Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Shell Structures
AN INTRODUCTION TO
Shell Structures
THE ART AND SCIENCE
OF VAULTING
Michele Melaragno
Professor of Architecture and Building Sciences
The University of North Carolina at Charlotte
16 15 14 13 12 11 109 B 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface xi
Acknowledaments xiii
Part I
WOOD AND MASONRY DOMES
vii
Contents
Further Development 79
The End of an Era 86
Notes 88
4. Dome Technologies 89
Structural Systems 89
Domes: Basic Forces 90
Lanterns and Skylights 96
The Structural Characteristics of Masonry 96
Basic Vaulting 99
From Masonry to Concrete 100
Timbrel Vaulting 100
The Erection of Domes-Early Technology 102
Ceramic Domes for Developing Countries 105
Wooden Domes 106
Notes III
Part II
CONCRETE SHELLS: FUNDAMENTALS AND CASE STUDIES
5. Thin Shells 11 5
Shells and Surface Structures 11 5
Thin Shells and Space Frames 116
Curvature and Strength I 16
Shell Thickness 1I 8
Shells in Nature 120
The Origins of Man-made Shells 121
Overall Structural Equilibrium 122
Floating Concrete Shells for Boats and Ships 123
Prestressed Hulls 125
Ferrocement Hulls at Present 126
Notes 127
viii
Contents
Part III
PRACTICAL AIDS FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF THIN SHELLS
ix
Contents
Part IV
SKELETAL STEEL STRUCTURES AND MEGADOMES
Epiiooue 341
Appendix A ACI Buildino Code Requirements for Thin Shells and Folded Plates 343
Appendix B Excerpts from The Engineering Index Manual 1989 359
Selected Bibiiooraphy 407
Index 419
x
Preface
The art of building dome shell structures has given to the baroque for its assumed pompo-
been with us since ancient times. Current ex- sity in glorifying curves. In practical terms
amples in the Astrodome, the Superdome, such an attitude in design is clearly mani-
the Kingdome, and the Florida Suncoast fested in the present cityscapes that are to-
Dome stand to remind us of the counterpoint tally free of arches, domes, shells, and any
they play to the Pantheon, S. Sophia, S. other form that is not rectilinear. Is this what
Maria del Fiore, and St. Peter. The latter we really want-plans and elevations with
may be thought of by some as being ancient only straight lines, ninety-degree angles, or,
history, but they are present in the twentieth in some daring cases, forty-five-degree
century and hence are a part of our present angles? It does not seem so.
and future. Why do scholars continue to Similarly, the curricula in both civil engi-
study them? What can they teach us? A re- neering and architecture in structures seem
vival of interest in curvilinear structures is to ignore intentionally arches and vaults, lim-
under way, as the current examples just cited iting these subjects to graduate programs in
testify. thin-shell design as being a specialized eso-
At the beginning of this century, under teric subject. This tendency does not present
the influence of the art movement and the a free choice but is rather a limiting rule
dominance of industrialized building mate- passively accepted that will be passed on to
rials, any remnants of curvilinear architec- students. Arches, vaults, and thin-shelled
ture were mercilessly banished. Within that structures must be rediscovered. As the mon-
period avant-garde art emphatically pro- astic orders of the Middle Ages protected the
claimed a total repudiation of the traditions remnants of classical culture, our schools
and classical revivals that in architecture were have the responsibility to preserve these fun-
symbolized mostly by arches and vaults. damental concepts and theories of design
Ready-to-use rectilinear steel beams and col- without regard to ephemeral trends. It is
umns and easy-to-build rectilinear concrete helpful to remember that this approach has
forms struck a lethal blow to the curvilinear always been the philosophy of higher educa-
approach in architecture. Rectilinearity be- tion. Furthermore, it is obvious that in practi-
came synonymous with rationality, while cur- cal terms this orientation will enrich the spec-
vilinearity came to symbolize decadence. Re- trum of design options that have been
member, for instance, the negative stigma restricted for so long. This concept is not an
xi
Preface
isolated observation but finds strong support tectural history, concrete shell structures cov-
in the current philosophy of post-modernism ered as case studies in the architectural press
as defined by Charles Jencks. and in scientific engineering texts from the
This work is dedicated to those architects structural point of view, and large steel
and engineers who, in common practice and domes usually described only in engineering
without special expertise in shells, have be- periodicals. However, these two disciplines
come interested in the practical design of and professions should not be dissociated, in
curvilinear forms, the origins of these forms, either theory or practice. From the start, se-
and future applications of them. Masonry lecting an architectural form implies having a
domes, concrete shells, and large steel con- structural system, thus involving both the ar-
temporary domes are presented in historical chitect and the engineer from the conceptual
terms as case studies and in conceptual terms phase. To exploit fully the potential that is
from the architectural and structural point of available in using curvilinear forms it is essen-
view. The same topics are then covered again tial for the two professions to develop over-
in practical terms, to allow one to make pre- lapping knowledge, an integration of under-
liminary designs using concrete shells of any standing. This work combines architectural
configuration using the finite method history, conceptual design theory, and basic
through a computer program outlined step- engineering into one interwoven format. In
by-step and to draw preliminary designs for discussing architectural history we are not
various types of domes, barrels, and hyperbo- studying history per se, but rather those ex-
lic paraboloids, and to make initial designs amples of domes and vaults built in the past
for steel domes. To achieve an architectural- that have survived to the present, from which
engineering approach, mathematics have we may learn methods and designs for use in
purposely been kept to a minimum, using current applications. The old adage of un-
only simple formulas and a few numerical derstanding the past to predict the future
sample problems. The mostly freehand illus- applies here.
trations focus on essentials by avoiding hard- Why is there a revival of interest in shell
line renderings, to downplay technical structures, and where it might lead? Cost fac-
aspects and give free rein to the subject mat- tors, materials availability, labor supply,
ter and reader creativity. The wide scope of housing crises, solutions to domestic and
the material makes it necessary to omit such Third World problems all playa part and are
aspects as analytical geometry, the classifica- examined here. With today's almost unlim-
tions of shell forms, and an analysis of mem- ited computer technology and the knowledge
brane stresses. that can be gained from understanding the
Assimilating masonry domes, concrete domes and vaults built both in the past and
shells, and steel domes into one work makes it present, it is hoped that this work on the
necessary to combine the languages of archi- practical aspects of designing curvilinear
tecture and engineering. An overview of forms will contribute to further exploration
most literature currently available shows that and encourage the application of thin shells
this is not a common practice. Masonry by the engineers and architects to whom it is
domes are usually discussed in texts on archi- addressed.
xii
Acknowlednments
With deep appreciation I wish to acknowl- Mouton (Tulane University), Edward Allen
edge the contribution of my wife, Deborah; (Yale University), Charles Mitchell and Luz
in compiling the manuscript, she helped me Aveleyra (UNC, Charlotte), Mohsen Sefat,
to overcome a limitation derived from the Mrs. Felix Candela, D.]. Gross and James T.
onset of my visual impairment. Special grati- Langman (Roberts & Schaefer), David Kulla
tude is extended to my former student and (Duke Power), and Donald Wright (Dow
assistant Escandar Hadijizadeh, who pre- Chemical). I would like to express my sincere
pared most of the ink drawings, and to the respect for Van Nostrand Reinhold editor
many others who contributed through tele- Gene Dallaire and my gratitude for his trust
phone discussions and by sending reference in my work. I am very grateful to Joy Aqui-
materials. Among them are Dr. Anton Te- lino, also of Van Nostrand Reinhold, whose
desko, Dr. David Geiger, Dr. Stefan Medwa- efforts made the completion of this book
dowski (lASS), Jack Christiansen, Elwin C. possible.
Robison (Kent State University), William
ERRATA
xiii
Part I
Wood and
Masomy Domes
CHAPTER 1
3
Wood and Masonry Domes
existence. When man as creator uses his the structure of the whole automobile, elimi-
hands and mind to shape the physical world, nating the need for a conventional chassis
he often finds a source of inspiration in the and creating a revolutionary concept in auto
breadth of creation manifested in nature. Ei- manufacturing. Similar examples further
ther by artistic intuition from physically ob- illustrate the significance of thin-shelled
serving nature as a scientist, man creates structures within the various structural possi-
structures realizing that he has two bases bilities. Most eloquent are today's megastruc-
from which to operate: form, and the reality tures that use the structural efficiency of
of materials. shells to cover the largest column-free build-
In its basic state, a thin sheet of foil can be ings in the world, such as the concrete King-
seen as a starting point with no structural dome and the steel Superdome.
capabilities. As soon as the foil is shaped Masonry arches, vaults, and domes reflect
three-dimensionally, however, in some arbi- certain structural necessities, through their
trary form, it begins to have an element of characteristic thickness. Their thickness was
strength. Certain forms are, of course, better dictated by the coarseness of their constitu-
than others, as experience demonstrates and ent materials: stone, brick and mortar joints.
science validates. However, even before the Their inability to resist tensile stresses re-
existence of science, man conceived by intu- quired widening their cross-sections so that
ition a structural concept derived from ra- compression would reduce the effect of po-
tionalization of form. This constituted the tential bending. Substantial thickness was
beginning of his building endeavors. We often intuitively felt necessary to prevent
know, in fact, that in human evolution intu- buckling. Masonry vaults and domes thus
ition always preceded science, and daring, never attained the daring slenderness of
amazing structures were built long before those in concrete.
science was able to justify them. When reinforced concrete came of age,
When masonry finally explored the curvi- the reinterpretation then of the curved form
linearity of vaults and domes, the beginning reached daring proportions, producing in
of shells acquired on a large scale the expres- some cases shells with thicknesses proportion-
sions already evident in small applications. ately thinner even than the thickness of egg-
The potter molding the first utensils discov- shells, so that the ingenuity of man proved to
ered early in his progress the necessity of a be more advanced than that of nature itself.
turning wheel, in effect creating small-scale Obviously, the ability of reinforced concrete
domes. The goal of these forms was to attain to carry tension as well as compression was
efficiency in these utensils by reducing their the main key to its success. The concrete thin
thickness as much as possible. With reduced shell stemming from the parent masonry
thicknesses the potter could then increase the vault was like a newborn with a great future
sophistication of his artifacts, depending to be explored and exploited.
more on their structural form than on the
amount of clay in them. Today plastic objects
surround us in innumerable forms that start ORIGINS AND SYMBOLISM
mostly from a thin foil of material molded OF DOMES
into various configurations that give struc-
ture and therefore essentiality to the various
artifacts. When it became desirable or necessary to
A vivid contemporary example of shell complete a masonry structure using only such
structures can be found in the classic Volks- lapideous materials as fieldstone, cut stone,
wagen that Germany produced in the 1930s. or sun-dried or fired brick, without introduc-
For the first time, the body of a car was ing into the structure any systems of wood
molded from sheets of steel that then became beams (known as ligneous trabeation) to
4
Domes: Their Morpholoeica] Sienificance
cover the space enclosed by the walls, the eternity. The Sassanian culture that suc-
vault emerged as the only possible solution. ceeded the Assyrian instead erected stone
The vault, assumed to be a spatial extension masonry domes that have survived the de-
of the curvilinear arch, was born with the structive effects of time.
arch itself, as can be seen when considering, Although the dome is considered part of
for instance, the barrel vaults of the ancient the large family of vaults, it is a structure that
world. These acted in fact as a series of adja- has acquired over several millennia a charac-
cent arches structurally engaged by the ter of its own, with a strong background of
forces of shear to work jointly. symbolic significance. As is discussed later, its
The English term vault derives from the symbolism had a powerful influence all the
Old French vouter or vaulte, which in turn way from ancient times through classic
comes from the Latin volta, a participial form Roman architecture to Christianity and the
of volvere, to turn. As the etymology of the Renaissance in Western culture, while the
word indicates, the curvilinear nature of this Islamic world was also discovering the dome's
ancient architectural feature is inherent in its fascinating power and incorporating it in its
definition. symbolism as well.
In Chaldea (Babylonia), on the Mesopota- The English term dome seems associated
mian plateau, the earliest vault ever discov- with the Latin word domus (house), which
ered, dated at about 4000 B.C., was found at probably derived from the strong symbolic
Nippur. Its construction consisted of burnt value associated with the dome in many an-
bricks and clay mortar. The earliest examples cient religious traditions. As discussed later,
of barrel vaults, found in Egypt at Requa- these traditions considered the dome to be a
quah and Dendera, are dated approximately form that was of divine origin to represent
3500 B.C. These barrel vaults, only 6 ft (1.9 the concept of an ancestral house, which was
m) in span, covered the underground access eventually used for constructing houses
to tombs and were built of unburnt brick laid for God (temples, churches, mosques, etc.)
in horizontal courses. Also in Egypt, at throughout recorded history.
Thebes, near a temple built by Ramses II, a Another foreign word probably associated
pharaoh of the XIX Dynasty, there are some with the English word is duomo, the Italian
remnants of granaries built about the same term for cathedral. Considering the strong
time (c. 1300 B.C.) with vaults of a 12 ft (3.8 influence throughout Europe of the Italian
m) span. In Egypt, however, a fully devel- language in architecture during the Renais-
oped vault built with conventional voussoirs sance, it is possible that the dome covering
of cut stone appeared only in the XXVI the majority of the Renaissance churches in
Dynasty. Italy identified the concept of cathedral and
The Assyrian civilization of the second was then absorbed by another language for
millennium B.C. certainly had great knowl- what it represented, rather than being an
edge of and familiarity with vaulting, includ- exact translation. In Italian, the word for
ing domical structures, as verified both by dome is instead cupola, which is often used in
their numerous bas-reliefs illustrating vaulted architecture as a cognate in other languages.
gateways on a monumental scale and a vari-
ety of domes. However, there are no rem-
nants of Assyrian vaults. This seems to be SUPERSTITIOUS AND
explained by the fact that the construction SACRED FORMS
methods of the time did not consider durabil-
ity to be significant. In fact, the Assyrian
kings built palaces that were not intended Primitive civilizations commonly considered
even to survive their own reigns, totally op- certain inanimate objects to be live entities
posed to the Egyptian concept of building for with inherent power over human events (fet-
5
Wood and Masonry Domes
ishism). Most such objects were elements Of these, the Qubab (Fig. 1-1) even at
commonly observed in everyday life, as, for present has left an impact of considerable his-
instance the roof of a house or other struc- torical value. In Syria the Qubab is a circular
tural components of buildings that captured structure covered with a dome out of a tradi-
viewers' imaginations. From the circular tion that could probably have started as early
shape of the dome more than any other form as the fourth millennium B.C., but an Assyr-
derived purity, as did the power projected by ian relief from the eighth century B.C. proves
its monolithic configuration and the over- its certain existence by that time. The similar
whelming effect of a protective overhead present-day term in Turkish, kubbe, indicates
structure. These factors must have con- a domical structure.
quered the feelings of early humans and es- Some terms used by Smith in the source
tablished a tradition of associating religious previously cited to describe the symbolism
connotations with domes. associated with domes include the following:
Superstitious and religious traditions
among various cultures gave supernatural Ancestral abode (given by God)
mystical significance to the shapes of primi- Celestial symbol over: altar, throne, tomb,
tive shelters from which eventually evolved pulpit, baptismal font
the dome, with its extended religious symbol- Cosmic egg
ism and overtones. As reported by Smith l , Cosmic house
such sacred primitive forms of divine origin Divine form
included the following: Heavenly helmet
Divine heron
Teguriam (Roman) Heavenly bowl
Vinara (Indian) Martyrium
Mapnalia (Libyan) Omphalos (sacred stone)
Qobba (Arabian) Parasol
Tent or Tabernacle (Hebraic) Pine cone
Qubab (Syrian) Ritualistic sanctuary
6
Domes: Their Morphological Significance
7
Wood and Masonry Domes
8
Domes: Their Morphological Significance
ried it on. The dome and the concept of housed the soul for eternity was the more
roundness symbolized a prototype house significant and gave the domical shape a
given to man by God, with the implication of higher value than other structural options.
being as old as the human species itself. The archaeology of the Etruscan necropolis
When the concept of the immortality of the testifies to the great importance the Etrus-
soul required an eternal house to be built for cans gave to their houses for the dead in
the dead, it was natural that the inspiring comparison to ones for the living. The Etrus-
form of the round dome with its divine origin can tomb was in fact often large enough to
be used as a model. contain the bodies of an entire family, includ-
The Scythians built dome tombs in ma- ing its servants, and it duplicated the concept
sonry after the previously used wooden types, of the house itself as a shelter that should
which were also domically shaped. Some Ger- protect the soul until the end of time. The
manic tribes used a circular tumulus for their typical Etruscan structure had to be covered
tombs and built the central space in a parabo- with one continuous surface and carried a
loid shape resembling their typical huts. large load consisting of a layer of soil. The
dome was thus the only structural alternative
available to them for such a task.
Etruscan Traditions The number of Etruscan domes has
proven to be so large that archaeological ex-
The Etruscans from the eighth century to the plorations have been made without requiring
first century B.C. built domical tombs by cut- total excavation. Often, after identifying the
ting into bedrock and covering the holes with location of a given circular tomb an opening
soil to form mounds. This tradition derived would be cut at its center and through it a
from ancient practices of the Italic popula- camera would be introduced to document
tions and others that had flourished through- photographically the contents of the tomb,
out the Mediterranean area since the second using artificial lighting. If photographs
millennium B.C. The earth mounds of the proved the interiors to be of major archaeo-
Etruscan tombs with their characteristic do- logical value, the tomb would then be exca-
mical shape are still visible in archaeological vated, reducing the overall amount of ar-
sites today. chaeological work needed. It is interesting to
The lower part of Tuscany approaching point out that the same method has often
the north side of the territory around Rome been used for archaeological thievery to
continues to reveal thousands of under- furnish Etruscan collector pieces illegally
ground round tombs, which are clearly visi- throughout the world.
ble from the air. Aerial photographs show
these circular structures that are only a few
feet below the surface of the undulating ter- Roman Traditions
rain. The Etruscan sites, covered by soil de-
posited over centuries, still contain innumer- Of particular significance in the Roman mor-
able archaeological structures, of which the tuary tradition is the Mundus, an under-
domical tombs are only the most evident. Es- ground circular structure covered with a
pecially around Tarquinia and Cerveteri dome. Used as tombs since prehistoric times,
thousands of tombs have been located, only the Mundi became most popular in the
part of which have been excavated. Over the Roman world. Such round buildings covered
last century the impulse of escalating archae- with domical roofs were typical in the funer-
ological fervor has revealed through such ex- ary architecture of Rome. The dome, repre-
cavations the domical structure of these senting the sky and heavens, was the essential
tombs prominent in the architecture of the component for structures designed to house
Etruscan culture. Probably the shape that the eternal spirits of the dead.
9
Wood and Masonry Domes
10
Domes: Their MorpholoOical Sioniflcance
possible interpretation that could be accepted allegory in whatever form they may be ex-
in the case of the curvilinear forms discussed pressed will always be at the root of any archi-
in this context which does not include other tectural work.
architectural developments. Symbolism and
NOTES
1. E. Baldwin Smith. The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971).
2. According to legend, the religious schools or cults of the Dioskouroi, founded by Orpheus, are assumed to
have begun by the end of the seventh century B.C. and possibly even a century earlier. Several cults were
popular in Athens at that time.
3. Various nomadic peoples settled in the area between the Black Sea, the Don, and the Dnieper rivers in
the eighth century B.C. These were belligerent tribes who interacted with the Assyrians, Phoenicians,
Persians, and Greeks. They were finally displaced by the Celts and dispersed in the fourth century B.C. See
Smith, op. cit.
11
CHAPTER 2
13
Wood and Masonry Domes
of the dome, especially considering the level excavated on the slope of a hill, with one axis
of importance the tomb had in ancient civili- running horizontally from the hill's slope to
zations. The rock-cut tomb, definitely a mon- the bottom of the tomb. The structure itself,
ument, employed the domical shape as a dis- 48 ft (14.6 m) in diameter and 44 ft (13.4 m)
tinct choice of geometric configuration, high, is cylindrical, with a domical cover that
under the influence of the symbolism asso- reaches the surface of the ground. The struc-
ciated with an eternal house for the immortal ture consists in the lower part of masonry
soul. The development of the technology courses laid horizontally, continuing at the
must of course have preceded that of the top to form a dome consisting of concentric
mortuary symbolism. However, rock-cut rings whose diameter is gradually reduced.
tombs are clearly among the first expressions The method of construction for the dome
of the masonry dome, even if the dome's requires no supporting centering. However,
structure did use the technique of concentric the orientation of the horizontal joints drasti-
corbeling. The most significant of the rock- cally reduces the dome's load-carrying ca-
cut tombs discovered to now is the four- pacity.
teenth-century B.C. Mycenaean tomb known Consisting as it does of thirty-four ma-
as the Treasury of Atreus or the Tomb of sonry courses crowned at the top by a single
Agamemnon (see Fig. 2-2). stone fitted to close the dome, this structure
is particularly important to the history of an-
cient construction techniques, because it in-
THE TREASURY OF ATREUS, MYCENAE
dicates the level of understanding in that
(c. 1325 B.C.)
epoch concerning the static equilibrium of
The Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Aga- curvilinear structural forms. This example of
memnon, in ancient Mycenae in the Pelopon- a so-called false dome marks a significant
nesus Islands of the Aegean Sea, is a famous stage in the history of the development of
example of corbeled domes in the Mediterra- vaulting.
nean area. Following the traditions of rock-
cut tombs, this structure was built within a pit Utilitarian Domes
14
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-3 A cross-section of typical Chinese chamber kilns consistin8 of a series of interconnected domical
structures followin8 the slope of a hill or an artificial slope.
2-4 A sun-dried dome used as an ice house in Kerman, Iran. In this type of structure the ice is
packed between layers of straw, which allows it to be stored for a considerable time.
15
Wood and Masonry Domes
2-6 Domical pottery kilns at San Antonio de Padua, California (c. 1800).
one such kiln may be seen in Figure 2-7. The tion, which discovered the corbeled stone
structure shown, at Metepec, Mexico, con- dome, used it extensively as a building form
sists of a cylindrical chamber built of regular for dwellings (see Fig. 2-8). The Egyptians
masonry courses crowned by a dome of ma- also discovered and used the dome on small-
sonry rubble. scale dwelling units, even though their philos-
Primitive domes were built to cover ophy of building excluded vaulting in general
structures used for habitation, defense, and from their formal architecture. A domical
burial. The sophisticated Neolithic civiliza- mud hut prototype in the British Museum
shows the application of the dome to lower-
class dwelling structures (see Figure 2-9).
The names identifying the various local
traditional forms vary. On the island of Pan-
telleria, between Sicily and Tunisia, the
structures in question, the sesi, were used as
tombs. In Puglia, in southern Italy, the struc-
tures referred to are called trulli. Some of
them are still standing, such as the typical
ones at Alberobello, used for habitation. The
specchie, also in Puglia, near Salento, are meg-
alithic structures of the same character as the
trulli but preceding them. In Sardinia they
are called nuraghi. These powerful structures
built with megalithic blocks were used in an-
cient times as dwellings but are today only
ruins left by the thousands all over the island.
The Balearic Islands have talayots that follow
the same building criteria as the other
megalithic structures around the Mediter-
ranean.
For an overview of where ancient domical
- - -=- -- ---=-- ~ structures with primitive characteristics are
to be found in the Mediterranean region, see
2 -7 Masonry rubble covers this pottery kiln at the map in Figure 2-10.
Metepec, Mexico. Primitive domical structures with their or-
16
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
~.
2-10 The distribution of primitive domical structures found throuehout the Mediterranean.
17
Wood and Masonry Domes
NURAGHI
The nuraghi, which are megalithic structures
2-1 1 A primitive stone dwellinn in France, typical of Sardinia, consist of heavy walls en-
based on the rubble-masonry vaultinn technique. closing circular spaces covered by elongated
domes or truncated cones that give them the
aspect of powerful towers. These prehis-
toric structures seem to have originated in
the Neolithic Age and to have developed
through the Bronze and Iron ages until the
Roman conquest of the island. What is left of
the nuraghi today is only ruins (see Fig.
2-13), but they number over six thousand.
Their great numbers over a relatively small
island made them heavily concentrated in
certain areas. At one time the nuraghi were
thought to have been tombs, but there is no
doubt now that they were dwelling struc-
2-12 A primitive stone hut in Ireland. tures.
The general layout of a nuraghi consisted
of an entrance door with a heavy lintel and a
corridor with niches. The corridor led to a
Primitive Domes main circular chamber, over which a dome
extended vertically (see Figs. 2-14 and 2-15).
SESI The dome itself was of the corbeled type (see
The ancient tombs of Pantelleria called sesi Fig. 2-16). This major characteristic ties the
were constructed in the shape of tall domes nuraghi to the other primitive domes that
with a typical elliptical plan, although circular extended this construction's typology from
configurations have also been observed. Mesopotamia through Asia Minor to the
These structures consist of crude stones Mediterranean.
whose sizes at times are on a megalithic scale. The nuraghis' large, heavy stone blocks
The interior is usually subdivided into several that were laid in courses without mortar
circular cells connected by a corridor. joints suggest that it must have required an
Approximately fifty such structures have organized effort to quarry the blocks and lift
survived the destructive action of time. They and position them from the ground up to
are located on a promontory called Mursia, their sometimes considerable height. Some
near the remnants of a fortified village. The nuraghi include more than one story, with a
culture that built the sesi and the village must spiral stairway inside the thick walls, demon-
have been at the level of the Neolithic Age, strating a well-elaborated building concept.
18
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-14 A longitudinal cross-section of a large multistructure nuraghi at St. Barbara di Villanova, Sardinia.
19
Wood and Masonry Domes
TRULLl
Trulli are stone structures typical of the Pu-
glia region in southern Italy whose morphol-
ogy and construction features are still used
today. These prehistoric descendants of the
specchie followed the same techniques used
in other megalithic structures around the
Mediterranean.
2-16 An interior view of a nuraohi lookino at From father to son, the tradition of build-
its domical vault from below. ing this ancient type of structure continued
uninterruptedly over millennia. Trulli are
square or circular stone structures covered
with conical stone domes built with corbeling
The locations of the nuraghi on the island techniques. The rings of stones are jointed
of Sardinia include the most logical sites for not horizontally but by being efficiently in-
habitation, effective working conditions in clined toward the inside, and they are
agriculture, stock raising, and exploitation of crowned by a keystone cut in certain charac-
the sea. Nuraghi are thus found along the teristic shapes that are either pointed or
coast wherever the coastline offers access for spherical.
landing and along the valleys that allow pene- There are basically two types of trulli:
tration from shore to interior. Some nuraghi those built in the fields as rough shelters for
had the clearly defensive function of protect- storage, and those intended for habitation in
ing special areas, using fortifications and stra- settlements. The first type was built with field
tegic siting. stones collected while clearing the land. The
The architectural typology of the nuraghi area where these trulli are found has a sub-
did not remain constant but evolved over the stratum of limestone that deteriorates from
long period that saw nuraghi usage. Their atmospheric agents to produce fragments
multistory concept that produced structures that periodically have to be removed to be
up to three stories high is one indication of able to farm. The domestic type of trulli is
the evolutionary process that these primitive usually a combination of several trulli con-
domical structures underwent. nected to a main one. The stone courses are
"dry" (do not include mortar), and in dwell-
SPECCHIE ing trulli the walls are covered with a stucco
The specchie of the Puglia region are rem- in some shade of white. Particularly interest-
nants of ancient megalithic structures similar ing are the niches cut into the thick walls in
to the nuraghi of Sardinia, the sesi of Pantel- which utilities, furniture, and even beds
leria, and others found elsewhere in the Med- could be placed.
iterranean. Specchie are found specifically in A dwelling-type trulli used in the context
that area of the Puglia called Salento that of contemporary living may create quite an
includes the provinces of Taranto, Brindisi, interesting architectural composition. Trulli
and Leece and are numerous along the Ionic may be complemented, for example, by a
coast. Their particular use is not absolutely surrounding extension with a roof that
20
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
blends with its dome. A more typical arrange- plorer Antonio Pigafetta in 1519, they were
ment of trulli today is to combine a major one later recorded by Hans von Staden, who
and several smaller ones to form one family made a woodcut illustrating fortified villages
dwelling. with longhouses and characteristic barrel
The work of Edward Allen I has clarified vaults.
the configuration of typical trulli as being
built with a square floor plan having horizon- DOMES IN THE PACIFIC
tal courses, rather than being radially in- Conical wooden huts built with tree
clined, as in dome construction. The final branches, bamboos, or other ligneous mate-
construction is then a false dome, with its rials are found in many parts of the world
lower efficiency. Allen further describes the where the weather is not dominated by rain
imaginative technology that makes the transi- or low temperatures. Roofed with thatch,
tion between the square portions of the such huts as the Ethiopian one shown offer
buildings and the circular shape of their little shelter from rain and cold (see Fig.
domes in which pseudopendentives are 2-17).
employed. On the other hand, on the Pacific island of
Samoa a domical structure built with the
TALAYOT same materials becomes a much more sophis-
Talayot is a term used to identify the mega- ticated structure classifiable as a true dome.
lithic structures of the Balearic Islands, Its structural members bend along curvilin-
whose ruins are estimated to date back to the ear shapes to form a trellis of interwoven
second millennium B.C. in the Bronze Age. arches intersecting each other at almost
Similar to the nuraghi of Sardinia and other ninety-degree angles. Figure 2-18 shows such
megalithic structures in the Mediterranean, a dome built for a Samoan chief.
talayots were powerful stone structures cov-
ered with conical corbeled domes. Their use MASONRY DOMES IN NORTH AFRICA
is not certainly known, but they could have Domes typical of the Islamic tradition in ver-
been funerary monuments, although this hy- nacular architecture are still constructed
pothesis does not seem probable. They were today by local masons throughout North
more likely defensive towers or buildings for Africa and the Middle East. Without plans
worship. They are particularly numerous on or engineering specifications, these masons
the island of Majorca, where approximately a build domes based on empirical rules passed
thousand are still visible. On Minorca an- down from father to son. Figure 2-19 shows
other three hundred or so of these ruins can
be observed.
