1.What do you mean by federalism?

Compare and contrast

between holding together and coming together type federalism
with example.
Federalism

It is a political system where a country is divided into different

autonomous states or provinces under a constitutional agreement. Each
state or provinces has a separate government along with its federal
government in the center.

Advantages:

1) Maintain close relationship between the government and its people.

2) Conflict may settle at local level.
3) Maximum use of means and resources.
4) Does not hamper the country even if the central government is
dissolved.
5) No need to depend upon the center for everything.
6) Increment of public participation in government activities.
7) Local and ethnic art ,culture and heritages can be well protected.
8) Accelerate development activities.
9) Helps to maintain balanced population distribution.
10) Creates a protection against tyranny

11)Encourages a system of cooperation.

Disadvantages:

1) Unequal distribution of means and resources between the states may

cause unequal development and misunderstanding may cause the conflict
among the states.
2) It is more expensive than unitary system.
3) There may be misunderstanding between federal and provincial
government regarding the sharing of power and responsibilities.
4) It can encourage to pass ridiculous laws.
5) It can be structured to benefit only rich.
6) The province may demand different state which may become danger to
the national integrity.
Similarities between Coming Together and Holding Together Federalism:
 a. Both of them have two tiers of government one at center and one at
state or province.
b. Both of them have written constitution which formally allocates
legislative including fiscal powers to the two orders of government
ensuring autonomy for each other.
c. Both of them have a set of procedures and institutions for
facilitating or conducting relations between governments.
d. Both of them are based on the devolution of powers.
e. Both of them share open interaction between the Centers and
Province or States.
f. Both of them can have variations in rules and regulations at Central
and Provincial or State levels.
g. Both of them promotes social inclusion and use of local resources.
Difference between Coming together and Holding together federalism

Coming Together Federalism Holding Together Federalism

1. It involves independent states a. It involves the large country
coming together on their own to deciding to divide its power
form a bigger unit. between the constituent states and
national government.
2. In coming together, units try to b. In holding together, there is
increase their security by pooling absence of pooling sovereignity
sovereignity and retaining identity. and retaining identity.
3. In this category, all the c. In this category, central
constituent units usually have government tend to be more
equal power and are strong equal powerful than the states and the
to the central government. units have unequal powers.
4. States can challenge and go d. States cannot challenge and go
against the decision of the center. against the decision of the center.
Eg: USA, Switzerland, Australia Eg: Nepal, India, Spain

2.What do you mean by the term governance? Discuss the

importance of local governance and global governance with
example.
Governance:

It came from the Latin verb "gubenare" or more originally from the Greek word
"kubarnein" which means " to steer". Basing on its etymology, it refers to the
manner of steering or governing or directing and controlling group of state or
people. It is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political
leaders for well-being of their country's citizens or subjects. It is a complex
process by which some sectors of the society wield power and enact and
promulgate public policies which directly affect human and institutional
interactions and economic and social development.

Importance of Local Governance:

It is a more or less polycentric system in which a variety of actors are engaged
in local public decision making process. It is a process of inclusive decision
making where local governments and other relevant actors participate in
decision making to agree and implement essential tasks and basic services that
affect the daily life. It is a process by which authority, power, resources and
accountability are transferred from central to local levels. It came into fashion in
the middle of 1990s.

Basic Elements of the Local Governance:

a. Participation

b. Equity

c. Transparency.

d. Accountability

e. Rule of law

f. Legitimacy

Main Actors of Local Governance:

a. State (Executive, Legislative and Judiciary ) creates the conductive political

and legal environment.

b. Local Government provides institutional and administrative framework for

conducting community affairs.

c. Private Sector provides the foundation for economic growth and

development.

d. Civil Society facilitate social and political interaction.

Importance of Local Governance:

1. It protects the local interest concerning the livelihood of the community.

2. It promote good governance and build partnership with Civil Society, Private
Sector and Government units of the local level.

