AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health-and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE UK CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY for permission to reproduce drawings.WHAT THIS The subjects BOOK COVERS covered in this book are: + Tyres + Tubes > Wheels + Brakes + Anti-skid systems For brake systems refer to the book on HydraulicsHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK ‘There is a lot of information in this book _but in general you should be able to: ‘Tyres - tubed - tubeless - crossply - radial Explain the construction, identification, inspection, and maintenance of the tyre. Tubes r = ditto - Wheels - tubeless - tubed - well based - divided - loose flange - detachable flange. Explain the construction, inspection, and maintenance of the wheel. General Describe the operation of a "wheel change". Describe the dismantling and re-assembling procedure for a wheel and tyre (with/without tube}. Brakes Describe the operation of a brake - its purpose, construction, and maintenance. Anti-skid Describe a particular anti skid system, its purpose and operation, and any checks that are carried out.AIRCRAFT TYRES Until recently these were usually of crossply construction. However, radials are becoming more popular - they offer a reduction in weight with increased landings. ‘The crossply tyre is made up of plies of weftless nylon fabric, each ply laid on the bias and at 90° to the previous ply. ‘The radial tyre is made up of weftless plies ALL laid radially across the tyre one upon the other. CROSS PLY CONSTRUCTION Tread Sidewall Tread Made of natural rubber, compounded for toughness and durability. The tread pattern is designed in accordance with aircraft operational requirements. The circumferential ribbed tread is widely used today to provide good traction under varying runway conditions. A protective layer of flexible, weather-resistant rubber covering the outer carcass ply, extending from tread edge to bead area. Reinforcement Breakers Plies Beads Apex, Strip One or more layers of nylon fabric that strengthen and stabilise the thread area for high-speed operation. Also serves as a reference for the buffing process in retreadable tyres. Reinforcing plies of nylon or aramid fibre placed under the tread rubber to protect carcass plies and strengthen and stabilise the tread area. They are considered an integral part of the carcass construction. Alternate layers of rubber-coated nylon fabric (running at 90° one another) provide the strength of a tyre. Completely encompassing the tyre body, the carcass plies are wrapped around the wire beads and back against the tyre sidewalls (ply turnups). High tensile copper coated steel wires embedded in rubber, the beads anchor the carcass piles and provide a firm mounting surface to the wheel. ‘A wedge of rubber affixed to the top of the bead bundle, serving as a filler.COMPONENTS REINFORCING cords © RUBSER BEAD SEAL: TUBELESS TYRES ONLY RUBBER LINEA TUBEL! ‘TYRE: REGIONS (roe. crassimeaned oF oanses) Ss ONLY WALL REGION Key © AAYON OR NYLON @ comeounpad RuSBER @ sre Cross Section of a Tyre -2-Flippers These layers of rubberised fabric help anchor the bead wires to the carcass and improve the durability of the tyre. Chafers Protective layer of rubber and/or fabric located between the carcass plies and wheel to prevent chafing. Bead Toe The inner bead edge closest to the tyre centre line. Bead Heel ‘The outer bead edge that fits against the wheel flange. Inner- Liner In tubeless tyres, this inner layer of low permeability rubber acts as a built-in tube and prevents air from seeping through casing plies. For tube-type tyres a thinner liner is used to prevent tube chafing against the inside ply. RADIAL CONSTRUCTION ‘The basic difference between a cross ply tyre and a radial tyre is the lay of the plies within the tyre carcass. As stated previously, the plies are laid radially across the tyre, but the remainder of the tyre is very similar in construction to a cross-ply tyre. Radial tyres feature a rigid belt and a flexible carcass, providing an increase in number of landings and a reduction in rolling resistance. The efficient use of high strength materials results in a lighter weight tyre with improved performance. TREAD PATTERNS ‘The tread pattern on a tyre is usually designed to suit specific operating conditions, aircraft weights, and aircraft take-off and landing speeds. Ribbed (i. circumferentially grooved) tread tyres are probably used more than any other types, and there are a number of variations on the basic pattern such as the number of ribs and the width of grooves. A ribbed tread provides a good combination of long tread wear, good traction, and directional stability, particularly on hard surfaced runways. Diamond pattern (or "all-weather") tyres are also widely used and give good performance on all types of surfaces. They are particularly suitable for unpaved (e.g. turf or packed earth) airfields. Plain tread was at one time very common, particularly on British aircraft, but has gradually been replaced by ribbed and diamond pattern treads. It is, however, still used on some fixed wing and helicopter tyres. aa‘TREAD REINFORCING PLY SIDEWALL GOODJYEAR ‘Tread BREAKERS, PLES con sopy BEAD HEEL BEADTOE APEXSTRIP FLIPPERS, WIRE BEADS. Crossply Tyre -4-Some nosewheel tyres are fitted with a water deflector (or "chine") on the upper sidewall, to deflect water away from rear-mounted engines. This deflector may be on one side for twin-wheel installations or on both sides for single-wheel installations. Water dispersing treads, which have many small holes incorporated in the crown and shoulder rubber, are also fairly common as a means of helping to prevent aquaplaning. TYRE WEAR Tyres with Marker Tie Bars Some rib pattern tyres embody equispaced marker tie bars in the groove designated for use as a wear indicator. The limit of wear is reached when the tie bar is worn to the base of the groove which contains it. Tyres must be renewed at the following wear stages: (a) Renewal (Recommended) When the tread is worn to the top of the marker tie bar. (b) Renewal (Mandatory) When the tie bars are worn to the base of the groove which contains them. MARKER TIE BAR, Marker Tie Bar ‘Tyres without Tread Reinforcement Assessment of tread wear on these tyres must be based on using the centre groove as a wear indicating groove. If the tread pattern does not incorporate a centre groove, use the grooves outside the centre rib. The tyre is fully wom when the tread is worn to the base of the wear indicator groove. 65WEAR INDICATOR GROOVE ‘WEAR INDICATOR GROOVES (WEAR INDICATOR GROOVE b 4 Wear Indicator Grooves ‘Tyres with Tread Reinforcement Identified by the letters DRR in the Code Panel and the words REINFORCED ‘TREAD on the sidewall. They may or may not have marker tie bars. The limit of the wear is reached when the depth of the wear indicating groove is reduced to 2mm. If the wear is not even, the tyre must be discarded when a total of 25% of the groove circumference is reduced to 2mm depth, irrespective of the depth of the remainder of the groove. Tyres thus worn must be withdrawn from service for possible remoulding. (See Airworthiness Notice Number 5). Twin Contact Tyres Can remain in service until the centre of the crown shows signs of having been in contact with the ground. Helicopter Tyres Are fit for further service when they contain tread cuts which expose but do not penetrate the casing plies, irrespective of the number or size of cuts. Chined Tyres Inspect for cracking along the chine/sidewall junction. Cracking up to 0.38mm (0.015 inches) in depth is permitted irrespective of length. Remove a chined tyre having: (a) Accrack deeper than 0.38mm and exceeding 25.4mm (1.0 inch) in length. OR (b) | Acrack deeper than 2.29mm (0.09 inch) at any point. 50CROSSPLY ‘Tyre Markings ‘Tyre Markings All commercial aircraft tyres approved under FAA Test Requirement TSO-C62c are marked clearly with the following minimum information: Manufacturer name Size Load Rating Speed ratingSkid Depth Manufacturer Part Number Serial Number Manufacturer plant identification along with the TSO marking. nae In addition, Goodyear tyres are marked with the ply rating and other markings as required by airframe manufacturers or other organisations. Military tyres carry markings required by the appropriate military specification. In addition, the Association of European Airlines (AEA) requires an AEA code which defines both tyres carcass and tread construction. All retread tyres carry the symbol "R" or the word "RETREAD". It also indicates the number of times the tyre has be retreaded. Size ‘Tyre sizes are usually identified by three dimensions, e.g. 26 x 7.55 - 13. The markings are in inches but the inch mark is not shown. If the size is in millimetres then the symbol mm is used. 26 equals overall diameter of inflated tyre. 7.55. equals the cross-sectional width of the inflated tyre. 13 equals the bead diameter of the bead seat on the wheel. NOTE: When only two figures are given it is the first figure, the overall diameter of the tyre that is omitted. Serial Number Moulded into the tyre wall to identify a particular tyre. Each tyre will have its ‘own serial number to identify it against its records. Date of Manufacture Moulded into the tyre wall. ‘Tyre Pressures Range from 25 to 350 PSI. Always consult the aircraft maintenance manual, pressures may be given in PSI, bar, or kPa. Tyres with greater than 100 PSi pressure are considered to be high pressure tyres.Ply Rating The term ply rating is used to identify a tyre's maximum load and pressure. It is an index and does not represent the number of cord plies in the construction. Conductivity Some tyres are manufactured with treads of conducting compounds to permit earthing of static charges. IN-SITU TYRE INSPECTION Regular inspection of tyres is recommended for safety and tyre economy. The frequency of the inspection should be determined by the use and normal tyre wear of the particular aircraft involved. With some aircraft, tyre inspection after every landing, or at every turnaround is required. With all aircraft, a thorough inspection is advisable after a heavy or overweight landing. Tread Wear ‘Tyres should be removed when tread has worn to the base of any groove at any spot, or to a minimum depth as specified in the aircraft maintenance manual. Tyres worn to fabric in tread area should be removed regardless of tread remaining. Uneven Wear If treadwear is excessive on one side, the tyre can be removed from the wheel and turned around, providing there is no exposed fabric. Gear misalignment causing this condition should be cot Cuts Inspect treads and sidewalls for cuts and follow recommended removal criteria: CUT REMOVAL CRITERIA 1. Any cuts into fabric. 