BRAIN [375 ] ‘Vegetative and endocrine function of hypothalamus © Preoptic region'™%2 12 Anterior hypothalamus 12 Posterior hypothalamus! +? © Periventrcular mucleus especially arcuate nucleus ‘9 Supraoptic nuclei & paraventricular nuclei 9 Paraventricularnvelei 1 Preoptic area {9 Dorsal and poserior hypothalamus Anterior and posterfor#“® hypothataims 9 Ventromedial nucleus’! is 6) 6 Lateral hypothalmic nucleus Lateral superior hypothalamus 1 Suprachiasmatie nuclews HEE 10 «swe 0830 © Anterior hypothalamag®P0™ 7: m9 Note : Regulation of body temperature Aik 74a, Respond to heat Respond t0 cold (Shivering center") Somatostatin, GoRH Secretion of oxytocin, ADH (vasopressine) TRH, CRH GnkiT Catecholamines, Sexual behavior‘! (Anterior hypothalamus, especially medial preoptic nucleus, is mre important) Satlety center! a9 Feeding centers? Thirst” Regulation of circadian rhythms ‘Osmoreceptar Mk sue wm am © Though, both supraoptic and paraventricular nucle are involved ia secretion of ADH aad oxytocin, the majority of ADH is released by supraoptic nucleus, whereas majority of axytocin is released by paraventricular nucleus. ER PARTS OF DI ON © Bpithalamus consists of habenular nucleus lying in hebenular trigone**""”, pineal body!"™**“"*, habenular | commissure, posterior commissures!”®*4""%, and stria medullaris thalami. Pineal gland helps in maintaining rhythm sleep-wake cycle by secreting melatonin, © Metathalamus is considered to bea part of thalamus and consists of medial and lateral geniculate bodies, Miedial genteulate body is concerned wi audito‘y pathway and lateral ge ate body is concerned with optic (visual) pathway" (Mnemonic: LOMA Lateral» Optic». Medial -» Auditory). }) Medial geniculate body pathway (Auditory pathway) =~ Organ of corti —» Spiral ganglion —» Cochlear division —» Ventral & dorsal Inferior colliculus <— Laterat lenmiscus «— Superior olivary <— ‘Trapezoid body’ | of" nerve ‘cochlear nuclei (cochlear nerve) i complex Medial geniculate body —» Auditory radiation —> Auditory cortex ‘Lateral geniculate body pathway (visual pathway)" : Retina —> Optic nerve —» Optic chiasma —» Opti tract | Visual cortex ¢— Optic radiation «— Lateral geniculate body © Subthalamns consists of ') Grey matter + (i) Cranial end of red nucleus and substantia nigra extend into i, (i) Subthalamnic nucleus, and (il) Zona incerta. i) White mate reticularis, LON (MIDBRAIN) AND. -() Cranial end of lemnisc, (i) Dentatothalamic tract along with ubrothalamie fibres, (ii)Ansa iv) Fasciculus lenticular, and (v) Subthalamic fasciculus INCEPHALON (HINDBRAI © Mesencephalon consists of midbrain and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) consists metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata). Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata together form brain stem,BRAIN [376 ] BRAIN STEM © Brain stem, which includes midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata, connects cerebrum with spinal cord. It extends ‘fom posterior commissure to pyramidal decussation a spinomedallary junction. Brain stem gives attachment to I to X¥I cranial nerves and contains their motor and sensori nuclei. It gives passage to long ascending sensory tracts and descending motor tracts. Its connected to cerebellum by superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles Superior cerebeilar peduncle connects midbrain 10 cerebellum, middle cerebellar peduncle connects pons 10 cerebellum, and inferior cerebellar peduncle connects medulla to cerebellum. MIDB) |ESENCEPHALON ‘© Midbrain connects hindbrain (rhombencephalon) with forebrain (prosencephalon) Is cavity is known as cerebral aqueduct of sylvins, which connects 3* ventricle with fourth ventricle. Midbrain i divided into following parts = 1) Teetum : Its the part posterior to cerebral aqueduct. Its made up of two collicoli on each side (ight and let): Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus. 2) Cerebral