21
Wood and Masonry Domes
22
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
die East have recently been converted into As Buddhism expanded, the architecture
strong, monolithic ceramic units by firing the of its stupas migrated to the Asiatic countries
clay at a high temperature with oil burners. that embraced this new faith. In the process,
it evolved in complexity from the original
Indian concept of the burial earth mound.
Domes of the Ancient East The stupa did not solve the structural
problem of static stability but rather was built
STUPAS (PSEUDODOMES) of almost solid masonry. Its importance in the
The monumental ancient structures known history of the dome is that it reinforced the
as stupas were built all over Asia as Buddhist significance of the domical shape that had
shrines. Their inclusion here has been deter- attained such important meaning in the reli-
mined not from their structural character, gious context.
which is of covered rock mounds, but for In Afghanistan, numerous ruins of ancient
their typical domical shapes. stupas can be found near Kabul and along the
Shrines of the Buddhist faith were estab- Kabul River. The most significant examples
lished in North India in the fifth century B.C. are the stu pas of Hadda and of Bamian. In
by its founder Prince Siddartha (Sakyamuni Burma during the so-called pagan period
Gautama, the first in a series of Buddhas that many stu pas were built. There were more
will reoccur forever). Stupas derived from than five thousand stu pas and temples within
the traditional old burial mounds built up of the area of the capital. In Pakistan, especially
earth. The first stupas were simply hemi- in the northwest, numerous stupas can be
spherical structures of solid masonry that found, particularly at the Khyber Pass and in
contained a small chamber in which the holy Taxila and Mankiala.
relics of the Buddha were preserved. Later In India the most important stu pas are in
they evolved into new domical forms, of Sanchi, in north-central India. Of these, one
which the most characteristic was in the of the most important, the Great Stupa, dates
shape of a bulb. to the third century B.C. Built of solid brick, it
23
Wood and Masonry Domes
24
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
25
Wood and Masonry Domes
2-24 The palace at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia, built under the reion of Khosrou I (A.D. 531- 579).
A structure of mud brick masonry, it contained a laroe barrel vault over the banquet hall.
vaults with exceptionally large dimensions spans proceeded gradually through trial and
can be seen in the vault over the hall in the error. The early examples were fairly short
palace at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. Built of in span, although even before the empire
brick masonry, this vault spanned 83 ft (25.3 Roman technology was able to span up to 80
m), rose 120 ft (36.6 m), and was 24 ft (7.3 m) ft (24 m) as in Pons Fabricius.
thick at the base (see Fig. 2-24). The geometry of the vaults used by the
Romans included the barrel vault, cross-
vault, hemispherical dome, and semidome.
ROMAN DOMES AND VAULTS The barrel vault was a direct extension of the
arch. The cross-vault, which results from the
intersection of two barrel vaults, was used for
The development of domes and vaults in covering square areas. The intersecting
Roman architecture grew out of Etruscan arches between the two barrels in a cross-
traditions that included arches, pseudo- vault are known as groins. Rectangular
domes, and pseudovaults covering large spaces were subdivided into squares, then
tombs. The Roman dome also inherited its covered with square cross-vaults. Hemispher-
circular planimetric form from the Etruscans, ical domes were used to cover circular spaces,
who favored domical roofs. Some examples semidomes to cover semicircular ones.
of such early Roman domes include the tem- The confidence that Roman builders had
ple of Venus at Baalbek and the mausoleum in geometry as a major factor in structural
of Caecilia Metellus on the Appian Way. strength is dramatically demonstrated by the
The concrete mixture and method that number and sizes of the vaults and domes
the Romans developed and used was a unique they built. Their preference for circular
material essential to the success of Roman forms over all other shapes indicates their at
vaulting. A mixture of lime and pozzolana least partial understanding of structural anal-
gave them a hydraulic cement that created a ysis as it is known today.
monolithic mass. The complexity and articulation of
The further development of the Etruscan Roman circular vaults go beyond the proto-
arch and vault by the Romans to cover larger typical structures visible in buildings. Hidden
26
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
27
Wood and Masonry Domes
2-26 The dome over the Temple of Mercury at Baiae, Pompeii. It was
built with tufa masonry and horizontal brick courses over a diameter of
66 ft (20 m).
The Temple of Mercury. This dome 66 ft (14.7 m) in diameter that encloses an inner
(20.11 m) in diameter is built with the same circle 44.3 ft (13.5 m) across. The shape of
construction characteristic of the other the dome varies gradually from polygonal to
domes at Baiae. However, since part of this spherical in its upper part until it culminates
dome has collapsed, it is possible to observe in a circular opening at the crown. This
its cross-section. These domes at Baiae could structure is all-concrete, with brick rings
have covered the frigidaria of the baths around its openings (see Fig. 2-28).
rather than the temples, as has been pro- A passage from Suetonius ("Praecipua
posed, because the openings in the domes cenationum rotunda, quae perpetuo diebus
were systematically placed according to cri- ac notcibus vice mundi circumageretur") has
teria used for frigidaria (see Fig. 2-26). led to the deduction that in this building the
hall for banquets and audiences was covered
THE DOMUS AUGUSTANA, ROME with a wooden dome decorated with astrolog-
The Domus Augustana, located near the ical signs that constantly revolved night and
Circus Maximus, included an octagonal hall day as the sky did above the earth. This may
in the domestic wing of this palace. Hidden to have symbolized the belief in the divine na-
exterior view, a dome covered this interior ture of the Roman emperor after the im-
space. Most Roman domes were mainly in- ported Eastern tradition of the domically
tended to complete the interior space, with shaped tent of Alexander the Great that sym-
little concern for making a statement on the bolized his cosmic power. Nero's intention to
outside. Many domes were indeed covered incarnate the sun god and his resulting deci-
on their exteriors with a secondary roof (see sion to build the Domus Aurea as sun palace
Fig. 2-27). seems to support the actual existence of this
wooden dome. Historical accounts of similar
THE DOMUS AUREA wooden domes in the Parthian Empire rein-
The Domus Aurea of Nero includes a dome force the possibility that when the Romans
over the main hall, with an octagonal base conquered the Parthians they imported this
contained within an inscribing circle 48.2 ft architectural feature. The writings of Philos-
28
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
29
Wood and Masonry Domes
.. .. ". ..
A
tion, but it is particularly effective.
The never-ending interest in the dome of
the Pantheon continues to inspire scholars
around the world for the many lessons that
we can learn from the structure - not only
for its architectural morphology but also for
its engineering interpretation of statical sta-
bility and building technology.
30
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
~1
-_....... .........._.. •
• • I
•.. • • I
•,.". . "'" • • I
rr.:l:~··~~
· f···· . . ................................... · J
~·t :: ~ : A
31
Wood and Masonry Domes
32
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
33
Wood and Masonry Domes
tural masses ever recorded. For instance, in Church of the Virgin at Antioch (fifth
northern Europe the large monolithic blocks century)
at Stonehenge, which were either placed ver-
tically or lifted horizontally to lay across their
top, weighed only twenty-five tons. Even the Polygonal Domes
largest of obelisks transported from the Tem-
ple of Ammon at Karnak, Thebes, to the These domes were inspired by Roman me-
Piazza of St. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, morials and tombs and were in a sense an
weigh just 230 tons, less than half the weight extension of the circular type. Of all poly-
of the dome of the Tomb of Theodoric. This gonal forms the octagon was the most pop-
structure can hardly fail to leave an indelible ular.
mark on the minds of architects and engi-
neers sensitive to the struggles of humanity to The Domus Aurea of Antioch (fourth cen-
overcome the impossible. tury): originally covered with a dome,
and reroofed with a wooden gilded
dome in the sixth century
Polygard Church of the Nativity in Bethle-
DOMES IN CHRISTIAN hem: built by Constantine over the site
ARCHITECTURE where Christ was believed to have been
born, destroyed A.D. 529, rebuilt by
Justinian
As early as the fourth century A.D., Christian Church of the Ascension in Jerusalem:
churches were either rectangular in plan or built c. A.D. 378, partially destroyed
focal, focal ones usually being cruciform in A.D. 614 by Persians, rebuilt by Mo-
shape with a focal point at the center roofed destus, octagonal originally, rebuilt as
over with a domical vault. Churches of the circular
focal type were usually dedicated to the cult Church at Tel Hem: octagonal, built
of certain Christian martyrs and referred to fourth century, covered with wood Syr-
as cemetery churches or houses of martyrs ian-type dome
("martyria"). Some were actually built over Tomb of Hierapolis: octagonal, with ma-
the tombs of sanctified martyrs and were usu- sonry dome; built fifth century for the
ally small in early times. Later, as cults of apostle Philippus and his daughter
martyrs and relics gained acceptance in the Tomb of the Virgin in Jerusalem: octago-
Christian world, these small sanctuaries or nal domed Roman structure, fifth cen-
chapels became large churches with central tury; converted to oratorium during
domes inspired by some powerful symbolic Islamic rule
significance. Church of the Theotokos on Mt. Garizim:
A classification of these domed churches, octagonal domed structure; built c. A.D.
with examples, includes the following: 3 484 by Emperor Zeno and dedicated to
the Virgin as Mother of God as pro-
claimed by the Council of Ephesus; said
Circular Domes to contain fragment of the rock of
Calvary
Such domes derived from the classical (ro- Baptistry Kal'at Sim'an: fifth-century oc-
tunda) tradition of Greece and Rome. tagonal structure assumed to have been
covered by a dome
The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem Baptistry Der Seta: hexagonal; building
Church at Beisan fifth or sixth century data not known; presumably covered
Church at Fa'lul (A.D. 526 - 527) by dome
34
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
Church at Midjleyya: small octagonal In typical churches with floor plans in the
church, sixth century shape of a Greek cross the main dome is at
Martyrium of St. George at Zor'ah: built the center, while small domes often cover the
A.D. 515; covered with 33 ft (10.15 m) four arms of the cross. The great tensile
diameter dome forces at the bottom ring of the large central
Chapel at Mir'ayeh: small octagonal dome are counteracted by the mass of the
structure four volumes surrounding the dome. Con-
trary to Roman domes, which were built over
circular or polygonal structures, Byzantine
Square Domes domes were built over square bases and be-
came circular by means of pendentives.
These domes derived from the shape of Byzantine technology does not seem to
tombs and had the additional symbolism of have employed centering for the construc-
cosmic houses. They were popular in Egypt tion of its domes, in which large, flat bricks
between the fourth and sixth centuries A.D. were used. Byzantine domes were usually
The pattern of a square structure with a cir- built over high drums and, contrary to
cular dome also spread to Asia Minor. Roman vaults, which were often covered
with protective wood roofs, these domes
Hagia Sophia at Badessa: originally built were exposed directly to view.
A.D. 313; rebuilt by Justinian; square, The shapes of Byzantine domes can be
covered originally by wood dome, re- classified into the following three different
built in masonry categories:
St. John the Baptist at Jerash (Gerasa):
built A.D. 531; covered with a wooden
Simple domes in which the pendentives
dome
and dome are part of one single sphere;
Martyrium of St. George at Shakka
see the tombs of Galla Placidia (above)
Compound domes that can be subdivided
into situations where a) the dome itself
Cruciform Domes
is not part of the same sphere with the
pendentives but rises above them, hav-
Because of the unique significance of the
ing no geometric relationship to them;
cross in Christianity, the cruciform plan of
and b) the dome is supported by a high
Christian churches introduced a unique ex-
drum pierced by openings.
pression distinct from earlier cultures' plan
Melon-shaped domes such as St. Theo-
configurations. Cruciform geometry rein-
dore's or Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in
forces the idea of having a focal point at the
Constantinople. The variation of the
intersection of the two arms of the cross, thus
bulbous, onion-shaped dome typical in
emphasizing the cruciform concept with
Russia has the functional effect of re-
more intensity than were the previously men-
ducing snow loads.
tioned shapes.
35
Wood and Masonry Domes
Significant Examples
of Byzantine Domes
Domes in Byzantine architecture are exem-
2-33 A representation of the Holy Sepulchre in
plified by some of the following structures.
the Seal of Baldwin V (A.D., 1183 - 1186.
THE HOLY SEPULCHRE, JERUSALEM Contrary to earlier illustrations on similar seals,
(A.D. 326-335) such as those of Baldwin I, Baldwin II, and
This church was originally built by Constan- Amaury (Amabric) I, this seal depicts the Holy
tine as a memorial over what was.believed to Sepulchre at the right of the Tower of David. To
be the tomb of Christ. Little is known of this the left of the Tower is the Templum Domini, the
first structure and its dome because it was converted Dome of the Rock. Notice the Arab
destroyed and rebuilt several times, first crescent over the bulbous dome of the Holy
being burnt by the Persians in A.D. 614. Be- Sepulchre and the cross over the Templum.
tween A.D. 616 and 618 it was rebuilt by the
Roman prefect Modestus, then destroyed in
1009 by the Fatimite caliph and rebuilt by
Constantine Monomachus in A.D. 1048. De- structure was built by the architects Anthe-
stroyed again by the Moslems, it was rebuilt mius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus
the last time by the Crusaders in the twelfth under Justinian. The original church of St.
century. Several hypotheses have been pro- Sophia was built by Constantine in 335 and
posed for the type of dome likely to have rebuilt by Theodosius II in 415. The dome,
been used in previous structures. Some as- which is 107 ft (32.5 m) in diameter and 180
sume the dome to have been hemispherical ft (51 m) above the floor level at the crown,
and made of masonry, others that it might dominates the entire space (see Fig. 2-34).
have been of wood. The reconstruction by Although this lofty structure imposes itself
Modestus between 807 and 820 included a on the whole space below, it suggests great
wooden dome, according to the historian Eu- lightness, as of a structure suspended from
tychius (A.D. 876-940). Cedars and pines heaven, as wrote the historian Procopius of
from the island of Cyprus were in fact used Caesarea, Palestine (c. A.D. 500-555).4
for the restoration of some parts of that The dome at the center of the church
wooden dome. Eutychius specifically de- covers a square floor area, from the corners
scribed the dome as being made of two of which four large piers extend vertically.
woo'den shells (see Fig. 2-33). These piers each have a cross-section of 25 ft
by 60 ft (7.5 m by 18 m). On top of them four
ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D. semicircular arches connect the piers to con-
532-537) stitute supports for the dome. These arches
Called Hagia Sophia, or Divine Wisdom, this create four pendentives 60 ft (18 m) high that
36
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
~
---.--'-
, ..
(- -~~~~-~;:.=-.~>, .\
, -
. _oJ'_-_ __ ~_::::.
2-34 a) The dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople, northeast elevation. One of the more important
domes in the world, it is built of brick masonry to a thickness that varies from 24 to 27 inches. The
larne dome, supported by hune pendentives, seems to be very linht. b) Floor plan, St. Sophia.
37
Wood and Masonry Domes
make a transition from the square floor plan To illustrate the frequency of earthquakes
to the circular base of the dome. The height in Istanbul, notice that thirty-six major ones
of the dome from its springing to its crown is were recorded in the period from A.D. 366 to
50 ft (15 m). Since its diameter is 107 ft (32.5 1894. There were many partial failures in the
m), the dome is hemispherical as observed structure of the dome, but there are few ac-
from inside. On the outside, a ring pierced counts of it worth mentioning. A notable
by forty windows encircles the base of the one, in 558, saw a portion of the central
dome, partially concealing more than one dome collapse, together with part of an adja-
dome, even as many as five, and occasionally cent semidome. According to the structural
more. configuration of the dome, the masonry ribs
The dome of St. Sophia is built of brick extending along its meridian lines could have
masonry laid in courses whose gradually in- contained a partial collapse of the dome
clined beds do not radiate from the center of shell's surface between the ribs, sparing the
the dome but have a lower slope. The thick- integrity of the whole dome but suffering
ness of 27 in (70 cm) in the lower part of the partial failure. One account of this event re-
dome is attained with square bricks-more ports the dismantling of the dome and recon-
properly called tiles-each 27 by 27 in (70 struction of it within a higher structure that,
by 70 cm) and 2 in (5 cm) thick, laid down flat though it maintained a spherical configura-
with mortar joints that are also approxi- tion, increased the curvature and thus re-
mately the same thickness. The upper part of duced the horizontal thrust. The rebuilt
the dome, which is only 24 in (61 cm) thick, dome raised the crown an additional 20 to 26
consists of square bricks 24 by 24 in (61 by 61 ft (6 to 8 m) higher than that of the original,
cm), again with a thickness of 2 in (5 cm). shallower dome. Later, during the ninth cen-
When the bricks are laid down flat they form tury, earthquake damage necessitated exten-
a wall 24 in (61 cm) thick. sive repair work to be done to the dome, and
These values for dome thickness contrast in the next century a major quake destroyed
remarkably with the thickness of the Roman the western semidome and supporting arch,
domes that preceded St. Sophia, emphasizing which definitely affected the major dome as
the increased efficiency of Byzantine building well. Another major earthquake, in 1346,
technology. By capitalizing on the techniques also produced severe damage to the central
developed for Roman monuments, the By- dome and certain adjacent ones. Finally,
zantines carried empirical engineering even after many seismic attacks, in 1847 the dome
further. received a major tension ring at its base-an
Of all the major domes from the ancient iron structural member to absorb horizontal
past that still exist today, St. Sophia holds the thrust at the base and relieve the masonry.
record for having survived the most earth- That this dome could have been designed
quakes. This achievement is not just a statisti- intuitively to withstand earthquake forces is
cal fact but underscores its extraordinary ca- extremely doubtful. Nevertheless, its exis-
pacity for survival. Domes, vaults, and arches tence today shows a remarkable quality of
are not ideally suited to resist horizontal seis- endurance that contradicts beliefs about the
mic forces, yet this structure never gave in, vulnerability of vaulting to undergo lateral
even after many partial collapses. Repaired forces. We have seen how Egyptian architec-
after each earthquake, the dome of St. So- ture, dramatically concerned with eternal
phia has been exposed over and over to ex- survival, had purposely avoided arches and
traordinary earthquake forces, which are vaults as well as domes, considering these
directly proportional to the weight of a struc- forms as if they were affected by a seed of
ture and are therefore considerably high in death. In this light then, Santa Sophia, with
masonry buildings. its amazing history of survival, disproves the
38
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
Egyptian belief that had mistrusted the KAPNIKAREA CHURCH, ATHENS (A.D.
strength of the dome. 875)
The dome covering the Kapnikarea Church
ST. VITALE, RAVENNA (A.D. 526-547) in Athens springs over an octagonal drum. Its
Built by Justinian and modeled on the Min- small size allows one dome alone to cover the
erva Medica in Rome, this dome was partially structure below.
constructed of clay pottery to attain a lighter
mass. Such a unique feature, found in only a CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, ATHENS
few Byzantine domes, definitely indicates the (c.
A.D. 1020)
confidence that Byzantine builders had in The dome at the center of this cruciform
their knowledge of construction. This early church is supported by a tall octagonal drum
Byzantine dome is covered on its exterior by pierced by windows. The top of the drum
a wood structure supporting a roof. In the consists of the extrados of eight arches. The
tradition of Roman prototypes, the main role dome that sits over these arches thus has an
of this dome was to complete the interior undulated base that follows the profile of the
space, rather than to make a statement about arches themselves. This type of edge support
the exterior mass. Byzantine domes later de- for a dome is a characteristic repeated in
parted largely from this philosophy, produc- many Byzantine Greek domes.
ing compositions with more than one dome.
CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES,
ST. IRENE, CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D. 740) CONSTANTINOPLE (fourth century A.D.)
Among the first Byzantine domes in Constan- Crowning the roof of this church are five
tinople, this dome built by Constantine was domes of special importance in that this
destroyed and rebuilt several times: in A.D. church inspired the design of St. Mark's in
532, 564, and 740. The dome is partially Venice. This church was originally built by
hidden on the exterior by a tall drum that Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, then de-
extends high above the springing of the stroyed in A.D. 1463 and finally rebuilt as a
dome itself (see Fig. 2-35). mosque.
39
Wood and Masonry Domes
ST. SOPHIA AT NOVGOROD (A.D. 1052) filled with masonry, they are each pierced by
Shaped as bulbs, the domes of this church are two arched windows.
supported by five tall drums arranged sym-
metrically with one in the center and the ST. MARK'S, VENICE (A.D. 1063 -1085)
others at the four corners. The present church was erected over a pre-
vious basilica built in 864 that had burnt in
NEA MONI CHIOS (A.D. 1042-1056) 976. Crowning the church are five wooden
domes arranged with one main dome at the
The dome of this church is supported di-
center and four others at the ends of the arms
rectly by its external walls. Eight squinches
of a cross. The central dome has a diameter
support the drum, which in turn carries the
of 42 ft (13 m) at the base. All the domes
dome. The original dome, which collapsed in
include two shells with a wooden framework
1881 during an earthquake, was rebuilt in
between, leaving a large dead space enclosed
concrete, as it is today.
by the internal and external shells (see Fig.
2-36).5
ST. THEODORE, ATHENS (A.D. 1060-1070)
Similar to the dome of the Kapnikarea THE CHURCH OF KOIMISIS, DAPHNI
church, the dome of St. Theodore is a small (c. A.D. 1080)
central structure supported by an octagonal This dome is carried by an octagonal drum
drum below. Eight arches clearly visible from supported by squinches that are in turn sup-
the exterior carry the dome at its base. In- ported by columns.
II m u
2-36 The domes of St. Mark's in Venice. One dome is at the center,
and four are around it at the ends of each arm of the cross. The five
wooden domes were added in the thirteenth century. The diameter of the
central dome is 42 ft (12.8 my.
40
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
The Church of St. Theodore in Constantino- This church, which represents the most im-
ple is crowned by three domes in the front portant example of Byzantine churches in
and one at the center. The central dome, Yugoslavia, is roofed by a series of domes
which sits on a drum, has a diameter of only arranged symmetrically around a central
13 ft (4 m) at its base. Meridian flutings one. The exterior of the structure shows a
enrich its surface. Carrying the drum are typical pattern of combined courses of brick
four pendentives, in turn carried by columns. and stone masonry.
ST. FOSCA, TOR CELLO, ITALY(c. A.D. 1108) ST. BASIL, RED SQUARE, MOSCOW (A.D.
This church, constructed by Byzantine Greek 1554)
builders who had worked also on the recon- Located in the present-day heart of Moscow,
struction of St. Mark's in Venice, is on the the Church of St. Basil dominates Red
island of Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. Square. No fewer than eight domes complete
The church includes a central dome sup- the top of this church. They are all shaped in
ported by eight columns. Only part of the a typical bulbous configuration, but each
dome is still standing, and few vestiges are dome differs somehow from the others. The
now visible. shiny, bright finishing of the domes' surfaces,
painted with various colors, is particularly
ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX, FRANCE (A.D. striking. The vivid colors combine with the
1120) elaborate design to generate an imaginative
Built on the same basis as St. Mark's in Ven- architectural composition that cannot fail to
ice, this church includes five domes. It is the leave an impression.
only prototype of Byzantine-domed structure
in this part of Europe to have been in-
fluenced by Venice. At its center the dome
has a diameter of 40 ft (12 m) at the base. ISLAMIC DOMES
41
Wood and Masonry Domes
42
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-38 The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (A.D. 685 - 692). The diameter
of the dome is 140ft (42 my.
43
Wood and Masonry Domes
44
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-43 The jami Mosque, Golpaeean, Iran (A.D. 2-44 The jami Mosque, Zavareh, Iran (c. A.D.
1104-1118). 1135).
45
Wood and Masonry Domes
DOME OF THE IMAMZADA SAYY/D cause of the massive exterior walls that domi-
ISHAQ TOMB, SAVA (A.D. 1277-1278) nate the building (see Fig. 2-49).
(See Figure 2-47).
THE JAMI MOSQUE, ASHTARJAN, IRAN
THE IMAMZADA YAHYA MAUSOLEUM, (c. A.D. 1315)
VARAMIN, I RAN) (A.D. 1261-1307) This structure located in Ashtarjan, a small
The main dome, built in gradual concentric village in the area of Isfahan, includes the
steps, rests on an octagonal drum over a central area covered by a dome which was
square plane structure below (see Fig. 2-48). originally built between 1299 and 1312. The
exterior parts were added later and rebuilt
THE HARUNIYYA TOMB, TUS (presently several times (see Fig. 2-50).
Meshed, Iran; probably fourteenth century A.D.)
The main dome consists of a two-shell struc-
ture that seems to lose its prominence be-
2-46 Dome of Jabal i Sane (Mountain of 2-47 Dome of the 1mamzada Sayyid Ishaq
Stone), Kerman (probably twelfth century A.D.). tomb, Sava (A.D. 1277-1278).
46
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
47
Wood and Masonry Domes
THE JAMI MOSQUE, VARAMIN, IRAN THE KUH-I BANAN TOMB (probably
(c. A.D. 1322-1326) fourteenth-fifteenth centuries A.D.)
This structure dates from the Mongol period This type of structure crowned by a dome
(see Fig. 2-51). does not reflect a corresponding architec-
tural trend (see Fig. 2-54).
THE BABA LUQMAN MAUSOLEUM,
SARAKHS, IRAN (A.D. 1356) THE TOMB OF SHAH FIRUZ, SIRJAN,
The date of construction has been derived IRAN (end of fourteenth century A.D.)
from an inscription in the building. Of special This brick dome covers a kiosk structure of
interest is the double body of the dome itself great simplicity and elegance. Although the
(see Fig. 2-52). tomb was damaged by vandals, the dome,
supported by piers, is still in good condition
THE DARDASHT MINARETS, ISFAHAN, (see Fig. 2-55).
IRAN (c. fourteenth century A.D.)
This dome is covered with both glazed and
unglazed brickwork (see Fig. 2-53).
2-51 The Jami Mosque, Varamin, Iran (c. A.D. 1322 -1326).
I~
2-52 The Baba Luqman Mausoleum, 2-53 The Dardasht Minarets, Isfahan, Iran (c.
Sarakhs, Iran (A.D. 1356). fourteenth century A.D.).
48
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-54 The Kuh-i Banan Tomb (probably fourteenth -fifteenth century A.D.).
GUR-E AMIR MAUSOLEUM, ily decorated raised pattern enriches the ex-
SAMARKAND, U.S.S.R. (c. A.D. 1405) teriors of the domes (see Fig. 2-59).
This dome itself consists of two shells with a
large dead space in between, raising the THE SHRINE OF SHAYKH
outer shell much higher above the interior NI'MATALLAH, MAHAN, IRAN (fifteenth
one. A timber framework within the space century A.D.)
between the two domes supports the exterior Decorations were added to this structure
shell, typically shaped in a bulbous form (see until the nineteenth century, because of the
Fig. 2-56). importance of this shrine, which became the
object of many pilgrimages. Blue tiles and
MOSQUE OF GA WHAR SHAD, black and white decorations enrich the exte-
MASHHAD, IRAN (c. A.D. 1418) rior of the dome (see Fig. 2-60).
Simple yet ornate, this dome is one of the
first to show the heavy decoration that char-
acterized the later Safavid domes (see Fig.
2-57).
49
Wood and Masonry Domes
2-56 The Gur-e Amir Mausoleum, Samarkand, THE SHRINE OF FATIMA, QUM, IRAN
U.S.S.R. (c. A.D. 1405). The innerdome's (c. sixteenth century A.D.)
diameter 35 ft (10.7 mY, the outer, 55 ft (16.8 The major dome is covered with blue tile and
my. decorated with a rich geometric pattern of
interconnected five-pointed stars. A minor
dome built in the nineteenth century is also
part of the structure. This second dome is
THE JAMI MOSQUE, SA VEH, IRAN gilded, adding richness to the shrine (see Fig.
(c. sixteenth century A.D.)
2-62).
This dome is covered with turquoise, which
has a geometric design over it in dark blue THE GREAT MOSQUE OF THE SHAH,
and white colors (see Fig. 2-61). ISFAHAN, IRAN (c. A.D. 1612-1630)
This splendid dome consists of two shells.
The exterior one, with a bulbous shape, is
2-57 The mosque of Gawhar Shad, Mashhad, 2-59 The Darb i Imam, Isfahan, Iran (A.D.
Iran. (c. A.D. 1418). 1453 and late seventeenth century A.D.).