2. Cuts extending across more than 50% of rib. WARNING Do not probe cuts or embedded foreign objects while tyre is inflated. Bulges Bulges in any part of tyre tread, sidewall or bead areas.indicate a separation or damaged tyre. Mark with crayon and remove at once. -9-Fabric Fraying/Groove Cracking Tyres should be removed from service if groove cracking exposes fabric or if cracking undercuts tread ribs. Flat Spots Generally speaking, tyres need not be removed because of flat spots due to side or hydroplane burs unless fabric is exposed. If excessive unbalance results, however, remove tyre. Beads Inspect bead areas next to wheel flanges for damage due to excessive heat - especially if brake drag or severe braking has been reported during taxi, take- off or landing. INFLATION PRESSURE Note: Keeping aircraft tyres at their correct inflation pressures is the most important factor in any preventive maintenance program. The problems caused by under inflation can be particularly severe. Under inflation produces uneven tread wear and shortens tyre life because of excessive flex heating. Over inflation can cause uneven tread wear, reduce traction, make the tread more susceptible to cutting and increase stress on aircraft wheels. ‘Tyre pressures should be checked with an accurate gauge on a daily basis. ideally, pressures on high performance aircraft should be checked before each flight. Check only cool tyres - at least 2 or 3 hours after a flight. Use an accurate gauge, preferably the dial type. Inaccurate gauges are a major source of improper inflation pressures. Gauges'should be checked periodically and re-calibrated as necessary. Check gauge reading with flight deck indicators - if fitted. ‘The inflation pressure recommended by the airframe manufacturer should be used for each tyre. It must be determined if "loaded" or “unloaded” inflation pressure has been specified. When a tyre is under load, the air chamber volume is reduced due to tyre deflection. Therefore, if unloaded pressure has been specified, that number should be increased by 4% to obtain the equivalent loaded inflation pressure. Adjusting for Temperature When tyres will be subjected to ground temperature changes in excess of 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27°C) because of flights to a different climate, inflation pressures should be adjusted for the worst case prior to takeoff. -10-‘The minimum required inflation must be maintained at the cooler climate; pressure can be adjusted in the warmer climate. An allowance must be made for the inflation drop in the cooler climate. An ambient temperature change of - 5°F or 3°C produces approximately 1% tyre pressure charge. NOTE: Excess inflation pressure should never be bled off from hot tyres. All adjustments to inflation pressure should be performed on tyres cooled to ambient temperature. Cold Pressure Setting ‘The following recommendations apply to cold inflation pressure settings: 1, Minimum pressure for safe aircraft operation is the cold inflation pressure necessary to support the operational loads as determined by the formula under "Unloaded Inflation” or as specified by the aircraft manual. 2. ‘The loaded inflation must be specified four percent higher than the unloaded inflation. 3. A tolerance of minus zero to plus five percent (5%) of the minimum pressure is the recommended operating range. 4. If tyre-in-service pressure is checked and found to be less than the minimum pressure, the following table should be consulted. In service is defined as an aircraft taxing, taking off or landing but does not include hangared aircraft. Tyre Pressure Recommended Action 100 to 90% of service pressure Reinflate to specific service pressure 89 to 80% of service pressure Remove tyre from aircraft 79% or less Remove tyre and axle mate from aircraft Blown fuse plug Scrap tyre. If blown while in servicing (rolling). Scrap axle mate also. NOTE: Any tyre removed because of low inflation pressure should be inspected by an authorised retreader to verify that the carcass has not sustained intemal degradation. If it has, the tyre should be scrapped. -ll-MOUNTED TUBE TYPE TYRES A tube-type tyre that has been freshly mounted and installed should be closely- monitored during the first week of operation, ideally before every takeoff. Air trapped between the tyre and the tube at the time of mounting could seep out under the beads, through sidewall vents or around the valve stem, resulting in an under-inflated assembly. MOUNTED TUBELESS TYRES. A slight amount of diffusion through the carcass in tubeless tyres is normal. The sidewalls are purposely vented in the lower sidewall area to bleed off trapped air, preventing separation or blisters. A tyre can lose as much as five percent (5%) of the initial inflation pressure in a 24-hour period and still be considered normal. NYLON STRETCH ‘The initial stretch or grawth of a new nylon tyre results in a pressure drop after mounting, Consequently, nylon tyres should not be placed in service until they have been inflated a minimum of 12 hours, pressures rechecked, and tyres re-inflated if necessary. NYLON FLAT SPOTTING Nylon tyres on aircraft left stationary for any length of time will develop temporary flat spots. The degree of this flat-spotting depends upon the load, tyre deflection and temperature. Flat-spotting is more severe and more difficult to work out during cold weather. Occasionally moving a stationary aircraft can lessen this condition. If possible, an aircraft parked for long periods (30 days or more) should be jacked up to remove weight from the tyres. Under normal conditions, a flat spot will disappear by the end of the taxi run. COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS, 1. Use new O-ring seals with best cold weather properties, properly lubricated and installed. 2. Use an accurate dial type pressure gauge. 3. Be sure that wheel bolts are properly torqued as per wheel manufacturer's instructions. 4. Aircraft parked and exposed to cold soak for a period of time-(1 hour or more}, should have tyre pressure checked and adjusted accordingly. ‘Tyres will have taken a nylon "set" and experienced a pressure drop. 2c5. High speed taxis and sharp turns should be avoided to prevent excessive side loading. 6. An important fact to remember is that every 5°F (3°C) change in temperature will result in a corresponding 1% change in tyre pressure. ‘Tyres subjected to above normal braking energies during an RTO should be removed and scrapped. Even though visual inspection may show no apparent damage, tyres may have sustained internal structural damage that could result in premature failure. Also, all wheels must be checked in accordance with the applicable Wheel Overhaul or Maintenance Manual after.an RTO. When new and/or retreaded tyres are installed on the same landing gear axle, the diameters should be matched within the Tyre and Rim Associated inflated dimensional tolerances for new and grown tyres. It is recommended that tyres mounted on dual wheels have similar inflated outside diameters to ensure that each tyre will carry an equal share of the load. The outside diameter of tyres (new or retread) should be measured at operating pressure. ‘Tyres should be kept clean and free of contaminants such as oil, brake fluid, grease, tar, and degreasing agents which have a deteriorating effect on rubber. Contaminants should be wiped off with alcohol, then tyres washed with soap and water immediately. When aircraft are serviced, tyres should be covered. Aircraft tyres, like other rubber products, are affected to some degree by sunlight and extremes of weather. While weather-checking does not impair performance, it can be reduced by protective covers. These covers (ideally with light colour or aluminised surface to reflect sunlight) should be placed over tyres when an aircraft is tied down outside. Regardless of the excellence of any preventive maintenance program, or the care taken by the pilot and ground crew in handling the aircraft, tyre damage will result if runways, taxi strips, ramps and other paved areas of an airfield are in a poor condition or improperly maintained. Another hazardous condition is the accumulation of loose material on paved areas and hangar floors. These areas should be kept clean of stones, tools, bolts, rivets and other foreign materials at all times. With care and caution in the hangars and around the airfield, tyre damage can be minimised and ingestion damage to engines can be reduced. MOUNTING PROCEDURE Deflate all tyres before wheel disassembly. A clip-on chuck, an extension hose and a safety cage are recommended for inflation. A direct reading or dial tyre Pressure gauge should be used. use of excessive air pressure to seat beads can cause failure and result in serious injury. -13-TUBELESS-TYRES SPR ao ow Check for word "Tubeless" on sidewall. Make sure tyre is clean inside. Inspect tyre and wheel. Clean the bead base with a cloth dampened with denatured alcohol. Align red balance dot on tyre with wheel valve or wheel heavy point, if indicated on wheel. Be sure that wheel bolts are properly torqued per the wheel manufacturer's instructions. Inflate tyre to rated pressure using inflation gauge. After 12 hour stretch period, reinflate to rated inflation pressure. Air Retention Check If pressure has dropped more than 5% in the next 24 hours: 1. Check for loose or defective valve, valve core or seal. 2. If OK., disassemble tyre/wheel assembly. 3. Check wheel "O" ring seal for condition, proper size and type, and lubricant. 4. Check wheel for cracks, porosity, fuse plug or pressure release plug leakage. TUBE-TYPE 1. Make certain the mating tyre and tube are specified and correct for the wheel-tyre assembly. 2. — Clean inside of tyre, inspect, then lubricate lightly with talcum. 3. Inflate tube to slightly round and insert in tyre. 4. Align yellow stripe on tube with red balance dot on tyre. Align red dot with valve if no stripe on tube. 5. When mounting tyre and tube on wheel,-be sure that wheel bolts are torqued to wheel manufacturer's instructions before inflating. 6. Inflate tyre to rated pressure using cage. 7. Deflate to equalise stretch. 8. Reinflate to rated pressure. Air Retention Check If pressure has dropped more than 5% in the next 24 hours: 1. 2. Check valve core for leakage. If OK., disassemble tyre/tube from wheels and check tube for leak. Replace as required. aeASSEMBLY OF TUBELESS TYRES OR A TYRE AND TUBE COMBINATION Wheel Sealing Ring Examination Ensure that the sealing ring is free from such defects as deformation, permanent set, ageing and general damage; lightly grease the sealing ring with silicone grease. Assembling Tyre to Wheel Stretch the sealing ring evenly on to the wheel and ensure that it seats correctly in its groove. If is imperative, however, to ensure that the tyre beads do not become contaminated with grease. The clearance between the tyre beads and the fitted wheel sealing ring is adequate to avoid contamination if care is exercised in fitting. It is recommended that the tyre is fitted on the wheel with the "red spot” of the tyre lined up with the valve location. (Early issue wheels may have a heavy spot indicated by two concentric rings; such markings should be ignored). Ensure that the sealing ring has not been disturbed and assemble the wheel. NOTE: On divided type wheels, tighten diametrically opposite nuts alternately to avoid misalignment of the sealing ring and distortion of the half hubs. For the same reason, ensure that the flange on loose flange wheels is pushed evenly into position using this method. Remember - nuts and bolts may be dry or wet assembled - check with the wheel/aircraft manual. This is most important to ensure correct torque loading. Inflating the Tyre A safety cage should be used to house the wheels assembly during inflation. Any incorrectly fitted flange or an insecurely attached inflation adaptor could be the cause of serious injury to the operator. It is essential therefore, for the operator to stand away from the loose flange side of the wheel during inflation and to use a clip-on or screw-on type connector. It is strongly recommended that the screw-on type is used when high pressure inflation is involved. Checks must be made both before and during the early stages of inflation to determine the correct location of the flange and on tubed tyres, the valve. If an assembly defect is discovered during the inflation, the tyre must be deflated before rectification is attempted. TUBELESS TYRES {a) | Remove the valve core to permit maximum air flow. (b) Connect a suitable air/nitrogen pressure supply to the valve stem and inflate rapidly to spread the tyre walls against the flanges. : -15-Pressurisation must stop once this condition is achieved. if