peduncle : It is the part anterior to cerebral aqueduct. Each cerebral peduncle is subdivided into :- (@) Crus cerebri (anteriorly), (b) Substantia nigra (in middie), and (¢) Tegmentum (posteriorly). © Superior colliculus is connected to lateral geniculate body by superior brachium and inferior colliculus is connected to medial geniculate body by inferior brachium. © Cranial nerve IIT and IV are attached to midbrain © Midbrain contains center for vertical conjugate gace. ‘0 Superior cerebellar peduncle connects midbrain to cerebellum, fhways and nuclel of ‘A. At the level of inferior colliculus 1) GreyMatter ’) Nucleus ofrachlear (IV) nerve. ii) Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal (V) nerve. ii) Inferior colliculus receives afferents from lateral lemmiscus and gives efferents to medial geniculate body. iv) Substantia nigra (divided into pars compacta and pars reticularis). 2) White Matter |) Crus cerebri contains"; (a) Middle two-third is occupied by corticospinal!" and corticobulbar (corticonuclear’*""27 fibres); (b) Medial one-sixth is traversed by fromtopontine fibres; and () Lateral one-sixth contains temporopontine, parietopontine and occipitopontine fibres. ii) ‘Tegmentum contains (a) Lemnisei: (medial, trigeminal, spinal and lateral); (b) Decussation of superior cerebellar peduncles; (¢) Teetospinal and rubrospinal tract, and (d) Medial longitudinal bundle, B. At the level of superior colliculus 1D. GreyMatter {) Occulomotor nucleus and Edinger-Westphal nucleus. ii) Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve. ii) Superior colliculus receives afferents from retina and other centers; and gives efferents to spinal cord (tectospinal trac) iv) Pretectal muclens. ¥) Red nucleus. vi). Substantia nigra 2) White Matter ') Crus cerebri has same tracts as described above. ii) Tegmentum has: (a) Lemnisci; (b) Dorsal tegmental decussation (formed by decussation of tectospinal and tectobulbar tracts); (c) Ventral tegmental decussation (formed by decussation of rubrospinal tract); (@) Medial longitudinal bundle, and (e) Emerging fibers of ceulomotor nerve. i) Tectum shows posterior commisure connecting two superior colliculi Ps Interpeduncular fossa © Itis a diamond shaped depression in midline on anterior aspect of midbrain. It is bounded (a) Anteriorly by optic chiasma: (b) Anterolaterally by optic tracts; (c) Posterolaterally by cerebral peduncles (especially crus cerebri); and (@) Posteriorly by upper border of pons. 6 Floor ofthe interpeduncular fossa presents from before backwards :- Optic chiasma, tuber cinerium# "4°, tubeal eminences, infundibular stalk, mamillary bodies'™™** 9" °°, and posterior perforated substance'™#°**%, which is pierced by posterior cerebral arteries. The basilar artery devides into right and left cerebral arteries, and posterior communicating artery joins posterior cerebral artery in interpeduncular fossa,BRAIN[377 ] ‘Superior cerebellar artery arises from basilar artery immediately distal to bifurcation. Oeulomator‘Sesesaisrri.ur ‘and trochlear®™"%4°% nerves intervene between superior cerebellar and posterior cerebral arteries. PONS 3 It is the middle part of brain stem, connecting midbrain with medulla. It is connected to cerebellum by middle cerebellar peduncle. It gives attachment to V, VI, VIT and VIL cranial nerves. Trigeminal (V) nerve is attached at the junction of pons with peduncle, Abducent (VI, facial (VII) and vestibulocochlear (VII) nerves are attached at ower border of pons atthe junction of pons with medulla. Pons contains the center for horizontal (lateral) gaze. 9 Pons is divisible into two parts : Ventral and dorsal, Ventral (basilar) part is uniform in structure throughout its length, Dorsal (tegmental) part exhibits structural differences in upper and lower parts. Basilar (ventral) part © Iti continuous inferiorly with pyramids of medulla, It contains > 1) Grey matter :-Nuclei pontis 2) White matter : Itconsits of longitudinal and transverse fibres = 3) Longitudinal fibres :~Corticospinal tract, corticobulbar (corticonuclear) tract, and corticopontine fibres. ii) Transverse fibres :-Pontocerebellar fibres. ‘Tegmentum (dorsal part) © This partis adirect upward continuation of medulla (excluding the pyramids which are continuous with ventral part), ‘This part contains > ‘A. Inlower partof pons 1) Grey matter - Sixth nerve nucleus, seventh nerve nucleus, vestibular and cochlear nuclei, spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve, and salivatory and lacrimatory nuclei. 2) White matter :- Trapezoid body (corpus trapezoideum), lateral spinothalamic tract (spinal lemniseus), fibres of facial nerve looping around abducent nucleus to form facial colliculus in floor of 4* ventricle. B. Inupper part of pons 1) Grey matter :- I motor and 3 sensory nuclei of trigeminal nerve. 2) White matter - Trigeminal lemniscus, spinal lemniscus, lateral lemniscus, medial longitudinal bundle. MEDULLA ORLONGATA « Itis the lowest part of brain stem which passes through foramen magnum to become continuous with spinal cord at ‘the level of upper border of C, vertebra. Medulla is connected to cerebellum by inferior cerebellar peduncle. Most characteristic feature ofits interior is the occurrence of pyramidal decussation (partial decussation of corticospinal tract) and sensory decussation (decussation of internal arcuate fibers from nucleus gracilis and nucteus cuncatus forming medial lernniscus). ‘9 Medulla oblongata contains :- A. Inlower part (at pyramidal decussation) 1) Grey matter :- Decussating pyramidal fibres, nucleus gracilis and nucteus cuneatus®”, spinal nucleus of V nerve, spinal nucleus of accessory nerve. 2) White matter :- Pyramids, fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus“£2, Lateral corticospinal tract, ‘ubrospinal tract, vestibulospinal tact, tectospinal tract, olivospinal tract, lateral and anterior spinothalamic tracts, ventral and dorsal spinocerebellar tracts, and spinotectal tract B._Inmiddie part at sensory decussation) 1) Grey matter : Nucleus gracilis and nucleus euneatus*22, accessory cuneate nucleus, nucleus of spinal tract of trigeminal nerve, inferior olivary nucleus, hypoglossal nucleus, dorsal nucteus of vagus and nucleus of tractus solitarius. 2) White matter :- Internal arcuate fibres, medial lemniscus, pyramidal tract, medial longitudinal bundle, spinocerebellar tracts, spinothalamic tracts, and other anterolateral tracts (rubrospinal, vestibulospinal and olivospinal) © Imupper part (at floor of 4* ventricle) 1) Greymatter: |) Nuclei seen in floor of 4 ventricte™*.% :~ Hypoglossal nueleus“”™=*%, dorsal nucleus of vagus 492, nucleus of tractus solitarius, and inferior and medial vestibular nuclei", ji) Nucleus ambiguus, dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei, inferior olivary nucleus, nucleus of spinal tract of trigeminal nerve, arcuate nucleus, and visceral centers (respiratory, cardiac and vasomotor). 2) White matter :- Olivocerebellar fibres, stria medullaris, various ascending tracts, emerging fibres of 1X, X, XI nerves,BRAIN[378 J CEREBELLUM © The cerebellum consists of two cerebellar hemispheres joined by vermis. The cerebellum is divided by two transverse fissures into three lobes : Anterior lobe, Posterior lobe and floceulonodutar lateral floceulus and medial nodulus) lobe. similarly, ovo longitudinal fissures divide it into the midline vermis and the left and right cerebellar hemisphere, © The cerebellum has an external cerebellar cortex separated by white matter from the deep cerebellar nuclei There are four deep cerebeltar muclei!™™ % 4#*% 00 (from Interal to medial) : dentate =! 12°69», cemboliform™", globose, and fastigial™*, The globose and the emboliform nuclei are sometimes lumped together asthe interpositus aueleus. © The cerebellar cortex contains five types of neurons! 