50
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-61 The Jami Mosque, Saveh, Iran (c. sixteenth century A.D').
over 30 feet (9.1 m) above the inner one. of the shrine, has recently been restored (see
Supporting the exterior dome is a wooden Fig. 2-64).
framework totally concealed in the space be-
tween the two domes. The exterior shell, THE MAUSOLEUM OF SULTAN
built of brick masonry, is covered with ce- MUHAMMAD ADlL SHAH (COL
ramic tiles (see Fig. 2-63). CUMBAZ), BIJAPUR, MYSORE, INDIA
(c. A.D. 1636-1659)
MASHHAD-I MIR BUZURC SHRINE, Carried aloft by structurally interlaced
AMUL, IRAN (A.D. 1623) arches, this impressive dome crowns the main
This dome, built over the tomb in the center body of this structure, described by Bannister
51
Wood and Masonry Domes
2-62 The Shrine of Fatima, Qym, Iran (c. sixteenth century A.D.).
2-64 The Mashhad-i Mir Buzura Shrine, Amul, Iran (A .D. 1623).
52
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
53
Wood and Masonry Domes
Born a Greek Orthodox Christian in Cae- The most significant source of inspiration
sara, Palestine, in his early youth Sinan was for the domical architecture of Mimar Sinan
forcefully conscripted and converted by no doubt came from St. Sophia in Istanbul
Islamic forces in Turkey, as was then com- (see Fig. 2-34). The overpowering grandios-
mon. A carpenter and self-trained architect, ity of its dome had affected the culture of the
late in life, after completing his military ca- world and must have had even a deeper im-
reer, Sinan became the most prominent ar- pact locally.
chitect in the Ottoman Empire. Sinan pro- Sinan's first masterpiece was the Mosque
duced the astonishing number of more than of Sciahzadeh in Istanbul. This structure dra-
three hundred buildings and a thousand matically expressed the theme of the dome
domes, new or restored, at a time when de- by a unique composition of four cupolas
sign and construction techniques were less crowning the top of the mosque. Contrary to
efficient than today. the typical melon shape of common mosques,
Sinan's major contributions to the devel- these domes had a pure spherical profile. Of
opment of the Islamic dome give him a high particular significance is also Sinan's great
level of recognition. It thus becomes neces- cupola over the Suleimanye in Istanbul.
sary here to distinguish the Ottoman inter- Sinan's astonishing architectural career
pretation of the dome, from that of the rest did not start until he was forty-eight, when he
of the Moslem world, because Sinan's influ- was appointed chief imperial architect. Then,
ence was particularly focused in the territory a self-educated architect under the pressure
of the Ottoman Empire. of scores of commissions, he exhibited a Ren-
Although Sinan was most active during a aissance personality. "In a short time, Sinan,
time when there was great activity with domi- with the strength of his self-acquired skills
cal structures in Italy, cultural exchanges be- was soon able to claim mastery of and experi-
tween East and West then were minimal, ex- ence in the fields of: Structural Engineering,
cept for the Venetian trade, it is improbable Soil Mechanics, Statics and Strength of Mate-
for any such Western influence to have oc- rials, Building Physics, Hydraulic Engineer-
curred. ing, Surveying, Bridge Construction, Urban-
54-
Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
ism, Architectural Design, and Interior ent options: 1) each of the four sides of the
Design." 7 In the first year of his architectural square supported either by walls or arches; 2)
career he built his first dome, cautiously, with all four sides carried by walls only; 3) two
a diameter of only 37 ft (11.3 m), for the sides carried by walls, the other two being
Haseki Hurrem Sultan Mosque. Gradually, supported by semidomes; and 4) three sides
his dome designs became larger and more supported by semidomes, the fourth by a
complex as he gained experience. With the wall. In general, to make the transition from
Selimiye Mosque he reached his highest ac- polygonal supports to a circular dome base
complishment in dome construction. Com- Sinan used pendentives and squinches, while
pleted in 1574-1575, this mosque was he counteracted horizontal thrust with but-
crowned by a dome 103 ft (31. 3 m) in diame- tresses and buttress towers in a variety of
ter that was supported vertically by an octag- designs.
onal base and laterally by eight buttress The basic dichotomy between the tradi-
towers connected to the dome by buttress tions of the Western and Eastern cultures has
arches. prevented much of the architecture of the
Sinan combined architectural composition Islamic world from finding adequate cover-
and structural design in such complexity that age in the Western architectural schools. The
he eventually accomplished in dome con- astonishing production of Ottoman architec-
struction what no other architect could yet ture, which is extremely rich in its detailing
claim. Of major relevance in this regard and grandiosity of expression - especially
is the uniqueness of his designs for dome through its magnificent domes-represents
supports. The systems he used are of three an invaluable endowment that remains
types: square, hexagonal, and octagonal. The largely intact in its original territories.
square support further includes four differ-
NOTES
55
CHAPTER 3
57
Wood and Masonry Domes
Genoa and Milan in the High Renaissance Gothic master-builder philosophy. To erect a
and protobaroque as well as baroque periods. dome on the magnitude of Santa Maria del
The Roman zone included the Papal State. Fiore was completely unprecedented. Domes
Its influence was, curiously enough, rejected of this size had not then been built for many
by southern Italy. The Venetian zone, late in centuries. Although Gothic techniques of
absorbing the Renaissance, was strongly in- vaulting could suggest much about the design
fluenced by the Byzantine architecture of the of vaulting in general, to design such large
Near East. Such geographic distinctions, domes raised many unknowns that had to be
which were strongly recognizable in the Early resolved.
Renaissance, gradually disappeared toward Brunelleschi designed the dome of Santa
the baroque period. Maria del Fiore (Saint Mary of the Flower)
Two domed structures stand out as major for a supporting drum that had already been
engineering works of the entire Renaissance: built. The octagonal shape of this drum thus
the dome of the cathedral of Santa Maria del imposed limitations on the dome built over it.
Fiore in Florence and the dome of St. Peter's The eight exposed ribs that spring from the
in Rome. The dome for Santa Maria del corners of the drum seem to follow the
Fiore became a worldwide prototype for the Gothic concept of slender arches. In any case,
design and construction of domes. Several the ogival shape of the dome, in conjunction
generations with many people involved par- with the ogival-shaped ribs, is reminiscent of
ticipated in the long process of conceiving, Gothic forms. Structurally, these forms al-
designing, and building these two cathedrals, lowed Brunelleschi to reduce hoop forces
but the actual conception of the two domes and the tension in the bottom ring. This solu-
and the solution of the architectural and en- tion avoided a major problem that would
gineering problems they raised rested upon otherwise have required using buttresses.
just two unique individuals: Brunelleschi and The reduced tension that resulted at the bot-
Michelangelo. tom of the dome could now be successfully
resisted by using iron chains. This method
was used in most of the domes built af-
The Florentine Zone of Influence: terward.
Significant Examples Another structural feature of this Brunel-
leschi dome was its adoption of a double-shell
As noted, the Florentine zone of influence system. Two domes are rigidly connected
started in Florence with the Early Renais- along the eight ribs and as well at the bottom
sance period and expanded to Genoa, Milan, and top rings. The external shell, the lighter
and Turin. Florence contains mostly struc- one, was considered to be an exterior protec-
tures of the Early Renaissance, with very few tive skin easily repairable from outside when
from the High Renaissance, protobaroque, necessary. The inner shell, which is less acces-
and baroque eras. The opposite is true, how- sible for repairs, is stronger and thicker. The
ever, of Genoa, Milan, and Turin. two combine into a single structure that
A number of significant domes were built offers a system that is much more rigid but
within this zone, among them being those lighter than a similar single-shell dome would
that follow. be (see cross-section in Fig. 3-1 ).1
One of the most important problems
SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE, FLORENCE Brunelleschi encountered was the need to de-
(1420-1434); CATHEDRAL (1417-1446) vise a construction method that would allow a
Among all the prototypes of Brunelleschi's span of 138ft (42 m) in diameter to start
work this masterpiece best combines his ar- from a springing plane at 151 ft (46 m)
chitectural and engineering genius with his aboveground. The committee for the con-
58
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
3-1 a) Plan, elevation. b) Loneitudinal cross-section throueh the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore,
illustratine the drum, the double shell, and the sheathine. Erected without centerine, the dome has an
eliptical shape. Its interior diameter is J 38 ft (42 mY, and its sprineine plane is at J 5 J ft (46 m)
above eround.
59
Wood and Masonry Domes
60
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
61
Wood and Masonry Domes
62
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
reaching just to the bottom of the drum for THE SISTINE CHAPEL IN SANTA
the main central dome. MARIA MAGGIORE, ROME (1585)
This dome, by Domenico Fontana, covers the
THE MADONNA DI SAN BIAGIO, chapel shaped like a Greek cross that forms
MONTEPULCIANO (1518-1529) part of Santa Maria Maggiore.
This dome by Antonio da Sangallo the Elder
is a notable example of High Renaissance ar- SAINT PETER'S BASILICA (1585-1590)
chitecture. It covers the center of a cruciform The story of the dome of Saint Peter's Basil-
church and is supported by a high drum sup- ica goes back to 1506, with the idea for a new
ported in turn by pendentives. basilica commissioned by Pope Julius II. The
first of several architects to participate in its
THE MEDICI CHAPEL, design and construction was Bramante, as-
FLORENCE (1521-1534) sisted by Giuliano da Sangallo and Fra Gio-
This chapel is the new sacristy of San Lo- vanni Giocondo. At Bramante's death, in
renzo, designed by Michelangelo to house 1514, Raphael Sanzio was appointed as de-
the tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo de Me- signer, and for a short time Sangallo and Fra
dici. Although it is in Florence, this protoba- Giocondo assisted, until their deaths in 1516
roque dome is included here in the zone of and 1520, respectively. Raphael also did not
influence of Rome because of Michelangelo's live long enough to have much impact on the
major activity in Rome. project. After his death, in 1520, Antonio da
Sangallo the Younger was nominated to di-
rect the project, with Baldassare Peruzzi as-
SAN ANDREA, ROME (c. 1550)
sisting. However, the political unrest of the
This dome designed by Giacomo Barozzi da times, which included the sack of Rome in
Vignola has an elliptical, horizontal cross-sec-
1527, did not allow much work to take place.
tion, which marks a new trend in dome de-
In 1546 Michelangelo was appointed to
sign. Like the Pantheon's dome, this one is
continue the work, but the construction of
partially concealed by a high drum whose
the dome he designed began only after his
weight is used also to counteract horizontal death, in 1564. In 1588 Giacomo della Porta
thrust at the base of the dome. The rectangu- and Domenico Fontana were commissioned
lar floor plan covered by the dome circum- by Pope Sixtus V to begin constructing the
scribes the ellipse, whose semiaxes are, re-
dome by following a wood model left by Mi-
spectively, 32 ft (10 m) and 26 ft (8 m). chelangelo. Of particular importance in this
work was the proven engineering skill of
THE GESU CHURCH, ROME (1568-1584) Fontana, who had previously moved the obe-
Also designed by Vignola, this structure was lisk in St. Peter's Square in Rome.
completed after his death by Giacomo della Michelangelo's original design had to be
Porta. The spiritual revival of the times made altered as the dome was actually built, be-
this church an inspiring example for other cause his initial dome, inspired by the dome
churches throughout Europe. The large, un- of the Pantheon, was lower and hemispheri-
obstructed space in the main nave could be cal. The modifications by della Porta and
used for processions or large audiences at- Fontana included, first, raising the springing
tending functions and sermons. Above it all line 15.66 ft (4.8 m) and changing the dome's
the dome dominated, inspiring those attend- profile to a more pointed configuration to
ing. Of special note is the lighting effect that follow more closely the funicular shape of the
was produced by reflected sunlight as it en- loads on the dome. This tapering of the shells
tered through large windows in the support- was increased even further toward the top, to
ing drum. diminish the dead load and reduce the tensile
63
Wood and Masonry Domes
forces in the hoops. The thickness of the ribs The tension in the bottom rings of the
was also diminished so that they projected dome is absorbed by ten chain reinforce-
less on the exterior than they had in Michel- ments. The chains include two of the ones
angelo's original design. One comparative originally installed during construction and
analysis4 reports improved performance in five more added by Giovanni Poleni in 1740
the della Porta-Fontana dome from reduc- when he was commissioned to repair crack-
ing the tensile force to 60 percent of what it ing in the dome. A discrepancy exists be-
would have been in Michelangelo's version. tween Poleni's accounts, which mention only
As finally built, the dome measures 137 ft two chains, and the Vatican's, which suggest
6 in (41.9 m) in diameter at the base, 250 ft a third hoop, documented by the ordering of
(76 m) above the floor. The base is supported the material necessary to construct a third
by four huge piers with square cross-sections hoop. It is interesting to note that the first
60 ft (18 m) on a side. In order to understand chains originally installed were not adequate
the huge scale of this dome it is helpful to to resist tensile forces in the hoops and actu-
know that the cross on top is at an elevation ally broke. The hoop reinforcements con-
of 452 ft (137.8 m) above the floor of the sisted of iron bars with eye terminals con-
church, and the top of the dome supporting nected by pins acting as chains. Their
the lantern is 365 ft (Ill m) above the floor. placement, near the extrados of the interior
The dome itself consists of two separate dome, awaited the warmest possible day so
brick shells each with a thickness of 46.85 in that the thermal contraction of lower temper-
(1.19 m) at the springing and an overall atures would guarantee there being adequate
thickness of 9 ft (2.7 m), including the inner tensile forces within the chains.
space (see the cross-section in Fig. 3-4). The Michelangelo Buonarroti was basically a
two domes are interconnected by sixteen sculptor and painter, as Sangallo pointed out
stone ribs that create a monolithic structure. when Michelangelo was commissioned to de-
sign fortifications for Rome. Michelangelo's
actual engineering experience was quite lim-
ited, being no match for his knowledge of art.
He had worked on fortifications for Florence
and had some experience in bridge design
and repair, but he lacked the expertise to
design and construct such a gigantic engi-
neering project as the dome of Saint Peter's.
Nevertheless, confident in himself and with a
personality typical in Renaissance man, Mi-
chelangelo undertook to design the dome
having as a model the dome of Santa Maria
del Fiore which served as proof that it could
be done. What Michelangelo produced was
in fact just an idea represented by a wood
model showing no specific construction de-
tails. He did not conceive of all the complica-
tions the dome job required and did not
create full engineering plans. The real engi-
neer was Domenico Fontana, although the
dome is usually credited to Michelangelo.
3-4 Cross-section through the dome of St. The massive, robust architectural charac-
Peter's in Rome. ter of this dome was typical of Michelangelo's
64
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
style. The interior of the dome is without are cut at the base of the dome, between the
doubt spectacular. Sixteen huge window ribs. Frescoes by Cesare Mariani decorate the
openings within the drum admit a quantity of interior of the dome and its drum (see Fig.
sunlight that makes the dome appear to be 3-9).
very light (see Fig. 3-5). Mosaics decorating
the interior surface that catch the light com- THE PAOLINA CHAPEL IN SANTA
ing from the lantern above contribute to the MARIA MAGGIORE, ROME (1605-1611)
apparent loftiness of the dome (see Fig. 3-6). The dome designed by Flaminio Ponzio is
A bird's-eye view from the dome is shown in over the Paolina Chapel, where Pope Paul V
Figure 3-7. was buried. This work is considered by many
Far from having become just an historical to be Ponzio's masterpiece.
example, the dome of St. Peter's still retains a
major place among masonry megastructures
SAN ANDREA DELLA VALLE, ROME
that calls for its being more fully explored. A (1608-1628)
recent paper5 describes a computer structural
This dome crowns the church at Corso Vit-
analysis performed on Michelangelo's pro-
torio Emanuele, near the Piazza Argentina in
posed dome and on the actual design version
Rome. The church and dome are by Carlo
by della Porta and Fontana. This axisymmet-
Maderno, with only the lantern over' the
ric finite element analysis (ANSYS analysis
dome being by Francesco Borromini. The
code), which analyzed only one radian of the
dome surmounting the drum shows the ma-
dome, used the profile configuration of the
turity and complexity of the baroque style,
actual dome as given by Poleni and Di Ste-
with its intricate design dominated by pro-
fano. The support conditions assumed for
truding exterior ribs that merge smoothly
the dome include a fixed hinged connection.
toward the lantern. The young Borromini
This analysis concluded that the heavy lan-
was the most logical choice to complete such
tern over the dome generates strong vertical
a complex dome, commissioned by Maderno
deflections near the top of the dome, creat-
in his later years.
ing shear forces that tend to separate the two
The interior is decorated with fres-
shells, thus forming cracks between the ribs
coes painted by Giovanni Lanfranco between
and outer shell. Such cracks as were also ob-
1621 and 1625. The four pendentives sup-
served in 1742 by Poleni remain as they
porting the dome are also decorated by fre-
were, unaffected by repairs to them.
scoes, which represent the four evangelists.
These four paintings, by Domenico Zampieri
THE CHURCH OF MADONNA Dl
LORETO, ROME (1573-1592) (II Domenichino), were executed between
1621 and 1628.
Designed and built by Giacomo del Duca, this
major dome and the little one next to it cover
a church that was the work of several succes- SAINTS MARTINA AND LUCA, ROME
sive architects from 1507 to 1592. The origi- (1637-1647)
nal project, approved in 1505, was by Bra- Designed by Pietro da Cortona, a contempo-
mante, but Antonio da Sangallo actually rary of Francesco Borromini and Giovanni
began the construction. Sansovino continued Lorenzo Bernini, this dome covers a church
his work and del Duca completed it. The located in the Roman Forum on the side of
dome, crowned by a large lantern, is sup- the arch of Septimius Severus. The dome is
ported by an octagonal drum pierced by four supported by a high, heavy drum, and is of
rectangular windows. The dome includes the ribbed type, with eight of them being
eight ribs protruding on both the exterior visible on the exterior. On top of the dome is
and interior (see Fig. 3-8). Round windows a lantern that features two tiers of windows.
65
Wood and Masonry Domes
3-5 An interior view of St. Peter's dome at the sprinoino level. Below this
point a spacious walk protected by an inconspicuous baluster allows
inspectino the dome at its base. Sixteen huoe windows like these pierce the
drum at the base of the dome.
3-6 An interior view of the dome of St. Peter's. The liaht from the
lantern on top does not really contribute sianificantly to illuminatina the
dome, which is instead flooded by liaht from the sixteen larae windows in
the drum.
66
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
67
Wood and Masonry Domes
that of a conventional dome, which has a ver- lar and three hexagonal half-cylinders.
tical axis of rotation. Crowning the dome is a tall hexagonal lan-
The exceptional fluidity of this design ex- tern that is topped with a spiraling steeple
tends with particular success from the floor that resembles a corkscrew. Unlike most cu-
plan to the three-dimensional dome. Of polas, which typically are suffocated by their
major significance is the effect achieved by surrounding buildings, this dome can easily
the natural lighting at the base of the dome , be admired from the outside, when the ob-
which makes the dome appear to float in server enters the cortile of the Sapienza, and
space and apparently detaches it from its even from some of the side streets.
supports.
Despite its small scale, the significance of SAN TOMMASO VILLANOVA, CASTEL
this dome in the development of domes can- GANDOLFO, ROME (1658-1661)
not be overemphasized. Contrary to that of This dome by Bernini crowns the middle of a
the large-scale domes that had preceded it, Greek-cross floor plan and is supported by
the dominant role of this work is in the virtu- pendentives. Castel Gandolfo is the summer
osity of its architectural form rather than its residence of the popes.
engineering and construction.
SANT' AGNESE, ROME (1652-1666)
SAN IVO DELLA SAPIENZA, ROME This dome by Borromini covers the church
(1642-1650) of Sant' Agnese in the Piazza Navona directly
This dome was designed and built by France- in front of the Fountain ofthe Four Rivers by
sco Borromini. As is typical of his designs, the Bernini. Borromini's work on the church in-
dome has an exterior configuration different cludes not only the dome but also the facade
from that of the interior (see Fig. 3-11). The and the two campanili that dominate the
interior reveals a tall, slender dome, whereas well-unified design. The original work on
the exterior shows an undulated drum in a this church was initiated by Carlo Rainaldi
pattern that consists of a series of three circu- (1611-1691).
68
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
69
Wood and Masonry Domes
ever, that its plan is circular rather than THE CHURCH OF THE SS. NOME DI
elliptical. MARIA, ROME (1737)
This church in the Roman Forum is next to
SAN CARLO AL CORSO, ROME the Church of Madonna di Loreto, with the
(1668-1672) Trajan Column in between. Although the
Dedicated to Carlo Borromeo, after his beati- two churches differ slightly their two domes
fication in 1610, the church, initiated in are almost identical.
1612 over the remnants of a previous Erected by the Confraternita del Santis-
church, was originally designed by Onorio simo Nome di Maria (Brotherhood of the
Longhi. The dome in the Roman baroque Holy Name of Mary) this church was the pay-
style is by Pietro da Cortona (1569-1669), a ment of a deed to the Virgin for the victory
painter and architect contemporary with over the Turks by Giovanni Subieski in the
Borromini. A high drum pierced by eight tall battle outside the gates of Vienna. Named
windows supports the dome, which carries a after the brotherhood, the church was
lantern on top. Both the cupola and the lan- erected where the small chapel of St. Ber-
tern are decorated on their interiors with nardo stood, forcing its demolition for the
frescoes by a painter named Brandi. Archi- new church. A precious image of the Virgin
tectural critics consider this to be one of the contained in the chapel from the eleventh
most harmonious domes in Rome. century, became the focal point in the new
church. Built according to the drawings of
SAN CARLO AI CATINARI, ROME Antonio Desret, the church with its elliptical
(1612-1620) floorplan is covered by a lofty circular dome.
Located at the Piazza Benedetto Cairoli, near
the Piazza Argentina, this church by Rosato
Rosati features a dome supported by a high The Venetian Zone of Influence:
drum that is pierced by ten windows framed Significant Examples
by exposed ribs between them. The four
pendentives that support the dome aloft are The Renaissance in Venice, and in the area
decorated with frescoes. The dome sits on that it controlled on the mainland, developed
the drum and is decorated with numerous differently than it did in the rest of Italy. Its
hemispherical niches carved into the thick- independent political stature and its distinc-
ness of the dome. Crowning the dome is a tive Venetian character both made it hard for
lantern to complete the traditional outline of Venetians to accept art movements from out-
the cupola. side. The different philosophy that the Ren-
aissance presented was not readily accepted
SAN CLAUDIO E SAN ANDREA DEI in Venice. For one thing, Venetians had an
BORGOGNONI, ROME (1728-1731) instinctive aversion to Rome as the represent-
Built by Antoine Derizet over the remnants ative of the dominant church. For another,
of a previous church, this church was de- the early Renaissance philosophy reached
signed for a French colony in Rome consist- Venice later than it did Florence and Rome.
ing of members from the region of Burgundy Furthermore, when it did arrive, Renaissance
as indicated by the name. The church at Pi- architecture adapted itself to the locally
azza San Claudio, near Piazza San Silvestro, is strong Venetian tradition already strongly in-
covered by a dome that includes a shallow fluenced by the Near East. The domes that
drum. The dome, which is pierced by four follow are important examples of this distinc-
circular windows near its base, includes me- tively Venetian style.
ridian ribs that form four window groupings.
Topping the dome is a typical lantern that
culminates in a cross.
70
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
71
Wood and Masonry Domes
with the practicality of the master builder. As including, for instance, the dome of St.
with historical focus transferred from the Peter's. When Brunelleschi was commis-
mysticism of the Middle Ages to the human- sioned to take over the design and construc-
ism of the Renaissance, buildings came to be tion of this dome he started with a prelimi-
associated with the architect who conceived nary study of the necessary machinery
and built them, a tradition that has continued (basically hoists) needed for it, which he then
to the present. The history of the dome can personally designed from his own mechanical
now be discussed in terms of the men who engineering knowledge.
built these structures. The dome Brunelleschi built was unprece-
dented. He conceived of it as two structural
shells, one inside the other, interconnected to
Filippo Brunelleschi (1372-1446) act as one under load. Of great importance
also was his new idea for absorbing horizontal
With the contributions of Filippo Brunelles- thrust at the base by using metal chains
chi to the development of the dome, the rather than buttresses. Another important
dome entered a stage characteristic of what innovation was the construction method he
might be called the new Renaissance ap- devised to avoid using supporting scaffolds.
proach. The Gothic technology that had pro-
duced the elegant, slender arches and vaults
typical of the great northern cathedrals had Domenico Fontana (1543 -1607)
left a heritage of building technology upon
which Renaissance architects could capitalize. The major contribution that makes Domen-
Brunelleschi was the first in the large group ico Fontana significant in the history of the
of recognized architects whose names have dome is his fundamental role in constructing
come to be associated with their artistic pro- the dome of the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome,
ductions. Before this point, buildings gener- although such a superb masterpiece is usually
ally resulted from the cooperative efforts of referred to as Michelangelo's dome by the
many rather than from any specific individ- architectural literature and the public at
ual associated with them. large, it is in reality the result of Fontana's
Although Brunelleschi began as a sculp- engineering conceptions. As noted earlier,
tor, in the tradition of the multitalented Ren- upon his death Michelangelo left only a
aissance artist he soon abandoned sculpture, wooden model as a guide for constructing
as his love for rediscovering classical architec- this monumental structure. It is obvious, of
ture motivated him to go to Rome to study course, that a tremendous gap existed be-
firsthand the remnants of its classical monu- tween the small model and the realization of
ments. In his move from Florence to Rome the engineering project by Fontana. The
(accompanied, incidentally, by Donatello), he wooden model failed to resolve all the prob-
established a pattern followed later by other lems that came up during its construction.
Renaissance architects. Mostly self-taught, One should remember also that in conceiving
Brunelleschi attained direct experience of his design Michelangelo had a brilliant exam-
Roman building traditions from his sojourn ple to follow in a model left by Brunelleschi.
in Rome. He combined this empirical knowl- The Renaissance architect-engineer Do-
edge with the latest Gothic technology to menico Fontana is particularly famous for his
achieve a high level of engineering genius. work on the noted obelisk in St. Peter's
Among Brunelleschi's number of works, Square. Although he created several build-
the Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral ings of major importance his work, in con-
in Florence remains a superb masterpiece junction with that of Giacomo della Porta for
that marks the beginning of a new domical St. Peter's dome, places Fontana unforget-
architecture that inspired much later work, tably in the history of dome development.
72
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) tinct, powerful new art form. Although the
baroque was long discredited for its complex
Born in Como, Francesco Borromini moved articulations of geometric forms, it has re-
early on to Rome, where he apprenticed cently been reinterpreted and finally came to
under Maderno and Bernini. Brilliant, yet be understood for its inherent values. The
intense and moody, he lived a dramatic life intricacy of its design and the power of its
that terminated in an accidental suicidal act. curvilinear shapes had never been used be-
Early in Borromini's career he observed a fore and were for a long time overlooked as
workman on a construction site mistreating being merely an expression of pomposity and
some material. When Borromini reported verbosity. The idea of complexity as a devel-
him to be reprimanded, the corporal punish- opment out of simplicity is indeed a logical,
ment inflicted caused the man's death, which positive process. Now that this concept has
remained on Borromini's conscience for the finally been understood, the baroque and its
rest of his life. In another episode, in a mo- masters like Bernini have been accorded
ment of desperation he struck his forehead their rightful places.
with his own sword and languished for The interpretation of dome design that
months until he eventually died as a Bernini ventured into was a departure from
consequence. the traditional circular plan. With his work
Borromini the architect benefited from the dome shape transgressed the typical geo-
the new attitudes prevalent in the baroque metric arrangement resulting from rotating a
period. Dramatic new concepts then came generatrix around a vertical axis. For the
to envelop the world of the visual arts, first time, the dome was produced from a
especially architecture. Out of the Renais- portion of a solid surface generated as a
sance revival of classicism the baroque shape rotating around a horizontal axis. Such
evolved into an articulation of totally new domes' elliptical plans resulted from having a
forms with cerebral compositions exhibiting horizontal plane intersect a paraboloid.
great complexity. With these new opportuni-
ties Borromini's genius emerged trium-
phantly. Certainly in the design of domes, EUROPEAN DOMES
Borromini did not take second place to OUTSIDE IT AL Y
Bernini.
Renaissance domes in Europe outside of Italy
typically exhibit one or two centuries of de-
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini velopmental delay behind their Italian proto-
(1598-1680) types. When Italian architecture was well into
its Baroque period, Renaissance-inspired
Born in Naples of a Neapolitan mother and a domes were still being built outside Italy.
Florentine father well known as a sculptor, The Renaissance spread first to central
Bernini moved to Rome, where he became Europe, with numbers of important domes
the dominant figure in the artistic circles of built especially in Germany and Poland. The
papal Rome. Like his father, the creator of examples that follow of domes in other coun-
the famous Barcaccia sculpture in front of the tries illustrate how the Renaissance concept
Spanish steps, Bernini was a sculptor first, of dome structures spread in the period
and only then an architect. The focal point of beyond the Italian Renaissance.
his art is his dynamic contribution to the ba-
roque dome development in its departure SIGISMUND CHAPEL, CRACOW, POLAND
from preceding Renaissance prototypes. Ber- (1517-1533)
nini explored a whole new geometric vocabu- Known as a pearl of the Renaissance, this
lary that made baroque architecture a dis- chapel and its dome are outstanding exam-
73
Wood and Masonry Domes
ST. CASIMIR'S CHURCH, WARSAW Schluter. This church is considered the best
(1688-1692) example of the high baroque in Warsaw.