difficulty is experienced in effecting the initial air seal, stand the assembly vertically and apply a load on the crown area. This condition may arise if tyres have become distorted from their normal shape due to incorrect transit packing or bad storage practice. (0) Disconnect the pressure line, allow to deflate, and fit the appropriate valve core using the relevant torque spanner. (4) For assemblies requiring inflation up.to 175 psi (12.06 bars) inflate to the required pressure as slowly as practicable and fit the valve cap. (ce) For assemblies requiring pressures greater than 175 psi, inflate the tyre to a pressure of 150 psi (10.33 bars) then deflate completely. Check that the tyre beads are properly seated on the wheel flanges. If not, re-inflate to 150 psi and deflate completely. Finally, if the beads are correctly seated, inflate the tyre slowly to working pressure and fit the valve cap. {) After a period, the pressure may decrease due to tyre stretch, but up to 10% can be regarded as normal. TYRE AND TUBE COMBINATION With tyre and tube combinations, tread separation and blistering can be caused by incorrect inflation procedure. This is due to air being trapped between the tube and the tyre. This condition is normally caused by inflating the tube too rapidly. The air, thus trapped, will find its way through the tyre casing and finally build up between the outer casing and the tread or sidewall. The resultant blister is ¢asily detected on the sidewall but not on the tread. A leaking tube can cause the same kind of defect. If a blister does appear as a result of trapped air, it will usually occur during the first 48 hours after inflation. If the blister is located in the lower half of the sidewall and does not exceed 1.0in (25.4mm) in diameter, relieve the blister by puncturing the rubber, only with a sharp instrument (aw!) held parallel to the sidewall. If it is greater than 1.0in or is located in the upper half of the tyre, the tyre must be removed. Ridges are moulded on all high pressure tubes to facilitate the escape of the trapped air and tubes without such vent ridges must never be fitted in high pressure tyres. ‘Types up to 175 PSI 1. Inflate tyre slowly to position beads fully on flanges. 2. Fully deflate to relieve local stretching and creasing of tube. 3. Check that the tube inflation valve is lined up and seated correctly. -16-After servicing operations that involves tyre deflation, wheel assemblies must be tested i.a.w. relevant instructions. These tests include a duration pressure test, when the assembly is allowed to stand inflated for a period of 12 hours during which period checks are made, or an immersion test, when time does not permit the duration test. (The bearings must not be submerged). Tyre pressures are given for cold tyres based on ambient conditions of 20°C (63°F). Should the ambient temperature rise to 23°C (73°F) it will increase the pressure by about 1%, ie if the ambient temperature should rise to 47.5°C (118°F) then the equivalent “cold weight on” pressure should be 10% less. Such a wide ambient temperature range is unlikely to be encountered in normal service and pressure adjustments would only be required when operating in extreme temperature conditions. Creep Marks The purpose of creep marks are to indicate circumferential movement of the tyre relative to the associated wheel. After initial movement (dependent on tyre load, inflation pressure, degree of braking, shimmy on nose/tail wheels etc.) any subsequent movement of the tyre around the wheel takes place at a reduced rate which, if allowed to continue beyond a certain limit, can, on a tyre and tube combination, result in the valve stem being torn from the tube. Hence creep marks are painted in white on the sidewall of a newly fitted tyre and over on to the wheel flange. The width of the mark represents the maximum permissible tyre creep and when the paint marks on the tyre and the wheel flange becomes misaligned by the full width of the mark, the wheel must be removed from the aircraft for bay servicing. Width of Creep Marks Wheels Outside Diameter (in/mm) Width of Tyre Mark (in/mm) Up to 24 (609.6) 1.0 (25.4) Over 24 (609.6) 1.5 (38.1) Tubeless 3 CARCASS VENTS All tubeless tyres, 8-ply rating and above, have been vented in the lower sidewall area. These vents prevent separation by relieving pressure build-up in the carcass plies and under the sidewall rubber. These vent holes (marked by green coloured dots) will not cause undue air loss. Covering them with water or a soap solution may show an intermittent bubbling, which is normal. AIR RETENTION TEST When no leaks can be found on the prior checks, an air retention test must be performed. The tyre should be inflated to operating pressure for at least 12 = hours before starting the test. -17-‘This allows sufficient time for the casing to stretch, but can result in apparent air loss. The tyre must be reinflated after the stretch period to operating pressure. Allow the tyre to stand at constant temperature fro’a 24 hour period. and recheck pressure. A small amount of diffusion is considered normal. However, an inflation pressure drop of more than 5% of operating pressure indicates excessive vent leaking. Since there are only two reasons for air loss in a tube-tyre, a hole in the tube ora defective valve or valve core, finding an air leak is usually simple. As with a tubeless tyre, the first step is to check the valve and replace the core if it is defective. If the valve is air tight, demount the tyre, remove the tube, locate the leak (by immersion if necessary); and repair or replace'the tube: When inspecting a tube to decide whether or not it is the cause of the leak, the following caution is recommended. Use only enough pressure to round out tube, Excessive inflation strains splices and may cause fabric separation on reinforced tubes. STORAGE Whenever possible, tyres should be stored vertically on tyre racks. The surface of the tyre against which the weight of the tyre rests should be flat and, if possible, 3 to 4 inches wide to minimise distortion. Stacking of tyres is permissible. However, care must be used to prevent distortion of the tyres on the bottom of the stack. The maximum recommended stacking height is as shown: Tyre Diameter Maximum Recommended Stacking Height Up to 40 inches 5 Over 40 inches up to 49 inches 4 Over 49 inches 3 Tubes should be stored in their original cartons whenever possible. If stored without their cartons, in bins or on shelves, they should be dusted with talc and wrapped in heavy paper. Tubes can also be stored in matching tyres. Tyres should be clean and dusted with talc with tubes inflated just enough to round them out. Under no circumstances should tubes by hung over nails, pegs, or over any object that might form a crease in the tube. Such a crease will eventually produce a crack in the rubber. Ideally, both new and retreaded tyres be stored in a cool, dry place out of direct sunlight. Temperatures should be between 32°F (0°C) and 80°F (27°C). -18-Particular care should be taken to store tyres away from fluorescent lights, electric motors, battery charges, electric welding equipment, electric generators and similar equipment. They create ozone which has a deteriorating effect on rubber. Care should be taken that tyres do not come in contact with oil, gasoline, jet fuel, hydraulic fluids, or similar hydrocarbons. Rubber is attacked by these in varying degrees. Be particularly careful not to stand or lay tyres on floors that are covered with these contaminants. All tyres and tubes should be inspected immediately upon receipt for shipping and handling damage. Remember to rotate stock - first in, first out. Storage pressures for assembled wheels and tyres are given by the tyre manufacturer. Sometimes quoted as 20 to 30 psi, and Michelin state 25% of normal pressure. -19-INNER TUBES Construction ‘The manufacture of an inner tube is done by an extruding process which forces a compound of hot rubber through a circular die, thus producing a continuous length of tubing. The requisite length, according to the size of the tube required, is cut off, the ends are then butt welded and a valve is fitted. ‘The tube is placed in a moulG, inflated and vulcanised, so producing a finished tube to the required dimensions. During braking, excessive heat is generated in some types of brake unit, which could cause damage to the standard base tube. thus some tubes are manufactured with a thickened base or reinforced base. Size ‘The size indicated on the tube is the same size as indicated on the tyre. Balance Mark Ared line or red dots indicates the heavy spot of the tube. Examination of Tubes Tubes and tube base supports may be cleaned with a warm soapy wash prior to examination and dried thoroughly. Slight creasing or surface cracking may be disregarded. On fabric based tubes, splits in the reinforcement area or minor blisters in the rubber covering around the base of the valve stem pin holes, may be ignored. Tube compound properties tend to deteriorate with age and this is often indicated by hardening of the rubber. A method used in the examination of tubes requires the marking of two parallel lines, one inch apart, anywhere in the crown area of the tube and stretching the tube until the lines are approximately two inches apart. The stretched surface of the rubber must then be examined. If there are no signs of cracking on the surface of the rubber and if, when released, the tube assumes its original condition without evidence of permanent set in the stretched area, then the tube can be considered serviceable. NOTE: Tubes which have been subjected to excessive heat are SCRAP. -20-OOO ‘THICKENED REINFORCED BASE BASE ‘Types of Inner Tube Tubeless Tyres - Advantages * Weight saving (7%) * 10% cooler running * Less deflation risk * Less normal air seepage * Less maintenance time * Valve damage due to creep eliminated -21-AIRCRAFT WHEELS While there are many different designs of wheel and although sizes and weights may vary, the classification of wheels falls into four main headings: 1. Loose Flange: The loose flange wheel has a single flange retained by a lockring, either round, wedge shaped or a three piece flange with the pieces bolted together. 