3. It helps to express the will of the local people.

4. It helps in developing local leadership.

5. It helps to have the authority to right to decide local taxes on the territory.

6. It helps in the local community participation in the decision making process

or local management of local affairs.

7. It helps to develop more effective and integrated public policies.

8. It is less vulnerable to the excessive departmentalism.

Local Governance during COVID-19

Many local bodies were active during this crisis. The leaders of local
government sealed their own local area after they were hit by COVID-19. Some
leader were engaged in distributing relief. During this crisis, when Federal
Government of Nepal is facing criticism from every sector of the society, local
bodies has helped the people. Some locally elected official took responsibilities
of migrant workers to send them home. Some officials were engaged in making
quarantine.

Global Governance

Global Governance is a purposeful order that emerges from institutions,

processes, norms, formal agreements, and informal mechanisms that regulate
action for a common good. Global governance encompasses activity at the
international, transnational, and regional levels, and refers to activities in the
public and private sectors that transcend national boundaries. In this conception
of global governance, cooperative action is based on rights and rules that are
enforced through a combination of financial and moral incentives. Methods of
global governance include harmonization of laws among states, international
regimes, global policy issue networks, and hybrid institutions that combine
functions of state agencies and private sector organizations. In its current
conception, global governance implies democratic governance.

Principle of Global Governance:

 1. Common but differentiate responsibilities and respective capacity.
2. Subsidiarity
3. Inclusiveness, transparency and accountability
4. Coherence
5. Responsible Soveriegnity
Importance of Global Governance:

a. Creating an international rule of law.

b. Regulating the global economy and providing global public goods.
c. Redistribution at the international law.
d. When state fails a safety net for the most vulnerable.
e. To fight with global pandemic like COVID-19, terrorism, poverty,etc.
f. Finding solutions of the economic crisis.
g. Promoting globalization
Global governance in COVID-19:

After COVID-19 hit the world, many global governance institutions like
WHO, UN, OECD, EU, etc became aware. They started the guidelines to
fight against the COVID-19, some countries like Taiwan, India shared their
vaccines, masks with other countries, some provided economic assistance to
those countries who are badly hit with the COVID-19. In this time of
COVID-19, we can see the work of global governance institutions.

3.Define decentralization. Compare and contrast between

deconcentration, power delegation and devolution type of
decentralization.
Decentralization
It is the establishment of local bodies outside the regular bureaucratic structure.
It is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the
central government to subordinate or quasi-independent local bodies or private
sector. It refers to the restructuring of authority so that there is a system of co-
responsibility between the institutions of governance at the central, regional and
local levels.
Strengths of decentralization:
1.     Emphasis bottom up approach
2.     Decision making will be democratic
3.     Increasement in participation and accountability
4.     Decision making will be closer to the public
5.     better able to address the local needs effectively
6.     good way of training and developing leaders
7.     organizational change due to the interactions
Drawbacks of the Decentralization:
1.     Worsens the service delivery in the absence of effective controls and oversight
2.     deteriorates service quality due to over burden and out of capacity of local
government
3.     local elites gain undue advantage by overcoming rules
4.     creates new ethnic and religious rivalries
5.     may lead to regional imbalances
Deconcentration

It is considered to be the weakest form of decetralisation and used in unitary

states. It is simply the transfer of power and functions from the central
organization to their respective field level agencies which morally work for the
central government and do not enjoy the autonomy. The decentralization in the
deconcentration form is the decision making discretionary and the lattitute to
the plans of the center. The transfer of authority includes the transfer of
authority for specific decision making, financial and management functions by
the same jurisdictional authority of the central government. It doesnot suffer
from the organizational discontinuity.

Delegation

It refers to the transfer of government decision making and administrative

authority or responsibility for completing specified tasks to institutions or
organisations that are either under government indirect control or semi
independent. It leads to the formation of semi-autonomous body. In other
words, it is a process of transferring authority or power to one or more persons
who act on behalf of others. It is usually done according to the set of certain
rules/legal contract.

