, Adam, The Orchestra in the Eighteenth Cen- tury. Cambridge, England: W. Heffer and Sons, Lrd., 1940, Carse, Adam, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Ber- lioz. Cambridge, England: W. Heffer and Sons, Led., 1948. Carse, Adam, The History of Orchestration. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triebner and 1925. Geiringer, Karl, Musical Instruments, Their History from the Stone Age to the Present Day. New York Oxford University Press, Inc., 1945. Sachs, Curt, The History of Musical Instruments, ‘New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940, 223GENERAL INDEX‘Concerto for Orchestra (Kodély) $4 Concerto for Two String Orchestras (CMartinw), 173 Concerto No.7 (Hovhaness), 136 Dance band (se Jazz) Danse macabre (Saine-Saéns), 172 Danses créer profone Debusy), Coge, John, 178 Celera, 135, , =INDEX Daphnis t Chloé (Ravel), 157,186, Disuibation Doubletonguing, 12 Doubling ‘asses 178 blend, 122 contrabasoon, 19 ‘lend, 123 harmonic chordal texture, 46 monophonic texnare, 42 he, 18 Deserts (Warts), 184, 185 Pa 32: sion 31 Corton, 33 hora, 20 markings, 104 Folk music, 65 Finf geistiche Lieder (Weber), 48“idiomatic characteristis, 162 Histoire du Soldat, L” (Stravinsky), staining elements, 57 230 Tnstraments (cont) phone 89,119 tance i, 196 sin, 135 paltiythes, 6 Feumper motes, 22 “Ke actin design, 85 inset response, 14 Leap (ss Skips) “as” (see Planets, The) 231mpex Marteaw sons Maitre, Le (Boulez), 144 Mertele, 8, 10 Martenot (see Ondes Martenct) Martinu: cavenents, 177,205 rie, Overuse. (Wag doubling, 18 Snerumenation, 158 232 Mozare Cont.) 177, 179 hhomophonic texture, 57 smarking, 23 noise makers, 179 accompaniment, 28 doubling, 28 119 8 total mistuce, 157 Premiere Rhapsody CDebasty), 18 233Ride of the Vath Seavinsky Ceont.) eteroph 2, doubling, 124 13 234 235INDEX Symphonie jantasique (Betlior), 115, 123, 160, 218-220 Symphony No 1 3 Becthoven), 27, Symphony No.2 (Mahler), 107 Some No. ih drat, $2 ythematism, “Tenor tuba (see Baritone horn) cl 90. 2 i ihgt Ste (McKay), 128 Tocesta for Percussion (Chive), 29 ‘Tonal ateiboter (sce Ateibats of 76,77 tone) 0, 172, Twentieth Century oom.) polythematsm, 60. Trumpet mutes, 22 Unison, gad, 42 Unie organization, rales, 3637 elhony, 49 pow (se Boing) Uplate Bow “Uranus” (see Planets, The) “Tonal ngrdints ‘Tonal niet Tristan and’ Isolde, Prelude (Wage 218.220, 237177,205 When Jokswy Comes Marching Home (Haz), 173 238 INDEX OF COMPOSERS AND TITLES Bach, Johann Sebastian: ‘Brondenburg Concerto No, 2, 202 Brandenburg Concerto No. 5,195, 21 (Concerta for Orchestra, 30, 179 Music for Stings, Percussion and eles, 29 Pp No.4 68 218220 vance Sporhonis fevigue, 113, 115, 29, 160, 216330 Site for Via ond Pion, 26 Brahms, Johannes: ano Concerto No. 2, 50, 94, 168 Quintet for Clarinet and Strings, 18 Symphony No. 4, 198 Briten, Benjamin: Serenade’ for’ Tenor, Horm and BOT ‘Toccata for Percussion, 29 one ne onan Torte Debussy, Claude: ‘Aftertoow of Fou, The, 133, Sh Symphony Nov te Falla, Manuel de: ‘Poem for Fluze and Orchestra, 15 239mpbonies for fall orches, Sa ‘No I for Small Orcher Luening, Oxo, and Vladimir Ussa- hevsky: Music. for Tape Recorder end Or- ‘chestra, 182 Malipicro, G. Francesco: Tnpression! del Vero, 68, 74 ‘Symphony No. 5, 63 240 ‘Suint Sains, Comile: Cello Concert, 26 Symphony No. T ("Spring”), 47, 159, 218220 Shostakovich, Danie: ‘Symphony No. 1, 70 Sibelius, Jean Sacre dus Printemps, 133, 207 ‘Tehaikowsky, Peter Mich: ‘Nutcracker Suite, 18, 92, 128, Romeo and Juliet Overture, 121, 122 Symphony No. 4, 15 Teatonly om) . Sen het eee Vial Concer, 60 Varise, Edgars ‘Deserts, 185 Pastoral Symphony, 184 Symphony No, 4,206 Villa-Lobos, Heitor: ‘Chines No, 10, 156 Fubnfgeistiche Lieder, 198 241