2. Divided Wheel: The divided wheel comprises of either two half hubs bolted together or a centre piece with a half hub bolted either side. 3. Detachable Flange: The detachable flange is bolted on to the wheel hub. 4. Well Based: The well based wheel is in one piece and is recognised by the deep well in the centre of the hub. Aircraft wheels are made from either, aluminium alloy or magnesium alloy. Cast wheels, after machining, are subjected to impregnation with bakalite solution, to prevent air permeating through a porous wheel. Most wheels these days are made from aluminium alloy. Loose and Detachable Flange Wheels of this type are made with one flange integral with the wheel body, and the other loose and machined to fit over the wheel rim. The difference between the loose and detachable flange type is the method by which the removable flange is secured: The loose flange is retained by a locking device on the wheel rim, and the detachable flange is secured to the wheel body by studs/bolts and nuts. A loose flange may be a single piece, or consist of vo or three pieces bolted together. The loose flange is secured by a lock ring (circlip), which is fitted in a groove in the wheel rim. When assembling the wheel, the loose flange is fitted over the rim and pressed down so that the lock ring can be engaged in the rim in the groove. When the tyre is inflated, the loose flange moves outwards and covers the lock ring, thus trapping it in the groove. this prevents disengagement of the ring which is locked to the flange and wheel rim by the side pressure of the tyre. For additional security some lock rings are joined at the ends by a lock- plate and screws. To prevent rotation of the single loose flange on the wheel rim, a locating collar on the lock ring engages in a recess in both the wheel rim and the flange. To prevent possible disengagement of the lock ring during tyre deflation a multi- piece flange was designed. -22-‘The multi-piece flange may consist of two or three pieces, each bossed to accommodate securing bolts. Each piece has a beading of semi-circular section on its inner face. This engages in a corresponding groove in the wheel rim. Divided Wheel Consists of two half wheels matched up and connected by bolts which pass through the two halves. The bolts are fitted with self-locking nuts. Well Base Wheel Similar to those fitted to most cars, the centre of the bead seat is recessed to allow fitment and removal of the tyre. Tubeless Wheel ‘Where these have loose or detachable flanges suitable O ring seals are fitted between flange and wheel to prevent air leakage. The wheel is also fitted with a fusible alloy plug, an inflation valve, no knurled flange, and a sealed bead seat region to prevent air leakage. Fusible Alloy Plugs (Tubeless Wheels) Under hard braking conditions sufficient heat may be generated to weaken the tyre structure and cause a blowout, particularly with the landing gear stowed. ‘O'RING FUSIBLE CASING SEAL INSERT Fucible Alloy Plug -23-‘To prevent this most tubeless wheels have one or more fusible alloy plugs. These plugs screw into the bead seat area of the wheel and are drilled to accommodate a piston seal and fusible alloy plug. When excessive temperatures are generated the alloy melts which allows the air pressure to blow the piston out. The tyre will deflate safely. Creep In service the tyre has a tendency to rotate (creep) around the wheel. This creep, if excessive, will cause damage to the tyre bead region, and tear out the inflation valve causing tyre deflation. Creep can be kept to a minimum by correct inflation, but-design methods can‘include the following: * Knurled flange. The inner face of the wheel flange is milled so that the side pressure on the tyre locks the bead to the flange. * Tapered bead seat. The wheel rim is tapered to increase its diameter towards the flange. As the tyre is inflated and the bead moves towards the flange so it is caused to form a tight fit with the wheel. Protective Treatments Magnesium Alloy Wheels - Chromate Treatment Aluminium Alloy Wheels - Anodic Treatment BRAKE DRUM ATTACHMENTS, BL-METAL STEEL BRAKE DRUM CAST AIALLOY ‘OR MAGNESIUM ALLOY WHEEL BALL BEARING ASSEMBLY BALL BEARING ASSEMBLY RETAINING PLATE weet WELL LOCATING COLLAR COUNTERSUNK SCREWS, Well-base Wheel - 24-LINER, INFLATION VALVE INNER DRIVE BLOCKS OUTER DRIVE BLOCKS Divided Type Wheel Fuse SEALED Loose RLOYPLyS WHEEL AREA Foaiee WS T > 4 SES Lock rine Ge INFLATION DRIVE VALVE BLOCKS tL SEAL LOCATING RING HOUSING DUST EXCLUDER ROLLER BEARING. LOCKING PLATE FOR LOOSE FLANGE BEARING UNER Loose Flange Wheel articINSPECTION OF WHEELS WHEELS Check wheels for damage. Wheels that are cracked or damaged should be taken out of service for repair or replacement in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Since there are many causes for air loss with a tubeless assembly, a systematic troubleshooting approach is advisable for minimum maintenance costs. moreover, when: chronic but not excessive air loss exists, other factors such as inaccurate gauges, air temperature fluctuations, changes in maintenance personnel, etc., may be the source. If a definite physical fault is indicated, a troubleshooting procedure similar to the one outlined below is recommended. (See wheel manufacturer's maintenance/overhaul manual for details of specific wheels). VALVES Before deflating and removing tyre, check the valve. Put a drop of water on the end of the valve and watch for bubbles indicating escaping air. Tighten valve core if loose. Replace valve core if defective and repeat leak test. Check the valve stem and its mounting for leaks with a soap solution. If a leak is detected, whee! must be dismantled and a new valve stem installed. If valve stem threads are damaged, stems can usually be re-threaded inside or outside, by use of a valve repair tool without demounting tyre. Make certain that every valve has a cap to prevent dirt, oil and moisture from damaging the core. FUSIBLE PLUG ‘The fusible plug may also be defective or improperly installed. Use a soap solution to check fusible plugs for leaks before removing tyre. Leaks can usually be pinpointed to the plug itself (a poor bond between the fusible material and the plug body), or to the sealing gasket used. Be sure the gasket is one specified by manufacturer, and that it is clean and free of cuts and distortion. If excessive heat has caused a fusible plug to blow, the tyre may be damaged and should be replaced. After a fuse plug in a wheel blows, the wheel must be inspected to ensure there is no mechanical damage (using N.D.T. equipment as appropriate) in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. This will include bearings, and all wheels on the bogie. -26-RELEASE PLUG ‘The inboard wheel half may contain a pressure release plug, a safety device that prevents accidental over inflation of the tyre. If the tyre is over inflated the pressure release plug will rupture and release the tyre pressure. A soap solution can be used to check a release plug to determine whether or not it is defective. WHEEL BASE Air escaping through a cracked or porous wheel base is usually visible in an immersion test. A porous wheel base can often be fixed by proper painting or by an impregnation process. Generally, air losses because of holes drilled into the wheel base for mounting purposes can also be resealed in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Cracks in the wheelwell area, in most cases, cannot be repaired. O-RING SEAL A defective seal between the wheel halves can usually be detected in an immersion test by bubbles emerging through the centre of the wheel. Check to see that wheel bolts are properly torqued. BEADS AND FLANGES Check the bead and flange areas of a tyre for leaks before demounting. This can be done either by immersion or by using a soap solution. Any of the following factors can cause air loss: 1. Cracks or scratches in wheel bead ledge or flange area. 2. — Exceptionally dirty or corroded surface on wheel bead seating surfaces. 3. Damaged or improperly seated tyre bead. BEAD STICK ‘Tyre levers may be used to break tyre bead stick on wheels equipped with a tyre and tube combination only when no tyre removal machine is available or when the design/size of the wheel and tyre make the use of the machine impossible. Tyre levers MUST NOT be used on wheels designed for tubeless tyres if the sealing between the wheel and the tyre are to remain unimpaired. Tubeless tyres must only be freed from the wheel bead seats using a tyre removal machine. -27-Flanges, Brake Drums and Drive Blocks There is a need to consult relevant bay servicing procedure for comprehensive detail relative to a particular type of wheel. General procedure is as follows: 1. Clean all metal parts with trichloroethane and dry with compressed air. Ensure bead seat areas are free from grease, oil and foreign matter e.g. rubber smears. Clean roller bearing component with white spirit, thinners or trichloroethane. Bearings corrode rapidly if left ungreased. Ensure cleaning, examination and regreasing completed within half an hour: Alternatively, coat bearing with light oil e.g. DTD585 temporarily, until required for assembly, then clean and regrease. 2. Examine wheel flanges for chips, bad dents and flats. Such damage may be dressed out with a smooth file and emery'cloth, blending out any sharp edges. Dressing must be kept within permitted limits for negligible damage (refer to the relevant wheel publication). This damage must not be of sufficient extent to break into the surface of the tyre from where it contacts the flange. Examine the lockring (if fitted) and groove for damage and corrosion. Brake drums must be inspected in position in the wheel. Removal following inspection will depend on type of brake drum and extent of damage. Heat may cause excessive distortion and the appropriate gauge must be used to check the internal diameter of the drum at several points for ovality and irregular wear i.a.w. the specified limits. Examine for excessive scoring and also for transverse fissures caused by "crazing", a condition liable to occur in bi-metal brake drums, due to effects of differing temperatures at the inner and outer periphery of the drum when the brakes are applied. 3. Check the drive blocks for wear, security, damage and corrosion. After any repair or inspection of a wheel or-its parts, particular care must be taken to restore any protective finish. Wheel Bearing End-Float ‘Tapered roller bearings fitted to aircraft wheels require careful adjustment when the wheel is fitted to the aircraft axle. The pre-determined clearance “End Float’, ensures the bearing is free running and the bearing takes up its normal path. It also allows for expansion effect of heat generated by landing, take-off and taxing of the aircraft. GENERAL An inflated tyre is a potentially explosive device. Mounting and demounting of aircraft tyres is a specialised job that is best done with the correct equipment and properly trained personnel. ~ 28 -The following precautions are advisable in handling both tube-type and tubeless tyres, especially those with high inflation pressures. 1. Inspect fusible plugs. Fusible plugs are used on the tubeless wheels of high performance aircraft to relieve excessive pressure created by excessive brake heat. Fusible plugs are generally not removed during a routine tyre change unless they are defective or the wheel is subjected to degreasing and cleaning. They are, however, always removed and inspected during wheel assembly overhaul (see wheel manufacturer's maintenance/overhaul manual for inspection removal and installation of fusible plugs). 2. Prior to removing the wheel/tyre assembly from the aircraft, completely deflate the tyre with a deflation cap. It is good practice to deflate the tyre before removing the axle nut. When all pressure has been relieved, remove the valve core. Valve cores under pressure can be ejected like a bullet. If wheel or tyre is suspected, approach the tyre from the front or rear, not from the side (facing the wheel). 3. Take special care when encountering difficulty in freeing tyre beads from wheel flanges. Trying to pry beads free incorrectly may cause an accident. Even with tyre tools, care must be taken to prevent damage to beads or wheel flanges. On small tyres, successive pressing with a two- foot length of wood close to the bead or tapping with a rubber mallet is generally sufficient. On large tyres, a hydraulic or mechanical bead- breaking press may be required. If using a "bead breaking" press, some method should be used to prevent further movement of the tyre bead after it is broken away from the bead seat area. WHEEL CHANGE Always consult the aircraft maintenance manual, but the following points should be noted: Jack aircraft with wheels clear of the ground using (Bottle) jacks or conventional jacks. 2. Deflate tyre. 3. Fora plate brake assembly lock brake rotors in position by applying handbrake. 4. Remove axle nut. 5. Fit threat protector and use wheel transporter if necessary. 6. Slide wheel off axle. Retrieve bearings. 