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Effect of preprocessing techniques on pearl millet flour and changes in

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017 1

Original article
Effect of preprocessing techniques on pearl millet flour and
changes in technological properties

Stephen A. Akinola,1* Adebanjo A. Badejo,1,2 Oluwatooyin F. Osundahunsi1 & Mojisola O. Edema1†

1 Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure, Nigeria
2 Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, India
(Received 12 October 2016; Accepted in revised form 15 December 2016)

Summary This study investigated the effect of some preprocessing techniques on the physicochemical and technolog-
ical properties of pearl millet flour for possible industrial application. Pearl millet was processed into flour
using different preprocessing techniques (blanching, debranning, fermentation and malting) and evaluated
for physicochemical and functional properties, grain morphology and total viable count. The result
showed that fermentation and malting brought about loosening of starch granules. Fermentation signifi-
cantly reduced the bulk density by 22% and improved the colour lightness and paste viscosity properties
of the preprocessed flour. Malting alone resulted in about 50% increase in protein content of the flour
with improved solubility up to 64 g/100 g. Total viable count was highest in fermented sample in the
order of 108 cfu g 1. Thus, the combination of fermentation and malting would give the best pearl millet
flour with improved technological properties for application in the industries, thereby promoting food
security in the region.
Keywords Blanching, debranning, fermentation, malting, Pennisetum glaucum.

to flour that generally stores for longer periods than

Introduction
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of the most
important gluten-free cereal crops in the world along
with rice, maize and sorghum (Kaur et al., 2014; Zhu,
2014). It is the most widely grown and with excellent
yield potential of all millets, even under drought and
heat stresses (FAO, 2011). Pearl millet is a high energy
and nutritious grain with significant potential for
ensuring food security in many developing countries.
It is a unique source of pro-vitamin A and minerals
like calcium, magnesium and phosphorus (Kaur et al.,
2014). When compared to sorghum with 9.8% germ,
pearl millet has larger percentage of 17.4% per total
kernel. The protein content of pearl millet ranges
between 8 and 19%, and has better amino acid bal-
ance than most common cereals (FAO, 2011).
The primary processing technology of pearl millet is
milling, although a number of other processing meth-
ods exists such as the spray-drying method developed
for the manufacture of dried complementary food
using whey–skim milk blend, pearl millet and corn
flour (NAIP 2010). Milling reduces pearl millet grains
*Correspondent: E-mail: saakinola@futa.edu.ng
†
This is one of the last researches that Dr. M.O. Edema
co-supervised before her demise on Sunday 1 March 2015.
the grains. However, because the whole meal products
quickly go rancid due to high fat content and hot cli-
matic condition in the tropics, millet flour is stored
only for a very short period (Ir
enL
eder, 2004; Kaur
et al., 2014). This has being the bane of the huge
postharvest losses associated with pearl millet. Other
processing methods used for cereals with potential for
improving product quality have not been extensively
considered for pearl millet. Therefore, this study inves-
tigated the effects of some processing techniques on
pearl millet for flour production that could be stan-
dardised and adapted for industrial applications.
Materials and methods
Sample collection
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) grains used for
the study were purchased from a local market in
Akure, Ondo State, south-western Nigeria.
Processing of samples
The grains were cleaned to remove dirt and sand by
winnowing. After each processing procedure, grains