Devolution
It refers to the creating, strengthening and transferring power and functions to
the autonomous lower level such as local units that are legally constituted as
separate governance bodies. It provides opportunities for the effective
participation in the local level decision making process. It helps to promote
democracy at the grass root levels so that the local representation might gather
experience to be able tomorrow for the natural level progamming. Through
devolution, central government distributes certain functions or creates new units
of government that are outside of its control. In the devolution, local bodies are
elected locally.

Similarities between Deconcentration, Devolution and Delegation of powers:

a. Both of them are forms of decentralization.

b. Both of them involves the transfer of power from center to the
autonomous or semi-autonomous body
c. Both of them try to to address the local needs effectively
d. Both of them emphasis bottom-up, political and cultural learning.
Difference between Deconcentration, Delegation of power and Devolution

Deconcentration Delegation of Power Devolution

It is simply the transfer It refers to the transfer It refers to the creating,
of power and functions of government decision strengthening and
from the central making and transferring power and
organization to their administrative authority functions to the
respective field level or responsibility for autonomous lower level
agencies which morally completing specified such as local units that
work for the central tasks to institutions or are legally constituted as
government and do not organisations that are separate governance
enjoy the autonomy. either under government bodies.
indirect control or semi
independent.
It doesnot lead to the It leads to the formation It leads to the formation
formation of any of semi-autonomous of autonomous bodies.
autonomous bodies. bodies.
It involves very limited It involves some transfer It involves transfer of
or less transfer of of authority. authority,
authority.
The decision making is The decision making is The decision making is
discretionary and mixture of autonomy fully autonomous.
latitude to the plans of and influence from
the center. center.
It is most suitable in the It is most suitable in the It is most suitable in the
unitary system. both federal and unitary federal system as
system. provinces or states are
formed according to the
devolution of power.
The formed body is The formed body is The formed body is
appointed by the center. appointed by the center. appointed by the local
people.
It doesnot provide the It doesnot create the It creates the
effective participation of same environment as environment for
people. devolution for effective effective participation.
participation.
Example: Example:District Example: Municipality
Decentralization Act Administration Plan Act 2047, VP Act 2047
2038, Decentralization
Act 1982

4.Discuss an account of the state restructuring of Nepal best on

the constitution of Nepal 2015 as a federal democratic republic.
Federal : Our country adopted federalism in 2075 BS. Our country is divided
into 7 Provinces with One Federal Government. The agenda of federalism came
during People Movement II. Basically, federal means a country which has
adopted federalism and is divided into states or provinces. After the declaration
of Constitution 2075, Nepal was declared as Federal country.

Democratic: Our country got democracy in 2007 BS from the autocratic Rana
Regime. After Democracy, people appointed their leaders and formed Interim
Constitution 2007 which declared Nepal as Democratic Country.

Republic: Our Country became republic in 2063 BS after the last Shah King
Gyanendra resigned from his throne and gave the throne to the people. Later the
Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 BS declared our Country Federal
Democratic Republic.

State Restructuring in Nepal

The issue of state restructuring in Nepal came after by the great Nepali people
in the people’s Movement 2006 and its achievements, the Interim Constitution
of Nepal 2007 has been promulgated. According to the article 33(4) of the
constitution, it has made provision that there will be progressive, inclusive and
democratic state restructuring to end the existing centralized and unitary
structure of the state including all discriminations based on class, caste,
language, gender, culture, religion and region. So the present state must be
restructured for complete overhauling of the age old cultural, psychological and
economic dependence and malaise of Nepalese society and for establishing
institutional development of the democratic republic with appropriate
constitutional and structural arrangements so as people’s sovereign power could
be exercised from grassroots levels(community, village, setttlements).
Features of Old Nepal
• 75 Districts
• 14 Anchal
• 5 Development Regions
• One Government (Nepal Sarkar)
• One Official Language
• One National Dress
• One citizenship
• One bureaucracy
• Hinduism as a state religion
Features of New Nepal
Constitution of Nepal 2075
Nepal as a Federal Democratic Republic
State to be divided into 7 Provinces
Districts to be redefined
Local Units under province government
Three tiers of Government:1 Federal Government,7 Provincial and Local
Government (753Local Units; 6 Metropoliton, 276 Urban Municipalities, 460
Rural Municipality)
More than one provincial state
Federal and provincial bureaucracy
Secular state
Big questions for state restructuring
• What steps to be taken for making people more powerful to restructure
the state in a progressive manner?
• What helps restructure the state mechanism so as to promote general
welfare of the people?
• How can this process be made more participatory and inclusive?