Built by Tylman of Gameren, this church in
Warsaw is a significant example of baroque ST. PAUL'S, LONDON (1675-1710)
architecture. On a Greek-cross floor plan, Rebuilt after the Great Fire of 1666 on the
this church is crowned at its center by a dome site of the original cathedral, the new St.
resting over an octagonal drum. It has a lan- Paul's Cathedral marks the beginning of the
tern on top. Late Renaissance period in England (see Fig.
3-14).8 Saint Paul's is generally regarded as
ST. ANTONY OF PADOVA CHURCH, the masterpiece of Christopher Wren. It is
WARSAW (1687-1694) surmounted by a striking dome that stands
This church was built by Izydor Affaita ac- out against the cityscape. A tall drum sup-
cording to Tylman of Gameren. It was deco- ported on eight piers carries on its top three
rated and furnished by painter Francesco concentric shells that together constitute the
Antonio Giorgioli and sculptor Andrzej dome. The inner dome, a shell of brick ma-
74
JZI~l[M'!'~~
A B
3-14 The dome of5t. Paul's Cathedral (1710) , London, by Sir Christopher Wren. a) Exterior view. b) Cross-section.
Wood and Masonry Domes
DOMES IN RUSSIA
76
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
77
Wood and Masonry Domes
78
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
3-20 The domes over the belfry in the Cathedral of Ivan the Great in
the Kremlin, started by Marco Bono in 1508 and completed in 1600.
mounted over a tower, with the others sym- smaller domes around the central one repeat
metrically arranged much lower. the motif from the top part of the central
dome (see Fig. 3-22).
THE CHURCH OF THE
TRANSFIGURATION, KIZBI (1714) ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL, ST.
See Figure 3-21. PETERSBURG (1818-1858)
A gilded dome at the center dominates this
THE SMOLNY CONVENT, ST. massive, rich structure.
PETERSBURG (1748-1755)
These domes designed by Carlo Bartolomeo A general view of the domes over the
Rastrelli include a high central dome with churches of the Kremlin can be seen in Fig-
four small ones around it placed over four ure 3-23.
lower towers.
79
Wood and Masonry Domes
- -- -<==:.
- --
3-21 The Church of the Trans.finuration, Kizbi (1714).
80
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
- -l---
-J(j~-
I }
3-22 The domes of St. Andrew's Cathedral, Kiev (1747 - 1773) by Bartolomeo Rastrelli.
81
Wood and Masonry Domes
by the Renaissance was one theme the ba- variously popular from the late 1800s to its
roque developed to its fullest design virtuos- current great revival.
ity so that the tradition of the dome could Several classical revivals followed that of
decline only gradually. There are two basic the baroque, but their minor scale resulted in
reasons identifiable as the main causes of this only limited, sporadic applications in domes.
decline: a decline in masonry structures in Domes built after the baroque era were usu-
general, and a widespread declaration of war ally inspired by Renaissance domes. The Lu-
against past traditions. theran church built between 1777 and 1781
The advent of improved technology grad- in Warsaw by Szymon Bugumil Zug is a good
ually reduced the continued use of masonry, example of a classical revival. The interior
because of the new excitement generated by under this dome became famous for its flaw-
building in steel and reinforced concrete. Ex- less acoustics. Now the church serves not only
cept for a new generation of domes with steel as a religious center but as a concert hall for
frames, the traditional masonry dome has recitals, particularly of organ and chamber
now vanished as a significant form for archi- music. Also in 1781 Jacques SoufHot com-
tectural expression. The anticlassical cur- pleted the Pantheon in Paris (see Fig. 3-24).9
rents that swelled against the dome and cur- Some innovative domes were built in the
vilinear traditional architecture resulted 1800s. For example, Alesandro Antonelli
from new philosophies of art that emerged (1798-1888) designed the dome ofthe Basil-
with the end of romanticism from just before ica of San Gaudenzio in Novara and the
World War I to the years that followed it. dome for the Mole Antonelliana in Turin.
The development of the dome has fluc- The exceptionally tall profiles of these domes
tuated, because between one peak of popu- with their cuspidate configurations was
larity and another were various levels of ac- mainly to make them easily recognizable
ceptance. For example, the steel dome that from their exteriors and to dominate their
emerged in the nineteenth century has been cityscapes. Another example of a domical
82
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
structure from the same period is the dome classic dome and drum, both octagonal. And
of San Carlo in Milan, designed and built by at Ostia, which is now practically part of
Carlo Amati in 1840. It has a diameter of Rome, a cathedral designed by Magni in the
105 ft (32 m) and height of 120 ft (36.58 m) 1930s is covered by an octagonal dome. It is
and was built with unreinforced horizontal supported by an octagonal drum that clearly
courses. represents a nostalgia for the domes of the
By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, past.
the domical structure was no longer a roofing
system exclusively for churches. Galleries, li-
braries, railroad stations, and government Domes of the U.S. State Capitols
buildings were now among the structures
covered with domes. The vernacular archi- The wide acceptance of Palladian architec-
tecture of this period often indulged in re- ture throughout Europe was exported to the
vivals of Renaissance and baroque proto- United States, where it met with astonishing
types, particularly in cities where the domical enthusiasm that led to a classical revival.
tradition was strong. In Rome, for example, Among the various elements of neoclassical
in the Via Veneto, over the corner of the architecture, the dome emerged supreme as
Excelsior Hotel, there is an elegant baroque- a major feature in public buildings.
revival small but graceful dome. At the
square in front of the Ponte Milvio the 1933 THE STATE CAPITOL, BOSTON
church the Gran Madre di Dio is roofed by a (1795-1798)
This early example of U.S. masonry domes,
on the state house in Boston, was designed by
Charles Bulfinch. This neoclassical building
is crowned by a precious guilded dome whose
vivid reflection merges nicely into the city-
scape of Boston.
83
Wood and Masonry Domes
84
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
almost hemispherical dome, which was in- During the course of these various alter-
tended as a grand space for the library. ations the dome underwent substantial
When the library burned in 1895, the changes, such as the removal and reconstruc-
university commissioned the McDonald tion of the stepped rings around its base, a
Brothers architectural firm of Louisville, change in the copper sheetings, as well as the
Kentucky, to draw up plans for its recon- addition of cupolas over the skylight and the
struction, but after controversies with faculty like.
and students the commission was withdrawn This dome, only 77 ft (23 m) at its base,
and offered to Stanford White of the New remains a major monument as part of the
York firm of McKim, Mead & White. The American heritage. Its Palladian neoclassical
building was eventually rebuilt, not as an ex- architecture adopted by Jefferson to create a
actly perfect replica of the original one, but prototypical model for future American uni-
with modifications reflecting intentions Jef- versities, remains a source of inspiration (see
ferson had had that could not originally be Fig. 3-26).
applied for economic reasons. Subsequently, Other significant domes in the United
several further modifications have been States are mentioned as follows:
made on the building and dome. In 1938,
alterations were made to remove the library The University of Virginia, Charlottesville
from the Rotunda, and in 1939 and 1940 (1897); McKim, Mead & White; base
further modifications took place while refur- diameter 70 ft (21.3 m)
bishing the building. Between 1973 and New York University, New York, N.Y.
1976 additional changes were made to the (1897); McKim, Mead & White; base
building and dome, by Louis W. Ballou, an diameter 56 ft (17 m)
architect from Richmond. The Institute of Arts & Sciences, Brooklyn
3-26 The dome over the library of the University of Vir8inia (I 826),
Charlottesville, by Thomas Jefferson.
85
Wood and Masonry Domes
(1901); McKim, Mead & White; base ever strong cultural traditions of using ma-
diameter 64 ft (19.5 m) sonry existed. Around the Mediterranean
The Bank of Montreal, Montreal (1903- various countries still continue to use ma-
1904); McKim, Mead & White, base di- sonry vaulting techniques with lightweight
ameter 69 ft (21 m) clay products. Hollow-brick tile remains a
Madison Square Presbyterian Church, popular building block for partition con-
New York, N.Y. (1904); McKim, Mead struction and light vaulting throughout the
& White, base diameter 46 ft (14 m) world.
McKinley National Memorial, Canton,
Ohio (1905-1906); H. Van Buren Ma-
gonigk; base diameter 56 ft (17 m)
St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University,
New York, N.Y. (1905-1906); Howells THE END OF AN ERA
and Stokes, base diameter 52 ft (16 m)
Rodef Sholem Synagogue, Pittsburgh
(1905 -1908); Palmer and Hornbostel; With the discovery of Portland cement and
base diameter 90 ft (27.4 m) the concrete derived from it, masonry fell
Smithsonian Museum, Washington, D.C. into disuse. Unreinforced concrete might
(1906 - 1910); Hornblower & Marshall; sometimes have been considered a better
base diameter 80 ft (24.4 m) building material for masonry structures, but
Girard Trust Co., Philadelphia (1907); practical applications took different ap-
McKim, Mead & White and Allen proaches by creating a new technology that
Evans; base diameter 101 ft (30.8 m) bypassed traditional masonry forms. The use
The Cathedral of St. John the Divine, of concrete in its unreinforced state failed to
New York, N.Y. (1908-1909); Heins gain momentum. Only when it was combined
and La Farge; base diameter 132 ft with steel reinforcement did concrete suc-
(40 m) ceed in being fully utilized.
St. Francis de Sales Church, Philadelphia The technological development of the ma-
(1908-1911); Henry D. Dagit; base di- sonry dome can be seen in its inherent con-
ameter 61 ft (18.6 m) struction characteristics. Domes were used as
The Church of St. Barbara, Brooklyn a practical building typology to cover large
(1909); Helmle & Hubert; base diame- spaces with a permanent, durable material
ter 43 ft (13 m) instead of short-lived wood trabeation. Much
can be seen by observing the spans that his-
torical domical structures have covered.
Tile Domes in the United States Large and small domes have served their role
through a large spectrum of applications (see
Late nineteenth-century Spanish prototypes Table 3-1) that testifies to the flexibility of
of Catalan masonry timbrel vaulting reached domical morphology.
the United States through the initiative of Recent design demands for truly large
Rafael Guastavino. Using his unique system spans have proceeded beyond the capabilities
of tile vaults laminated in layers, scores of of masonry, passing the task directly to rein-
domes were built throughout the United forced concrete, and indirectly to steel and
States. From 1897 to World War II this wood. For reinforced concrete, the most sig-
method proliferated. nificant example is the Kingdome in Seattle
Brick-tile vaulting became practically ex- (1975) with a diameter of 660 ft (201m).
tinct in the 1940s in the United States, but Tables 3-2 and 3-3 detail significant steel and
the art of working with tiles lived on wher- wood domes.
86
Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
87
Wood and Masonry Domes
TABLE 3-3 Wood Dome Sizes In this dramatic sequence can be seen the
DIAMETER AT ancient masonry tradition being forcibly
BASE ousted by the new technologies.
DOME OF MAJOR DOME
University of Portland, 1984; 305 ft (93 m)
Varax
University of N. Arizona, 1978; 502 ft (153 m)
Varax
Tacoma Dome, 1983; 530 ft (162 m)
Varax
University of N. 533 ft (163 m)
Michigan, 1990; Varax
NOTES
1. From Bannister Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 5 ed. (1905), 409.
2. Ibid., 153.
3. Ibid., 452.
4. Elwin C. Robison, "A Structural Study of the Michelangelo and Della Porta Designs for the St. Peter's
Dome." Proceedings, symposium on Domes from Antiquity to the Present, IASS-MSU, Istanbul, May 1988.
5. Ibid.
6. Fletcher, History of Architecture, 482.
7. Ibid., 508.
8. Ibid., 570.
9. Ibid., 508.
88
CHAPTER 4
Dome TechnolO[Jies
89
Wood and Masonry Domes
heavy mass of the masonry during the slow DOMES: BASIC FORCES
construction phase. Masonry vaults and
domes must be dealt with differently from
masonry walls. During the construction of For a better understanding of the develop-
masonry walls, the structure is always in a mental background of domical structures it is
state of stable equilibrium, under the action necessary to examine the basic forces and re-
of dead loads, but structural shells never actions on and within domes. The design and
achieve equilibrium until being totally com- construction of masonry domes can be easily
pleted. For this reason, falsework is an abso- carried out by following some basic design
lute necessity for erecting structural shells. procedures.
Another major factor in the definition of The first step toward a general under-
structural shells is the degree of curvilinearity standing of domes as structures is to acquire a
in the shape that manipulates the flow of in- mental picture of the structural behavior
ternal forces throughout the form. A ma- common to all domes. To do so requires
sonry shell's external forces, its live and dead identifying the basic forces that travel
loads, flow through it to its supports in pat- throughout a shell. First are the internal
terns such that the stresses produced at any forces generated by loads that by definition
given cross-section are either ones of com- produce membrane forces that travel within
pression or of shear, these being the only two the shell all the way to its supports. Because
stresses that masonry is capable of absorbing they are planar elements, only those forces of
efficiently. Consequently, the pattern of the compression, tension, and shear that are con-
internal forces is conveyed through a shell in tained within the shell's thickness itself are
accordance with a specific geometry that will allowable. The following discussion analyzes
allow the generation of only compressive and and describes the forces for various configu-
shear stresses. Compression does not neces- rations of load conditions and geometric
sarily occur uniformly throughout any partic- forms, limited to spherical and conoidal
ular cross-section. It is necessary, however, to domes.
stay within positive compressive stresses,
without going into negative values (tension). Spherical Domes with No
As the theory of elasticity illustrates, tension Central Opening
is avoided when the resultant of compressive
forces at any given section is contained within Many kinds of circular domes are structurally
that section's middle third. Structural shells possible, since they can be attained by rotat-
therefore must capitalize on the geometric ing any shape of generatrix around a vertical
configurations that will allow this internal axis. For simplicity's sake this discussion is
condition. limited to spherical domes, implying any por-
To visualize this effect, imagine a simple tion of a sphere, from its minor circumfer-
piece of cloth hanging from various points ence up to a hemisphere and on around. A
that acquires a certain shape under the minor circumference will produce shallow
weight of sand superimposed on it. This cloth domes with a low rise, whereas the diameter
is nothing other than a membrane under ten- of a sphere will of course produce a hemi-
sion. Now imagine this membrane inverted, spherical shape having a high rise. A move-
without undergoing a change in shape by ment to circumferences farther around a
freezing. The structure becomes a thin shell sphere will produce a higher rise, but with no
and its state of stress is pure compression. increase in diameter.
The extraordinary variety of pure tensile The best way to visualize the geometry of
structures now available furnishes a valid in- the dome may be to refer to the terrestrial
ventory of forms for structural shells, if one globe, with its subdivisions in parallels, or cir-
can imagine them as being inverted. cles of latitude, which are also referred to as
90
Dome Technologies
91
Wood and Masonry Domes
92
Dome Technologies
W
T=----:-
2rr r sin 2 ¢I
93
Wood and Masonry Domes
The hoop force H at point P I is given per increases toward the base at a rate of W can
linear foot of meridion by be found as follows:
The increase of the unit load per radian is In this problem the uniform distributed
w' = 60 psf/1.34880 = 44.48 psf. load is not included, and only the variable
portion of the load is taken into considera-
The total variable load above the base Wv tion, so that its effects can be evaluated
generated by a load that is 0 at the crown and separately.
94
Dome Technologies
95
Wood and Masonry Domes
96
Dome TechnoloBies
tions of materials. Stones alone, bricks alone, pacity of masonry is for the most part a func-
or combinations of them were used in various tion of the strength of its mortar joints.
applications with different geometric pat- These critical elements are much weaker
terns, according to the prevailing tradition. than stones or bricks in general. The stresses
Despite this multiplicity the whole of ma- allowable in various types of masonry give
sonry can be considered a homogeneous ma- some idea about the order of magnitude of
terial when one visualizes a masonry form in the values in question. For instance, the safe
a structural context. working compressive-stress values listed in
The forms that emerged out of structural the CRSI manual indicate for limestone ma-
homogeneity substantiate the versatility of sonry 350 psi and 500 psi, sandstone masonry
masonry. In the hands of sensitive designers, 208 psi and 400 psi, rubble masonry 140 psi
rigid, unimaginative vertical surfaces ac- and 250 psi. The CRSI figures for the bear-
quired lightness and elegance. Rectilinear ing capacity of various brick masonry under-
walls could become curved, making possible bearing plates include hard-burned common
circular buildings. A wall could now be per- brick in cement mortar 200 psi, soft common
forated by openings complemented with brick in cement mortar 150 psi, hard-burned
structural lintels. Major spaces were framed common brick in lime mortar 150 psi, and
with structural arches. More freely and ima- soft common brick in lime mortar 120 psi.
ginatively, masonry expanded into fluid, The various kinds of mortar currently de-
curvilinear surfaces to generate vaults and fined by ASTM specifications give allowable
domes. bearing stresses as follows: 2,500 psi for type
To attain curvilinear surfaces in masonry M, 1,800 psi for type S, 750 psi for type N,
it was necessary to develop new building and 350 psi for type O.
techniques. The temporary supports that The Brick Institute of America has given
were needed for unfinished masonry during specific values of allowable stresses recom-
construction had to be kept in place until the mended for brick masonry. 2 The allowable
structure was completed and the mortar had stresses include the following types: compres-
had time to harden. Centering for arches as sive axial (fm ), compressive flexural (fm ), ten-
well as falsework for vaults and domes had to sile flexural (fl ), shear (v m ), and bearing (fm ).
be designed. The use of timbers and of cen- These stresses are derived as a percentage of
tering and falsework supported by scaffolds the computed compressive strength of ma-
became an integral part of masonry building sonry at twenty-eight days (Pm) that has been
techniques, much as form work has become attained by a formula taking into account the
necessary today for cast-in-place concrete. ultimate compressive strength of brick (£I,)
The major characteristics of masonry as a and two coefficients: A, equal to two-thirds
whole are inherent in the brick itself. Ex- without inspection and 1.0 with inspection,
tremely manageable in size and weight, and B equal to 0.2 for type N mortar, 0.25
bricks can be quickly and easily set in mortar for type S, and 0.3 for type M. The £I, factor
beds resting on complex curvilinear false- should not exceed 14,000 psi. The formula is
work. It is rewarding to observe the astonish- as follows:
ing ability with which experienced masons in
the Middle East can still produce masonry Pm = A(400 + B£I,)
artwork with apparent ease. Because it is usu-
ally covered by stucco, brick masonry has to Table 4-1, "Allowable Stresses in Nonrein-
be visualized to be seen for what it really is if forced Brick Masonry," gives the values of
one wants to capture its significance. the allowable stresses as a function of f:". To
When masonry performs structurally as a appreciate the order of magnitude of these
homogeneous mass, its total strength de- stresses, consider, for example, a type M
pends on its weakest link. The carrying ca- mortar undergoing no inspection and an n
97
Wood and Masonry Domes
equal to 14,000 psi. From the previous for- cording to the percentage of the various in-
mulas we attain an f:" = 3,070 psi. From this gredients in their mixture. From time imme-
the following allowable stresses can be deter- morial, conventional mortar has been mixed
mined: a compressive axial stress for walls of empirically, in accordance with the experi-
614 psi and for columns of 490 psi, a bearing ence of many traditions. Historically, the ex-
stress on the full area of 767 psi, and a shear tent of the variations has been limited by
stress of 27 psi, not to exceed 40 psi. combining lime and sand in slightly different
Mortar qualities vary considerably, ac- proportions and using different amounts of
98
Dome Technolo8ies
water. Modern mortar mixtures vary little builders the art of vaulting has been perva-
from the old ones, the major difference being sive in architecture to the present.
the inclusion now of portland cement, with a While focusing on the various expressions
consequent increase in strength. The propor- of domes that have distinguished themselves
tions of the various ingredients by volume in masonry, wood, and concrete and steel
have also by now been more exactly estab- structures, it is worth mentioning some other
lished. In the ASTM specification system the forms of vaulting, especially those in masonry
various proportions of components for the and concrete. Briefly describing here some of
type mortars for nonreinforced masonry are: the basic types of vaulting used for masonry
for M, 1 part portland cement to 1/4 lime to 3 structures will illustrate the structural back-
of sand; for S, 1 part portland cement to 1/2 of ground from which the masonry dome
lime to 41/4 of sand; for N, 1 part portland evolved. Similarly, other vaulting forms have
cement to 1 of lime to 6 of sand; and for 0, 1 been illustrated later in this work, with much
part portland cement to Ph - 21/2 parts lime greater emphasis, in connection with thin-
to 21/4-3 of sand. Notice that type 0 mortar shelled concrete domes.
is no longer permissible by the new ACI
530-88 specifications.
The allowable stresses in Table 4-1 are Barrel Vault
based upon the existence of a good bond be-
tween units and their mortar or grout. Named after artifacts that it resembles, this
Where the surface of the brick in contact vault is also known as a tunnel vault, wagon-
with mortar or grout is either smooth or head vault, and wagon vault. This vault is
heavily sanded, the possibility of making a characterized by its cross-section, which is
reduction in the allowable stresses should be constant throughout its length. Although a
considered. portion of a circle is the most popular archi-
tectural form, the barrel vault could also be
constructed using different cross-sectional
configurations.
BASIC VAULTING From the structural point of view the bar-
rel vault has two totally different patterns of
behavior, according to whether or not it acts
Vaulting can be defined as an extension of as a series of contiguous arches or as a longi-
the arch into a three-dimensional space. tudinal thin shell. In the first case, usually
The fundamental statement that structural found in heavy masonry structures, the vault
strength derives from mass and form and bears along the longitudinal edges, acting
their relative relationship finds a clear and like several arches connected rigidly. In the
obvious demonstration in vaulting. With the latter case the vault acts as a beam supported
stiffness derived from curvature, vaults have by an arch at each end of its longitudinal
achieved astonishing strengths, which has re- span. It develops longitudinal stresses of ten-
duced the contribution of mass to a second- sion and compression within the shell's sur-
ary role. The stiffness that a vaulted struc- face, just as a beam would be stressed.
ture displays allows for extremely slender
configurations in structural surfaces. This
trait has created a special vocabulary within Groin or Cross-Vault
the language of architecture. Starting with
the first expressions of curvilinearity, in an- The groin vault, also called a cross-vault, re-
cient Etruria (see the Porta all' Arco, c. 300 sults from the perpendicular intersection of
B.C., in Volterra, Tuscany) and the cultures two barrel vaults. The intersecting lines thus
of Mesopotamia, in the hands of sensitive formed are curvilinear and extend diagonally
99
Wood and Masonry Domes
to form two intersecting arches. With respect to use in large-scale applications. Modem-day
to the rest of the vault's surface these arches cement, which comes from day and lime-
are in a valley resembling that of the groin of stone, shares with the baked day of ceramics
the human body, from which the name de- the same ancestral origin in basic soils found
rives. The term cross-vault arises from the freely on earth. Concrete is a low-key indus-
two longitudinal axes of the barrels, which trial product that requires only low-key
intersect at 90 degrees to form a cross. Such a technology and energy input for its manufac-
vault may be used to cover square or rectan- turing. It is a humble material found unre-
gular floor plans. The cross-section of the strictedly almost anywhere. Even without any
barrels can be part of a circular or elliptical reinforcement, it is obviously an improved
shape. product in the masonry family that can resist
compressive and shear forces many times
greater than brick or stone masonry can
carry. Concrete can thus be used for much
FROM MASONRY TO CONCRETE thinner, and larger, structures. In itself, the
smoother homogeneity of the mass of con-
crete in comparison to masonry makes it a
The adoption of pozzolana for use in mortar monolithic material in some ways better than
mixes in the region around and south of fragmented masonry composition.
Rome produced a special mix that was in Curvilinear structures in reinforced con-
reality a form of cement. The natural chemi- crete expressed as thin shells did not in fact
cal components of pozzolana, especially its revolutionize the prevalent view of domes.
silicate and aluminate, combined chemically With the advantages of a material such as
with the calcium in the lime to generate a steel and concrete combined one could have
new chemical product. The Roman vaults expected more extensive use of it in domes,
and domes that capitalized on the structural yet reinforced concrete came primarily to
strength of this new special mortar succeeded compete with steel frames in applications of
in establishing a new concept in masonry. columns and beams. Tension, compression,
From the original heaviness of massive walls shear, bending, and torsion were stresses that
Roman masonry developed a new sense of reinforced concrete could carry with the
lightness, through long-span curvilinear sur- same ease as could steel alone. With their
faces. The thin concrete shells of today owe relative costs it is dear why reinforced-con-
their ancestry to Roman vaults. Of course, crete structures competed with steel- and
these early megastructures were just the be- won.
ginning of a centuries-long tradition. Byzan-
tine, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque ar-
chitecture followed the Western tradition of
curvilinear masonry structures, improving TIMBREL VAULTING
the technology and adopting new forms in it.
Similarly, the Islamic culture of the Ottoman
Empire borrowed dome technology and Timbrel vaulting is a distinguished construc-
made it a major expression in religious tion system for domes that excels in its ele-
architecture. gance and efficiency over any other masonry
In its pure expression, concrete used in technology for curvilinear shapes. Its name,
isolation should properly be considered, like derived from timbrel (tambourine), reflects
terra-cotta, to have several obvious advan- the appearance and efficiency of this system,
tages over the ancient primitive manipulated which employs thin, slender vaults much like
day. Concrete should really be regarded as a the surface of the percussion instrument.
man-made stone that responds magnificently One could imagine that if a vault were
100
Dome Technologies
slapped, its tightness would make it reverber- sum or even clay to it. In some cases the
ate the sound just as a timbrel would. It came system included a first layer of tiles embed-
from two basic areas in Spain, Estremadura ded in gypsum mortar, which set quickly,
and Catalonia, but it was in the latter that the creating a structural layer on top of which
technique really expanded and flourished. other layers could then be superimposed. In
Whether this technology can be traced to this first, interior, layer the gypsum mortar
Italian traditions is subject to scholarly de- would be protected by superimposed layers
bate, but it is definitely not connected to the that included instead a conventional lime
Moorish culture or other known sources. mortar, which might even have in it hydrau-
This type of vaulting is so associated with lic cement.
Catalonia that the timbrel vault is also re- The astonishing facility of the timbrel
ferred to as the Catalan vault. vault is dramatically expressed by the dome
A major characteristic of this system is the over the cathedral of St. John the Divine in
behavior of mortar joints in it. In typical ma- New York. This dome, which is 132 ft (40.2
sonry the mortar acts as an embedment for m) in diameter, was built in successive circu-
the stone or brick components that provide lar courses that were 18 in (45.7 cm) wide but
for the uniform distribution of stresses, basi- had no centering. Workmen would stand on
cally those of compression and shear. In this the edge of the dome erected the day before
case the mortar is not assumed to carry any as they built the next course. There was no
tensile stress. In the timbrel vaulting system, protection in case of failure between the
however, the mortar has a major role as a workmen and the floor of the church 150
bonding agent that develops tensile resist- feet below.
ance and high shear strength. It thus de- The interweaving of the various layers of
velops a cohesive strength that dominates the tiles that form a laminated vault generates a
structural behavior of the timbrel vault. This structural system with great inherent cohe-
cohesive strength seems to have character- siveness. This integrity is reflected by a high
ized as well the masonry technology of early degree of structural durability that is compa-
Egyptian barrel vaults and of Byzantine, Sas- rable to the behavior of reinforced concrete.
sanian, and Moslem domes. This strength was dramatically demonstrated
The timbrel vault, which is applicable to once during the erection of the Boston Public
most curvilinear shapes and domes, uses Library in 1892. A stone block that weighed
brick tiles rather than voussoirs and has joints approximately two tons was accidentally
that lie horizontally instead of radially. The dropped and plunged through one of the
vault itself includes several layers of tiles su- vaulted floors below, perforating it without
perimposed. Each layer is constituted of tiles causing further damage. The localized dam-
connected along their edges and arranged age did not spread at all and was easily
with staggered joints. The layers also differ patched.
from one to the other in terms of the orienta- This vaulting system was made even more
tion in which tiles are arranged in them. The popular by its fire-resistance ability. Lamina-
various layers together make up a sort of lam- ting the layers allowed mortar joints to be
inated vault system. protected from the heat of fire by the tiles of
One basic feature of the timbrel vault is its the adjacent layers.
reduction of the falsework needed for its con- Late in its development, the timbrel sys-
struction. After the first segment of a timbrel tem was brought to the United States by Ra-
vault is in place, workmen can stand on it and fael Guastavino. There it gained astonishing
continue to extend it by bonding adjacent momentum, which spread it throughout this
tiles with a quick-setting mortar. The harden- and other countries. Its final decline in the
ing of conventional lime mortar was often United States did not occur until 1943, when
accelerated by adding small amounts of gyp- Guastavino the Younger retired. At this
101
Wood and Masonry Domes
point brick masonry could no longer compete dramatically affected. With its usual conser-
economically in the United States, because of vative approach, the construction industry
increased labor costs and the competitiveness has yet to capitalize on the high-level technol-
of concrete. ogy that has revolutionized most other indus-
tries today. The most significant contempo-
rary contribution in shell construction in
terms of building equipment is probably the
THE ERECTION OF DOMES-
high-power lifting cranes now available.