7. Inspect brake pipes for damage, security, locking and leaks. Inspect the brake assembly for wear, damage and security. Inspect the-landing gear leg and axle for wear, cortosion, damage and security. Check cables and equipment relating to tyre pressure indicators, anti-skid units, and brake cooling fans. 8. The fitting of a wheel is similar to removal with the addition of greasing ings. -29-9. After fitting, checks should be made on: (a) Wheel end float. (b) Brake operation. (c)_ Anti-skin and fan operation. (4) Tyre pressure indication. REPAIRS TO AIRCRAFT WHEELS Corrosion Removal ‘The procedure to be used when removing corrosion from a particular wheel would be laid down in the relevant servicing manual. The following is an example of a typical procedure.” Slight damage or corrosion may be removed by polishing out with a smooth hone or grade 00 carborundum cloth. Restore the protective finish. Blend Out Slight Damage ‘This can be affected by careful use of a smooth file, hone or carborundum cloth. Lightly polish away the damage taking care to stay strictly within the limits laid down in the particular manual. Restore Surface Finish Certain chemical pre-treatment processes may be applied where surface finish has been removed locally by dressing or chemical stripping, e.g. ALOCHROM 1200, an acidified chromate, is used extensively for the pre-treatment of aluminium and magnesium alloys. It produces a chromate film which increases corrosion resistanc > and provides an ‘deal surface for the subsequent painting. It is not suitable for use under etch primer. NOTE: It must be stressed that before commencing any pre-treatment process, any non-metallic components and fusible alloy plugs must be removed. strict adherence to the correct procedures and precautions, when using Alochrom 1200, is of the utmost importance. Replace Bearings and Seals Replacement of bearings and seals must be carried out strictly in accordance with the Wheel Manual. Details of the pressing and removal tools for a particular wheel are given in the relevant wheel manual. A typical example procedure for pressing in an outer race is as follows: 1. Grease the bearing housing in the liner, steel sleeve or hub with the approved lubricant. -30-2. Set up the wheel on the hydraulic press table with press tools in position. 3. Position the distance piece over the mandrel, then place the hub over the mandrel. 4. Position the outer race on the lip of the bearing housing with the smaller diameter of the sleeve in the outer race. Locate the collar over the mandrel. 5. Ensure the head of the mandrel is central beneath the jack. Apply the minimum of hydraulic pressure necessary to house the outer race in its housing. WARNING: It is important that NO excessive pressure is applied to the outer race during this operation. Investigate the cause if the outer race will not seal correctly. Failure to adhere to this instruction could result in irreparable damage to the wheel structure. Remove the press tools and check with a 0.0015 in. fecler gauge that there is no gap between the base of the outer race and its seating in the bearing housing. If the gauge fits into a gap, set up the wheel press and tools as before and apply further pressure. The inner race would normally be placed in position after being lubricated and retained, with the seal in its housing, by a circlip. BEARING EXTRACTOR EXTRACTING A WHEEL BEARING PRESSING IN AN OUTER RACE OUTER RACE -31-Replace Fusible Plugs ‘These are screwed into the wheel well of some wheels fitted with tubeless tyres. ‘These plugs guard against tyre bursts if the wheel is subject to very high temperature by the excessive use of the brakes. Each plug has a fusible core which will melt at a certain temperature and allow gradual deflation of the tyre. Ifone or more of the plugs melt in a wheel then all the fusible plugs in that wheel must be renewed. The tyre fitted to the wheel, having been subjected to a load in a deflated condition, must be scrapped. The following is an example of the procedure to be followed when fitting new fusible plugs. 1, Smear the-new seals and new "O" rings with the type‘of silicone grease laid down in the servicing schedule, e.g. silicone grease. Insert the seals into the fusible plug casings and fit the "O" rings around the casings. 2. Grease the threads of the plugs with the same grease type used on the seals and screw them in to the wheel well to a torque loading of 16 Ib in. Secure plugs with locking wire to adjacent lock screws. NOTE: The "0" ring seal of a tubeless wheel should be carefully cleaned and inspected for defects before lubricated and installed. If its condition is at all questionable, it should be replaced. Bead Lubrication in Mounting Both Tubeless and Tube-Type Tyres It is often desirable to lubricate the toes of inner edges of the beads with an approved talcum powder only. This will facilitate mounting and seating of the tyre beads against the wheel flanges. Care must be used with tubeless tyres, however, to ensure that none of the talc gets on the sealing area of the bead. WHEEL/TYRE ASSEMBLY BALANCING It is important that aircraft wheels and tyres be as well balanced as possible. Vibration, shimmy, or out of balance is a major complaint. however, in most cases, tyre balance is not the cause. other items affecting balance and vibration are: installation of wheel assembly before full tyre growth; improperly torqued axle nut; improperly installed tube; improperly assembled tubeless tyre; out of balance wheel halves; poor gear alignment; worn or loose gear components; flat spotted tyre. In addition, dual tyre inflation not equal and dual tyre diameters not matched can cause an unbalanced condition. The following instructions must be followed. Balance marks are placed on many tubes to indicate the heavy spot of the tube. These marks are often paint stripes about 1/2 inch wide by-2-inches long. When a tube is installed, this balance mark must be aligned with the “light spot” balance mark of the tyre (red dot). if the tube has no balance mark, place tube valve adjacent to the tyre balance mark (red dot). -32-‘When mounting tubeless tyres, the balance mark on the tyre is aligned with the wheel valve, unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer. With some split wheels, the light spot of the wheel halves is indicated with an “L’ stamped on the flange. In assembling these wheels, position the "L's" 180 degrees apart. if additional dynamic or static balancing is required after tyre mounting, many wheels have provisions for attaching accessory balance weights around the circumference of the flange. Unbalanced wheels can also produce vibration when an aircraft is moving on the ground. Be sure to have wheels balanced according to instructions specified by the aircraft or wheel manufacturer. Goodyear manufactures a lightweight, portable, low cost balancer to assist you in achieving proper assembly balance. AIRCRAFT BRAKES With the introduction of the very large commercial jet transports, came an increase in tyre and brake incidents. To understand why this has happened it is necessary to examine what work Tyres, Wheels and Brakes have to perform and what has changed since the early days of propeller driven aircraft. All friction brakes have to: 1. Convert kinetic energy into heat energy by the use of friction. 2. Disperse the heat. They are not allowed much time to perform this task. In the case of a rejected take off, when the aircraft weight and speed is much higher, conditions are much more severe for a brake. This can be shown in the form of a Power/Time Curve where the kinetic energy absorption rate is depicted. 600 TEMPERATURE ‘Terie, Puy er eae p = "p Pres tos es ‘Temperature and Power Curves In the early days Drum Brakes were used, operated by air supplied by a compressor, or the aircraft engine. These brakes suffered from brake fade and distortion due to heat and were soon replaced by the Copper Disc Brake. -33-These brakes operated at higher temperatures, and were made of copper (to dissipate the heat) and covered with nickel chrome for hard wearing properties. As the aircraft speed increased and the aircraft became much larger, so the copper brakes became less effective and were replaced with Multi-Disc (segmented) brakes. These consist of a Torque plate housing the hydraulic pistons, which act upon the pressure plate which in turn forces the Stators and Rotors together, with the back pressure being applied by the Thrust Plate. This whole assembly is known as a Heat Pack, because it dissipates the heat generated when the brakes are applied. Concords stators and rotors are made of Carbon because of the intense heat generated. Friction The amount of friction developed in a brake will vary depending on many factors but in general friction is given by the equation : F = pRw where F = Friction generated 4 = acoefficient given for the type of surfaces in contact Rx = Reaction Normal. The force pushing the brake pad against the disc or drum It can be seen therefore, that in general the greater the force (Rx) the greater the friction. The reason why discs are better than drums, as drum distort with high radial forces, AND A GREAT DEAL OF FORCE CAN BE PUT ON A DISC. DRUM BRAKES Although used extensively on earlier aircraft, drum brakes have largely been superseded by hydraulically operated disc brakes, on most modern high performance aircraft. Pneumatically operated drum brakes may still be found in-service, however, and the construction, operation and maintenance of a typical brake unit of this type is described in the following paragraphs. ‘The main components of the brake unit are the back plate, brake drum, expander tube (pressure bag) and brake linings. Back Plate ‘This unit is cylindrical in shape and is attached to a flange on the-axle. It houses the expander tube, brake linings and pneumatic connections. -34-©PANDER LINING RIVET ‘TUE cur caure SEPARATOR, BRAKE LINING DRAWING FROM CAP 562 Drum Brake Expander Tube This is a circular, reinforced rubber tube of flat cross-section, and is fitted around the back plate. it has a pneumatic connection leading through the back plate to the aircraft pneumatic system. Brake Linings The complete brake lining assembly is made up of a number of segments of heat-resisting friction material which form a ring around the expander tube and are shaped to conform to the inside radius of the brake drum. Each segment is bonded or riveted to a metal fitting, which protrudes through the back plate and is secured by a spring clip. -35-Separators Phosphor-bronze gauze separators are fitted between the ends of the brake lining segments to reduce heat penetration to the expander tube and to exclude carbon particles.” Brake Drum ‘The brake drum is a heavy steel cylinder, attached to and rotating with the wheel, and against which the brake lining segments expand to produce the braking action. It may be of bi-metallic construction to minimise heat distortion. Operation when the pilot's control is operated, air pressure is applied to the inside of the expander tube, which expands.and forces the brake linings against the brake drum, When air pressure is released the expander tube collapses and the brake linings are withdrawn from the brake drum by the action of the return springs. Removal/Installation Before attempting to work on the brake system or to remove a wheel, it is important to ensure that all air pressure is exhausted from the system. Disconnecting a pipe joint containing air pressure is a dangerous practice and if a wheel is removed with the brake systems connected and pressurised, inadvertent operation of the brake could cause the expander tube to burst and possibly damage other parts of the system. In many pneumatic systems a pressure maintaining valve is used to safeguard the brake pressure in case of a leak elsewhere or failure of the compressor, so that lack of pressure in the brake system must be confirmed from the brake system pressure gauge and not be