5.Define good governance. Mention silent features of good

governance. Discuss the role of any three constitutional bodies in
maintaining good governance in Nepal.
Good Governance:
It is a subset of governance wherein public resources and problems are
managed effectively and in response to critical needs of the society. It is a
term which used to encompass: full respect of effective participation, human
rights, rule of law, multi actor partnerships, accountable processes,
pluralism, transparent and institutions, an efficient and effective public
sector, legitimacy, access to knowledge, information and education. It refers
to the public administration process that maximizes the public interests.
Importance of Good Governance:
1. It conducts and manage public affairs and resources to guarantee
human rights.
2. It maintains public participation, accountability and transparency
3. It makes the government work effectively and legitimate in
administrative system.
4. It promotes and sustains holistic human development.
Elements or Characteristics of the Good Governance:
1. Participation
Participation means active involvement of all stakeholders in the
process of development by policy making, prioritizing issues,
accessibility to public goods and services and also allocating
resources. It is the political dimension of the good governance. Good
Governance requires the participation of all men and women including
physical challenged one. Traditionally, the participation was
recognized as the "top-down approach" which refers to the
government monopoly in both responsibilities and power. But today,
the government works in hand with other sectors of the society and
considers them the partners of government in attaining different goals
which is knows as "horizontal system" or " bottom-up approach".
From human rights stand, people have the rights to participate in
decisions that affect them and also seek justice if they are denied of
these rights.
2. Rule of Law
It means that everybody in the system is equal before the law and the
law is implemented in impartial manner. It is an essential ingredient of
Good Governance and cornerstone of democracy. Good Governance
requires fair legal framework that are enforced impartially and
protects human rights. Through the rule of law people express their
will and exercise their soverignity. It sees that the operating and
functioning environment of the society must be based on objectives
laws and there must not be any fancies of anyone who is powerful or
influential. The rule of law demands the following things:
a. People and civil society renders habitual obedience to the rule of
law.
b. Government acts within the functions and powers prescribed by the
law.
c. Laws are responsive to the needs of the society.
The absence of rule of law is anarchy and it happened when people act
in disregard of the law or the government acts beyond their powers.
The strengthening of rule of law sees reforms in enforcement
agencies. In conclusion, rule of law means "peace and order",
"absence of corruption","impartial and effective judiciary system",
"observance and protection of human rights" and "clear,publicized and
stable laws".
3. Equity and Inclusiveness
Equity means everyone is equal and has equal opportunity in a
community disregard of his or her cast, gender, color, race, religion or
faith and social status. Inclusiveness means consideration of interests,
aspirations and opinions of all individuals and groups living in a
society while formulating plans and policies meant for the society.
Equity and inclusiveness are the bases of the human rights standard of
a society and essence of social justice as a fundamental principle of
governance within a human community. A society's well being
depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have
partnership in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of the
society. It is based on the principle that who have less in life should
have more in laws.
4. Transparency
It means that processes, institutions and information are directly
accessible to all the people of the society. It is built on the free flow of
information. It promotes the openness of government action, decision
making processes and consultative processes among public sector and
all stakeholders. It can be strengthened through the citizen's right to
information with a degree of legal enforceability. As an indicator of
the good governance, it means people are open to information
regarding decision making process and the implementation of the
same. Lack of transparency in the society creates environment for
corruption which is harmful to the progress and welfare of the society.
5. Responsiveness
It means that the requests and requirements of the people are
addressed in the punctual manner. A deliberative unnecessary delay
by the service providers in performing their duties towards the people
must be avoided at any cost. It must be ensured that service delivery
system must have a provision of the time and period clause to
accomplish their duties within a predictable time.
6. Consensus and Legitimacy
Consensus usually means collaboration rather than compromise. To
secure the peace and harmony there must be the consensus among the
various stakeholders, hence, the governance structure and functioning
obtains legitimacy from whole community. To meet the consensus, a
strong, impartial and flexible meditation structure must be established.
Instead of one opinion being adopted by a plurality, stakeholders are
brought together until a convergent decision is developed. Consensus
decision making is a process that not only seeks an agreement of most
participants but also mitigates the objectives of the minority to achieve
the most agreeable decision. Public hearings or consultations in
arriving at a consensus are necessary in the process of governance.
7. Effectiveness and Efficiency
It is the technical aspect of the good governance. The concept of
efficiency in the good governance covers the sustainable use of natural
resources and the protection of the environment. Good governance
requires that the institutions, processes and actors could deliver and
meet the necessities of the society in a way that available resources are
utilized efficiently and effectively. Efficiency and effectiveness of
resources must go necessarily together to ensure the best possible
results for the community. To achieve effectiveness and efficiency,
good governance principles prescribe a competitive economic
environment, capacity building of the institutions and required training
to the personnel.
8. Accountability
It means that decision makers in the government sector are answerable
to the public as well as to the institutional stakeholders for their action
or lapses. It also means answerability or responsibility for one's action.
Principle of Accountability:
 a. Every person or group is responsible for their action most especially
when their acts affect public interests.
b. Information sharing and transparency must be promoted by
government structures.
Constitutional bodies refer to those institutions that are created by the
Constitution itself. They are different from statutory bodies which are created
by a law or statute. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 provides for several
constitutional bodies and commissions which have their own value and
importance. Constitutional Bodies in Nepal are mentioned below:

a. Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA)

b. Office of the Attorney General
c. Office of the Auditor
d. Election Commission
e. National Human Rights Commission
f. National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission
Role of CIAA to maintain Good Governance

Transparency and Accountability is one of the characteristics of the Good

Governance. A nation cannot enjoy if there is corruption and the government
officials are not accountable to the people. In this case, the role of CIAA
becomes very important. Constitution of Nepal has empowered CIAA to
investigate and probe cases against the persons holding any public office and
their associates who are indulged in the abuse of authority by way of
corruption. As a constitutional body, the authority vested on CIAA are as per
the Article 238 and 239 of the Constitution of Nepal. CIAA not only
investigate cases but it also file case against any government officials who
has been involved in corruption. The main aim of CIAA is to conduct
inquiries and investigations of improper conduct of authority by person
holding any office except Nepal Army.

Role of Office of the Auditor General to maintain Good Governance

Transparency, Efficiency and Effectiveness is one of the characteristics of the

Good Governance. Every government offices makes expenditure. Some of the
offices make unusual expenditures which are not according to the law and the
main aim of the Auditor General is to audit and find out these expenditures.
Office of the Auditor General (OAGN) is a constitutional body and the
supreme audit institution of Nepal. It derives its mandate from Article 241 of
the Constitution of Nepal and Audit Act, 2075 (2019 A.D.). The Auditor
 General is empowered to undertake audits of Office of the President and Vice-
President, Supreme Court, Federal Parliament, Provincial Assemblies,
Provincial Governments, Constitutional bodies or their offices, courts, the
Office of the Attorney General and the Nepal Army, Nepal Police and Armed
Police as well as of all other government offices and courts with due
consideration given to the regularity, economy, efficiency, effectiveness and the
propriety of government expenditures.
Role of National Human Rights Commission in Good Governance
Inclusion, Participation and Equity is one of the characteristics of the good
governance. A nation cannot achieve good governance when its citizens are
treated unequally and are discriminated on the basis of gender, caste and other
factors and the Human Rights of the citizens are compromised. In this case ,
NHRC plays as watchmen to guard the rights of the citizens. The National
Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of Nepal is an independent and
autonomous constitutional body. It was established in the year 2000 as a
statutory body under the Human Rights Commission Act 1997 (2053 BS). The
Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 (2063 BS) made the NHRC a constitutional
body. It has a separate sphere of responsibilities in the constitutional legal
system of the country. These responsibilities complement the responsibilities of
the normal machinery of the administration of Justice, the Supreme Court, the
Office of the Attorney General, the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse
of Authority, and other existing executive, quasi-judicial or judicial bodies of
Nepal.
NHRC maintains good governance by performing following functions:

1. Respect, Protect and Promote human rights and ensure effective

enforcement of human rights.
2. Inquire on petition or complaint sent to the Commission and investigate
complaints about the violations of human rights of an individual or group and
make recommendation for action against the perpetrators.
3. Recommend to the concerned authority to take departmental action
against any official, who fails to fulfill or perform his or her responsibility or
duty or shows reluctance in preventing violations of human rights.
4. Recommend to file a case in the court in accordance with law against any