41% U5): Purkinje cells™™5, granule cells, basker cells, stellate cells, and golgh cells", The axons of purkinje cells are the only output from the cerebellar cortex“! "?, generally pass to the deep nuclei”. Neurons of deep nuclei form ‘the ultimate (final) efferent output of cerebellum. © Cerebellar cortex is arranged into three layers/01%41%.40489) 9) External molecular layer contains basket cells and stellate cells i) Middle purkinj cell layer contains Purkinje cells ii) Inner granular layer contains granule cells and Golgi cells, ction: cer ‘9 From the functional point of view the cerebellum is divided into three parts :- 1) Vestibulocerebellum (floceulonodular tobe) © This division contains loceulus™"""0%, and nodulus=""""0%, ic, flocculonodutar lobe. It receives afferent from the vestibular apparatus and sends efferents to the vestibular nucle! % 4» ‘Sons? directly without projecting on deep nucle”, It works with vestibular apparatus to :~ ’) Modulate muscular activity so as to achieve postural equilibrium or balance. 4) Coordinate movements of the eyes with movements of head, ie, vestibulo-ocular reflex*™= 2) Spinocerebellum © Tt-consists ofthe vermis and the adjacent medial portion of cerebellar hemisphere, It receives proprioceptive information from the body as well as a copy of the “Motor plan” from the motor cortex. © By comparing plan, it smoothens and coordinates movements that are ongoing’™5# "0, 3) Cerebrocerebelium (neocerebellum) «Its the large lateral portion of cerebellar hemisphere. They are the newest from a phylogenetic point of view and therefore also called neocerebellum. They interact with the motor cortex in planning and programming movementsMts0 rota br awe Tomadal consi Systems Metr Sin Teta! Bete sm ptr on Motor froer | HtegBRAIN [379 } Cerebellar peduncles ‘© Three cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum with three parts of brain stem, Le. midbrain, pons and medulla". %, Superior cerebellar peduncle connects midbrain to cerebellum, middle cerebellar peduncle ‘conrects pons to cerebellum, and inferior cerebellar peduncle connects medulla to cerebellum. All cerebellar afferents and efferents pass through these three peduncles. Peduncle Afferent tracts Efferent tracts ‘A. Superiorcetebellar 1. Anterior spinocerebellar 1. Cerebellonubral peduncle 2. Teotocerebellar 2. Dentatothalamie 3, Dentatoolivary 4, Fastigoreticular B, Middle cerebellar Pontocorebellar’"= ase peduncle (part of the corticapontocerebellar pathway) Inferiorcorebellar 1. Posterior spinocerebellar’"@/™#t".™" 1. Cerebellovestibular peduncle 2 Cuneocerebellar”!%” (posterior external 2 Cerebelloolivary arcuate fibres) 3. Corebellorcticular 3. Olivocerebellar*™” 4 Parolivocerebellar 5. Reticulocerebellar 6. Vestibulocerebullar "=!" 1% 7. Anterior external arcuate fibres 8. Striae medullares 9. Trigeminocerebellar u X_OF BRAIN The brain gets ¢ copious arterial supply ftom a pair of internal carotid and a pair of vertebral arteries. Both arterial systems form a polygonal anastomosis, circle of Willis, atthe base of brain around interpeduncular fossa. The intemal carotid arteries supply the frontal, parietal and part of temporal lobes, and vertebral arteries (through the basilar artery and its branches) supply the occipital and part of temporal lobes, together with the brain stem and cerebellum, INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY ‘© Cerebral part of ICA gives of in succession the ophthalmic, posterior communica ‘ovo terminal branches =the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. Ophthalmic artery 6 It supplies orbital structures. Out of many branches provided by the artery, the central artery of retina deserves special mention, The central artery of retina isan end artery", runs within the optic nerve” and reaches the retina atthe center of optic disc. Posterior communicating arterySt=> « Itprovides communication between ICA and posterior cerebral artery, ad forms apart