doi:10.1111/ijfs.13363
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2 Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al.
were dried in a hot air oven (Model GPC-9, GPC
Medicals New Delhi, India) to achieve an approximate
5% moisture content and milled through disc mill
(Atlas exclusive, Alzico Ltd. Mill, Lagos, Nigeria).
The resultant flours (sieved to pass through a US stan-
dard sieve size of 0.22 mm) were stored in labelled,
airtight plastic containers for further analyses. All
chemical reagents used were of analytical grade.
Blanching was performed as earlier described by
Kunyanga et al. (2011). Debranning was done by
soaking cleaned grains in water for 18 h at 50 °C to
soften the seed coat and to allow for easy removal of
the bran. The grains were gently pulverised using mor-
tar and pestle and then rinsed in water to separate the
detached bran from the grains. The debranned grains
were dried and milled into flour. Fermentation was
achieved by steeping grains in portable tap water (w/v:
1:3) for 3 days without changing the water. After fer-
mentation, the grains were washed in portable tap
water, drained and dried in a hot air oven at 50 °C for
4 h before milling. Malting was done using the method
of Sokrab et al. (2012). Pearl millet grains were
steeped in water and spread on a moistened muslin
cloth at tropical room temperature. After sprouting
was achieved, the grains were dried in hot air oven at
50 °C for 4 h before milling into flour. The pearl
millet flour used as control was prepared by cleaning
the grains to remove dirt, dried for 2 h at 50 °C in the
hot air oven before dry milling in a disc mill (Atlas
exclusive, Alzico Ltd. Mill, Lagos, Nigeria).
Proximate composition
The proximate compositions of the flours were deter-
mined using AOAC (2005). The protein content was
obtained by multiplying the nitrogen content by 6.25
(conversion factor), and the carbohydrate content was
calculated by difference.
Functional properties
The water absorption capacity (WAC) was determined
as described by Sathe et al. (1982). WAC was
expressed in percentages. The bulk density was deter-
mined using the modified method of Omowaye-Taiwo
et al. (2015). Swelling power was determined according
to the modified method of Srichuwong et al. (2005).
Swelling power was then calculated as described below
while the solubility was determined as gram per 100 g
of samples on dry weight basis. The foam capacity
and stability were determined by the method described
by Sathe et al. (1982). The foam volume was recorded
1 h after whipping to determine the foam stability
(FS). FS was expressed as percentage of the initial
foam volume. Dispersibility was determined as
described by Edema et al. (2005).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
Pasting properties by Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA)
Pasting properties were determined by the method
described by Sanni et al. (2004) using Rapid Visco
Analyzer (RVA model RVA 3D+, Newport Scientific
Australia). Three grams of processed pearl millet flour
samples (calculated at 14% moisture) was suspended
in distilled water to make a maximum test sample
weight of 28 g per sample. A short pasting condition
was used with an initial stirring speed of 960 rpm at
50 °C for 30 s and then stirring was at 160 rpm for
the entire period thereafter. The temperature was
increased at a rate of 5.5 °C min 1 to 91 °C and held
at this temperature for 10 min. The pastes were then
cooled to 50 °C at a rate of 5.5 °C min 1. The proper-
ties of the flour samples were characterised using the
parameters recorded on the viscosity trace.
Physical properties
Grain and starch granule morphology
Changes in granule morphology were studied with a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Model JEOL
JSM-5800LV). Samples of malted, fermented, deb-
ranned, blanched and untreated pearl millet grains
were sliced longitudinally under a light Stereomicro-
scope (Model SMZ800, Nikon), mounted on alu-
minium studs with double-sided tapes before coating
with gold. Conditions for sample coating under EMI-
TECH K550X coating chamber were 20 milliamps cur-
rent and 6 9 10 2 mbar pressure for 2 min. Coated
samples were then viewed under the SEM and pho-
tographed at ambient temperature.
Flour colour measurement
Colour of processed pearl millet flour samples was
determined using a Konica Minolta Chroma Meters
CR-400 (Osaka, Japan). The chromameter was cali-
brated using a standard white plate (CIE L* = 96.63,
a* = 0.22, b* = 2.28). Clean Petri dishes were filled
with flour samples and covered before colour readings
were made using the L* a* b* colour system. Two
readings of the L* a* b* values were taken and the
mean values recorded.
Microbiological analysis
The microbiological analysis of treated and untreated
pearl millet flour samples was determined as described
by Fawole & Oso (2007). The total viable bacteria,
fungi and lactic acid bacteria count on nutrient agar
(International Diagnostics group PLC, UK), potato
dextrose agar (BDH Chemical L-Poole, England) and
de Mann–Rogosa–Sharpe (MRS) agar (Oxoid, UK),
respectively, were determined using 10 5 and 10 6
dilution factors. The inoculated plates were incubated
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology

at appropriate temperature and time. The average col-
ony obtained was expressed as colony-forming units/
gram. Presumed fungi, bacteria and lactic acid bacteria
were subcultured till distinct colonies were obtained.
Isolates were regularly maintained in appropriate
broths and stored at 4 °C for further identification.
Pure cultures were examined for morphological and
biochemical characteristics (Fawole & Oso, 2007) and
carbohydrate utilisation characteristics using Analyti-
cal Profile Index (API) for bacteria and yeasts (API
50CH & API 20C Aux, respectively) (API Kits Bio-
Merieux, Inc., France). The screened isolates were
identified based on characteristics found in Bergey’s
manual of systematic bacteriology and API Identifica-
tion manual. The fungal isolates were identified based
on cultural and morphological characteristics.
Statistical analysis
The data generated were analysed using SPSS for Win-
dows version 21.0 (IBM Corp, USA). Analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) was used to determine significant
differences (P ≤ 0.05) in proximate composition, func-
tional, pasting, colour properties and total viable
counts of samples.
Results and discussion
Proximate composition
Preprocessing had significant effect on the proximate
composition of pearl millet flour except in crude fat
content of the blanched and debranned samples
(Table 1). The ash content of all flour samples
decreased by about 4% to as much as 50% when com-
pared to the control (4.37  0.01%), and lowest value
was recorded in the debranned flour (2.15  0.01%).
This result is not in agreement with the findings of Fas-
asi (2009) who reported no significant differences in
pearl millet preprocessed by fermentation, germination
and roasting. Reduction in ash content especially in fer-
mented samples may be attributed to losses due to
leaching of soluble inorganic salts. The crude fat con-
tent of the preprocessed pearl millet samples ranged
between 1.76  0.01 and 3.71  0.01 and was highest
in the fermented sample. The crude fat content of the
malted sample reduced due to processing while there
was no significant difference in the blanched and deb-
ranned samples. Low fat content of the millet flour will
result in low energy value, but with increase in the shelf
life due to reduced likelihood of rancidity. The crude
fibre content of the preprocessed flours ranges from
0.54  0.01% to 0.93  0.01% which were 20–50%
lower than the control sample. Fermented pearl millet
had the lowest crude fibre content which might be due
to enzymatic degradation of the fibre during the process
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al. 3
of fermentation (Ikenebomah et al., 1986). The crude
protein ranged from 10.48  0.01% in debranned to
15.39  0.00% in malted pearl millet flour. Malting
and fermentation significantly increased the protein
content of pearl millet flours when compared to the con-
trol. This phenomenon may be as a result of protein
synthesis during malting. Similar increases in protein
contents of malted and fermented cereals have been
reported (Nout, 2009; Tian et al., 2010). The crude pro-
tein contents of the preprocessed pearl millet are higher
compared with other indigenous cereal grains in Africa
(Singh & Raghuvanshi, 2012). This variation in protein
content can be attributed to the preprocessing operation
as well as the proportionally larger germs of the pearl
millet compared with finger millet. Fermentation and
malting may be used as preprocessing techniques if
increased protein content is desired in pearl millet flour.
Both treatments also resulted in decrease in the carbo-
hydrate content of the flour. The metabolic activity of
the microorganisms and enzymes on the sugars during
fermentation and malting might have led to the
observed decrease in carbohydrate content (Fasasi,
2009). The reduction observed in the debranned may be
due to the losses during the preprocessing operation. In
debranned and malted flour, moisture content increased
while a decrease was observed in the blanched and fer-
mented pearl millet flour. The action of peroxidase on
C-glycosylflavones is responsible for the mousy odour
of millets with high moisture contents (Pradeep et al.,
2014). Pearl millets preprocessed by fermentation with
significantly lower moisture content will have longer
shelf life and reduced mousy odour which is unaccept-
able to consumers.
Functional properties
As shown in Table 2, preprocessing significantly
affected the functional properties of pearl millet flour.
The bulk density of debranned (0.97  0.02 g mL 1)
and fermented (0.87  0.01 g mL 1) samples was sig-
nificantly lower when compared to the control
(1.12  0.02 g mL 1), while there was an increase in
the bulk density of the blanched (1.27  0.06 g mL 1)
pearl millet flour. This finding agrees with the observa-
tion of Fagbemi (1999) who reported that the bulk
density of plantain flour was enhanced after blanching.
The increase in bulk density of blanched pearl millet
flour will offer a packaging advantage. The foaming
capacity and foaming stability decreased in prepro-
cessed pearl millet flours with debranned samples hav-
ing the least values, thus impacting negatively on the
aeration properties of the food. Product foamability is
related to the rate of decrease of the surface tension of
air/water interface caused by absorption of protein
molecules. Flexible protein molecules such as b-casein,
which can rapidly reduce surface tension, always give
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
4 Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al.