reference to the general system pressure. When the wheel has been removed, the brake unit can be removed by disconnecting and blanking the air pressure connection and removing the bolts attaching the back plate to the axle flange. When installing a new brake drum, the protective treatment applied for storage purposes should first be.removed with a suitable solvent such as methylated spirits; petrol or paraffin should not be used. When installing the brake unit, care must be taken to ensure that oil or grease do not come into contact with the linings; operators should also avoid handling the linings as the natural oils from the skin may have an adverse effect. If prake linings do become contaminated, they must be considered unserviceable; no attempt should be made to clean the surface with solvents. -36-Inspection Drum brakes are not normally accessible for visual inspection when installed on the aircraft. During a pre-flight inspection the back plate and wheel should be examined for signs of overheating, and the flexible pneumatic hose between the brake units and the landing gear leg should be checked for damage, security or leaks. Operation of the brakes may be checked by means of the brake pressure gauge and also be checking that air is discharged from the brake relay valve when the brakes are released. At the times specified in the approved. Maintenance Schedule, and whenever unsatisfactory operation is suspected, we brake unit should be removed for inspection and overhauled. Disassembly, which should be carried out on a rubber or felt covered bench, is normally straightforward, but reference should be made to the approved Maintenance Manual for details of any special procedures or tests required. it may be found that the expander tube is stuck to the back plate and extreme care is necessary to prevent damaging the tube; the careful use of smooth, broad tyre levers is sometimes recommended. The assembly position of each brake segment should be marked so that, in the event of their being suitable for further service, they can be returned to their original positions. Brake segments should be examined for wear by measuring the thickness of the remaining material, the minimum thickness permitted for replacing the linings being stipulated in the approved Maintenance Manual. Any carbon deposits which may have been formed should be removed with a stiff bristle brush. ‘The back plate should be examined for distortion, damage or corrosion, and elongation or cracking at bolt holes and lining clip slots. Protective treatment should be renewed as necessary. ‘The expander tube should be examined for signs of overheating, which is indicated by hardening or flaking of the rubber. The connection threads and nuts should also be in good condition. ‘The brake lining rivets should be examined for security, and the lining clips for cracks or damage, particularly at the corner radii. The brake drum should be checked for cracks, corrosion and distortion. The friction surface should be free from deep scoring which is likely to cause excessive lining wear, and any trace of grease or dirt should be removed with a suitable solvent. If any grease or oil is found on the drum, the cause should be investigated to prevent a recurrence. New separators should be fitted when the brake is reassembled. -37-Test After Reassembly Following reassembly the complete brake unit should be installed in an appropriate sized test brake drum, and submitted to pressure tests as prescribed by the manufacturer. No leakage should occur, and the linings should return to the “off” position as soon as air pressure is released. The most suitable means of detecting a leak in the expander tube connection is by applying a solution of non-corrosive soapy water which, subsequently must be washed off. Bubbles will indicate the position of a leak. Disc Brakes Most modern aircraft are fitted with hydraulically-operated disc brakes (also known as plate brakes). Light aircraft generally have a single-disc type and larger aircraft, a multi-disc type. 1000 H.P. K.B, 12M ft 1b 2000 H.P. K.B. 30M ft 1b DRAG 2 TONS DRAG 4 TONS Copper Dise Brake Multi Dise Heat Pack - 38 -2500 H.P. K.E. SOM ft 1b DRAG 4.8 TONS ROTOR STATOR Concorde Brake Unit (Carbon) DUNLOP HYDRAULIC BRAKE UNIT (Copper Disc Type) This type of brake unit was fitted to some aircraft introduced into service about the 1960s. Made of copper, so as to allow for more even heat distribution, and hence less chance of distortion, the unit was heavy and less efficient than present day units. The copper discs were driven by the wheel and chromium plated to provide a hard wearing surface. (The discs were capable of being replated). The torque plate was bolted directly to the axial/landing gear unit and hydraulic pistons would clamp the whole assembly, during the braking operation, to provide the retarding friction. This type of unit required regular adjustment to allow for wear as no wear compensators were fitted. The maximum permissible wear of the friction pads fitted to this unit is indicated by a dimension taken from the face of the torque plate to the friction face of the first brake plate, with the piston rods screwed fully home. When the limiting dimension is reached, all the friction pads must be renewed. -39-No direct measurements are involved when che¢king the copper brake plate. Scoring of the plates is permitted until the plating at the base of the scores is broken. If any lifting of the plating is evident, the plate is classified as unserviceable and the inner and outer plates must be changed as a matched pair. Tenon minimum permissible width is measured with a wear gauge special tool. Brake Unit - Copper Disc Type SINGLE-DISC BRAKE UNITS A simple single-disc brake unit is shown, and.is of a type found on many light aircraft. A single operating cylinder is shown but two or three are often used for increased braking performance, and larger aircraft may have brakes using five or six cylinders. The brake unit consists basically of a light alloy torque plate shaped for attachment to the landing gear leg or axle flange, housing a caliper-type hydraulic jack unit and a pair of friction pads. A steel disc is slotted into the wheel and rotates between the friction pads. When the brakes are operated, fluid pressure is applied to the cylinder and forces the operating piston towards the disc, thus squeezing the disc between the operating and fixed friction pads and thus resisting wheel rotation. When the brakes are released the disc is free to rotate between the friction pads. -40-DRAWING FROM CAP 562 Single Disc Brake ‘The brake unit should be examined periodically for fluid leaks, damage or corrosion, the friction pads for wear and the disc for scoring or pick-up of surface plating. The single discs used on light aircraft brakes are prone to corrosion and pitting during periods of idleness, and this may lead to rapid wear of the friction pads. Discs in poor condition should be replaced or machined to give a clean surface as appropriate. Replacement of worn pads is normally a very simple procedure once the wheel has been removed, and often does not necessitate breaking down the hydraulic system. ‘THE MULTI DISC BRAKE UNIT ‘These units may be called: * A heat pack assembly. * A tri-metalic unit. * A segmented plate brake unit. In general they are made up of several plates (constructed in segments to prevent distortion). These plates are called rotors and rotate within stators. The rotors are driven by tenons grooved into drive blocks in the wheel and the braking is achieved by several hydraulic cylinders spaced around the unit. -41-‘The friction pads may be made from sintered metal or more conventional pad material. Construction A typical multi-disc brake unit is shown. In this unit a torque plate and torque tube assembly fits over the axle and is bolted to a flange on the axle; alternative designs are often similarly mounted but prevented from rotating by means of a torque arm attached to a suitable fixture on the landing gear leg or bogie. A number of cylinders are spaced around the torque plate, connected to the hydraulic brake system and house pistons which apply load to. the pressure plate. The disc pack (also known as the heat pack) contains alternate stationary and rotating discs, the stationary discs being keyed to the torque tube and the rotaticig discs being keyed to drive blocks in the wheel hub. In this unit the stationary discs house the brake pads and the rotating discs are segmented to prevent head distortion and brake drag. Correct working clearance in the disc pack is maintained by means of adjuster assemblies. Pins attached to the pressure plate and protruding through the torque plate on this brake unit, indicate the amount of wear which has taken place in the disc pack. A further type of multi-disc brake is known as a trimetallic brake. Construction is similar to the brake described except that the rotating discs have a metallic compound sintered to their faces, and steel segments, known as wear pads, are riveted to the faces of the stationary discs. Alternatively, the faces of both sets of discs may be sintered, or the stationary discs may be plain. Operation When the brakes are selected "on", hydraulic pressure is admitted to the cylinders and moves the operating pistons against the pressure plate. The friction loads generated between the stationary rotating members provide the required braking action. When the brakes are released, springs in the adjuster assemblies move the pressure plate back to maintain a working clearance in the disc pack and permit free rotation of the wheel. Maintenance Contamination of the friction surfaces of a brake unit by fluids used in aircraft servicing operations is highly detrimental to brake operation. It is essential, therefore, to protect brakes from contamination by fuel, oil, grease, paint remover, de-icing fluid, etc., when operations involving their use are undertaken, and the condition of the brake units should subsequently be confirmed by inspection. ageInstalled disc brakes may be inspected for signs of fluid leakage, external damage, corrosion, disc pack wear and overheating, and the associated hydraulic pipes for security, distortion, chafing or leaks. Brake disc pack wear can be checked by measuring wear pin protrusion, the limits being specified in the approved Maintenance Manual. BLEED SCREW PRESSURE PLATE ‘AguusTeR ‘ASSEMBLY 1 Tonaue PLATE Plate: rwrust ang MOUNTING our GPERATING PISTON ‘NO CYLINDER DRAWING FROM CAP S62 Multi Disc Heat Pack Assembly In some installations a worn disc pack may be exchanged after removing the wheel and thrust or back plate, and without disconnecting the hydraulic system, but in order to carry out a detailed inspection the brake unit must be removed from the axle. -43-At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule the brake unit should be removed for inspection and overhauled. The wheel should first be removed and the hydraulic pipe couplings should be disconnected ‘at the brake and fitted with suitable blanks. In some cases fluid will drain from these pipes and bleeding will be necessary after re-connection, but in other cases connection is by self-sealing couplings which isolate the hydraulic system from the brake unit. The brake unit attachment bolts (and, where fitted, the torque link} should then be removed and the unit carefully withdrawn. Following its removal, the brake unit should be dismantled, cleaned and inspected. All metallic components should be thoroughly cleaned and dried; if chemical solvents are used they must not be allowed to come into contact with the seals. inspection of components should be related to any limitations or repair schemes specified by the manufacturer and will normally include the