person or organization who has violated human rights.
5. Coordinate and collaborate with the civil society in order to enhance
awareness on human rights.
6. Carry out periodic reviews of the relevant laws relating to human rights
and make recommendation to the Government of Nepal for necessary
improvements and amendments to such laws.
7. Recommend Government of Nepal for the implementation of any
international treaty or agreement on human rights, to which Nepal is a party.
8. Publish, in accordance with law, the names of the officials, persons or
bodies who have failed to observe or implement any recommendations or
directives made or given by the Commission in relation to the violations of
human rights, and record them as violators of human rights.
6.Discuss based on your own ideas that decentralization,
democratic governance and development of a nation go hand in
hand.
Decentralization: It is the establishment of local bodies outside the regular
bureaucratic structure. It is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public
functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent local
bodies or private sector. It refers to the restructuring of authority so that there is
a system of co-responsibility between the institutions of governance at the
central, regional and local levels.
Development: According to MP tomato, development is process of improving
the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects:
A) Raising people's living levels i.e. income and consumption, level of foods,
medical services, education through relevant growth process.
B) Creating conditions conductive to the growth of peoples self esteem
through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and
institutions which promote human dignity and respect.
C) Increasing peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their
choice variables eg; varieties of goods and services.
Democratic Governance: It is running the government according to the
principles of democracy i.e. increasing participation of people, listening the
opinions of people on public policy. Democratic governance runs on the
principle of: of the people,by the people, from the people and for the people
Relationship between Decentralization, Democratic Governance and
Development:
As above mentioned in the definition, decentralization transfers the authority
from the center to the people. This transfer of authority enables the people to
develop development according to their needs, increase their participation,
making people freedom to choose their leaders and policy. These all are the
aspirations of development and democratic governance. The above mentioned
definition of development according to Todaro clearly shows the principle of
decentralization and democratic governance. The main point of Todaros
definition are:
A) Raising people's living levels i.e. income and consumption, level of foods,
medical services, education through relevant growth process.
 The rise mentioned in this definition can only be achieved through
decentralization since if the authority over resources and finance comes on
the hand of the people.
B) Creating conditions conductive to the growth of peoples self esteem
through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and
institutions which promote human dignity and respect.
The conditions described in the above point can only be achieved when
there is democratic governance and decentralization. When there is
democratic governance, people can express their opinions and views which
help to build their self-esteem and the required social, political and
economic systems and institutions is only possible when the
decentralization is effectively implemented.
C) Increasing peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their
choice variables eg; varieties of goods and services.
Freedom to choose and Freedom to express can only be achieved through
the democratic governance. Country which is ruled under the autocracy can
never achieve and never allow the freedom to the people.