Table 1 Proximate composition (%) of pearl millet flour produced by different processing method

Millet samples Moisture (%) Ash (%) Crude fat (%) Crude fibre (%) Crude protein (%) Carbohydrate (%)

B 5.43  0.01d
4.19  0.01b
1.81  0.00b
0.93  0.01b
12.02  0.01c
83.84  0.01a
D 6.47  0.01b 2.15  0.01e 1.81  0.00b 0.65  0.01d 10.48  0.01e 72.90  0.01d
F 4.94  0.01e 3.45  0.00d 3.71  0.01a 0.54  0.01e 13.65  0.01b 73.76  0.01c
M 6.68  0.00a 3.79  0.01c 1.76  0.01c 0.72  0.01c 15.39  0.00a 71.73  0.01e
C 5.93  0.01c 4.37  0.01a 1.83  0.01b 1.20  0.01a 10.99  0.00d 75.75  0.01b

Values are mean  SE at 95% confidence interval. Values with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different, where
B = blanched, D = debranned, F = fermented, M = malted and C = control (untreated).

Table 2 Functional properties of pearl millet flours produced using different processing techniques

Millet Bulk density Foaming Foaming Water absorption Swelling Solubility

samples (g mL 1) capacity (%) stability (%) capacity (%) power (g g 1) (g/100 g) Dispersibility (%)

B 1.27  0.06a 2.03  0.04b 1.07  0.03c 367.00  2.52a 2.91  0.06c 63.30  0.15a 72.22  0.11a
D 0.97  0.02c 0.72  0.03d 0.69  0.01d 345.33  0.88c 3.38  0.01b 11.27  0.15d 66.49  0.08c
F 0.87  0.01d 1.74  0.02c 1.07  0.03c 356.67  0.33b 1.25  0.01e 30.07  0.07b 67.68  0.01b
M 1.15  0.02b 1.78  0.02c 1.39  0.02b 319.00  0.58d 1.83  0.01d 64.00  0.58a 65.33  0.33d
C 1.12  0.02b 3.36  0.02a 4.69  0.01a 359.33  1.45b 4.47  0.02a 21.83  0.12c 72.69  0.01a

Values are mean  SE at 95% confidence interval. Values with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different. B = blanched,
D = debranned, F = fermented, M = malted and C = control (untreated).

good foamability, while a highly ordered globular pro-
tein molecule such as lysozyme, which is relatively dif-
ficult to surface-denature, usually give low foamability
(Moure et al., 2006). Further study is needed to under-
stand the low-foaming capacity and stability observed
with the pearl millet flours after preprocessing opera-
tions. Foamability will affect the volume of the air
cushion between the crust and the crumb when the
flour is processed into product like sourdough
(Chiavaro et al., 2008).
Water absorption capacity (WAC) ranged from
319  0.58% to 367  2.52% with the malted samples
having the least value of 319  0.58%. The WAC of
pearl millet flour is higher than that of rice and taro
(Colocasia esculenta) flour with values of 172% and
245%, respectively (Kaushal et al., 2012). WAC is con-
sidered a critical function of protein in viscous food;
hence, this sample may also be useful for viscous food
formulation or as thickener in food systems that require
hydration such as sausages. The swelling power of the
fermented flour had the lowest value when compared to
other samples (1.25  0.01 g g 1). The malted flours
had the highest solubility value of 64  0.58 g/100 g
while debranned (11.27  0.15 g/100 g) had the least.
High solubility value had been reported for malted mil-
lets (Zhu, 2014). This is of significance in products
where high solubility index is desired. High solubility is
indicative of increased amount of soluble materials with
high digestibility such as starch and amino acids. Hence,
malting can be used to increase protein digestibility.
Dispersibility was significantly lower in the debranned,
malted and fermented pearl millet flour. Particle size is
an important characteristic of flour that requires
reconstitution especially in water. The smaller the parti-
cle size, the more available is the surface area for water
absorption.
Pasting properties
The pasting properties of gruels made from flours
have direct relationship with the starch content of
such flour (Fagbemi, 1999). The pasting properties of
the preprocessed pearl millet flour are shown in
Table 3. The results showed that preprocessing opera-
tions had effects on the pasting temperatures of pearl
millet starch. Fermented pearl millet flour requires a
high temperature (96.99 °C) to start paste formation
while the malted flour requires a low temperature
(30 °C). This means that the carbohydrate compo-
nents of pearl millet will not disintegrate until a high
gelling temperature is reached with the exception of
the malted flour. Fermentation especially increased the
pasting viscosity of the flour. This is similar to our
recent report with fonio used in sourdough fermenta-
tion (Edema et al., 2013). Flour from blanched pearl
millet had the highest setback of 33.75  0.01BU
while the flour from malted millet had the least value
of 0.93  0.01BU. Higher setback values indicates
reduced dough digestibility, while lower setback dur-
ing cooling of paste indicates lower tendency to ret-
rogradation (Sandhu et al., 2007). The flour from
fermented millet had the highest final viscosity and
peak of 92.02 BU and 88.19  0.01 BU, respectively.
The ability of starchy paste to thicken upon cooling
or to thin upon further heating is desirable in most
industrial applications.