EARL Y TECHNOLOGY
Speed in construction constitutes a major
contributor to the efficiency and economics
The early use of masonry to erect walls can of any structure, which is a factor that can
only be considered a direct manifestation of benefit significantly from the high lifting ca-
construction concepts inherent in the mate- pabilities of cranes. This power allows large-
rials available. When instead masonry came size buckets that increase the rate of concrete
to be used to complete structures overhead as pouring. The crane's high lifting power also
a roof covering, this process required an in- makes it possible to increase the operating
ventiveness that marked a major step forward swinging radius of its boom, which increases
for civilization. Vaulting in its various forms the maneuverability and positioning of the
expressed amazing intuition, rationality, and bucket during casting. At present the con-
great faith in man's intellect, as well as bold- struction industry has available many large-
ness. The erection of heavy masonry vaults size construction cranes, from both domestic
springing overhead no doubt required a manufacturers and foreign sources, including
great deal of self-assurance on the part of ones in Europe and Japan.
ancient builders. For instance, removing the In examining ways to improve the effi-
temporary centering from under a com- ciency of shell construction it is important to
pleted masonry dome must have required sig- consider the role that the tower crane can
nificant courage, especially when the builders play. The advantages of the tower crane are
increased its span beyond that of the largest in fact major and need particularly to be un-
yet built. derlined for the U.S. market, where it is not
In its early, empirical stage, the develop- in widespread use. Its particular advantages
ment of the vault evolved simultaneously include having a large operating radius,
with experience in design and construction. because of its having a counterbalancing
Construction naturally had to follow design, weight. Also important is the tower crane's
but design could proceed only by capitalizing ability to position its bucket right at the point
on previous construction experiences. Such of casting, because of its large range of oper-
an approach based on an interdependence ating radius. The tower crane can place ma-
between construction and design produced in terials directly in any desired location,
the past a quality of work usually lost in cur- whereas the mobile crane cannot compete
rent professional practice. On occasions with it, because of its small inherent radius.
when this gap is bridged it is still possible to Mobile cranes require pouring concrete from
see work that recaptures frequently lost ar- the bucket into wagons that then have to
chitectural values. travel over the formwork to get to areas
where the mobile crane cannot reach.
In light of the lifting power that machines
Machines can supply today, the large, outstanding
domes of the past such as the Pantheon, St.
With the high degree of mechanization upon Sophia, and Santa Maria del Fiore, which
which the construction industry depends were built with rudimentary hoists operated
today, shell construction methodology is not by animal power, appear to be a much more
102
Dome Technologies
significant achievement in the art of building. major equipment on the job, but smaller
Let us then try to determine the point at hoists were also installed on the tops of the
which the modern era of mechanization de- walls supporting the dome.
parts from that of the building art that The significance of these hoisting ma-
started as far back as early Mesopotamia. chines created by Brunelleschi went beyond
The essential elements that provide their practical usefulness as they became the
strength in structures, whether produced by object of admiration and civic pride of the
nature or by man, are mass and form. In Florentines, who were the sophisticated citi-
building artificial structures, interposed be- zens of an outstanding city. The performance
tween the two elements comes the builder of the main hoist can be evaluated by recog-
who operates with tools in hand or with ma- nizing that the dome of Santa Maria del
chines he has conceived and built. From an- Fiore, without its lantern, weighed approxi-
tiquity, collective human machines have con- mately 50 million pounds. Thus, the average
sisted of organized work armies of several lifting work for the hoist per day over twelve
thousands of men. The building of the Meso- years must have been on the order of 20,000
potamian canals and Egyptian pyramids uti- pounds per day, with occasional peaks of per-
lized these complex human organizations. haps 50,000 pounds per day.
Machines have long operated also on projects Although Brunelleschi's technology
where mass was the predominant factor. On marked the architectural transition from
the other hand, the delicate vaulting and do- Gothic to Renaissance technology, the engi-
mical structures of antiquity depended on a neer-architects of the Renaissance gained
geometry that required other kinds of ma- their scientific impetus from the achieve-
chines: centering, scaffolds, hoists, wind- ments of Roman architecture. Pulleys,
lasses, positioners, and so on. The human tackles, and windlasses for pulling or lifting,
component in this matrix had to be skillful, as well as treadmills powered by men walking
but limited in number. The energy to power inside them, mu~t have been known at least
such machines was traditionally from humans since Roman times. Vitruvius wrote about
or animals, until the industrial era tapped some of these basic machines used in con-
new sources. Early machines usually operated struction. The concepts behind such simple
at very low speeds, with little concern given machines as the lever, the pulley, and the
for friction and the deformation of moving inclined plane became the objects of scien-
parts, which were usually made of wood or tific mathematical study for many Italian
soft metals. Renaissance scientists, including Federico
To build the great domes of the Renais- Commandino da Urbino (1509-1575), Giro-
sance the techniques and machines of the lamo Cardano (1501-1576), Niccolo Tar-
Gothic master builders constituted the start- taglia (1499-1557), Giambattista Benedetti
ing point. For instance, most of the historic (1530-1590), Bernardino Baldi (1553-
significance of the dome of Santa Maria del 1617), and Guidobaldo del Monte (1547-
Fiore in Florence comes from the construc- 1607). The Renaissance saw toothed gears
tion methodology, specifically the hoists and and worm gears used in hoisting machines, as
positioners that Brunelleschi designed, which Leonardo da Vinci, Giuliano da Sangallo,
capitalized on the experiences of centuries of and Francesco di Giorgio documented in
earlier builders. Tons of material had to be their drawings.
hoisted up to the springing level and higher
during the 12-year period that the dome was
being built. The workmen also had to be Scaffolds
lifted to their working stations and brought
down fast and safely every day. The ox-pow- Scaffolds have yet to be recognized as they
ered hoist that Brunelleschi used was the deserve in the usual descriptions of struc-
103
Wood and Masonry Domes
tures. The essential importance of their func- It has always been recognized that one of
tion was more widely recognized in the past, the major factors contributing to the cost of
when architecture, engineering, and con- concrete thin shells, especially in industrial-
struction operated under the same umbrella, ized countries, has been the high amount of
than now when the three fields are distinct. labor formwork requires. Therefore, adopt-
Because scaffolds were designed to support ing a system that permits extensive reuse of
structural dead loads and specific forces en- form work is the most efficient way to lower
countered only during construction, in the the construction costs of thin shells in such
past they determined the very shape of struc- countries.
tures. In curvilinear forms the role of scaf-
folding has been more significant than for
rectilinear structures. Another reason that The Labor Factor in Construction
architectural historians have neglected the
role of scaffolds and construction problems A labor force includes craftsmen and un-
in their descriptions of architectural struc- skilled laborers. Understanding their assets
tures is that they usually lack the engineering and limitations is vital, because the contribu-
knowledge in structural theory and construc- tion of labor to any building project is an
tion practice that the subject requires. essential factor not to be underestimated.
Current practice in scaffolding-almost The proper assessment of labor needs should
anywhere in the world, not just in high-tech- start at the design stage, to maximize overall
nology areas - has for several decades practi- efficiency.
cally abandoned the old traditional use of The fundamental roles in the realization
timbers. Now tubular metal scaffolds in ei- of a structure are those of the architect, engi-
ther steel or occasionally aluminum (when neer, builder, craftsmen, laborers, and ma-
light weight and corrosion resistance are im- chines. When the first three roles are com-
portant) are available for purchase or rental. bined into one, as often happens, certain
The geometry and various components structures become particularly sensitive to
patented in each of the many different scaf- this integrity. Sophisticated curvilinear struc-
fold prototypes create quite an intriguing tures, including domes, vaults, and modern
repertoire of solutions to building problems thin shells, are definitely among them.
that stimulate the interest of theoretical de- The contribution of labor to the efficiency
signers. Starting with patterns that form rigid of a particular type of building methodology
frames in basic units it is possible to design a involves a variety of factors, such as the re-
complex framework with a variety of bracing quired degree of craftsmanship, how un-
sections that will respond efficiently to sup- skilled labor will be used, whether prefabrica-
port any desired configuration of concrete tion will be on site or in the plant, and the
formwork. The light weight and ease of as- complexity of geometric shapes and construc-
sembly of steel and aluminum elements make tion form work involved. In thin-shelled con-
it possible, for instance, to build movable struction, more than in any other form of
formwork that is mounted on casters. By in- building, labor is one of the most critical
terposing hydraulically operated jacks, the components.
movable scaffolds that support the form work Felix Candela's work in Mexico is an ex-
can easily be lowered and moved to a new ample of brilliant solutions to thin-shelled
location where they can be lifted again to projects that realistically evaluated the poten-
build the next portion of a shell. This method tial of the labor forces available with respect
of construction has produced extraordinary to the methodologies being considered. With
cost reductions in the construction of con- relatively unskilled labor Candela succeeded
crete thin shells, by allowing for repetitive in attaining complex geometric shapes, un-
uses of the same formwork. doubtedly by having throughout the design
104
Dome Technolo8ies
process a clear perception of the construction sIZIng its basic integrity and extraordinary
methodology. Similarly, Pier Luigi Nervi's simplicity.
work in curvilinear structures achieved its ex- A pilot project (see Figs. 4-1 and 4-2) was
traordinary success by rationally optimizing completed with satisfactory results in a farm-
construction methods, labor, and design. In ing community in Iran. Even though it con-
fact, Candela and Nervi each combined into sisted only of improving an existing building
themselves the roles of architect, engineer, technology, its results can be seen as a brand-
and builder. new approach toward building durable
Another particularly important aspect of domes or thin shell structures in those parts
the relationship between labor and the con- of the world where clay is available but only
struction of shells involves some of the devel- low-level skilled labor can be attained.
oping nations at present. These countries The domical structures in this project in-
have found great potential in such low-cost clude a base slab, perimeter walls, and a
materials as conventional concrete and ferro- crowning shell, which together constitute an
cement, having seen that thin shells require a integral, monolithic mass that can be looked
minimum of material and can absorb unem- at as a surface structure with an intradox and
ployed labor forces. Some countries like an extradox. The extradox, the surface ex-
China have already capitalized on this con- posed to weather, is the most vulnerable part
cept, and many others are poised to take ad- of the structure and thus would benefit the
vantage of it, particularly with the help of the most from effective stabilization. However,
international organizations that disseminate the process of firing from the inside makes
such technical data. the intradox benefit the most from the fir-
ing. The duration of the baking affects how
much the heat treatment penetrates the
thickness of the structure. Ideally, the thresh-
CERAMIC DOMES FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
lOS
Wood and Masonry Domes
106
Dome Technologies
ventional ships, because domes were usually Church of St. Stephen at Gaza, fifth or
covered with metal sheathing rather than sixth century A.D.
being directly exposed. Church Mahoymac at Port of Gaza
In choosing wood to construct their domes
the builders of the Near East recognized the DOME OF THE ROCK, QUBBET
advantage of a light structure as opposed to a ES-SAKHRA, JERUSALEM (A.D. 688-692)
heavy masonry one under the seismic forces This dome is a timber structure consisting of
frequently felt in their earthquake-prone two shells resting over a masonry arcade.
area. Furthermore, it was obvious that a com- This most important Islamic structure,
plex, bulbous dome high aboveground was erected by Ummayad Caliph Abd AI-Malik,
much easier to build in wood than in heavy influenced later Islamic architecture. Built
masonry that had to be hoisted into place and on the top of Mount Moriah, from where it
temporarily supported by centering. is assumed that Mohammed ascended to
Is the wooden dome a replica of the ma- Heaven, this structure is in character with
sonry dome built thus just for practical rea- Syrio-Byzantine architecture, and specifically
sons? According to many scholars, 3 there is Syrian building techniques (see Fig. 4-3).
actually reason to believe that the wood
dome preceded the masonry version. It now
seems possible that the polygonal buildings of
the Hellenistic period that were once as-
sumed to have been covered with wooden
rectilinear members forming conical struc-
tures may have instead been covered with
wooden domes. Similarly, the Etruscans and
Romans knew the wooden dome, and some
sources believe that in India the wood dome
preceded the stone type.
Some examples of structures in the Near
East that are assumed to have been roofed
with wooden domes include the following 4
107
Wood and Masonry Domes
United States, the wooden dome has also Rene Sarger C.E.T.A.C. Enterprise Delens;
reached its largest application with excep- N. V. Nemaho S.A.
tionally large spans of the same order of mag-
nitude of those reached by concrete and steel FACTORY FOR JOHN RENNOCK &
megadomes. The following are some of the SONS, LTD., HAUGHLEY PARK,
most significant examples that illustrate the SUFFOLK, ENGLAND (1958)
new innovative vocabulary of the wood dome This structure is of hyperbolic paraboloid
of the present. gable-type shells built of wood. Each shell,
supported at its four corners, covers a square
ORIGINAL DOME, U.S. CAPITOL, area whose sides are 57 ft 6 in (17.5 m). The
WASHINGTON, D.C. (1793-1867) reinforced-concrete columns to support the
The original dome was a wooden structure wood shell that are at each corner are tied
sheathed with copper in a basic design in- together by prestressed ties to absorb hori-
spired by the dome of the Pantheon that cov- zontal thrust. The wood shell consists of
ered a circular rotunda designed in the Palla- three layers of wooden boards placed at right
dian style. After being damaged in the War angles to each other. The various combina-
of 1812 it was rebuilt in its present state using tions of materials, including wood, concrete,
cast iron. and steel, in this structure derive from cost
considerations. The designers for the struc-
FIELD HOUSE AT MONTANA STATE ture were Johns, Slater & Haward and the
COLLEGE, BOZEMAN (1956) Timber Development Association, Ltd.
This wooden dome by O. Berg and F. F.
Willson covers an area of 70,000 sq ft (6,500 FOREST PRODUCTS PAVILION,
sq m) and has a diameter of 300 ft (90 m). PORTLAND, OREGON (1960)
The structure consists of 36 meridian ribs This timber structure consists of assembled
arranged radially and a series of hoops, both hyperbolic saddle-type paraboloids. The shell
made of laminated wood. The ribs have a consists of two layers of wooden boards with
cross-section of 7 X 16 in (180 X 400 mm) an overall thickness of 1 V2 in (4 cm). The two
with a curvilinear axis that follows the curva- layers are oriented along the convex and con-
ture of the dome, whereas the hoops are cave parabolas. The boards along the con-
made of individual straight members. The cave line, because they are in tension, are
primary facing, which includes the laminated only V2 in (l.2 cm) thick. Conversely, the
meridians and hoops, is completed with boards along the convex line, which are in
braces and a steel tension ring at the top. compression, are 1 in (2.5 cm) thick. The
Covering the frame is a 3 in (7.5 cm) wooden edge members consist of two layers of boards
deck. 1 X 10 in (2.5 X 25 cm) connected beneath
the shell and four layers on top of it so that
INFORMATION PAVILION, the overall thickness of the beam is 7V2 in (18
BRUSSELS (1958) cm) and their width is 10 in (25 cm). The free
This building is a saddle-type hyperbolic par- peaks cantilever 56 ft (17 m) outward from
aboloid thin shell built as an experimental the supports. This pavilion was designed for a
structure covering a rhomboidal floor plan. lumber association, so it was logical to use
Its sides are 60 ft (18.3 m) by 46 ft (14 m) wood to show its potential in thin-shelled ap-
long. The structure consists of wooden plications. The designers were John W.
planks arranged in a specific pattern. The Storrs and James G. Pierson.
prestressed shell is supported at two points.
The architect, engineers, and builders are, SPORTS BUILDING AT NORTHERN
respectively, Lucien-Jacques Baucher, Jean- ARIZONA UNIVERSITY, FLAGSTAFF (1978)
Pierre Blondel and Odette Filippone, and This wood dome excels as an example of the
108
Dome TechnoloOies
potential of wood's structural capabilities. A structural analysis of this dome was per-
Spherical in shape. this dome has a base diam- formed by the GENSAP program. Of partic-
eter of 502 ft (153 m) and a rise at the crown ular note are the loading conditions, which in
of 92 ft 4.75 in (28.2 m). It was erected in the design project snow loads up to 2 m high,
only five months. at a cost of $6 million for producing 40 Ib/ffl (195 kg/mt), with 30 psf
the whole complex. The structure of the (146 kg/mt) for horizontal wind and 17.4 psf
dome includes a wood deck and a skeletal (85 kg/mt) for dead load. This dome was
framework. The deck, built of tongue and designed by Rossman and Partners Archi-
groove panels 50 cm X 50 cm that are sup- tects and by John K. Parsons & Associates.
ported by purlins, is structurally independent
from the wood framework of the dome, but it TACOMA DOME. TACOMA.
provides lateral support to the members of WASHINGTON (/983)
the dome skeleton. The structural members, The Tacoma Dome still retains the record
which are laminated. consist of southern yel- for being the largest wood dome in the
low pine interconnected at their joints with world, with its base diameter of 530 ft (162
bolted steel connectors capable of providing m). It tops the dome over the Sports Building
80 percent fixed-end conditions. This partial at Northern Arizona University at Flagstaff
fixity. assumed for safety's sake to be only 50 by only 28 ft (8 m) but at a total cost of $44
percent, is included in the design conditions million versus $6 million for the Arizona
to increase the efficiency of the members. A complex. The main skeletal wooden frame-
typical wooden member cross-section is work consists of 414 major wooden lami-
5 11s X 27 in (13 X 43 cm) throughout the nated beams with a curved configuration
structure. except in perimeter areas, where having a cross-sectional depth of 30 in (76
the section is 8¥. X 27 in (22 X 43 em). The cm). Erected without using falsework-only
whole dome was built combining six spherical a central pole reaching the crown - the
triangles having an angle at their vertex of 60 wood frame bears around the base on 36
degrees. The fitting, which was fabricated on round concrete columns that are 26 in (66
the ground and lifted into place. was particu- cm) in diameter, interconnected by a pre-
larly accurate. The base support includes six stressed concrete ring. The wooden deck that
points per spherical triangle, for a total of completes the dome consists of treated Doug-
thirty-six points for the entire dome. At each las fir. As with most structural work today,
point the dome is supported by a reinforced this dome was analyzed by computer (see Fig.
concrete buttress 1.5m high. These but- 4-4). This dome was designed by Tacoma
tresses are in tum connected at their bases by
a post-stressed reinforced concrete ring that
resists the tension created by the dome.
109
Wood and Masonry Domes
Dome Associates, the winners of a competi- follow the contour of the shell, with a mini-
tion organized by the city of Tacoma. mum radius of curvature of 33 ft (10 m).
Such bending created a desirable stiffness but
EARLE A. CHILES CENTER, UNIVERSITY also generated undesirable prestressed bend-
OF PORTLAND, OREGON (1984) ing conditions. The wood used was crypto-
Designed by RSG Architects, Phoenix, Ari- meria, a Japanese type of cedar, with a cross-
zona, and engineered and built by Western section of 2.8 in (7 cm) in width and 1.6 in (4
Wood Structures of Tualatin, Oregon, this cm) in depth. These structures were designed
dome was designed on the base of the Varax and constructed by T. Maeno, M. Wada, T.
patent. This wooden dome, consisting en- Nagase, and T. Hisatok.
tirely of Douglas Fir members, has a diame-
ter at the base of 305 ft (93 m) and a rise at SPORTS TRAINING COMPLEX,
the crown of 62 ft (19 m). The main frame UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN MICHIGAN,
consists of laminated arched beams 24 inches MARQUETTE (1990)
deep made out of wood layers 11/2 inches This dome, almost completed at the time of
thick. These beams, with a constant cross-sec- this writing, retains the record for being the
tion but variable lengths, are interconnected largest wood dome in the world. Approxi-
at the joints by means of patented steel con- mately three feet larger than the Tacoma
nectors. All of the beams, 756 in number, dome, this dome has a diameter of 533.5 ft
were considered fixed at the joints and con- (163 m) at its base and a height at the crown
stitute the primary structure. The secondary of 126.25 ft (39 m) with a springing angle of
structures include purlins and two-inch wood 50.4 degrees. Its spherical shape has a curva-
planks forming the roof deck. The total cost ture with a radius of 344.5 ft (105 m). The
of the project of $7.5 million in 1984 was architects for the project were T.M.P. Asso-
estimated to have been 20 percent cheaper ciates, Inc., Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. The
than an equivalent steel dome. The dome general contractor, responsible also for the
sprang from the ground level and thus elimi- structural design of the dome, was Western
nated the perimetrial wall. This design cut Wood Structures from Tualatin, Oregon
the dome's cost by approximately one-third, that retains the Varax patented system. The
as reported by some technical literature. dome was constructed entirely of Douglas Fir
and is supported by 40 concrete buttresses,
LATTICE WOOD SHELLS, NARA, which are an extension of the wood ribs.
JAPAN (1988) The main structure, consisting of lami-
Wood shells consisting of latticework were nated arched beams, includes 181 nodes.
first demonstrated by prototypes designed The connectors at each joint consist of fabri-
and constructed by Frei Otto in 1962. Such cated steel capable of joining six converging
grids, consisting of a close-knit framework of members. The glued laminated members are
curved wood members, form the structure rigidly bolted to the connector, forming a
itself, which is in turn covered by a nonstruc- rigid connection at the joint. The laminated
tural membrane. Otto's system was recently arched members have a constant cross-sec-
applied in Japan near Osaka, where three pa- tion throughout their length of 371f2 in in
vilions built in 1988 for the Nara Silk Road depth and 8% in in width consisting of glued
Exposition in Nara are covered with such a layers 11/2 in in thickness. Such arched mem-
system. The three shells vary in configuration bers are not all equally long. They vary con-
and measure, respectively, 205 ft (62.5 m) in siderably from one another. In this dome
length for the Nara Pavilion, 343 ft (104.5 they range from 38 to 15 ft without an even
m) for the Theme Pavilion, and 130 ft (39.5 distribution. The triangular areas delimited
m) for the Information Office. The struc- by the primary arched beams are in-filled
tures consist of wood members prebent to with laminated purlins, which in turn support
110
Dome TechnoloBies
the 2-in tongue and groove boards. The con- then infilled with laminated curved purl ins
crete buttresses at their base are intercon- that in turn carry a roof deck of tongue and
nected by a prestressed concrete ring 2 ft 6 in groove two-inch thick boards. A base ring of
deep and 5 ft 0 in wide, with 3 post-tensioned post-tensioned concrete absorbs the tension
tendons exerting 2400 kips force. The whole from the dome. The configuration of the
dome, consisting of five spherical segments, Varax dome always follows a perfect spheri-
was designed for a dead load (D.L.) of 20 psf cal surface with the nodal points precisely on
(958 Pa), a live load (L.L.) of 60 psf (2873 the surface and therefore easily identifiable
Pa), and a wind load of 80 mph (129 kmh). geometrically by their coordinates. The con-
necting members constitute the arches that
follow the configuration of the great circles
Varax Wood Domes
of the sphere. In other words, the circles lie
Western Wood Structures, a contracting on planes passing through the center of the
company with in-house engineering, has pat- sphere. The length of the arched members
ented the Varax system and has proven the spanning from joint to joint is variable. In
success of the method with the four struc- some cases the disparity is such that the long-
tures included in this text: Sports Training est may reach lengths more than twice that of
Complex at University of Northern Michi- others. The construction of the members to
gan, Marquette; Earle A. Chiles Center, Uni- attain their true curvature is easily attained
versity of Portland, Oregon; Tacoma Dome, by laminating thin boards not more than one
Tacoma, Washington; Sports Building at and a half inches thick. The axial capacity of
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff. the members which are fixed at each end is
These structures have conquered world calculated on a conservative assumption that
records in terms of their size within wood their fixed ends are only partially fixed. Fur-
domes. The major patent in the system in- thermore, the superimposed wood deck gives
cludes a special six-way steel connector capa- a continuous support to the arched members
ble of joining six arched beams forming a in compression.
structurally rigid connection. Made of fabri- The feasibility of the wooden dome in the
cated steel components, these hubs receive United States building market has been
the wood laminated members which are proven by the erection of the Varax domes
bolted to them and are capable of transfer- discussed in this section. They have all won
ring axial forces as well as shear and the contracting bids with their lower costs in
moments. competition with steel and concrete counter-
The domes consist of a primary frame parts. Although not well publicized, the
made out of laminated arched wood beams wood dome structure has reached a stage of
which intersect each other at the joints form- maturity that demands a greater recognition
ing triangular inner spaces. These spaces are among the structural systems of the present.
NOTES
1. Portland Cement Association, "Design of Circular Domes." Publication IS076. OlD, undated. Available
from Portland Cement Association.
2. Brick Institute of America, Recommended Practice for Engineered Brick Masonry. Reprinted 1986.
3. See, for example, E. Baldwin Smith, The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas (princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1971).
4. Ibid., 10-41.
111
Part II
Concrete Shells:
Fundamentals and
Case Studies
CHAPTER 5
Thin Shells
A thin shell is a term not in itself as readily wooden hull quite probably did, even if the
understandable by the layman as the terms wooden shell often was a combination of
dome or vault would be. It is in a sense a word timber framing and plank sheathing.
coined on the basis of its structural connota- The curvature of a shell can be of the
tions, as exhibited in the artifacts it creates. same sign throughout, that is, be concave or
A thin shell is a special kind of vault whose convex everywhere. In such a case the sur-
geometry may include many shapes. It could face is called synclastic. Domes are synclastic
be a spherical or elliptical dome, a parabolic surfaces, because any section attained by in-
structure, or a barrel vault in any configura- tersecting the dome with a normal plane pro-
tion, or be a paraboloid, a conoid, or a hyper- duces a line that has only a downward
bolic paraboloid. The thin shell thus requires curvature.
further definition. The curvature of a shell can also be of a
A thin-shelled structure is a three-dimen- different sign such that the surface is both
sional form made thicker than a membrane, concave and convex at the same time, which
so that it can not only resist tension as mem- is known as anticlastic. An example of an an-
branes do, but also compression. On the ticlastic surface is the hyperbolic paraboloid.
other hand, a thin shell is made thinner than When such a surface intersects with normal
a slab, which makes it unable to resist bend- planes, the sections formed can be a parabola
ing as a slab does. In short, thin shells are with either upward or downward curvature,
structures thicker than membranes, but thin- and at times even be a straight line.
ner than slabs.
Thin shells are made possible by the use
of materials that work well under tension
and compression. Masonry has no tensile SHELLS AND
strength, so the thin shell could not exist SURF ACE STRUCTURES
when masonry was the only technology avail-
able. Only the availability of reinforced con-
crete and ferrocement made the thin shell It is well to differentiate first between surface
possible. Wood could of course have served and linear structures. Within the former can
the purpose, as the wooden dome and be included all forms of skeletal systems, and
115
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
the latter can include all systems consisting of were equally supported and loaded. In the
a structural continuum. Among such systems space frame the axial forces in its top and the
are membranes, pneumatics, thin shells, members of its top and bottom layers would
folded plates, slabs, and the like. indicate the same distribution of tension and
Thin shells and other surface structures compression present within the shell's sur-
constitute a type of construction that is dras- face. The tension and compression forces
tically different from that of linear struc- within the diagonal members of a space
tures, whether they are planar or spatial. frame would likewise illustrate the shear
Thin shells, membranes, slabs, and pneu- force within the thickness of the thin shell.
matic structures, which are all part of surface This correlation between forces acting on the
structures, constitute an enormous field that space frame and the thin shell makes it conve-
offer a great variety of solutions to specific nient to test the efficiency of various geomet-
problems. Three-dimensional cables and ric forms for shells, by analyzing with a com-
two-dimensional membranes, for instance, puter program the distribution of forces and
correspond to each other in terms of forces, the deflection in an equivalent space frame.
as do arches to shells and beams to slabs. This Even with only an approximate model, ana-
correspondence of planar to three-dimen- lyzing a space frame could also give a general
sional structures derives from a similitude of overall qualitative representation of the
structural behavior observable in each indi- structural behavior of a similar thin shell.
vidual system. The similar behavior of cables They are both modern, efficient, light,
and membranes causes them to change shape versatile, capable of supporting long spans in
under different load conditions. As a conse- two directions for large roof coverings, and
quence, these two structures are always comparable in cost but thin shells and space
stressed only by tensile forces. frames are at opposite ends of the spectrum
Arches and thin shells relate to each other of possibilities for carrying building loads.
on the basis of their various similarities. Both Space frames funnel stresses from the whole
structures have in common a curvilinear con- structure to narrow paths, where struts and
figuration that forms the basis of their struc- ties are arranged to absorb them. Thin shells
tural strength. In other words, they attain instead spread loads throughout an entire
their structural strength primarily from their surface. Although both systems share a cer-
geometry. tain quality of lightness, thin shells are com-
plete in and of themselves, whereas space
frames require an additional skin to complete
THIN SHELLS their enclosure. In terms of thickness, thin
AND SPACE FRAMES shells do not require the depth that space
frames do or, for that matter, that of any
other structural system. Light in weight, thin,
Although thin shells and space frames are at flexible, structurally and spatially self-con-
opposite ends of the structural spectrum, tained and complete in itself, the thin shell
they can usefully be compared, because of depends for its effectiveness mostly on the
the similarity of their structural behavior. curvature of its shape.