of arterial circle of Willis Anterior choroid artery o'Itprovides supply to choroid plexus of the inferior hor, optic tract, uncus, amygdala, hippocampus, globus pallidus, Inieral geniculate body and the posterior limb and retrolentiform part of the internal capsule. Anterior cerebral artery 0 Ithas following branches i) Medial striate artery recurrent artery of Heubner) : It supplies caudate nucleus (ventral part), putamen, and anterior limb and genu of internal capsule il) Fronto-polar artery :Itsupplies medial and orbital surfaces of frontal lobe. ii) Orbital branches : It supplies medial and orbital surfaces of frontal lobe. iv) Calloso-marginal artery : Ik supplies the paracentral lobule and paris of gyrus eingul. | v). Pericallosal artery :\ supplies medial surface of parietal lobe and precuneous Middle cerebral artery 6 It supplies insular and lateral surface of frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes. \g°2ED, anterior choroid andBRAIN [380 | ‘YERTEBRAL ARTERY SYSTEM Vertebral artery arises from I* part of subclavian artery. Its course is divided into four pars and at the lower border cof pons, both vertebral arteries unite to form the basilar artery (course and branches of vertebra artery have been explained somewhere else inthis book). Cranial (intracranial) branches of vertebra artery are: 1) Anterior spinal artery : It supplies ‘median zone” of medulla"@*-un1s¥0, 2) Posterior spinal artery" : It supplies ‘posterior zone? of lower medulla which includes fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus with their mule, 3) Posterior inferior cerebellar artery" 4™ : tis the largest branch and supplies “itera zone’ of medulla dorsal to inferior olive, posterior part of cerebellum and choroid plexus ofthe 4" ventricle 4) Medullary branches” ; They supply medulla 3) Meningeal branches!” : They supply meninges. Basilar artery © Basilar artcry is single unpaired artery‘“™”, formed by union of right and left vertebral arteries. It ends at upper border of pons by dividing into right and left posterior cerebral arteries. Its branches are :~ ) Pontine branches"@™ : They supply pons. i) Anterior inferior cerebellar artery : It supplies cerebellum (anterioinferor part), pons and medulla at pontomedullary junction. iil) Superior cerebellar artery : It supplies cerebellum (superior surface), pons, pineal glind and superior medullary velum. iv) Labyrinthine artery” It supplies inner ear. ¥) Posterior cerebral artery%'*” ; Those are paired terminal branches of basilar artery. It gives following branches = 1) Contra branches :Itsupplies Thalamas™"4,lentiformmucleus, geniculate bodies, midbrain’, i) Posterior choroidal artery : It supplies choroid plexus of 3° and lateral ventricles. ii) Cortical branches : It supplies temporal be, occipital lobe (visual striate eorten/™¥5/% 411 Ra!m ons, CIRCLE OF WILLIS: The cireulus arteriosus of Willis forts a polygonal anastomotic channel between two internal carotid and two vertebral arteries. The circle is formed by - ')._Infront: Anterior communicating artery. ii) Anterolaterally "Two anterior cerebral artery" ii) Laterally: Proximal segments ofboth internal carotid arteries. iv) Postero-laterally: Two posterior communicating arteries". ¥) Behind ; Proximal segments ofboth posterior cerebral arteries", arising at bifurcating terminal of basilar artery. ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF DIFFERENT AREAS. Cerebral cortex ‘0 Cerebral cortex is supplied by branches of all three cerebral arteries. © All the three surface recieve branches from all three arteries. © But each surface is supplied predominantly by one artery - ) Middle cerebral artery is main artery on superolateral surface. ii) Anterior cerebral artery is cheif artery on medial surface, iil) Posterior cerebral artery is main artery on inferior surface.BRAIN[ 381 ] cher parts ‘Blood supply of other parts of brain Part of brain Blood supply Cerebellum ‘9 Superior cerebellar artery (branch of basilar artery) ‘9 Anterior inferior cerebellar artery (branch of basilar artery) ‘9 Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (branch of vertebral artery) Medulla 9 Verebral artery“? through following branches a Anterior spina ‘2 Posterior spinal @ Posterior inferior cerebellar artery 45?” a. Dirget medullary branches Basilar artery" Pons 9 Basilar artery through following branches 2 Paramedian 18 Short and long circumferential Superior cerebellar & Anterior inferior cerebellar Midbrain 9 Posterior cerebral artery ‘9 Superior cerebral artery 9 Basilar artery ‘Thalamus Posterior communicating artery © Basilar artery ‘9 Posterior cerebral artery Internal eapsule Has been explained previously. ENOUS DRAINAGE OF BRAIN rainage of cerebi sphere Superficial veins of the cerebral hemispheres 1. Superior cerebral veins drain blood from the superolateral and medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres into the superior sagittal sinus”. 2. Superficial middle cerebral vein « Ttruns along the posterior ramus and stem of lateral sulcus. It drains blood from superolateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere into the caverorus sinus. Tt communicates with the superior sagittal and transverse sinus through vein of Trolard and vein of Labbe repectively, Deep veins of the cerebral hemispheres 1. Internal cerebral veins (two)/"" : They are formed by the union of thalamostriate and choroid veins. ‘Tribataries are : (a) Thalamostriate vein, (b) Choroid vein, (c) Septal vein, (4) Epithalamic vein, (e) Lateral ventricular vein, 2. Basal veins (two) : They are formed by the union of : 8) Anterior cerebral vein ') Deep middle cerebral vein ©) Strate vein 3. Great cerebral vein of Galen”: tis formed by the union of two internal cerebral veiny®!-*, js 2 cm long and drains into the straight sinus W008 "8 094199, I5tebutaries are: (a) Internal cerebral veins, (b) Basal veins, (c) Occipital veins, (@ Posterior caltosal vein ‘Venous drainage of cerebellum 1 Superior cerebellar vein, drain into the great cerebral vein | 2. Inferior cerebellar veins, drain into adjacent venous sinuses. Venous drainage of Brainstem ‘Midbrain: Itis drained by basal and great cerebral veins. Pons: These veins terminate into basal, transverse, and petrosal sinuses. Meduila: These veins drain into basilar plexus of veins and inferior petrosal sinus,BRAIN [382 ] CLE! © These are cavities in the brain lined by ependyma and filled with CSF. They contain choroid plexuses wich secrete CSP. These ae four fluid filled intercommunicating cavities within the brain -(9 two lateral ventricles (right and lef), ) third ventricle, and (ii) fourth ventricle. Lateral ventricle communicates with third ventricle by interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro). Third ventricle communicates with fourth ventricle by cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of splvius). Fourth ventricle communicates with subarachnoid space by a median foramen (Mangendie) and two lateral (Luschka) foramina. ATERAL VENTRICLE © Two lateral ventricles are the cavities of cerebral hemisphere (one in each hemisphere). Each lateral ventricle ‘communicates with third ventricle through interventricular foramen of Monro. Is divisile into four parts :- 1) Central part (body) : Its located inthe medial pats of frontal and parietal lobes. It extends from interventricular foramen (of Monro) in front to splenium of corpus callosum behind. It has choroid plexus. It has ‘= 19 Roof’: Formed by corpus callosum. 12 Floor : Formed form lateral to medial by caudate nucleus (body), stria terminalis, thalemostriate vein, and lateral part of upper surface of thalamus. 2 Medial wall (partition between two lateral ventricles) : By septum pellucidum’ and body of fornix. 