The main requirement of democratic governance is decentralization.

Democratic Governance is only possible through the decentralization.
Democratic governance runs according to the principle and proposal of
decentralization where people can choose their leaders and where the authority
resides on the hands of the people. In the absence of decentralization, the
existence of democratic governance is only myth. In the unitary states, the
democratic governance is almost impossible since people are not allowed to
choose their leaders.
Development is not only about the economic growth but rather a freedom to
express opinions. When there is not that freedom, the democratic governance
has not any authenticity.
Conclusion: Hence, decentralization, democratic governance and
decentralization are the three sides of the triangle and these can’t exist without
others.

7.Describe the meaning of public policy. Discuss the salient

futures and public policy making cycle in reference to Nepal.
Public Policy

It is the instrument by which government translates political vision into

deliverable outcomes for achieving desired changes. It is the system of laws,
regulatory measures, courses of action and funding priorities concerning a
national agenda promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives.
The formula of successful public policy is rationality, logic to produce desired
outcomes, emotional effectiveness for motivated association and strategic
actions to lead policy implementations.

Characteristics of Public Policy:

a. It is purposive or goal oriented.

b. It follows a pattern of action.
c. It is either positive or negative in form.
d. It is an actual doing of government.
e. It is based on law and authoritative action.
Stages of Public Policy
Public Policy making is difficult to describe. The process is obscure at
best and at its worst it seems underhanded. This is the nature of politics
and politics for many people has negative connotations. Hence, it would
be unrealistic and even incorrect to say that the formulation of policy
follows a clear and consistent pathway or route. Policy formulation is
actually an involved and sometimes haphazard process that differs widely
depending upon the concern being addressed. Sometimes it is a long and
winding road with lots of detours and stops along the way. Despite the
variation in the public policy processes, there are some general steps that
are common to policy formulation which are described below:
Stage I: Setting the Agenda
It is the first step in public policy formulation. Agenda is the list of
subject or problem to which government officials and people outside the
government officials are paying some serious attention at any given
period. At this stage problems requiring government to take actions are
identified by government. Following are the things which determine the
agenda:
a. Ideology
Every society operates in a separate ideology. A policy must be
according to the ideology of the society.
b. Politics
It is the second thing that matter on the agenda. A political perspective
is adopted not necessarily related to any political party and issues
related to that particular perspective are likely to receive
consideration.
c. Economics
Though politics play major role in policy formulation, political parties
do not formulate their manifestos in an empty and they must consider
economics. Here economics means resources which are used to do
 about an issue. The behavior of national and international economy
affects the agenda of public policy making.
d. Crises
It gives rise agenda for public policy. Crises like the HIV/AIDS, the
Gulf War, various terrorist activities and many others demands a
policy to counter them. Sometimes crisis means a rethinking of a
whole area of public policy.
e. Pressure
Pressure from different groups also give rise agenda for public policy.
Public pressure may be applied even without a crisis situation if a
group is sufficiently well organized and well resourced to force
attention.
Stage II: Formulating the Answers

The responses to the demand for public policies primarily depends upon
which resources are required and how they may be required. There are
especially three types of resources used for formulating public policies:

a. Material: It includes finance, land and capital.

b. Technical: It includes expertise, efficiency and effectiveness.
c. Support: It includes support from various stakeholders.
Stage III: Making Decision

Policy is prepared by experts but the decision to be implemented is taken by

politicians. Making decision includes the following:

a. Making a Decision: It means a relatively open agenda with a number of

different options to consider including the decision not to decide at all.
b. Taking a Decision: It means agreement with a proposal that is set out in
full detail before the legislator. It is the government that sets the agenda
and formulate policies.
Stage IV: Implementing the Decision

Once the decision is made, it is implemented by the executive branch of the

government. It requires the same resources as those required for policy
formulation such as finance, land and capital.