Space frames consisting of large assemblies of
tension and compression members are in re-
ality skeletal structures, but on the whole
they act much like the full continuum of thin CURVATURE AND STRENGTH
shells. A space frame with an overall configu-
ration following that of a similar thin shell The concept of curvature as a factor in struc-
would clearly exhibit the stress conditions tural strength is discussed here from a practi-
within the thin shell, if the two structures cal, visual point of view, to help in visualizing
116
Thin Shells
the correlation between geometric form and certain point on its convex side, we can then
strength. similarly visualize a circle that touches the
That curvature is an element in structural curve for a certain length on its concave side.
strength can be easily seen through simple Such a circle is called an osculating circle,
visual examples. For instance, a sheet of typ- from the Latin osculum (kiss), just as the term
ing paper held by its short end bends down, tangent derives from a Latin root meaning to
incapable of supporting itself, but if it is touch.
arched slightly into a half cylinder it gains To describe a curve fully requires a com-
enough rigidity to hold a horizontal configu- mon vocabulary. To begin with, an osculat-
ration. The difference between these two ing circle is one that touches a concave curve
conditions can be attributed only to the con- at as many points as possible. In other words,
figuration of the cross-sectional shape of the it is a circle that fits against most of the curve
sheet of paper, since nothing else was differ- at that point. With this understanding it can
ent. Similarly, a thin sheet of metal has no now be noted that the curvature of a curve at
significant structural strength in its planar any point is the reciprocal of the radius of the
shape. However, when that same sheet is osculating circle at that point (l/R). At any
forcefully molded by a large press into an point of a curve, therefore, we can find its
automobile fender, astonishing structural curvature. At the limit when the curvature is
strength is acquired from this change in ge- zero, in other words when the radius of the
ometry. The well-known shape of automobile osculating circle is infinity, the curve be-
fenders displays two major directions of comes a straight line, with zero curvature.
curvature -longitudinal and transverse- With this in mind, let us now move from
that give to this form the characteristics of a examining curves to surfaces, or from planar
synclastic, undevelopable surface (see Fig. curves to spatial surfaces. A plane rotating
5-1). The concept of undevelopable surfaces around a line perpendicular to a surface in-
is discussed shortly. tersects the surface, thereby generating an
The rigidity acquired through curvature intersecting curve. There is an infinite num-
can be copiously illustrated, but let us con- ber of such planes, and thus an infinite num-
sider now the concept of curvature as applied ber of corresponding curves. Among these
to a curved line, then expand it to curved infinite curves would be one that would have
surfaces. If we take any curved line and visu- the highest curvature, and perpendicular to
alize a tangent line touching the curve at a it would be one having the smallest curva-
ture. These two curves would be indicated as
the major and minor curvatures at that point,
and would be at 90 degrees to each other.
The maximum curvature and minimum cur-
vature are referred to as principal cur-
vatures.
If its curves are always concave, a surface
has positive Gaussian curvature. Similarly, if
its curves are always convex, the surface also
has positive Gaussian curvature. If a surface
has positive Gaussian curvature, it is said to
5-1 The stiffness that comes about throu8h the be synclastic. If a curve is concave for some
curvature of surfaces is employed in many intersecting planes but convex for others, its
manufacturin8 processes. The fenders of an surface is said to have negative Gaussian cur-
automobile, for instance, are practical examples vature, and the surface is therefore called
of thin-shelled structures that capitalize on anticlastic. When a surface has Gaussian cur-
8eometric forms as an element of their stren8th. vature equal to zero, the surface is a plane.
117
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
The radius of its osculating circle has infinity having zero curvature as the overall curva-
as its limit, which thus implies zero cur- ture varies from positive to negative and an-
vature. other curve of zero curvature as the curva-
Among examples of synclastic surfaces are ture varies from negative to positive, so that
the sphere and parts of it. In this case it is there would then be two straight lines inter-
easy to visualize that at a given point a cross- secting the surface. The curves having zero
sectional curve is always either a concave or a curvature are therefore straight lines, which
convex arc, when the normal plane intersect- is one of the major characteristics of hyper-
ing the sphere rotates around the normal. bolic paraboloids.
One example of an anticlastic surface is a Synclastic or anticlastic surfaces are non-
hyperbolic paraboloid that includes curves developable in that their surfaces cannot be
that are concave parabolas for some sections flattened onto a plane without there being a
and convex parabolas for others, as the nor- dimensional increase. In both synclastic and
mal plane intersecting the surface rotates anticlastic surfaces, the two curvatures along
around the normal. the principal directions always have a value
Considering all the sectional curves that different from zero. If the surface has a cur-
can be attained when a normal plane inter- vature in one of the principal directions that
sects with a curved surface as that plane ro- is equal to zero (in other words if one of these
tates around the normal, it can be seen that curves is in fact a straight line), the surface is
there is always one direction of the normal neither synclastic nor anticlastic but is said to
plane that generates an intersecting curve be developable. Two examples of such sur-
with the maximum curvature and, at 90 de- faces are the cone and the cylinder.
grees to this direction, another intersecting Thus far we have looked at surfaces for
curve for which the curvature is the mini- their geometric characteristics, without refer-
mum. Once one of these two directions, ence to their structural capabilities. The dif-
called the principle directions, is determined, ference between developable and nondevel-
the other is immediately found. opable surfaces has structural implications
For example, in the case of a cone the that should be considered when selecting
intersecting curve with the minimum curva- forms. Synclastic and anticlastic surfaces have
ture is obviously the straight-line generator an inherent quality that stiffens them, since
since its curvature is zero. The other princi- they cannot change shape freely. Not being
pal curvature, which must be perpendicular developable, they have higher resistance
to it, is easily found by the plane perpendicu- against deformations produced by loads.
lar to the generatrix; it will form an ellipse. Therefore, they should be considered more
In a circular cylinder one of the principal efficient in structural terms than are develop-
curves is also the straight-line generatrix, so able surfaces.
that the other principal curve is perpendicu-
lar to this and is circular. In a hyperbolic
paraboloid one of its many concave parabolas SHELL THICKNESS
identifies the direction of one of the principal
curvatures. The convex parabola intersecting
the surface along the other principal direc- Most concrete shells have thicknesses from
tions can be found immediately, being 90 de- 11/2 inches to 6 inches. Many factors are in-
grees to the other. Considering that these volved in establishing their thickness.
two parabolas have opposite curvature (one Building codes, which vary from one
upward, the other downward) and that be- country to another, have a major influence
tween the two there are an infinite number of on minimum legal thicknesses. In Mexico, for
other curves that are determined by a normal instance, Felix Candela was able to cast con-
plane as it rotates, there must be a curve crete thin shells that were less than one inch
118
Thin Shells
thick, because of the more permissive code of certain unit and L the span in the same unit,
that country. In the United States the ACI then: t = K X L where K is a coefficient of
code has instead certain restrictions on con- proportionality. The smaller K is, the more
crete cover thicknesses for reinforcement efficient the shell is, because it uses less mate-
that force the thickness of shells here to be rial to perform an equivalent task.
considerably higher. Considering the egg as a thin-shelled
Traditionally, the minimum shell thick- structure produced by nature, then for an
ness was simply controlled by the allowable average egg the relationship above becomes
stresses, but in modern design other criteria
are used. The stresses in concrete thin shells lL
t=-
have always been kept low in the United 230
States in comparison to the stresses used for
other structures. For instance, in 1963 the This value should be kept in mind when ana-
ACI code allowed structures in general to lyzing man-made thin-shelled structures.
have a maximum bending stress of 1,350 psi, Typical dimensions for the preliminary
a bearing stress of 750 psi, and a compressive design of various types of thin shells will be
stress for columns of 638 psi, when using a shown. It would thus be useful for designers
3,000 psi concrete. At the same time, how- to be aware of the values of t = KL that were
ever, the designers of concrete thin shells used in various cases.
were keeping concrete stresses no higher Recommended preliminary design thick-
than 150 to 200 psi. At the time, a lack of ness for use in the United States is based on
confidence in the structural behavior of thin standard procedures derived from ACI code
shells suggested this conservative approach. recommendations and building codes. 2 The
The danger of local buckling and the possi- design criteria of the various structures in-
bility of cracks forming from secondary clude the following data.
stresses seems to have more than justified Concrete strength as at 28 days was 4,000
such prudent judgment. psi (27.6 MPa). Reinforcing steel should be of
The uncertainty of having proper con- grade 40 ksi (276 MPa) in the shell and grade
crete correctly placed also leaves serious 60 ksi (413.8 MPa) in its edge members. The
doubts about minimum specifications. In weight of the concrete was 150 lb/cf (2,400
most cases the actual composition of the con- KG/m 2 ). The dead load includes the weight
crete is not what was originally specified. On of the shell plus 5 psf (24.4 KG/m 2 ) for roof-
thin sections small imperfections can create ing and 5 psf (24.4 KG/m 2 ) for other uses.
seriously vulnerable areas. And factors such The live load should be 30 psf (146 KG/m 2 )
as vibration, placement, compaction, pene- on horizontal projections.
tration of the concrete through the reinforce- The recommended thicknesses for spans
ment, and the loosening of the elements of are discussed here (see Table 5-1) only in
coarse aggregate make it advisable to in- terms of spherical shells.
crease the concrete's thickness. Doing so pro- From brief observation of the coefficient
vides a double safety factor in reducing con- of proportionality K, one can see that the
struction errors as well as stresses. I efficiency of a structure increases as a span
increases. However, this is true only up to
300 ft (91.4 m), at which point it starts to
Thickness - Span Relationship diminish. This phenomenon can be under-
stood by considering that ACI restrictions for
A meaningful value for evaluating the effi- small spans force minimum thicknesses to ex-
ciency of thin shells is the relationship be- ceed what is required from structural stresses
tween the thickness and the span of the struc- only. After peak efficiency is reached for a
ture. If t is the thickness of the shell in a given span, its efficiency is reduced as the
119
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
TABLE 5-1 Spherical Dome Span Thicknesses Kresge Auditorium, M.LT., by Saarinen
DOME 1 TYPE OF SHELL (1955): sectional hemispherical dome
Span L = 100 ft (30.5 m) with triangular plan; sides 160 ft long
Height h = 10-50 ft (3-15.2 m) (48.8 m), thickness 3 112 in (9 cm)
Average Thickness t = 4.25 in (10.8 em) Shops, Bulgaria, by Doganoos (1957):
I
t=-L series of conoidal shells 23 ft wide (7 m)
282 with 59 ft span (18 m); thickness, 1Ifr, to
DOME 2 TYPE OF SHELL 2% in (3-6 cm)
Span L = 200 ft (61.0 m) May, D. and F. Store, Denver, by Pei
Height h=20-80 ft(6.1-24.4 m)
Average Thickness t = 3.75 in (9.5 em) (1958): four-gable hyperbolic parabo-
I loid roof shell covering space 112 X
t=-L 132 ft (34 X 40 m), thickness 3 to 5 in
640
DOMES TYPE OF SHELL (7.6-12.7 cm)
Span L = 300 ft (91.4 m) Church of San Jose Obrero, Mexico, Felix
Height h = 40-100 ft (12.2-30.5 m) Candela (1960): two saddle-type hyper-
Average Thickness t = 4 in (10.1 em) bolic paraboloids with 90 ft (27.4 m)
I cantilevers; thickness, 1SIr, in (4 cm)
t=-L
900 Planetarium, St. Louis, by Obate (1962):
DOME 4 TYPE OF SHELL hyperboloid shell 160 ft (48.8 m) in di-
Span L = 400 ft (121.9 m) ameter, 75 ft high (23 m), thickness 3 in
Height h = 80-150 ft (24.4-45.7 m)
Average Thickness t = 6 in (15.2 em) (7.6 cm)
I
t=-L
800
SHELLS IN NATURE
length of the span continues to increase as in Examples of shells in the morphology of na-
any other structure, reaching a point eventu- ture are particularly abundant (see Fig. 5-2).
ally where the efficiency is so low the struc- Eggs, sea shells, turtles, skulls, nuts, and the
ture becomes infeasible. nests that certain birds build by instinct are
all based on the shell. This large number of
CASE STUDIES IN SPAN THICKNESS applications indicates clearly how naturally
A few examples illustrating the thicknesses efficient the shell can be under certain condi-
adopted for some thin-shelled structures tions. The most efficient of these examples is
follow: probably the eggshell, whose lightness pro-
portional to its strength is amazingly high.
Market Hall, Algeciras, Spain, by Eduardo Birds are amazing builders of structures
Torroja (1934): octagonal dome of whose soundness and efficiency compete fa-
eight barrel shells, 156 ft (47.5 m) in vorably with the products of man's ingenuity.
diameter; thickness, 3 112 in (9 cm) The bird's nest, which is a good example of
Aircraft hangars, France, by Perret the inverted dome, results from birds' aston-
(1952): two contiguous barrel vaults ishing instinct to capitalize on the efficiency
330 ft (100 m) in span each, consisting of the domed geometric shape and on mate-
of 32 ft (lO m) wide arched sections; rials that are readily available. These sub-
thickness, 2Ifs in (6 cm) stances are usually straw, twigs, and grass,
Air Terminal, St. Louis, by Yamasaki performing mostly in tension. In many cases
(1954): groined vaults consisting of the mud is also used. When it hardens it adds
intersection of two barrel vaults; thick- compressive strength to the nest and further
ness, 4112 to 8 in (11.4-20 cm) stabilizes the structure.
120
Thin Shells
Not all nests are built in the same shape, of THE ORIGINS OF
course, nor do they all have a cuplike form, MAN-MADE SHELLS
but the domical ones are often elaborate and
intriguing. One example is the nest that is
built by a bird called the social weaver, of The history of thin shells should be seen as
South Africa (Philetairus Socius). This type of coincident with the discovery of cement,
nest, which has a dome cover, is built by which made reinforced concrete possible.
groups of birds that may include at times as The natural cement used by the Romans sim-
many as 100 individual birds, both male and ply did not have sufficient strength for thin
female. Built in a tree, their structures can shells. It was used mostly for mortars in ma-
reach proportions of up to 10 feet (3 m) and sonry structures or as concrete filler within
often contain smaller individual nests. masonry masses, but never as a self-support-
Another interesting domed structure in ing material. Only a new generation of ce-
nature is the nest built by the South Ameri- ment with the compressive strength to bind
can ovenbird (Furnaridae). This nest is a hol- aggregate could be used to create shells. It
low dome built with mud and reinforced by could be combined with other materials capa-
grass and other fibers. About one foot (.30 ble of resisting tension.
m) in diameter, its thickness is about 1/2 inch The discovery of cement is attributed to
(13 mm) or more. The totally enclosed struc- the Englishman John Smeaton, in 1756. Dur-
ture has an indirect, narrow entrance at its ing the construction of the Eddystone light-
bottom. house, near Plymouth, he experimented to
121
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
formulate an hydraulic mortar using lime is an artificial stone made of a plastic mass
and clay in equal parts. He established that that hardens after being molded by hand and
instead of using lime and pozzolana (silica) as thus owes its very existence to this com-
the Romans had, he could obtain a similar, or pound. Similarly to the clay that is so readily
even better effect, by making the lime from a found in nature, concrete lends itself to the
limestone that already contained some clay. generation of many forms, as a medium for
This clay, and silica, with their necessary large-scale sculptures in the way that clay has
compounds, could be mixed in the desired had the potential to generate ceramic arti-
proportions with the calcium carbonate in facts. Clay and concrete are even similarly
the limestone and burnt together in furnaces. processed. They both require a stage of high-
In natural cements heat was applied to the temperature firing: ceramics after the clay
clay and silica during volcanic action inde- has been molded and cement after the clay
pendently of the calcium carbonate (lime). It and limestone have been combined to pro-
in turn was heat treated during the process of duce the "clinker."
producing the lime. Then the compounds When concrete is seen from the point of
from the clay and silica were combined cold, view of being a natural product useful to
with the calcium carbonate. The process of make creative shapes, it is clearly in the free-
making artificial cement involves the com- dom and curvilinearity of its forms that con-
pounding of clay and silica under heat, in the crete structures should manifest themselves,
presence of calcium carbonate. not in the rigidity of straight lines and plane
After Smeaton had opened the way to the surfaces. Thin shells are thus the most logical
use of this new product, two English engi- form of expression for concrete structures
neers, Wyatts and Parker, began producing when architectural integrity is considered.
cement in 1796, using natural deposits of On their own merits, thin shells owe to their
clay and limestone found in sedimentary special geometry their ability to carry exter-
layers near London. The name they chose nal loads and filter them through their sur-
for this commercial product was Roman faces to edge members, which then collect
Cement, capitalizing on the millennarian the loads and channel them to supports at the
dependability of the cement in Roman foundation. The geometry that sustains this
structures. structural process is the basic language the
In 1800 an engineer named Lesage pro- designer must learn first. Only then, after
duced another kind of cement using a lime- acquiring a certain literacy, the architect can
stone found embedded in clay banks along experiment with fine tuning shapes and
the beach of Boulogne-sur-Mer. Then, in forms by fine tuning through more-precise
1824, Joseph Aspidin produced the cement analysis. The concrete layer, the precise dis-
called portland, in Leeds, Canada. The name tribution of steel reinforcements, and the
derives from the type of Portland rock used configurations of edge members then be-
in masonry, because the concrete blocks come intriguing components in the de-
made with that cement had the same color as signer's hands, which take shape in the exhil-
the natural portland rocks. Others claim that arating process of structural and archi-
the name derives not from the golden color tectural design.
but from the strength associated with the
portland stone. Whatever the case, the name
has been used ever since. A similar cement OVERALL STRUCTURAL
was produced in Germany in 1830. EQUILIBRIUM
This short synopsis of the history of con-
crete serves only to introduce this material The overall equilibrium of a whole structure
that is the basis for the concrete out of which can be obtained in various ways. A structure
the thin-shelled concept was born. Concrete can consist either of a continuous self-stand-
122
Thin Shells
ing unit or be a structure combining differ- combined, small groups of structures can
ent units that achieve equilibrium only when produce unique compositions that often
united. Thus, in terms of structural equilib- achieve dramatic effects. For example, Felix
rium it makes sense to distinguish first be- Candela joined together two saddle-type hy-
tween shell structures that are self-standing perbolic paraboloids on two supports laced
and those that are combined structures. along longitudinal members so that it seems
that they merely touch each other. In this
case the two saddles are inclined, creating a
Self-standing Structures tensile connection between the two to
achieve stability in an atmosphere of lightness
Self-standing structures, whether they are and pronounced elegance. There are other
continuous or discontinuous, are in equilib- examples of combining three hyperbolic par-
rium by means of their own support systems, aboloids so as to create an equally astonishing
without needing the help of any other struc- effect and achieve overall stability through a
ture. Their support systems can consist of a system of mutual support.
number of supports or of a special type of Another approach for combining a large
support. For example, consider an umbrella- number of isolated structures is in reality a
type hyperbolic paraboloid that is supported modular system acting as a thin shell. An ex-
on only one central point by a single column ample typical of this kind of modular struc-
standing on an isolated footing. If the footing ture is a combination of individual umbrella
were to be sized only in terms of gravity loads types on one support or of inverted umbrella
and the soil's bearing capacity, the footing types on one support. In these two cases the
would probably be so small that it would not moduli are connected along their edges and
guarantee maintaining equilibrium against so can take full advantage of the repetitive
possible overturning. Such structures would use of one or several individual modular
not then be self-standing. However, if the formworks. Large continuous roof structures
footing were to be increased in size, equilib- can thus be built with modular elements or-
rium would be provided for the structure ganized on a grid pattern. Square or rectan-
without having to change the basic geometry gular grid systems are therefore convenient
of the whole structure. Likewise, the same to use for a large variety of buildings, from
umbrella-type hyperbolic paraboloid with the institutional to commercial and industrial. In
limited footing would become stable when fact, the economies achieved by modular con-
combined with other similar structures. struction make even low-cost industrial appli-
A hyperbolic paraboloid on two supports cations feasible.
(saddle type) would also be unstable by itself,
unless other means of support were provided.
A typical example for stabilizing such struc-
tures, without changing their basic visual and FLOA TING CONCRETE SHELLS
structural concept of using two main bearing FOR BOATS AND SHIPS
supports, consists of adding thin tensile mem-
bers at the free, cantilevered tips, to prevent
overall rotation or over-turning. It is important to realize that the first applica-
tions of concrete for practical uses were not
for buildings, as might be expected, but for
Combined Structures the hulls of small boats. Using concrete shells
thus reflected the most rational, natural of
There are several types of thin-shelled struc- responses to the many qualities of the new
tures that achieve equilibrium when com- moldable material. Early examples capital-
bined into groups of two or more. When ized on the strengths of the geometry of dou-
123
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
bly curved shells that only the moldability of a type of construction using a whole array of
concrete could allow. reinforcements, mostly wire mesh and con-
In 1848 a French gardener named Joseph- crete plaster with only fine aggregate. This
Louis Lambot built a concrete shell for the system cannot be classified as either typical
hull of a small rowboat, and a year later built reinforced concrete nor ferrocement, but
a similar boat with the same method of con- something in between. The many other boats
struction. Completely apart from engineer- built following these prototypes eventually
ing or architecture, Lambot realized the true produced the ferrocement hulls of Pier Luigi
potential of this material and used it intui- Nervi's work.
tively. He first built a hull of iron rods and In 1897 the first reinforced-concrete hull
wire mesh, then worked a cement mortar was built, in Rome, to construct a pontoon.
through this mesh reinforcement on both Then in 1902 GabeIlini built the first con-
sides, obtaining a finished surface on both crete hull, for a 50-ton barge. He expanded
interior and exterior. His mortar contained on that with the Liguira, a concrete barge of
only sand, with no additional aggregate. 160 tons, which soon saw large numbers of
Working by hand, Lambot plastered this other such concrete vessels built in this pio-
shell in 1848 in just the same way many other neering new technology. In 1910 the English
shells are built on a larger scale a century built their first concrete hull, the Sand Witch,
later. Some of the shells of Felix Candela in followed two years later by a pontoon, the
Mexico recall this construction technique Manchester Ship Canal. Then in 1917 the
which although expensive in man-hours pro- Norwegians built the first concrete hull for a
duces a good product when the labor cost self-propelled seagoing ship. The concrete
allows it. The most amazing feature of these hull of the Namsenfjord, designed and built
early prototypes is their durabilty: these two by N. K. Fougner, was 83.64 ft (25.5 m) long
boats are still in perfect condition in Paris at with a dead load of 182 tons.
the Brigonoles Museum as a testimony to
shell technology (see Fig. 5-3).
In 1896 an Italian named Gabellini built a Concrete Hulls in WorId War I
similar concrete hull for a small rowboat with
Historically, wars have accelerated techno-
logical development, under the impact of
needs required for survival. The reason con-
crete hulls developed so rapidly for large-
scale applications was the demand for cargo
c-t=....=..
ships using a material other than steel, which
was needed for other war products. The
United States vessel the Selma at 426 ft (130
m) became the largest ship ever built of con-
crete. It weighed 6,340 tons. The English
built the Armistice (205 ft [62.5 m], 1,150
tons) and the Creteravine, a 1,000-ton barge
built in Gloucester in 1919 which is one of a
large group of similar concrete barges built at
5-3 This ferrocement rowboat built in 1849 the time.
seen in Paris in 1974 was still in excellent After World War I a gradual change carne
condition. A similar prototype of thin-shelled about in the economic market for concrete
application was built by the same Joseph-Louis hulls, resulting in in their eventual eclipse
Lambot in 1848. about 1922.
124
Thin Shells
Concrete Hulls in World War II thin steel wires are completely dispersed in its
cement paste as embedded fibers. The best
World War II repeated the same need of the comparison is to visualize the composition of
previous world war for concrete hulls. Of the ferrocement as being like the mixture in fi-
many countries involved in building concrete berglass that combines the resin and glass
hulls the United States produced the largest fibers together.
number. Nervi's applications of ferrocement to
Germany also engaged heavily in building hulls included several fishing vessels and
concrete hulls of both the shell type and the pleasure craft, including an elegant sailboat,
framed type, which included stiffening ribs. the Irene. Powered by both an inboard motor
In 1944 German experimentation with ves- and sail, this vessel had a weight of 165 tons,
sels up to 3,700 tons proved the thin-shelled which resulted in a saving of 5 percent in
hull much superior to the frame type in weight compared to a wooden hull. Its cost
strength for impact loading. The English proved to be a significant 40 percent less than
produced the famous Mulberry Harbour pon- an equivalent wooden prototype. The
toon, used in 1944 for the successful landing strength of its shell, 1.4 in (3.6 cm) thick, was
of Allied forces in Normandy, as well as sev- shown when the vessel survived two acci-
eral hundred barges. dents, which required only minor replaster-
These and other experiences proved the ing and did not alter its seaworthiness. An-
durability, seaworthiness, and overall reliabil- other ferrocement application of great
ity of concrete ships. Reinforced concrete elegance was the Nennele, a 41 ft (12.5 m)
barges in Japan demonstrated their resistance ketch only 1/2 inch in thickness that Nervi
to fire and explosion by surviving the atomic designed and built in 1948 for his own use
test at Bikini, when one barge loaded with (see Fig. 5-4).
fuel oil was set afire. And the S.S. Aspin
proved for its seaworthiness in a 1944 hurri-
cane off Cape Hatteras by surviving winds of
an estimated 120 mph (193 km/hr) with PRESTRESSED HULLS
wave heights up to 100 ft (30 m).
125
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
FERROCEMENT HULLS
AT PRESENT
126
Thin Shells
The Food and Agriculture Organization digenous craft are appropriate for this mate-
of the United Nations (FAO) and the United rial. Small ferrocement workboats can be
Nations Industrial Development Organiza- built on site, by local, supervised, laborers
tion (UNIDO) have taken the initiative to who are usually available at low cost. Because
introduce ferrocement in developing coun- these boats are mainly hull and therefore
tries and demonstrate its importance in their have no costly fittings, the builder's savings
context. Thus far, however, such technical- are maximized. Small onshore workboats un-
assistance projects have been oriented toward dergo less stress than deep-water vessels and
large oceangoing trawlers with sophisticated require less stringent technology and quality
Western-style hulls, to increase commercial control. Moreover, existing wooden craft are
fishing capabilities. Commercial fishing on often so heavy that converting them to ferro-
this scale requires a considerable land-based cement sometimes yields boats of an equiva-
organization to preserve, transport, and mar- lent or lighter weight. Furthermore, ferroce-
ket products, and the cost of large fishing ment boats are inherently strong enough to
boats represents an investment that subsis- be powered, while some comparable wooden
tence-level fishermen simply cannot afford. boats are not.
We are here concerned with the individual Since design improvements can be added
boatmen, whether commercial or subsistence in ferrocement incrementally, a traditionally
fisherman, who would benefit from the low shaped boat might be improved over the
cost, long life, and easy repairs of small, fa- years in design. In particular, using ferroce-
miliarly shaped and propelled ferrocement ment allows all the complex curves of
boats. planked wooden boats, as well as the more
Ferrocement's unique low cost of mate- complex curves not possible in wood that
rials, its strength, and its ease of maintenance would improve a boat's performance. Finally,
and repair recommend themselves particu- ferrocement is free from attack by teredos
larly to the fabrication of small native craft. (shipworms), wood rot, and other hazards of
The usual curved-displacement hulls of in- the tropics.
NOTES
1. See Iurgen Joedick, Shell Architecture (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1962), 98.
2. From R. M. Gensert, Kirsis Uldis, and Peller Miklos, "Economic Proportioning of Cast-in-Place Concrete
Thin Shells." Paper SP 28-3, Concrete Thin Shells, ACI, 1971,41-112.
3. Advisory Committee on Technological Innovation, Board of Science and Technology for International
Development Office of Foreign Secretary, "Ferro-cement: Application in Developing Countries," 4, 21-23.
127
CHAPTER 6
129
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
6-1 Axial and shear forces in the shell element under load.
130
Selected Shapes of Shells
thin-shell barrel is definitely a two-way sys- (see Fig. 6-1). The neutral axis, which slices
tem, although there is no similarity to the the barrel horizontally, separates the area in
two-way slab. The structural behavior in the compression from that in tension. The longi-
barrel shell in one direction is totally differ- tudinal axial forces are equal to zero at the
ent than that in the other because it has both neutral plane, then gradually increase as they
a longitudinal and a transverse direction. move away from it. The axial transverse
The barrel shell acts as a beam spanning in forces NT run perpendicularly to the N L
the longitudinal direction, which is consid- forces and are always compressive. They act
ered the span of the barrel. The width of the as the compression forces in arches. The
barrel, perpendicular to its span, is the trans- forces NL and NT combine together and are
verse dimension. When the span of a barrel is then transmitted to the supports (see Fig.
longer than its width, the barrel is considered 6-2).
long, and when the span is shorter than the
width it is said to be short.
Short Barrels
131
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
Conoidal surfaces are translational shells gen- Some conoidal surfaces also belong to
erated by a straight line, the generatrix, other families of surfaces. For instance, the
translating over two curves known as the di- cylinder is also rotational.
rectrices that are contained in two vertical Translational surfaces can be obtained in
parallel planes (see Fig. 6-4). Since the gen- more than one way. For example, the hyper-
eratrix is a straight line, the surface is consid- bolic paraboloid can be generated by using a
ered a ruled surface. parabola as the generatrix and another pa-
Three cases can result from this: rabola, instead of straight lines, as a directrix,
as in the third case just seen.
1. If one of the two directrices is a horizontal
straight line, the surface is a conoid (Fig.
6-5a). Conoids
2. If the two directrices are equal curves, the
surface is a cylinder (Fig. 6-5b). Conoids are anticlastic, meaning that at any
3. If the two directrices are two skewed given point the curvature in a certain direc-
132
Selected Shapes of Shells
B
It is important to notice that if BI = B2 then
the equation is considerably simplified, be-
cause YI = Y2 = y. Thus, the equation of the
conoid becomes
The directrix z = II (y) is contained in the In this equation the values for YI and Y2' re-
vertical plane, by passing through its spectively, are
point of origin.