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017 © 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al. 5

Table 3 Pasting properties of pearl millet flours produced using different processing techniques

Breakdown final Pasting

Sample Peak (Bu) Trough (BU) viscosity (BU) Viscosity (Bu) Set Back (Bu) Peak time (Min) temperature (°C)

B 53.08  0.01c 41.00  0.00b 12.07  0.01d 74.77  0.01b 33.75  0.01a 9.55  0.01b 78.80
D 46.42  0.01d 26.52  0.01d 19.92  0.00a 53.68  0.01d 27.19  0.01c 9.39  0.01c 65.00
F 88.19  0.01a 68.35  0.01a 19.82  0.01b 92.02  0.01a 23.66  0.01d 9.88  0.01a 96.50
M 3.10  0.01e 0.59  0.01e 3.69  0.01e 0.35  0.01e 0.93  0.01e 7.09  0.01e 30.00
C 56.56  0.01b 39.10  0.01c 17.52  0.01c 68.11  0.02c 29.04  0.02b 9.15  0.01d 68.00

Values are mean  SE 95% confidence interval. Values with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different, where
BU = Brabender unit, B = blanched, D = debranned, F = fermented, M = malted and C = control (untreated).

and 1,6-glycosidic bonds in the starch. Similar finding

Grain and starch granule morphology and colour analyses
When the grains were subjected to different prepro-
cessing methods, the starch granule shapes and
arrangement were modified. The changes in pericarp
of the pearl millet and starch granule morphology are
presented in Figs 1 and 2, respectively. The fermented
grains had loosened pericarp and starch granules
which might be due to the breaking of the alpha 1, 4-
had been reported for the scanning electron micro-
scopic images of fonio fermented for sourdough
(Edema et al., 2013). The unique starch granule
arrangements of pearl millet in the untreated (control)
grains were distorted in the treated samples as a result
of the different treatments. While the malted and fer-
mented pearl millet showed polished pericarps and
loosened starch granules, the blanched samples had

(a) (b)

(c)

(d) (e)

Figure 1 Comparison of pericarp morphological changes in treated and untreated pearl millet flours, where a = blanched pearl millet flour,
b = debranned pearl millet flour, c = control (untreated) pearl millet flour, d = fermented pearl millet flour, e = malted pearl millet flour.

© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
6 Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al.
Debranned
Fermented
Figure 2 Comparison of starch granule morphological changes in treated and untreated pearl millet grains. The magnification is same for all
the samples
their pericarps broken. Changes in the structures of
starch granules upon processing have been reported
earlier (Bhattacharyya et al., 2004; Gupta et al., 2010)
corroborating the findings in this study.
In the colour analysis, redness/greenness of the pearl
millet grains increased when compared to the control
(Table S1). The untreated pearl millet flour retained
the colour of the grains which is grey. The lightness
index L* value of 73.72  0.66 in fermented flour was
the highest. Therefore, fermentation improves lightness
in colour index of the pearl millet flour, while the
blanched flour had the least value that was not signifi-
cantly different when compared to debranned. This
decrease in the lightness in other flours was due to the
lower inherent lightness index in pearl millet flours.
Microbial analysis
The total bacteria population of all samples were in the
range of 1.10 9 108–2.32 9 108, the total fungal counts
ranged from 1 9 107–9.2 9 106 while the lactic acid
bacteria counts were in the range of 1.0 9 102–
1.8 9 106 (Table S2). The fermented millet samples
had the highest microbial population (Table S2); this
might be due to the spontaneous fermentation process
employed in processing of the sample. The predominant
organism in the control (untreated) and the malted
pearl millet flour was Staphylococcus aureus (Table 4)
as identified by biochemical characterisation and Ber-
gey’s manual. The presence of S. aureus in large
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
Malted
Control
Blanched
numbers in foods is undesirable, as its virulence consti-
tutes food safety concern (Kluytmans, 2010). The mini-
mum number of cells of S. aureus required to produce
the minimum level of enterotoxin considered necessary
to cause gastroenteritis in human (1 ng g 1) differs for
substrates and for particular enterotoxin, but the range
is from 5 9 106 to 1010 CFU g 1 or mL (Hennekinne
et al., 2012). The predominant organism genuses in the
blanched millet flour include Micrococcus luteus and
Lactobacillus acidophilus (Table 4). Pediococcus cere-
visiae was isolated in debranned and fermented pearl
millet flours. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacil-
lus plantarum were isolated in fermented pearl millet
flour. Interactions between yeasts and lactobacilli are
important for the metabolic activity of fermenting
meals such as sourdough (Kaisa et al., 2009). Microor-
ganisms belonging to the Lactobacillus and Saccha-
romyces genus have been reported as the dominant
microorganisms in sourdoughs made from gluten-free
cereals (Edema & Sanni, 2008; De Vuyst et al., 2014;
Gobbetti et al., 2014). Millet flour preprocessed by fer-
mentation could be used in improving the technological
qualities desired in gluten-free flours.
Conclusions
Pearl millet is an underutilised crop grown in the
tropical region of the world with the flour having
high nutritional content, improved starch modifica-
tion on preprocessing and functional properties that
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Table 4 Morphological and biochemical characteristics of isolated organisms from pearl millet flours

© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Characteristics C1 C2 B1 B2 F1 F2 F3 D T1 T2

Shape of colony Cir Cir Cir Irreg Reg Cir Cir Cir Cir Cir
Colour of colony Cream cream cream cream cream Whitish cream cream cream Cream
Surface S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G S.G
Colony edge Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire Entire
Elevation Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised Raised
Optical property Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque Translucent Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque
Gram reaction + + + + + + + + + +
Cell shape Cocci Cocci Cocci Rods Cocci Rods Round oval Cocci Cocci Cocci
Arrangement Clusters Clusters Small clusters Single &in pairs Pairs tetrads & short Single & in pairs Chains Pairs tetrads & short Clusters Clusters
Spore +
Motility
Catalase + + + + + +
Glucose AG AG AG AG AG AG
Lactose AG AG AG A AG AG A AG AG
Maltose AG AG AG AG AG AG AG
Fructose AG AG AG A AG AG A AG AG
Sucrose AG AG A AG AG A AG AG
Mannitol AG AG AG AG AG AG
Starch hydrolysis +
Urease + + + +
Coagulase + + + +
Probable organisms S. aureus S. aureus M. luteus L. acidophilus P. cerevisiae L. plantarum S. cerevisiae P. cerevisiae A. flavus S. aureus

+ = positive, = negative, A = acid only, AG = acid and gas production, S.G = surface growth, Cir = circular, Reg = regular, Irreg = irregular, C1 and C2 = millet flour (untreated), B1
and B2 = blanched millet flours, F1, F2 and F3 = fermented millet flours, D = debranned millet flour, T1 and T2 = malted millet flours.
Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al.

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017

7
8 Pre-processing of pearl millet flour S. A. Akinola et al.
makes them fit for use in developing new food prod-
ucts such as the sourdough bread which requires
unique properties in the substrates used. Low-foam-
ing properties of the flour could be compensated
with the combined use of malted and fermented
pearl millet flour. Pretreatment of pearl millet grains
will find more utilisation in making quality flours,
flour blends, weaning foods, sausages and other pas-
try products. The strategic use of fermentation and
malting for processing holds great potential for pro-
duction of high-quality pearl millet flour. Further
characterisation of isolated microorganisms using
molecular techniques is needed.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Supporting Information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in
the online version of this article:
Table S1. Instrumental colour measurement for
pearl millet flours produced using different processing
technique.
Table S2. Total viable counts of microorganisms iso-
lated from pearl millet flours.
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