2) Anterior horn : I ies in front of interventricular foramen of Monro extending into the frontal lobe. It has no choroid plexus. Its bondries ate =~ 12 Anterior : Posterior surface of genu and rostrum of corpus eallosusih 12 Roof: Anterior part of trunk of corpus callosum. 12 Floor : Head of caudate nucleus and upper surface of rostrum of corpus callosum, 2 Medial (partition) : Septum pellucidum and column of fornix. 3) Posterior horn : It lies behind splenium of corpus callosum and extends iito oceipital lobe. Itrmay be variable in size (may be absent”). It has no choroid plexus. Its boundries are = ’) Floor and medial wait: Bulb of posterior horn raised by forceps major and ealear avis, an elevation raised. by calcarine sulcus (anterior part), ii) Roof and lateral wall : Tapetum 4) Inferior horn :Itis the largest horn and extends into temporal lobe. It has chorold plexus. Its boundries are = i) Roof and lateral wall: Tapetum, tail of caudate nucleus, sria terminalis and amygdaloid body. ii) Floor : Collateral eminence (elevation by collateral sulcus) and hippocampus medially. ‘THIRD VENTRICLE © Third ventricle is a midline eavity of diencephalon", Iisa median cleft between two thalami. Anterosuperiorly itcommunicaies with lateral ventricle through the interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro). Posteroinferiorl i ‘communicates with fourth ventricle through éerebral aqueduct (Duct of sylvius)®", There are four extensions (recesses) of tind ventricle : (2) Suprapineal recess, (b) Pineal recess, ()Infundibulsr recess, and (4) Optic recess. ‘9 Boundries of third ventricle are :- Anterior wall: Lamina terminal", anterior commissure, anterior columns of fornix. i) Posterior walt: Pineal body, posterior commissure, eeebral aqueduct. ii) Roof: Ependyma lining of under surface of tela choroidea of 3* ventricle, The choroid plexus of third ventricle projects downwards from roof. iv) Floor: Optic chiasma”, tuber cinereum, infundibulum” (pituitary stalk), mammillary body", posterior perforated substance and tegmentum of midbrain. Optic revess is seen atthe junction of floor with anterior wall ¥) Lateral wall: Medial surface of thalamus, hypothalamus and hypothalamic nuclei. Interventricula foramen (of ‘Monro) is seen atthe junction of roof with anterior and lateral wall 9 Interthalamic adhesion connects medial surface of two thalami, Thalami forms the lateral wall of ventricle. Thus, interthalamic adhesion connects lateral walls of 3" ventricle”, 9 Habenular stra lies atthe junction of roof and lateral wall. Two striae join posteriorly at habenular commissure 9 Anterior columns of fornix run backward from anterior wall and sink into lateral wall to reach mamillary body.BRAIN [383 ] EOURTH VENTRICLE © Ttis the cavity of hindbrain (rhombencephaton) lying between cerebellum (posteriorly), and poos and medulla (nteriorly). Superiorly Itcommunicates with 3* ventricle through cerebral aqueduct"? (aqueduct of ylvius). Inferiorly it communicates with central canal through a median (magendie) and two lateral (Luschka) foraminia It has lateral boundries, floor, roof and a cavity Lateral boundries (0 Superolateralty Itis formed by superior cerebellar peduncle, Fuferolaterally it is formed by gracile and cuneate tubercles, and inferior cerebellar pedunctes””™ Roof ‘0 Upper partis formed by convergence of superior cerebellar peduncles and superior medullary velum. Lower partis, formed by ependyma of 4 ventrile and piamater of tela choroidea of 4 ventricle, and inferior medullary velum, Roof possess a pair of choroid plexuses"? Floor (Rhomboid fossa”) © It is diamond or rhomboidal shaped and is formed by posterior surface of pons (upper triangular part or pontine part) and dorsal surface of medulla (lower triangular part or medullary pari) junction of pons and medulla forms intermediate part. Features of 4 ventricle are ’) Median sulcus (a midline groove) divides the floor into two symmetrical halves. ii) Medial eminence is present an each side of median sulcus. presents facia colliculus formed by genu (recurving fibers) of facial nerve looping around abducent nucleus!