The other directrix [z = 12 (y)] is contained
in another plane parallel to zy at dis-
tance x = L between the two planes.
133
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
134
Selected Shapes of Shells
struction by performing equivalent tasks members of a thin shell, with the leaf itself
much more economically and with better analogous to the membrane shell. In fact, the
structural performance. geometric configurations of the many types
The cross-section of the thin shell carries of leaves can legitimately inspire new rational
loads by virtue of membrane stresses only. It forms for thin-shelled applications.
is subjected only to tension and compression, A good example of this analogy between
by means of structural reinforcement and shells and leaves is a reinforced concrete sign-
concrete mass, as mentioned earlier. By cut- post built for a housing project by Felix Can-
ting a transverse cross-section through a dela on a lake in Mexico. It includes a frame-
whole shell it can be noted that zones are in work of longitudinal members that are
compression and under tension, just as a supported at two points on the ground and
cross-section would display through a cantile- cantilever out in opposite directions. The
vered beam. length of each section is about 53 ft (16 m).
To emphasize the validity of the rational- Each of the two cantilevered arms terminates
ity and structural efficiency of the cantile- in a slender thin shell that is in turn cantile-
vered thin shell, let us note that there are vered from the main framework of solid
several examples in nature that are based on members (see Fig. 6-7).
the same structural principle. One is the The dramatic nature of cantilevering is
trunks of trees that extend vertically from further emphasized when a structure widens
the ground, with branches projecting hori- away from its supports rather than tapering
zontally either from the trunk or from one off, thus creating the illusion of an even less
another. Rock formations are at times also stable structure. The music pavilion at the
cantilevered. And in the body structure of Santa Fe housing project in Mexico City, de-
several animal species the neck and limbs act signed by Felix Candela and Aldo Pani, in
as cantilevers controlled by muscle tension 1953 - 1957, can be considered to be divided
and compression. The most specific example into three adjacent components. Each has a
that comes to mind is the leaves of plants. triangular plan that joins the others to form
The stalk of a leaf and the ramified veins a fan-shaped canopy that cantilevers out from
through it can be compared to the edge a central vertex. The three triangular com-
6-7 A reinforced concrete sionpost for a housino project near Lake Tequesquitenoo, Mexico. The shell
desiBned by Felix Candela in cooperation with Guillermo Rosell and Manuel Larrosa.
135
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
ponents of the canopy are portions of hyper- pedestrian entrance. This massive, muscular
bolic paraboloid surfaces. The cantilevered structure of reinforced concrete uses the can-
shell spans 40 ft (12 m) from the point of tilever action of the shell in a totally different
support. At the support two concrete walls manner visually from the structure by Can-
anchored to an underground footing balance dela. Here Nervi capitalizes on the efficiency
the moment generated by the cantilever (see of the geometry and the mass of the material
Fig. 6-8). Numerous cantilevered filling to erect a sculptural piece (see Fig. 6-10). A
station roofs by Candela are an interesting similar structure is the massive cantilevered
element of the Mexico City townscape (Fig. shell forming a canopy over the main en-
6-9). trance to the Hiraoka City Hall in Japan, by
Rationally designed structures do indeed Junzo Sakakura.
possess inherent aesthetics, as can be seen in The Sydney Opera House (1957) men-
the cantilevered shells that have been de- tioned earlier also represents a different con-
signed at times as sculptural pieces. Often cept in heavy shell structures. The form of
they are designed to function as entrance these concrete cantilevered shells is the work
canopies in front of a building of which they of Jorn Utzon. The shells cantilever upward
are a part, as is the canopy in front of the and forward at various angles of inclination
UNESCO Building in Paris designed by Pier to look like sails inflated by wind. Each shell
Luigi Nervi in 1957. The building (1953- springs from two supports on the ground. On
1958) itself was a collaboration between the interiors of the shells stiffening ribs con-
Nervi, Marcel Breuer, and Bernard Zehriuss. verge at the supports, there transferring their
This particular canopy, not to be confused loads from the shells to the foundation. On
with another, over the entrance at the Place the exterior the shells are as smooth and
de Frontenoy, is in front of the southwest white as the spinnakers of sailing ships.
41 It
19.20 It 10.5 It
136
Selected Shapes of Shells
6-9 Cantilevered roofs over the filling station in Mexico Cio/ designed by
Felix Candela. (Courtesy of]. A. Starczewski.)
HYPERBOLOIDS
6-10 The canopy in front of the UNESCO An hyperboloid surface can be generated as a
bUilding in Paris designed by Pier Luigi Nervi. ruled surface with straight line generatrices,
or as a rotational surface produced by rotat-
ing an hyperbola around an axis. The equa-
tion for the hyperboloid of one - not two-
Free Forms sheets is as follows:
137
A B
c D
6-11 Various arrannements and compositions of hyperbolic paraboloid modular elements. a,b) A
square hypar on two supports; c,d) Schematic models of umbrella-type hypars.
E F
G H
6-11 (continued) eJ) A combination of hypar modules in groups of two; g,h) A square-plan hypar
on two supports, with stabilizine struts or ties alone the edge beams.
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
Structural Aspects
140
Selected Shapes of Shells
Prestressing
141
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
142
CHAPTER 7
143
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
144
Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
.y---
7-4 Testing an experimental thin-shell roof structure by showin8 a live load of people standing on it.
their top edges. Very light and crisp in its HAYDEN PLANETARIUM,
simplicity, this shell is only 3 1/2 in (90 mm) MANHATTAN (1934)
thick (see Fig. 7-5). Designed by Trowbridge and Livingston, ar-
chitects, and Wieskopt and Pickworth, engi-
FOUNDRY BUILDING, MILAN (1934) neers, this was the first thin-shell dome to be
The architect and engineer for this project built in concrete in the United States. The
was Giorgio Baroni. The structure is particu- dome's shape is hemispherical. The close net-
larly significant since it is the first example of work of bent wooden members necessary for
a hyperbolic paraboloidal geometric surface the form work is particularly impressive.
ever applied to a building. In this first appli-
cation to a roof structure the configuration OCTAGONAL ROOF, VILLAVERDE,
of the shell includes straight-line edge mem- SPAIN (1935)
bers around the perimeter. The shell in- This octagonal concrete dome designed by
cludes quadrants of hyperbolic paraboloid Eduardo Torroja is only 2 in (50 mm) thick
surfaces combined together and supported at (see Fig. 7-6).
their four points.
---
--
7-5 The dome of the Market Hall in Alaeciras, Spain, by Eduardo Torroja.
145
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
146
Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
c
7 -7 The cantilevered thin-shell canopy over the Madrid Racetrack.
a) General view. b) Closeup frontal view. c) Closeup side view.
147
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
edges and elliptical arches forming the that enclose the space between the underside
groins. It bears on four supports at the of the vault and the top of the building's
corners of the building Although the inter- volume create sharp separation between the
secting diagonal arched lines give it away, the roof and the building itself, making the vault
overall configuration strikes a note of strong extremely light visually. The sharpness and
similarity with such sectional domes as that simplicity of the overall configuration of the
over an M.I.T. auditorium (see below). The building divided into a cubical mass-a dark,
vault, over a square floorplan measures ap- shaded area above and a light, floating shell
proximately 131.5 ft (40 m) on each side and merely touching the building - bring out the
31 ft (9.5 m) in height. The glass surfaces character of the shell.
148
Sianificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
149
7-11 Triangulated shell roof by Eduardo Torroja for the Constillares
Building, Spain.
7-14 The auditorium of the General Motors Technical Institute at Warren, Michinan.
151
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
./
COSMIC RAYS RESEARCH LABORATORY, (45.7 m) long. The shell is in two parts: an
UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO, MEXICO interior one whose average thickness is 3 1/2 in
CITY (1951) (90 mm) and an outer one only 2 in (50 mm)
This shell designed by architects and engi- thick. To eliminate the horizontal thrust of
neers Jorge Gonzales Reyna and Felix Can- supports these shells are connected by under-
dela consists of two saddle-type hyperbolic ground ties along the sides of the triangle.
paraboloids that meet at midpoint along the The free edges of the shells are reinforced
length of the building to form one unit. The with thick arches going from one support to
horizontal boundaries of the shell are two the other that hide the thickness of the struc-
hyperbolas. The shell is particularly slender, tural shell. Of particular interest are the ex-
with a thickness at the crown of only ~/5 in (15 posed steel hinges that visually emphasize the
mm), to allow cosmic rays to enter without structural behavior of the shell, an architec-
interference. At the base of the shell, how- tural expression that Saarinen used also in
ever, the thickness increases to 2 in (50 mm). the TWA Terminal Building in New York.
In its overall shape this structure reflects its Significant architectural effects are attained
unique function. Most noticeably, arched by the pure simplicity of the geometric form
supports carry the vertical diaphragms at as emphasized by the floating effect of the
each end of the shell, revealing the thin edge white shell in contrast to the dark-glazed ver-
of the membranes (see Fig. 7-18). tical surfaces below it (see Fig. 7-19). For its
particular exposure, function, and location,
KRESGE AUDITORIUM, this structure stands out as an impressive ex-
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF ample of thin-shell architecture in the United
TECHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE (1952-1955) States.
Designed by architect Eero Saarinen and en-
gineers Ammann and Whitney, this thin- AIR TERMINAL BUILDING,
shelled spherical dome has a triangular floor ST. LOUIS (1954)
plan. Its supports are at the vertices of an This air terminal structure designed by Min-
equilateral triangle whose sides are 150 ft oru Yamasaki, consists of three identical units
152
Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
153
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
154
Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
7 - 22 The shallow spherical dome for the Greek Orthodox Church in Milwaukee, by Frank Lloyd Wright.
155
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
--
-
7- 23 Elevation of a proposed thin-shell vault coverino a laroe atrium in front of the Exposition
Buildino in Turin.
ft (9.75 m). Because of this asymmetry the CHURCH OF SAN ANTONIO DE LAS
z - z axis that is vertical for symmetrical hy- HUERTAS (ST. ANTHONY OF THE
perbolic paraboloids is here slightly tilted. ORCHARDS), MEXICO CITY (/957)
The unbalanced moments produced by hav- Designed by Felix Candela in cooperation
ing two differently cantilevered parts are bal- with Enrique de la Mora and Fernando
anced for overall equilibrium by anchoring Lopez Carmona, architects, this complex
the shell to the wall and to the struts along structure consists of three units in a row.
the edges. Doing so also stabilizes the struc- Each groined unit consists of two intersecting
ture against unbalanced thermal deflections. saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloids. The
three units are joined by arched steel trusses
PROPOSED ATRIUM FOR EXPOSITION through which light penetrates the space. Of
BUILDING IN TURIN (/956-1957) particular interest is a crypt below the level of
This proposed thin-shell vault for covering a the church that also is covered by hyperbolic
large atrium in front of the Exposition Build- paraboloid reinforced concrete shells. The
ing in Turin, Italy, is by Pier Luigi Nervi and thickness of the shells is 11/2 in (40 mm).
L. Ravelli. This reinforced concrete shell
with a variable thickness included also some THE PALAZETTO DELLO SPORT
stiffening ribs that are visible from the inte- (SMALL SPORTS PALACE), ROME (1957)
rior. The large vault carriers exposed to view This structure, designed by Pier Luigi Nervi
strike a dominant note in Nervi's work that in collaboration with Annibel Vitellozzi and
somehow recalls the ribbed vaults of Gothic built by Ingg. Nervi e Bartolli Construction
architecture (see Fig. 7-23). Company, was designed, calculated, and con-
structed in a unified fashion by a master capa-
BUS GARAGE, DUSSELDORF, ble of optimizing all variables at once. Al-
GERMANY (/957) though this project was based on solid
The architect and engineer of this structure realism, since all such projects had success-
was Dyckerhoff-Widmann KG. This struc- fully outbid other proposals, the architectural
ture consists of shallow barrel shells for the value and purity of its structural design
roof, each 146 ft (44.50 m) long and with a emerge crystal clear.
width of 45 ft (13.7 m). The shell thickness of This shallow lamella concrete dome con-
3 5/8 in (44 mm) was made possible by pre- sists of 1,620 prefabricated skewed elements
stressing the shell. approximately 1 in (2.5 cm) thick. The units,
156
Si8niftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
constructed in ferrocement, were shaped like What is particularly significant in this de-
pans with an edge all around. During con- sign is the elegance of the exposed interior of
struction, the pans were placed with a space the dome, with its high level of craftsmanship
between them so that they would form cast- in the coffers and ribs, as well as the exposed
in-place ribs to make the lamella dome. The V-shaped piers, which give a sense of light-
ribs cast in between connected the pans to ness to the whole structure. The innovative
form a single structure. A thin layer of con- combination of precast and cast-in-place
crete covering the entire dome was cast mon- methodologies using on-site pre casting is also
olithically with the ribs noteworthy (see Fig. 7-24).
The edge along the tension ring on the
bottom is constituted by a series of triangular OPEN CHAPEL NEAR CUERNAVA CA,
precast elements that give unity to the ring MORELOS, MEXICO (1958-1959)
and transfer the meridian forces to the sup- Designed by Felix Candela, Guillermo Rosell,
porting piers, showing an undulated edge. and Manuel Larrosa, architects, this hyper-
The whole shell is in turn supported by bolic paraboloid shell which is only 1112 in (40
thirty-six Y-shaped piers that are aligned mm) thick has a dramatic effect because of its
along the tangent to the shell at the edge. continuous surface that constitutes an entire
With this arrangement, the piers carry the form similar to a paraboloid of revolution.
load, as axial compressive forces only. The Each end of this structure terminates in a
tapered Y-shaped piers, which are all pre- parabolic arch, the larger having a span of
fabricated at the site, are aligned along a cir- 102 ft (31 m) and a height of 72 ft (22 m) (see
cumference 257 ft (78.50 m) in diameter and Fig. 7-25). The height of the smaller arch is
are connected to a foundation ring 267 ft only 13l/4 ft (4 m).
(81.5 m) in diameter that is 8.2 ft (2.5 m)
thick. The ribs, shaped like lamella elements, MAY-D & F DEPARTMENT STORE,
convey the shell's forces by combining to- DENVER (1958)
gether the meridian and the hoops along in- This thin-shell hyperbolic paraboloid roof
clined patterns that eventually reach the structure covers a floor area that measures
piers. It should be noted that the piers have 112 ft (34 m) by 131 ft 8 in (40 m). The shell
only an architectural purpose: using a tension is in the shape of a four-gabled structure sup-
ring would have been both cheaper and ported at its four corners by abutments that
structurally stronger. absorb the thrust from the inclined edge
This shallow dome covers 51,000 sq. ft. of members without the use of ties. Anchored
floor area with a capacity of 5,000 seats. It on the abutments are steel hinges exposed to
has a base diameter at the shell edge of 192 ft view. The thickness of the shell varies from 3
(58.5 m) and a height from floor level to to 5 in (75 mm to 125 mm), but the insulation
crown of 69 ft (21 m). underneath it makes its overall thickness ap-
157
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
- j
pear so much larger that there is no real dif- bolic parabolas. The edges, which lie on in-
ferentiation between shell and edge mem- clined rather than vertical planes, have the
bers. The architects were I. M. Pei and shape of hyperbolas. The groins act as arches
Associates, the engineers Roberts and to carry the load to the ground at eight sup-
Schaefer Company (see Fig. 7-26). port points. The structural behavior of these
groins is just like that of three-hinged arches.
GROIN VAULT FOR THE CATHEDRAL In addition to the two hinges at the support,
OF NEW NORCIA, PERTH, it may be assumed that each arch has a third
AUSTRALIA (1958)
hinge at its crown, where the section of the
This shell structure by Pier Luigi Nervi in arch is almost flat. The arch is thus much
collaboration with F. Vacchini and C. Van- more flexible at its crown. The foundations
noni is a groin vault covering an equilateral consist of inverted umbrella shapes with a
triangular floor plan with side lengths of 116 perimetral tie to resist horizontal thrust from
ft (35.40 m). Three vaults join together in a the groins. The height at the crown of the
parabolic cross-section with a height at the hyperbolic edges is 33.6 ft (10.25 m), while at
crown of 101 ft (30.85 m). The construction the center of the structure (the crown of the
consists of precast-concrete skewed elements groins) the height is 20.1 ft (6 m). The roofs
joined together (see Fig. 7-27). waterproofing consists only of black-tar paint
sprinkled with white gravel chips.
RESTAURANT, XOCHIMILCO,
MEXICO (1958) HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDAL SHELL
This concrete roof shell designed by Felix STRUCTURE FOR THE PHILLIPS
Candela in cooperation with Joaquin and PAVILION AT THE BRUSSELS
Fernando Alvarez Ordonez is an octagonal INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION (1958)
groined vault (see Fig. 7-28). Its geometric This shell structure consists of several hyper-
shape derives from four intersecting hyper- bolic paraboloids combined to form a single
158
Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
/,~~r---rr-
\ . .. -
......
unit covering a pavilion. Designed by Le Cor- dial beams underneath, but no hoops (see
busier, this structure acquires particular sig- Fig. 7-30). These beams form an integral part
nificance from its powerful geometry that is with the shell and have a V cross-section. The
at times considered an eccentric mathemati- beams and shell have been designed to act
cal expression (see Fig. 7-29). independently of each other. That is, the
shell can carry loads without the help of the
THE PALAZZO DELLO SPORT, ROME prefabricated beams, and the beams them-
(1958-1960) selves can also carry the whole load. Al-
This dome designed by Pier Luigi Nervi in though this ambivalent behavior is indeed
collaboration with Marcello Piacentini covers possible, it seems that in actual practice the
a structure with a capacity of 16,000 seats membrane action of the dome prevails over
that was designed for the 1960 Olympics. Its the load-bearing ability of the arch action.
shape, a portion of a sphere, consists of a shell The shallow dome, which is approximately
31/2 in (90 mm) thick with prefabricated ra- 230 ft (70 m) in diameter, is supported by
7-27 An elliptical arain vault for the Cathedral of New Norcia in Perth,
Australia, by P. L. Nervi.
159
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
160
Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
7-30 The dome of the Palazzo dello Sport, Rome, by Pier Luigi Nervi.
161
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
Each individual hood covers a plant area buildings by Felix Candela (see Fig. 7-33).
of44 ft 3 in by 49 ft 1 in (13.5 m by 15 m) Two saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloids
and is approximately 29 ft (9 m) high. The bearing on two supports are tilted and joined
shell consists of two mirrorlike hyperbolic together so that one balances the other. The
paraboloids joined together including an in- total span is approximately 180 ft (55.2 m).
clined glazed surface for lighting. Capping The cantilevered parts project approximately
the top of the hood is a hyperboloid that 90 ft (27.6 m) on each side of the two sup-
forms a sort of small chimney. Massive and ports. The edge members soar vertically,
sculptural at the same time, these thin shells slightly inclined, to leave a space between
by C. Siegel and R. Wonneberg project a them that separates the two shells and allows
totally different image from Candela's light, for day lighting. The metal ties that lace to-
lofty hyperbolic paraboloidal shells. Notice gether the edges of the two shells are particu-
that the design analyses for these structures larly elegant. The overall configuration of
have depended mostly on model testing. the building strongly resembles the tradi-
tional headdress of the Sisters of Charity, an
CENTRE NATIONAL DES INDUSTRIES order of nuns world famous for its service in
ET TECHNIQUES (CENTER FOR hospital wards.
INDUSTRIES AND TECHNOLOGY)
(CNIT), PARIS (1959) ST. VINCENT'S CHAPEL, COYOACAN,
This impressive structure on three supports MEXICO (1959-1960)
spans 780 ft (238 m). It was designed by Cam- This church by Felix Candela, Enrique de la
elot, de Mailly, and Zehrfuss, architects, and Mora, and Fernando Lopez Carmona is simi-
built by Esquillon, engineers (see Fig. 7-32).2 lar in concept to that of the Church of San
Jose Obrero just seen, with three saddle-type
CHURCH OF SAN JOSE OBRERO (ST. hyperbolic paraboloids connected together
JOHN'S THE LABORER), MONTERREY, (see Figs. 7-34 and 7-35). On a tilted axis,
MEXICO (1960) each hyperbolic paraboloid has a lower peak
Dramatic hyperbolic paraboloid shells here that projects outward at the ends of the canti-
form the structure of one of the most famous levered members, and a higher peak soaring
162
Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
vertically. The overall configuration of the tested in Bergamo, Italy, at the Instituto
structure is almost triangular. Only three Sperimentale Modelli e Strutturi. A further
supports, consisting of concrete abutments, analysis using the STRESS computer pro-
support the structure. Starting from the sup- gram was also conducted by the U.S. struc-
ports the length of the cantilevered edges is tural engineering firm. It assumed an equiva-
77 ft 6 in (23.6 m). lent space truss simulating the behavior of
the shell (see Fig. 7-36).
ST. MARY'S CATHEDRAL,
SAN FRANCISCO INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
The architects for this whole project were FACILITY, NEW ORLEANS
McSweeney, Ryan and Lee, with structural Architects Curtis and Davis, E. B. Silverstein
engineers Robinson and Associates. Pietro and Associates, and M. Bergman and Asso-
Bellushi was the architectural consultant, and ciates in conjunction with structural engi-
Pier Luigi Nervi was the structural consul- neers Skilling, Helle, Christiansen and Rob-
tant who made the preliminary design. The ertson designed this thin-shell roof which
thin-shell roof that constitutes most of the included posttensioned cylindrical sheets 253
building consists of eight hyperbolic parabo- ft (77 m) in span and 60 ft (18.28 m) high.
loids of reinforced concrete that enclose a The cross-sectional shape of the barrels con-
square plan 120 ft (36.6 m) on a side. The sists of three centered arches whose radii are
height of the shell is 130 ft (40 m), its average 38 ft (11.60 m) in their upper parts and
thickness only 5 112 in (140 mm). As in other 12.25 ft (3.73 m) in the lower. Along the
Nervi structures, the shells are stiffened by a valley, where contiguous barrels join to-
system of ribs that form a triangular pattern gether, a beam 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) deep stiffens
visible from the inside. These ribs are created the barrels. Additional arch stiffeners are
by casting concrete out of Gunite over and in provided across the barrels to divide the lon-
between small precast concrete pans. gitudinal length into four parts. These in-
Nervi's basic design made use of large crease the longitudinal buckling strength and
scale (1 : 15) models of reinforced concrete reduce the bending moment transversely.
163
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
90 ft approx.
164
Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
165
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
117'
60'
additional columns in the interior. The free whose thickness is 4.4 in (110 mm), are pre-
edges of the barrels cantilever over the pe- stressed. The convex shells forming the
rimeters of the walls to reveal the thickness of ridges are in compression, and their thickness
the shells on the exterior. Notice that pneu- is only 2.25 in (57 mm). The shells also have a
matic form work was employed in the con- slight curvature in their longitudinal direc-
struction of this structure. tion to eliminate bending stres~es.
167
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
RESIDENCE, POUCNY, FRANCE (1962) front serve to visually reduce the weight of
This unique egg-shaped thin shell designed the structure. An observer could perceive the
by Bruno Camoletti and Eric Hoechel capital- profile of the shell exposed at the sides of the
izes on the continuity of the shell to its maxi- building. Clearly expressed on the exterior,
mum extent. Although the sharp cutoffs in its the plastic form of this shell is an inspiring
surface convey a strong contrast that detracts piece of architecture that gives new interpre-
from continuity, the form is exciting and in- tation to the concrete shell as it paradox-
spiring (see Fig. 7-41). ically combines lightness and mass (see
Fig. 7-44).
ST. MARY'S CATHEDRAL, TOKYO (1965)
In this structure by Kenzo Tange the hyper- THE EVOLUTION MUSEUM,
EINDHOVEN, NETHERLANDS (1966)
bolic paraboloid that is used originally for
walls takes full advantage of the straight-line Designed by Kalff, architect, the structure
generatrices (see Figs. 7-42 and 7-43). Eight for this museum uses two low-rise spherical
hypar surfaces enclose this complex struc- domes, connected along a common edge.
ture, which is covered outside with aluminum The overall appearance of the structure,
sheeting. The inside view shows the concrete which looks like a fiying saucer, is also reen-
shell itself without the covering. forced by the dynamic fenestration cut into
the edge (see Fig. 7-45). Similar to the egg-
PALACE OF THE ASSEMBLY shaped structure in Pougny, France, this kind
(PARLIAMENT), CHANDICARR, INDIA of design capitalizes on the imagery that solid
(1951-1965) geometry suggests (see Fig. 7-41).
The first studies for this building, designed
by Le Corbusier, were initiated in 1951 long CHURCH OF SANTA MONICA, MEXICO
before its final completion. This powerful, CITY (1966)
massive cylindrical shell has an inverted roof This shell structure is one of the last by Felix
profile with an unusual upward concavity. Candela. It was designed jointly with archi-
The horizontal cantilevered edge on the back tects Enrique de Ie Mora and Fernando
and the curvilinear cantilevered band on the Lopez Carmona (see Fig. 7-46).
168
7-40 An interior view of the TWA Terminal, New York.
169
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
170
7-44 The powerful yet plastic articulated conft8uration oj the massive
concrete rooJ vault by Le Corbusier Jor the capitol in Chandi8arh, India.
171
7-47 Roof for the Wyss Garden Center, Solo Thurn, Switzerland by H.
Isler.
172
7-50 Shell roof for a residential building by Pierre Camoletti.
173
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
174
Sioniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
the major point in the present context, the course proved disastrous, as later part of the
Opera House has taught an interesting lesson foundations had to be demolished and re-
of great value not only for structures in gen- built. Then, as the building progressed, the
eral but for shell architecture in particular. design kept changing in trying to obtain cer-
From the point of view of its construction this tain feasible engineering solutions. The proj-
project included a series of major mistakes ect thus developed in an irrational manner,
that, although disastrous, now offer at least with construction ahead of design and design
some guidance on what not to do. independent of engineering. Many of the ar-
The beginning of the series of errors was chitectural design solutions were in fact not
in the selection of the original architect, who feasible from an engineering standpoint and
was dismissed long before the completion of could thus not be built. And even when struc-
the project. It seems, according to Felix Can- tural design succeeded in making possible the
dela, who is certainly one of the best qualified construction of the architectural design, the
if not the best to describe the whole project,9 results were far from harmonious. This di-
that the major responsibility for the selection chotomy between architecture and engineer-
of the architect lay with Eero Saarinen, who ing thus undermined the integrity of the
was on the building committee. He was par- project. For instance, the concrete sails that
ticularly impressed by a set of architectural were logically supposed to be thin shells sim-
sketches presented by a Scandinavian archi- ply never materialized. One proposed solu-
tect named Utzon Jorn, who was then in his tion had included a concrete framework
thirties. Considering Saarinen's approach to fixed at the base, cantilevered out to support
design, it is no wonder that he likely re- a sheathing of precast panels of ferrocement
sponded enthusiastically to a proposal con- covered with mosaics. Then in 1964, one of
sisting of only a few pictorial drawings rather the sails collapsed. In that year the building
than a completely documented presentation. committee dismissed Jorn and replaced him
P. L. Nervi pointed out right from the begin- with a new architect, who brought the proj-
ning that a proposal for such a complex proj- ect to completion.
ect should have more specific information in A lack of experience by the young archi-
architectural terms and noted that this one tect in projects of this type and size proved to
did not include engineering data on its struc- be the chief cause of this failure. A more
tural and construction feasibility. This lack of experienced architect would have known, for
structural design at the early stages of the instance, that for a thin shell to be structur-
project was the primary cause of the major ally feasible it should try to approach a fu-
cost and schedule overruns. nicular shape of its loads. Instead young Jorn
For political reasons, the building commit- was more preoccupied with imaginative free-
tee decided to start construction in 1959, be- form configurations some of which were not
fore the end of its term, and began building even geometric in shape, so that they were
the foundations before the design of the en- incapable of being represented in analytical
tire building had been completed. This of geometric terms. Some design proposals did,
7 - 55 Airplane han8ar, Chica80 Municipal Airport, desi8ned by Ammann and Whitney (1948).
175
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
176
Si8nificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
concrete thin shells are dead as practical The concrete dome covering the stadium
structural options is certainly mistaken, as the consists of a tension ring at the base, a com-
Kingdome proves. For this reason, it deserves pression disc at the crown, and a thin-shell
particular attention at this point. dome between the two. The tension ring
The Kingdome covers Seattle Stadium, measures 24 ft (7.3 m) in width and has a
which is surrounded by King County, from thickness of 2 ft (61 cm). Its diameter mea-
which the name derives. The architects for sures approximately 660 ft (201.17 m) (see
this project were Naramore, Bain, Brady and Fig. 7-58).