Stage V: Evaluation

It is the final stage. It includes the monitoring, analysis , criticism and

assessment of existing or proposed policies. It’s purpose is not to justify a
 policy rather to check its effectiveness so that if it is seen to be unsuccessful
it may be adjusted.

 
Nature of Public Policy
According to Anderson (1975), “the nature of public policy as a course of action
can be better or fully understood if it is broken down into number of categories,
these being policy policy demands, decisions, statements, outputs and
outcomes. In practice, they will not necessarily occur in a neat sequential
order."
1. Policy demands
Policy demands are the claims made by individuals or other actors with the
government in a political system for action or inaction on some perceived
problem. Such demands may range from a general insistence that the
government ought to do something to a proposal for specific action on the
matter. There are various factors which gives rise a need of policy demand.
They may be as for examples, the ideology of democracy, political factor,
economic factor, and pressure of general public (Mather 2001). This has
enforced the government to formulate a particular policy to overcome the
problem. In the Nepalese case, an increasing pressure from the general public to
band polluted vehicles in Kathmandu valley had forced the government to
realize a need to control pollution produced by such vehicles. Similarly, due to
an increasing pressure from donor communities to undertake economic reform
programs to achieve macroeconomic stability, had forced the government to
realize a need of economic reforms in Nepal in the decade of eighties.
2. Policy decisions
Realizing a need of policy, the next step is to make policy decision. Policy
decisions are the decisions made by public officials that authorize or give
direction and content to public policy actions as accordance to the demand of
individuals or other actors of a political system (Anderson 1975). It includes
decision to enact a law or policy by the parliament, issues executive orders or
edicts, promulgate administrative rules, or make important judicial
interpretation of the-law. For example, after realizing the need to control
environmental pollution, the government enacted the Nepal Mass Emission
Standard 1994. In the same way, realizing need to reform the economy, the
government initiated various programs including external sector reform,
privatization and liberalization, and financial sector reform to liberalize the
economy after the restorati of a multiparty democracy in 1990. All these are
policy decision made by the in course of materializing policy demand.
3. Policy statements
Policy statements are a formal expression or articulation of public policy They
include legislative statutes, executive orders and decrees, administrative rules
and regulations, and court opinions. In addition, it includes statement and
speech made by public officials indicating intentions and goals of realize them.
The policy statements are sometimes ambitious and policies issued by different
agencies of a political system may be responsibility of the top political leaders
to make the policy statement as realistic as possible and to reconcile conflicting
interest of the stakeholder.

5. Policy outputs
Policy outputs are tangible manifestation of public policies. It is what the
government does as distinguished from what it says - it is going to do.The
matters like tax collection, highway construction, provision of irrigation
facilities, distribution of drinking water telephone lines and electricity, and
school enrollment ae policy output. As for example, during the Ninth Plan, the
government had the policy statement to bring down poverty level to 32%, it is
the policy output.
6.Policy Outcomes
Policy outcomes are the consequences for a particular social group or groups,
intended or unintended, that flow form action or inaction by the government
(Anderson 1975). Policy outcomes show effect of public policies on life of the
people. In other words, it shows whether there is divergence between policy
output and policy outcomes, i.e.. commitment and outcome. In the Nepalese
context, several programs have been implemented to reduce poverty, to reduce
inequality, and to generate employment opportunities. In order to see the policy
outcome, we should study about their effect in the society, on where the policies
are being implemented. As for example, how much improvement was brought
on the living standard of the people, how much of employment opportunity was
generated by the programs, how much of the inequality was reduced h the
poverty alleviation programs, how much of the poor got institutional credit
facilities. Questions such as these may be quite difficult to answer, but they
direct our attention to assess the impact of public policy.