*""*2, Facial colliculus lies in pons!" (ie. in pontine part of floor) ii) Hypoglossal triangle overlying hypoglossal nucleus/""?*2 ond vagal triangle overlying dorsal nucleus of vagus"#"".”2, Both ofthese triangle lic in the medulla (medullary part of floor) iv) Vestibular area overlies vestibular nuclei, partly in pons and partly in medulla ¥) Sulcus coeruleus, 2 bluish area due to presence of pigmented neurons containing substantia ferruginea. vi) Superior and inferior favea OTHER IMPORTANT PARTS OF BRAIN BASAL GANGLIA © The basal ganglia, like the cerebellum, constitute another accessory motor system that function not by itself but in close association with the cerebral cortex and corticospinal motor conttol system. Infact, the basal ganglia receive ‘most of their input signals from the cerebral cortex itself and also return almost all their output signals back to the cortex, ‘0 The basal ganglia consist of eaudate nucleus", Putamen“#22, Globus pallidus, Subthalamie nucleus and substantia nigra. Substantia nigra is divided into pars compacta ond pars reticulata. Caudate nucleus and putamen are collectively called the striatum which receive mast of the afferent input coming to the basal ganglia. Globus pallidus and Substantia nigra are the principal output nuclei, ie., the efferents arise feom these. ‘The basal ganglia are involved in planning and programming of movement ""*” or more broadly in the process by which an abstract thought is converted into a voluntary action “!™%, Like, lateral cerebellum, neurons in the basal ganglia discharge before the movements begin. They influence the motor cortex via the thalamus, and corticospinal tract is the final common pathway to motor neuron. Putamen circuit is involved in complex pattern motor activity and skilled movement "Ps, © Basal ganglia is part of extrapyramidal system and therefore is involved in regulation of tone and posture. © The basal ganglia, particularly the caudate nuclei, also play 2 role in some cognitive proces —> So, eaudate nucleus lays a major role in cognitive control of motor activity. MBI M © Inthe vicinity of conpus collosum and diencephalon are a numberof features that have come to be known collectively as limbic system. It plays a role in abstract functins as emotion, behavior, mood and memory, The limbie system consists of = 1) Olfactory pathway comprising olfactory nerves, olfactory bulb, olfactory nucleus and olfactory tracts i) Pyriform lobe (including uncus and entorhinal area). ii) Amygdaloid body and its efferent pathways (sria terminalis, ventral amy gdalofugal fibres) iv) Hippocampal formation’ comprising indusium griscum and longitudinal striae, gyrus fasciolaris, dentate gyrus", hippocampus, parshippocampal gyrus, subicular complex", entorhinal eortex“”™alveus,fimbria and fornix.ao) Limbic lobe which includes septal area, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus. vi) Hypothalamus, anterior nucleus of thalamus, habenular nucleus, interpeduncular nucleus, mid brain tegmental et cli, stria medullaris thalami, fasciculus retroflexus, medial forebrain bundle. forat It isan irregularly quadrilateral area perforated by numerous small blood vessels penetrating lateral leticulostriate arteries arising from 1 part of middle cerebral arteries and lying infront of optie tract and behind olfactory trigone. ‘Iti apart of basal forebrain, i a region of gray matter in limbic system immediately posterior to gyrus rectus. Its gray ‘matter is confluent above with corpus striatum, Tt s bounded :~ A) Medially : Medial relations are B) 4) Anteromedial : Medial olfactory striae i) Immediate medial: Optic tract and chiasma, ii) Posteromedial: Optic tract. Laterally: Lateral relations are = 9) Anterolateral: Lateral olfactory stra, i) Immediate lateral: Limen insulae!"™ (gyrus ambiens) ii) Posterolateral : Uncus.