following: fa) Rotating discs should be checked for excessive scoring, corrosions, distortion and wear on the friction surfaces and driving slots. light surface damage which would not cause excessive wear of the friction pads may be acceptable, but deep scores or corrosion should be ground out within prescribed limits specified by the manufacturer for the disc to be re-used. (b) Brake friction pads should be inspected for excessive wear (normally checked by measuring individual pad thickness and weighting the complete pack), burning, flaking, cracking, security of attachment to the stationary disc and contamination with oil or grease, the complete set should be changed. In some instances it is also specified that the rotating discs should be changed. If part-worn pads are to be re-used they must be reassembled in their original location. (c)_ The torque plate, torque tube and thrust plate should be examined for cracks, corrosion, distortion and damage, particular attention being paid to bolt holes and other highly stressed areas. cylinders and pistons should be inspected for scores or other damage, and springs inspected for corrosion and given a load/compression test as specified by the manufacturer. (4) Operation of the self-adjusting mechanism should also be checked, and the friction force applied to the retraction pin measured. Protection treatment should be applied as necessary to the metal components, and the brake unit reassembled and tested for leaks and correct operation. it is normally specified that new seals, gaskets and self-locking nuts should be used for reassembly, and all fasteners torque loaded in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The unit should be primed with hydraulic fluid, and blanks fitted to all connections. -44-‘When re-installing the brake unit on the axle, care must be taken not to spill fluid on the disc pack. Jointing, sealing or anti-seize compounds should be used where specified, and all fasteners and pipe connections should be torque loaded and locked to the manufacturer's requirements. Adjuster Assemblies ‘The diagrammatic arrangement of a typical adjuster assembly is shown. At least two adjuster assemblies are fitted to the majority of disc brakes, their purpose being to maintain a suitable running clearance in the brake pack. In a single-disc brake the retraction pins are often attached directly to the operating pistons but on multi-disc brakes they are usually attached to the pressure plate. In operation, movement of the piston or pressure plate is transmitted via the retraction pin and friction bush to compress the adjuster spring and move the guide until it abuts the torque plate. PRESSURE PLATE, FRICTION BUSH ‘SPRING HOUSING EEO ARO OO O10 OO O} retraction PROOQ me BSSES SIS (| GUIDE ApusTeR ‘yoroue Sering PLATE. DRAWING FROM CAP S62 Automatic Wear Adjuster When the brakes are released the adjusted spring pulls the guide back until it contacts the spring housing, the clearance between the guide and torque plate being the designed running clearance. As wear takes place in the. disc, the pressure plate has to move further forward, thus pulling the retraction pin through the friction bush by an amount equal to disc wear, but maintaining the design clearance when brakes are released. On some brake units wear may be assessed by measuring the protrusion of the retraction pin. -45-On initial assembly of the adjuster a special tool is used to position the retraction pin at the position of maximum protrusion through the friction bush. The pin takes up its initial operating position when the brakes are first pressurised. Correct operation of the adjuster assemblies must be checked whenever the brakes are tested, and should result in free rotation of the wheel when brakes are released. CARBON BRAKES ‘These are similar to the conventional multi disc brake unit except the rotors and stators are made of carbon and are of single piece construction. They are lighter, run at higher temperatures, and are more efficient. Bleeding the Brakes The method of bleeding the brakes will depend on the particular aircraft system, and reference should be made to the Maintenance Manual for the aircraft concerned. However, the normal method of bleeding is to pressurise the brake system and open the bleed screws fitted to the brake units, allowing hydraulic fluid to flow through the system until air free fluid is discharged; the bleed screws are then closed and brake operation tested. Bleed fluid should be piped to a suitable container, and must not be allowed to come into contact with the disc pack and must not be re-used. On low pressure brake systems, as fitted to many small aircraft, the pressure is generated by the pilot pushing the appropriate brake pedal down. During this operation it is important to ensure that the reservoir for the system is kept topped up. On high pressure brake systems (as fitted to most large aircraft), the associated hydraulic accumulator is pressurised, and as the brake pedal is depressed, fluid is forced out of the bleed screws under pressure. In this type of system it is sometimes recommended that only a specified quantity of fluid is discharged, and it may be necessary to bleed other parts of the system such as, where fitted, the servo system from the brake pedals to the slave units or the normal and emergency accumulators, before bleeding the brakes. After bleeding, the appropriate reservoir should be topped up as necessary. Testing the Brakes Brakes are normally tested after overhaul and after installation on an aircraft, while the aircraft is still jacked up. The brakes should be applied, several times then released; there should be no leakage and the brakes should restrain wheel movement when pressurised and permit wheel rotation when released ({ree rotation is important, because binding brakes can cause overheating and increase take-off ground-run distance). -46-Operation of the emergency and parking brake-system should also be tested. Special care should be taken to ensure that the hydraulic systems are correctly connected and in particular that the main system, and not the emergency system, is connected through the anti-skid device. Brake Temperature Monitoring System On some aircraft, in order to inform the pilot of excessive build-up of heat in the wheel brakes, a brake temperature monitoring system is fitted. A typical system includes a temperature sensor at each wheel, which supplies information to a central monitor and warning units on the flight deck. The monitor contains a temperature gauge and a selection button for each wheel. ‘The gauge normally records the temperature at the hottest brake, and a button illuminates when the associated brake temperature exceeds a predetermined amount. When any button is pressed, the gauge records the temperature at the associated brake. For testing purposes, operation of a test switch on the control unit will cause all buttons to illuminate and the gauge to read within a test signal range when all circuits are serviceable. Installations vary considerably between aircraft, and trouble-shooting charts are normally included in the appropriate Maintenance Manual to enable faults to be traced. Routine maintenance should include inspection of the sensors and associated wiring for security and damage and functional tests of the system using the appropriate test switches and BIT systems. With the "Glass Cockpit” type of aircraft such as the Boeing 747-400 series and the Airbus A320, flight deck indications are via C.R.T.'s. ‘The C.R.T. Landing Gear page will show details such as: * Brake temperatures. * Tyre pressures. * Landing gear and door positions, etc. SKID CONTROL The braking systems of most modern aircraft are provided with a means of preventing the wheels from skidding on wet or icy surfaces and of ensuring that optimum braking effect can be obtained under all conditions, by modulating the hydraulic pressure to the brakes. Anti-skid units sense the rate of change of wheel deceleration, decreasing the hydraulic pressure applied to the brakes when a high rate of increase in deceleration occurs (i.e. consistent with an impending skid), and restoring it as the wheel accelerates -47-A modulator is often fitted in conjunction with the anti-skid unit, to restrict the flow of fluid to the brakes after initial brake application and to conserve main system pressure. There are basically two types of anti-skid systems in use, the mechanically controlled and the electronically controlled. ‘The anti skid valve is positioned in the hydraulic brake line between the brake control valve and the wheel brake unit. NOTE. For information on wheel brake circuits refer to the book on Hydraulics in this series. MECHANICAL SYSTEM (MAXARET) ‘The anti-skid unit is mounted on the brake unit torque plate or within the axle bore, and is connected into the brake hydraulic circuit at the brake unit. The anti'skid unit consists of a valve assembly connected to a flywheel which is driven by the associated wheel. rubber tyred shell riven by contact with wheel rim Mechanical Anti-skid Unit (Wheel Rim Driven) ‘The Wheel Rim Driven Unit (Not very common these days) ‘This unit is mounted either on the wheel brake unit or on the landing gear assembly so that the rubber tyre rests on and is rotated by the rim of the aircraft wheel. ‘The unit consists of two main parts: a hydraulic control valve (operated by the flywheel); and the flywheel assembly. The flywheel is housed inside the rubber tyred shell which is rotated by direct contact with the wheel rim. -48-The control valve has four connections: * Pressure supply - from the brake control valve. * Return - to the hydraulic reservoir. * Brakes 1 * Brakes 2 During normal braking action (i.e. when no skid is present, the flywheel rotates at the same speed as the rubber tyred drive, thus allowing maximum hydraulic pressure to be applied to the brake operating pistons. When the rotational speed of the wheel decreases rapidly, as when a skid begins to develop, the inertia of the flywheel causes it to "overrun" its relationship with the rubber tyred drive and , through the action of a cam and push rod arrangement, the valve opens to relieve the pressure applied to the brake unit to return, thus reducing braking action and allowing the wheel to increase its rotational speed. As the wheel accelerates, the angular relationship between flywheel and drive returns to normal, and the valve closes, increasing pressure to the brakes. If the wheel bounces clear of the ground after brakes are applied, the adjustment of the anti-skid unit allows the brakes to be completely released for a sufficient period of time to ensure that the brakes are off when the wheels contact the ground again. tywheel spoke shell and tyre rive cing she cover figwheel thrust balls drive soring Flywheel Unit - Exploded View -49-NOTE: With this type of unit the spring acts as a sort of a memory - when the wheel decelerates too quickly, as determined by the spring, then the valve is caused to operate and reduce fluid pressure to the brake. As shown in the exploded view the drive from the rubber tyred shell is transmitted to the flywheel via a drive ring, drive spring , and drum. The drive pegs of the shell engage with the slots on the drive ring to drive the drum through the spring. One end of the spring is connected to the drive ring while the other is connected to the flywheel. The spring is coiled in such a way that as the unit is being driven the spring expands and drives the drum (and flywheel) by a positive friction drive. ‘The flywheel, mounted on the outside of the drum, is driven through its spoke by two segmented bosses attached to the drum. A lightly loaded main spring links the flywheel to the drum and tries to keep the flywheel spoke in contact with the driving faces of the segmented bosses. ‘Two thrust balls are located in the flywheel spoke, and are kept in contact with acam on the drum by a thrust plate attached to the end of a spring loaded thrust rod. ‘The thrust rod is connected via a system of levers to the hydraulic control valve. When the landing wheel starts to slow down too quickly - that is, starting to skid - the rubber tyred shell slows down at the same rate, as does the drum (because of the friction drive of the spring). But the flywheel, with its momentum does not slow down, and starts to overrun its position against the load of the main spring. This will cause the flywheel spoke to make contact with the faces of the two segmented bosses, which will drive the drum against the frictional resistance of the drive spring. This relative rotational movement between the flywheel and drum causes the two thrust balls to ride up the face of the cam and push the thrust rod axially to release the brake pressure Movement of the thrust rod will shut off brake pressure supply and open the line from the brakes to return. After the unit operates the flywheel is slowed down by the drag of the drive spring, and with the brakes off, the landing wheel regains speed. This will cause the drum to begin to drive the flywheel again, and the thrust balls and thrust rod will regain their positions (with the aid of the return spring), and normal brake pressure will be re-established. Should the wheel bounce clear of the ground during landing the wheel will stop instantly. This will cause the anti skid valve to release the brake pressure completely and re-apply it some 4 seconds later, which should be enough time to allow the wheel to make contact with the ground again. -50-Installation ‘The mounting details of the various types of mechanical units vary considerably, and reference should be made to the appropriate Maintenance Manual for details of any particular installation. The whole unit is spring- loaded, or the mountings shimmed, to maintain satisfactory driving contact with the aircraft wheel rim. The tyre loading is normally checked after installation by measuring the flat produced on the rubber tyre at its point of contact with the track. to brake pressure supply thrust rod @ norma: seaxine conorTion from bake pressure supply © ® sntiskio conommon Schematic Drawing Of The Unit -51-The Axle Mounted Unit An axle mounted unit is driven by means of a shaft, which is splined into the anti-skid unit at one end and into a drive housing bolted to the wheel hub, at the other. All types of units are marked with the correct direction of rotation, and this must be checked before installation. ‘The unit contains components similar to those found in the rim driven type. Additionally the unit also includes a sun and planet gear assembly - to increase its speed ratio with the wheel, and a clutch to absorb the sudden start up loads. save spring main shaft riveting tlywheel “lutch cover ting geat ceiten plate rive spring planet gear “luteh spring case valve thrust r0@ sun gear Axle Mounted Anti Skid Unit ‘The schematic drawing on the next page shows the position of the components during normal braking. If the landing wheel decelerates too quickly (an impending skid) then the flywheel will run-on relative to the input and main shafts. This relative movement between the main shaft and the drive ring will cause the two thrust bearings to ride up the cam profile and move the thrust rod against its spring to open the control valve and release the brake pressure. -52-Bleeding Bleeding of the anti-skid unit is normally achieved when bleeding the main brake system but independent bleeding may be necessary after installing a unit. This is accomplished by fitting a drain pipe at the exhaust connection, rotating the drive smartly in the direction of rotation, then bringing it to rest. Each time rotation is stopped, fluid will be discharged from the exhaust port and bleeding should be continued until the discharged fluid is free from air, then the pipe connections remade. Ahvust bearing st latch mechanism base of cam profile Ahet | snain shat, input shat i we ng are ive sprog isin spine Oise ee ee tnt od dive sing ste ng eatin D sircrat‘anding wheel decelerater consistent with an approaching skid and the main shaft decelerate proportionately Obie inertia ofthe iywheet causes the deve rng to advance 30° in elation to the shatt reun | ie forces the thrust bearings to enriskio conoition Fide up the eam face Schematic Drawing of the Axle Mounted Unit -53-Inspection ‘At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule the anti-skid unit should be inspected as follows: (a) The unit should be cleaned and inspected for security, signs of corrosion, external damage, and cracks. (b) With brakes applied, the unit should be checked for signs of external leakage of hydraulic fluid. (c)__ The pipelines should be checked for damage or distortion and the connections for security of attachment. (4) The driving tyre and wheel should be inspected for correct loading and alignment, and the tyre for excessive wear. NOTE: It is possible to lock the spring-loaded type units out of contact with the wheel track by inserting a pin in the mounting stud. This is normally done to facilitate wheel removal, but it is recommended that a red streamer should be attached to the pin as a visual reminder that the anti-skid unit is out of operation. Maxaret Indicator or Pin Position With brake applied the indicator rod should be approximately flush with the surface of the unit. ELECTRONIC/ELECTRIC ANTI-SKID SYSTEM ‘The system comprises a wheel speed transducer, a contro! unit and an anti- skid valve in the brake pressure line, together with associated switched, and check-out and warning lamps. The wheel speed unit may supply cither d.c. or a.c. depending on the type of system used. Operation is basically similar to the mechanical system but the use of logic circuits in computers, enables much finer control to be exercised. Further refinements such as strut oscillation damping circuits, touch-down protection and locked wheel protection and auto brake may also be incorporated, and some systems automatically de-activate at low speed to prevent interference with normal taxing manoeuvres. ‘Wheel skid control is achieved by sensing the wheel rate of change by a tachometer or generator. If the wheel slows down at too high a rate compared to some parameter then a signal is sent to the anti-skid valve to reduce the pressure. If the wheel continues to slow down too quickly (approaching a skid) then pressure is reduced still further. EsaiIf this fails to prevent the wheel from skidding then a further signal will cause all remaining brake fluid pressure to return to the reservoir. Only when the wheel regains its speed will the pressure be allowed to the brake. ALL THIS TAKES PLACE IN A FRACTION OF A SECOND. Depending on the system the wheel speed may be compared to: * Memory in the computer. * ‘The inertial reference speed of the aircraft. (An accurate speed and acceleration measuring device) Generator System ‘This is a voltage sensitive system, with the voltage being generated by an axle mounted generator. It is driven by drive bosses attached to the wheel bearing cover plate, and the output voltage is directly proportional to the wheel speed. lectrical connector whee! bearing cover plate rotating with wheel {Eeneraor drive bade wheel aate spring Axle Mounted Generator Unit When the wheel slows down the voltage drops. This information is used by a control unit. If the rate of slowing down is too great (voltage drop too quick) then the control unit will send a (d.c.) signal to a solenoid on the anti skid valve. When energised this will release the brake pressure. -55-With the brakes off the wheel will regain its speed, the generator voltage will be re-established, the control unit solenoid will be de-energised, and the-brakes will be re-applied ‘Tacho Probe System This consists of a tacho probe (a magnet around which is wound a coil) which is caused to produce a pulsed dc output by being close to a ferro magnetic exciter ring. The frequency of the output of the probe is dependant on the speed of the exciter ring (attached to the aircraft wheel). This signal is sent to a comparater/computer for processing. sensor mounting bracket brake unt cexciter ring excter ring {otached to whee! vim) ‘Tacho Probe Wheel Speed Sensor The probe may be housed in the axle or fitted as shown above. As the wheel starts to slow down so the frequency output of the probe drops. This rate is compared by the control unit/computer with either a known maximum frequency reduction, or the actual rate of aircraft deceleration (from the Inertial Reference System). -56-If the deceleration rate is high enough then a signal will be sent to the anti skid valve solenoid to reduce/stop the pressure to the brakes. If the whee} retardation rate is being compared to the aircraft retardation rate then the wheel can be slowed at a rate which is a percentage of the aircraft slowing rate - thus maintaining maximum braking efficiency. ‘This system is more sensitive than the others, and therefore the brakes can be kept at just the right level of braking for maximum efficiency. BRAKE CONTROL VALVE /~ _ ACCELERATION RATES FROM HYDRAULIC INERTIAL UNIT PRESSURE ‘SIGNAL TO ANTI SKID / VALVE ANTI SKID VALVE, WHEEL SPEED AND ACCELERATION RETURN COMPUTER PRESSURE TO ‘TACHO SIGNAL OF WHEEL SPEED AND DECELERATION RATE TO COMPUTER WHEEL AND BRAKE ASSEMBLY Electronic Anti-skid Control Control units/computers normally contain circuits which provide warning failure in the system, and a self-test facility which enables the serviceability of the various components to be checked. Controls for the operation and testing of the anti-skid system are contained in the control unit/computer and on the flight deck. Maintenance ‘The inspection, testing and maintenance of any particular anti-skid system will vary considerably between different installations, and details should be obtained from the approved Maintenance Manual. -57-However, the self-test facility normally enables complete testing of the system to be carried out and the test circuit is designed to facilitate location of faulty components. A visual inspection of the system should include the following: (a) The various components should be examined for damage, security and where appropriate, fluid leaks. (b) Pipelines should be examined for security, chafing and fluid leaks, particularly at connections. (c) Electrical cables should be examined for security, chafing and damage by fluids or heat. ‘The following is a general description of the A320 anti-skid system. ANTI-SKID PRINCIPLE - A320 ‘The anti-skid system is based on the optimisation of the aircraft deceleration rate as measured by the ADIRS. (Air Data Inertial Reference Units). Maximum braking is provided by maintaining the wheels at the limit of an impending skid. Brake release orders are sent to the four normal and to the four alternate servo valves as well as to the ECAM system which displays the released brakes. An ON/OFF switch in the flight deck activates or deactivates the anti-skid system and nose wheel steering. ‘The speed of each main gear wheel (given by a tachometer) is compared with the aircraft speed (reference speed). When the speed of a wheel decreases below 0.87 times reference speed, brake release orders are given to maintain the wheel slip at that value. ‘The reference speed is determined by BSCU from the longitudinal acceleration given by ADIRU 1 or ADIRU 3. If ADIRU 1 and ADIRU 3 are not valid, reference speed equals the maximum of the 4 main landing gear wheel speeds. Deceleration is limited to 1.7m/s?. (BSCU = Brake & Steering Control Unit). -58-