Johanson, from Seattle, Washington. The en- The dome has a rise of 110ft (33.5 m), a
gineers were Skilling, Helle, Christiansen and span of 661 ft 4 in. (201.6 m), and a surface
Robertson from Seattle and Praeger Kavan- consisting of 40 thin-shell sectors each 5 in
agh-Waterbury from New York. thick (12.7 cm). Each pie-shaped sector con-
The basic costs of the Kingdome were for sists of a hyperbolic paraboloidal surface
construction ($43 million) land, administra- whose double-curved geometry contributes
tion, and taxes ($12 million), and sports to stiffening the shell. This geometry allows
equipment ($4 million), for a total of $59 for using straight-line generators, which
million. The unit cost per seat for the 65,000 made it possible to build the wood formwork
seats in the concrete Kingdome (under with components of straight lumber. The
$1,000) has been reported as being substan- sectors are connected along their radial edges
tially less than the cost per seat for the equiv- to stiffening ribs protruding upward from
alent steel Superdome and Astrodome. Con- the shell. All forty ribs, which are approxi-
troversy concerning the final costs of this mately 6 ft (1.83 m) deep and 2 ft (61 cm)
structure attracted considerable public atten- wide, extend from the compression ring to
tion at the time, which focused on litigation the outer edge of the tension ring, stiffening
between county and contractor, but the basic the shell (see Fig. 7-59). Christiansen later
figures are still valid. One of the reasons be- applied this same technique to build a thin-
hind this economic achievement in a concrete shell roof of an airport hangar.
thin shell has been attributed to the engineer- The actual dome of the Kingdome springs
ing experience of J. V. Christiansen in thin- from a height of 132.5 ft (40.4 m) above
shelled design. ground at the base of the tension ring. It is
177
Concrete ShelIs: Fundamentals and Case Studies
supported by forty columns located under perimetral movable towers supported the
the forty arched ribs. The load from the ribs form work built for casting the ribs.
thus transfers directly to the columns, with- When concrete, rather than steel, was se-
out affecting the thin-shell surfaces between lected for the construction of this dome a
the ribs. number of factors contributed to the deci-
The construction methods employed by sion, including the following: 1o
the contractor, which were preengineered
into the design stage, were essential to the Proven economic efficiency m terms of
remarkably low cost of this structure. As overall cost
noted earlier in regard to P. L. Nervi's de- Fireproof construction qualities, eliminat-
sign, construction strategies constitute a ing any need for protection such as
major factor in the economic success or fail- sprinkler systems
ure of thin-shell structures. Minimum cost for fire insurance
In the Kingdome's construction the false- Minimum maintenance
work consisted of a central, stationary, tower Most economical roofing requirements
and four mobile ones at the outer edges
mounted on tracks. These could be moved to
make it possible to use the same formwork DOMES FOR NUCLEAR
again and again. Four sectors were cast simul- REACTOR BUILDINGS
taneously, then the form work was moved for With the proliferation of nuclear power
the next castings, until all forty sectors had plants around the world, certain building ty-
been built. For equilibrium the sectors being pologies must follow unique standards which
cast simultaneously were those that were dia- set them apart from any other industrial
metrically opposite. Arched trusses spanning building. Of most concern within the context
radially out from the central tower to the of shell structures is the shallow concrete
178
Sianiftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
dome that covers most of the reactor build- cal structure below. The dome is reinforced
ings. Usually referred to as concrete contain- by a series of concentric hoops 15 in (380
ment buildings, they include a reinforced mm) on center that consist of No. 10 rein-
concrete structure composed of a vertical cyl- forcing bars (30 mm) placed on the top and
inder with a shallow dome over a flat circular bottom within the shell's thickness. A second
foundation slab. type of reinforcement is placed radially
Inside the concrete containment structure throughout the dome, also in two layers on
is a steel shell that is the containment vessel the top and bottom of the shell. These consist
subject to a sequence of design requirements. of No. 11 bars (35 mm). Starting from the
The concrete containment structure is thus crown of the dome, these radial reinforcing
the first protective barrier against exterior rods are spaced at ten-degree intervals
forces, with the steel containment being the throughout the full 360 degrees. These rods
first barrier against internally generated con- extend out approximately 25 ft (7.5 m)
ditions. Between the exterior cylindrical con- from the center. The successive rods also ex-
crete shell and the steel vessel inside it is an tend radially, spaced 2 degrees 30 minutes
annular space 5 ft (1.5 m) wide for control- apart.
ling the temperature and pressure around The first of three power stations owned by
the exterior of the steel vessel. Duke Power in the Carolinas was Oconee,
As an example typical of such domes, con- near Seneca, South Carolina. It included
sider the two units of the McGuire Nuclear three power-generating reactors that became
Station (built December 1981 and March operational respectively in July 1973, Sep-
1984) in Cornelius, North Carolina, as de- tember 1974, and December 1974. The
scribed in the Final Safety Analysis Report by three cylindrical reactor buildings, identical
its owner, the Duke Power Company. The in form and covered with identical domes,
geometric characteristics of these identical were built with posttensioning concrete
reactor buildings include an outside cylinder methodologies, a process not used for these
diameter equal to 131 ft (40 m), a wall thick- structures afterward. The geometry of the
ness of 3 ft (0.9 m), and a height of 177 ft (54 cylindrical buildings shows them to have an
m). The shallow dome covering each reactor exterior shell diameter equal to 123 ft 6 in
building has a rise that measures 27 ft 13/4 in (37.6 m) and a wall thickness of 3 ft 9 in
(8.27 m) from the springing circle to the top (1.145 m). The three domes each have a di-
of the crown. The design loads include dead ameter of 123 ft 6 inches (37.6 m), with a rise
loads, seismic loads, accident loads for tem- of 43 ft 3 in (13 m), as measured from the
perature and pressure, live loads for snow springing line to the top of the crown. The 3
and ice, penetration loads and pipe reactions, ft 3 in (1,000 mm) thickness of the dome is
and loads for tornadoes, wind, construction, kept uniform throughout, except at the edge
pipe rupturing, and seven combinations of support, where it is slightly thickened as it
these loads. The codes followed were ACI meets the cylinders below.
318-63, ACI 307-69, ASTM A615 (Grades
40 and 60), and ASTM 36. For four loading
combinations the working-stress design
method was used, with the ultimate-strength SHELLS IN ART
design method used for the other three. The
dome has a specified minimum thickness of The correlation between shell structures and
27 in (685 mm) as a safety measure against the visual arts can usefully be summarized as
missile impacts of various natures, including a) the definition of forms, the perception of
those generated by tornado loads. forms, and the analysis through geometry; b)
The dome is rigidly supported around its the recognition of form as an element of aes-
perimeter and is monolithic with the cylindri- thetics, involving definition and analysis of
179
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
180
Si8nificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
181
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
. ~
7-65 An experimental concrete shell loaded with sand baos to test deflection. By Eduardo Torroja for
the lnstituto Tecnico de la Construccion y del Cemento in Costillares, Spain.
thin-shell structure stands as a sculptural common uses. Among the first experiments
piece in a simple, pure form that speaks for to determine structural efficiency through
itself. form was the work of Antonio Gaudi, dis-
cussed in greater detail below. Another in-
teresting experimental work was conducted
in 1931 by Dyckerhoff-Widmann KG and
EXPERIMENT AL SHELLS Walter Muller-Grah in Munich. It consisted
of a thin shell % in (15 mm) thick that cov-
ered an area approximately 22 ft (6.7 m)
Because not many shells have been con- square. The surface of the shell was spherical
structed for experimental purposes, those with a square perimeter, that is, a sectional
that have been built have a special value for dome. Four edge beams stiffened the shell
individuals involved in design and construc- and carried the load to supports at each of
tion. Regardless of the accuracy of the analy- the four corners.
sis, it is always exciting to have indisputable
proof that what was built was indeed struc-
turally feasible. Such prototypes verify both
the design assumptions and the construction SHELL BUILDERS OF THE
methods. Also, testing full-scale models for TWENTIETH CENTURY
deflection under load is a rewarding experi-
ence for designers. Slender thin shells em-
phasizing particularly small thicknesses and The advent of concrete as a new building
long spans can be loaded and tested for de- material at the beginning of this century pro-
flection by using, for instance, sand bags, as duced basic changes in the philosophy of con-
in Figure 7-65. struction that also affected the development
Historically, experimentation on thin of the dome. Unrein forced concrete was not,
shells preceded practical applications of these however, perceived as a practical construc-
techniques to conventional structures for tion alternative, being neglected in favor of
182
Sioniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
the revolutionary new reinforced version. found more practical, easier application in
Now having a material that was good under reinforced concrete shells. Gaudi's major ac-
both compression and tension, builders used complishment was the development of the
it in totally new ways. Reinforced concrete let hyperbolic paraboloid. Whether it is seen as
builders abandon the criteria for masonry an artistic creation or as a discovery of geo-
and employ it mostly in tension, compression, metric relationships in the Platonic sense,
and bending for a wide range of applications, Gaudi's hyperbolic paraboloid is an almost
including building frames. magic shape that will continue to intrigue the
This new field of architecture and struc- mind. This concept explores not only the
tural typology captured the imagination of geometric relationships that generate the
numerous designers, from whom some form but also the possibilities of construction
emerged most notably as innovators. methods and the very rationality of structural
behavior. The Church ofthe Sagrada Familia
in Barcelona for which he designed the hy-
Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926) perbolic paraboloid remains a memorable
landmark for those sensitive to architectural
Antonio Gaudi practiced in his native Spain, pacesetting.
where he trained as a sculptor and architect.
Reflecting the prevailing cultural vivacity, he
projected into his artistic production a multi- Robert Maillart (1872-1940)
plicity of media from sculpture and architec-
ture to calligraphy, wrought iron, and com- The relative position of Robert Maillart's ca-
positions of colorful tilework. His major reer within the context of structural shells is
contribution, through which he certainly not based so much on his realization of many
enriched the development of curvilinear ar- shell structures as on the influence this master
chitectural forms, was in the creation of new had on concrete as a new building material.
shapes. Although his period preceded the sci- Born in Bern, Switzerland, MaiIlart spent
entific approach to architecture, Gaudi pio- most of his life in his native country and left a
neered scientific components in architectural strong legacy of work there. He began his ca-
design by exploring the potential of geome- reer at the infancy of reinforced concrete as a
try. A century after the powerful explora- building material and in exploring the poten-
tions of baroque architecture into the intrica- tial of this moldable, durable mixture created
cies of curvilinear geometry, Gaudi reissued a prototypes still considered avant-garde today.
proposal to generate new curvilinear shapes Art and technology became one in the numer-
for architecture. His methodology was based ous structures he left behind. His work in-
upon a fundamentally rational approach that cludes over forty bridges and many industrial
indicated deep comprehension of engineer- buildings. Maillart's contribution to concrete
ing principles on his part. Geometry, as a structures has had tremendous influence on
factor in structural strength and not just for the state of the art of concrete design. The Ze-
its own sake, was the basic concept Gaudi menthalle for the Swiss Provinces exhibition,
adopted. By experimenting with catenary though an isolated sample of Maillart's design,
shapes attained empirically from studying establishes this eminence. He was the father of
wires and membranes under loads, Gaudi flared columns connecting with floor slabs to
generated rational forms capable of creating eliminate supporting beams and designed
efficient shapes for masonry structures under unique bridge forms. Maillart's name remains
pure compressIOn. associated with innovative concrete forms that
Gaudi's pioneering work opened the way extend to the structural virtuosity of thin
to employing a structural geometry that later shells.
183
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
184
Sinnificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
largely forgotten. The plasticity of this mate- Although Torroja's work was done mostly
rial that had in its early experimental stages in Spain, his fame spread throughout the aca-
produced hulls for boats by the middle 1800s demic world as he served as a visiting profes-
was again proposed by him in a variety of sor at Harvard, Princeton, Raleigh Architec-
curvilinear forms. In his hands concrete was tural College, M.LT., and the University of
liberated not only from the linearity of the Buenos Aires.
building frame but was also allowed to ex-
pand into the thin layers of ferrocement in Anton Tedesko (1903-
the large, thin shells he built.
The great success of Nervi's structures de- The work of Anton Tedesko made a major
rives from his intuitive use of prefabrication contribution to the advancement of thin-shell
that used a modular type of building compo- design in the United States. Born in Gruen-
nent that was mass produced and cast at the berg, Germany, Tedesko (see Figure 7-67)
site. He was able to assemble complex struc- brought to the United States academic
tures with great economy. Nervi used his knowledge of thin-shell design acquired from
own construction company to outbid and to education and early experience. After joining
construct his own designs in competition with the prestigious firm of Roberts and Schaefer
those of other builders. in Chicago and becoming a naturalized citi-
zen in 1938 he spent a life of intense profes-
sional activity that included designing a large
Eduardo Torroja Miret (1899 -1961) number of shell structures.
Tedesko remained in the United States
Eduardo Torroja Miret continued the tradi- working with various other private firms.
tion of architectural virtuosity in Spain begun Among his thin shells is the groined vault for
by Antonio Gaudi. Born in Madrid just forty- the new Lambert Field terminal building in
seven years after the birth of that master, St. Louis, done in collaboration with Hell-
Torroja must have been influenced in his ar- muth, Yamascale and Leinwebel. And in col-
chitectural thinking by the daring and inno-
vative creativeness in Gaudi's art. They do in
fact share the unique combination of engi-
neering and architectural expertise that rein-
force each other to produce a talent found
most typically in the masters of the Italian
Renaissance. A contemporary of Nervi, Tor-
roja has left in his native Spain a legacy of
structural elegance similar to that which
Nervi left in Italy and around the world. Like
Nervi, Torroja was trained in civil engineer-
ing and expanded his knowledge into archi-
tectural composition. The material he used
most often was reinforced concrete in the
form of thin shells.
One biography describes a particular work
of his as a "veritable ballet of eggshell con-
crete butterflies." 12 The structure in ques-
tion was the Zarazuela race course in Madrid,
built in 1935 and damaged during the civil
war, yet still standing structurally intact (see
Fig. 7-7). 7-67 Anton Tedesko.
185
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
186
SiBnificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
shapes for suspended roofs as well as convex his approach to design came from this point
domical shells. From his concave suspended of view. However, he was able to reach the
roof over the Dulles Airport terminal in same level of architectural quality as other
Washington, D.C., to the traditional dome he designers that started from an aesthetic con-
used with anew, modern vocabulary for the cept of form.
M.I.T. Auditorium in Cambridge, Massachu- Beginning his career just after World War
setts, (see Fig. 7-19), Saarinen has left an in- II, Mihailescu was not familiar at the time
delible mark. with the architecture of Felix Candela, but he
Saarinen's career was interrupted by his was motivated by the work of the German
premature death. Unlike Nervi and Candela, school of the 1930s. He saw in the thin shell
Saarinen expressed himself in mostly archi- structure the practical expression of an ana-
tectural terms and therefore had more im- lytical surface containing within its thickness
pact in architectural circles, which could have membrane stresses. This was the exciting
led to his continued achievement. One stimulus from which his work started. Prac-
wonders whether the progress of curvilinear ticing in Romania, in isolation from the shell
architecture would have been extended work produced outside of the iron curtain,
beyond its current level if Eero Saarinen had Mihailescu approached his work with a
lived longer. strong individuality.
Major works by Mihailescu include the fol-
lowing: a railway depot in Brasov, Romania
Mircea Mihailescu (1920- (1947), consisting of forty conoidal shell ele-
ments, each cast on movable centerings (see
Born in Brasov, Romania, Mircea Mihailescu Fig. 7-69a); a textile factory in Bucharest
graduated from the Bucharest Polytechnik in (1958), consisting of a cylindrical roof shell
1944. He was educated as an engineer with a cast on movable centering (see Fig. 7-69b); a
strong background in analysis and therefore health spa in Olanesti, Romania (1960), con-
187
B
o
7-69 (continued) b) textile factory in Bucharest (1958); c) health spa
in Olanesti (I 960) ; d) railway station in Predeal (I 963).
188
E
189
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
190
7-71 Heinz Isler experimentin8 with three-dimensional catenary models.
191
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
inflate it to act as formwork. The configura- civil engineering from Northwestern Univer-
tions of the inflated membrane generated by sity in 1950, then worked mostly in the Seat-
pressures perpendicular to the membranes, tle area, on scores of concrete shell struc-
rather than by vertical gravity forces, made a tures. Among his major contributions is the
difference between the two that could even- structural design of the Kingdome in Seattle
tually be neglected. Still another method (see Figs. 7-58 and 7-59), which, when com-
Isler used to generate forms was to let a pleted, was the largest concrete-shell-roofed
slowly expanding form project out of a rigid- structure in the world. His other major works
edged frame under air pressure. include a barrel shell for the Rivergate Exhi-
Because Isler attained his structural forms bition Hall in New Orleans, in 1968, which
outside the normal constructs of geometry attained a record for being the largest-
and they were therefore not reproducible spanned concrete barrel vault in the world,
through applying analytical geometry, his and also the impressive hyperbolic paraboloi-
methodology depended on taking precise dal concrete roof shell over an airport hangar
measurements of small-scale models to obtain in Seattle, in 1962.
full-scale prototypes. With this empirical ap-
proach Isler was able to achieve an identity
that distinguishes his work from that of The Roberts and Schaefer Company
others in shells. Isler strongly differentiates
himself both from those who use preestab- This company, founded in 1905, occupies a
lished geometric forms and those who work significant place in the history of the evolu-
in imaginative unsubstantiable configura- tion of concrete shell structures in the United
tions. His forms are therefore often free of States. Roberts and Schaeffer was basically an
the coercion of geometry and the structural engineering company dealing with industrial
irrelevance of arbitrary design. In so doing, structures, mostly those associated with the
Isler abandons certain traditional engineer- processing of coal. The company later en-
ing approaches for making forms work and tered into the design and application of shells
keeps his distance from those who conceive to industrial buildings. Especially at the be-
for,ns that are disconnected from the laws of ginning of the 1930s the company showed
statics. particular interest in the scientific theories of
Following Candela's example, Isler is also shells that were then being imported from
particularly interested in lightening shells by Germany.
removing edge members that are not neces- From 1932, when the company began rep-
sary. Often such members are a burden resenting the German-patented Z-D system
rather than a relief to the whole shell. Isler's for thin-shelled concrete building typologies,
work in this area is a noteworthy addition to up to the beginning of World War II, this
the state of the art that should not be firm dominated the design and construction
overlooked. of concrete thin shells in the United States.
The major reasons behind this status were
the absence of practical expertise in this area
John V. Christiansen (1927- of engineering in the United States at the
time but also the presence in the company of
Born and educated in the United States,John Anton Tedesko, who brought it his knowl-
V. Christiansen acquired a major reputation edge and experience with Z-D systems. Rob-
by working in the area of concrete thin shells erts and Schaefer spread the popularity of
as a structural engineer. He graduated with a concrete shells throughout the country with
B.S. in architectural engineering from the designs such as the ice hockey arena for the
University of Illinois in 1949 and an M.S. in Hershey Chocolate Company in Pennsylva-
192
Sieniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
nia, which in 1936 held the record for the THE FUTURE OF THIN SHELLS
largest thin-shell concrete structure in
America.
The future of thin shells cannot easily be
predicted, because there are many factors
Ammann and Whitney that can potentially affect the development of
such a structural system. A few basic observa-
The Ammann and Whitney consulting engi- tions may nevertheless serve as indicators.
neering firm, based in New York, was estab- The present technology makes it feasible
lished in 1946 by consolidating into one com- to build long-span roof structures in wood,
pany two professional consulting practices. In steel, or reinforced concrete, as demon-
the structural engineering of major concrete strated by the megastructures recently built
shells and steel domes this firm is associated for stadiums. Although wood has sporadically
with important projects throughout the been used for these purposes, its cost is usu-
country. ally the highest of the three, and its span
From the start, Ammann and Whitney de- limitations have already been reached. Steel
veloped an original reinforced-concrete thin- and reinforced concrete are still competitive
shelled barrel-vault prototype that would ac- in a few countries, but on a worldwide basis
commodate a new generation of new and steel is definitely higher in cost. Because con-
larger planes demanding wider-span hangars. crete can easily be produced anywhere in the
The first structures built following this de- world, at a lower cost than steel, it thus seems
sign were two hangars in 1948 for American logical that reinforced-concrete thin shells
Airlines in Chicago, each having a clear span should be the structural system used to erect
of 257 ft (78.3 m) (see Fig. 7-55). A second permanent roof structures enclosing long-
application was a 1951 TWA hangar in Chi- span buildings. It is important to recognize
cago with a 270 ft (82.3 m) clear span. An- that concrete thin shells have had only a life-
other application was the TWA hangar in St. span of less than a century, quite a short time
Louis (1954), with a span measuring 270 ft in comparison to other systems. Building
(82.3 m). And finally the Swissair hangar in technology has a tradition of moving slowly
New York (1960), with a span of 180 ft in accepting or rejecting systems, so it seems
(55 m). probable that thin shells still have a long life
Ammann and Whitney were the consult- ahead of them.
ing engineers for the M.I.T. Auditorium in Recently, the efficiency of concrete thin
Cambridge, Massachusetts, designed by Eero shells has definitely advanced at a good rate.
Saarinen in 1955 (see Fig. 7-19), and for the Currently available in particular markets are
structural design of the University of Illinois high-strength concrete mixtures that have
Assembly Hall in Urbana (1962). This struc- reached no less than 8,000 psi ultimate
ture, designed by the architects Harrison & strength in twenty-eight days. Such new
Abramovitz, was a folded-plate lightweight values can greatly reduce the required thick-
concrete dome with a 400 ft (122 m) diame- nesses of concrete shells, making it feasible to
ter. Other significant reinforced-concrete design a new generation of shells that are
shells designed by this firm include the bar- extraordinarily efficient, to lower costs and
rel-vault shell structure for the De Kalb Phys- expand the limits of spans.
ical Education Building in De Kalb, Illinois The spherical dome built in reinforced
(1956), with a clear span of 171 ft (52 m), and concrete no longer has the limitations of its
the inverted concrete shell for the Albany masonry counterpart. Tension stresses in it
Mall Meeting Center in Albany, New York, can be carried by its steel reinforcement, con-
with Harrison & Abramovitz, architects. trary to the limitations of masonry domes,
193
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
which could carry only compression loads. structure much freer and lighter than its old
The thrust at the base of a thin shell can masonry parent. With this freedom, flat low-
easily be absorbed by a steel-reinforced ten- rise spherical domes can achieve slender
sion ring. Thin-shell technology has reduced ratios never possible before, allowing the
thicknesses in dramatic terms, thereby reduc- free-span diameters of modern domes to ex-
ing dead loads, with obvious advantages. ceed several hundred feet in length.
All in all, the concrete dome is a fresh new
NOTES
1. From David P. Billington, Thin Shell Concrete Structures (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1982). Used with
permission
2. Ibid.
3. Sir Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture (New York: Scribners, 1975), 1290.
4. Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dall, Modern Architecture.
5. Courtesy, The Art Museum, Princeton University.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. "The Uproar of the Sydney Opera House," in Architectura (Spain, Mexico;) and in In Defense ofStructuralism.
10. "Seattle's Dome," Consulting Engineer (Sept. 1976),53-55.
11. Billington, op. cit., 9.
12. Ann Lee Morgan and Colin Naylor, Contemporary Architects (Chicago: St. James Press, 1987),915.
13. Billington,op. cit. See also David P. Billington, The Tower and the Bridge (New York: Basic Books, 1983),
222-32.
14. Courtesy, The Art Museum, Princeton University.
194
CHAPTER 8
THE CONSTRUCTION -DESIGN cost estimations can vary erratically. This ele-
RELATIONSHIP ment of subjectivity, caused by varied experi-
ence, can produce extreme bids, endanger-
ing the economic feasibility of shells. A strict
Unlike more orthodox structures, thin shells collaboration between the design and con-
escape being regimented into clearly estab- struction companies is of fundamental impor-
lished construction methodologies because of tance to ensure that maximum efficiency is
their very nature. The problem arises to reached.
some extent from the novelty of these struc- A classic example is provided in the work
tures that were never before used in con- of Pier Luigi Nervi, who combined his expe-
struction, such as hyperboloids of revolution, rience in design and construction with that of
hyperbolic paraboloids, and conoids. How- his design studio and construction company.
ever, even when the geometry is historically As a result architectural, structural, and con-
well known, as it is in the case of domes, struction planning proceeded hand in hand,
difficulties may derive out of the technology complementing and reinforcing each other.
that present-day materials imply. For in- This seemingly simplistic example was the
stance, traditional domes, which were usually key to Nervi's success at winning out over the
built in masonry, do not share the same prob- competition with creative projects and low
lems of cast-in-place concrete shells. More bids.
specifically, new problems are created when Historically, the team approach within ar-
technologies for precasting or prestressing chitecture, structural design, and construc-
concrete are used, as well as when concrete is tion has not flourished in American profes-
sprayed under pressure by the Gunite sional practice. However, in the early stages
method or cast on inflatable pneumatic of shell construction in the United States
forms. Moreover, in constructing a specific there was close collaboration between design
geometric form an additional consideration is firms and contractors both before and after
that certain shells can be built from either the bidding. Design firms in fact developed
straight-line generatrices or curvilinear ones. construction advisors on whom they de-
Construction methodology is thus so pended while continuing to offer assistance
unique and variable from case to case that to bidding contractors in terms of cost esti-
195
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
196
Construction Aspects of Shells
Steel reinforcement is now placed over the sawing into the concrete thin shell. Only a
neoprene form as it lies on the ground. This smalI air compressor is needed for inflation,
reinforcement consists of circular hoops and which could be operated by a gasoline en-
radial lines capable of sliding as the form gine, alIowing domes to be built in areas
gradualIy rises. One form it often takes is as a where electricity is not available.
series of chains that slide easily to cover the A patent exploring in detail this construc-
spherical form. Other construction processes tion methodology was registered in Italy in
and patterns can be devised to alIOW the ad- the early 1960s under the name of BinishelIs,
justment of the steel reinforcement as it from the name of the young architect who
moves from lying flat on the ground to drap- developed the process. Several structures
ing properly over the inflated form. built with this method have since proved its
After the pneumatic form and its rein- feasibility, including a demonstration proto-
forcement have been placed on the ground, type built in just a few hours on the Columbia
concrete is poured over the entire circular University campus in New York. Other ex-
area covering the pneumatic form and rein- amples of structures built with this method
forcement to a uniform thickness, except that include a dome over a recreational center
an additional amount is cast exactly at the near Arezzo, Italy, that is 65.6 ft (20 m) in
center. Another neoprene membrane is now diameter, and two domes covering a gymna-
placed on top of the concrete so that when sium that are, respectively, 104.96 ft (32 m)
the first membrane is inflated the concrete and 49.2 ft (15 m) in diameter.
wilI be sandwiched between the two mem-
branes. The first membrane must be hermet- PLASTIC FOAM FORMING
icalIy sealed, but the second one, which is In the late 1960s Dow Chemical patented
anchored along its perimeter, does not need and produced a system using a plastic foam to
an airtight seal. Its function is to retain the form concrete thin shelIs. The name they
concrete in place and give it a smooth, fin- gave to this process was Spiral Generation,
ished appearance. A hose is then connected the plastic foam used for the process was
to an air pump to convey air under the neo- manufactured by Dow under the name Sty-
prene form and lift it gradually. In a few rofoam. Although Styrofoam stilI has a foot
hours the form will be fulIy inflated, acquir- in the market, the Spiral Generation process
ing its desired spherical shape. As the form is no longer in use, although more than two
rises, the reinforcement system and concrete hundred shells were built by it and, as we
stretch correspondingly, following the shape shall see, it may have many related uses.
of the membrane. The inventor of the method, Donald R.
The air pressure required to support the Wright, of Dow's lab in Midland, Michigan,
concrete is much lower than one would began by forming spherical domes with Sty-
guess, relatively speaking. A shelI one inch rofoam as their main structural material to
thick requires a pressure of only 0.0868 psi (6 carry uniformly distributed compression
hPa). This is extremely low, when one con- loads. As the diameters of domes increased,
siders that the pressure in a bicycle tire tube however, the Styrofoam domes became basi-
is approximately 50 psi (3,450 hPa). calIy the form work for the concrete shelIs
There are several major advantages to this that were built over them. Wright's concept
system, which can offer a great range of ap- was to design a mechanical means of bending
plications. Construction time is short, and the Styrofoam planks and cementing them to-
erection materials and tools are minimized. gether to form a continuous curvilinear
Labor in general is greatly reduced, since this form.
method requires only a few expert man- Wright generated forms by rotating the
hours. Openings for doorways and fenestra- forming head around a vertical axis in a spi-
tion can be provided after erection simply by raling motion from the base of the dome to
197
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
its crown, thus laying down superimposed interior plaster coating. Sandwiched as it is
courses of Styrofoam planks. These superim- between the exterior concrete and the inte-
posed layers are then bonded together by rior plaster layers, the Styrofoam remains
heat while bent. A special cam controls the well protected from ultraviolet degeneration.
precision with which the forming head ro- These intrinsically lightweight structures
tates. The Styrofoam planks are fed contin- perform quite satisfactorily in earthquake
uously to the forming head by operators sta- zones, since the seismic forces that are pro-
tioned on a rotating platform that follows the portional to the structural mass are conse-
forming head. The Styrofoam planks are quently low.
shaped and bent so that the contact surface The Styrofoam's thickness can be deter-
between layers lies on radially inclined mined either in terms of the minimum struc-
planes. At its fastest this operation proceeds tural strength required of it or in terms of its
at the rate of approximately thirty feet per thermal-insulation value. Structurally speak-
minute (see Figs. 8-1, 8-2, 8-3). ing, when a Styrofoam dome acts as form-
Typically, a cross-section through a fin- work for a concrete shell, the uniformly dis-
ished Spiral Generation dome shows the ex- tributed load over the Styrofoam shell is 12.5
terior concrete shell and its reinforcement, psf (60 kg/m2) per inch of concrete thick-
the Styrofoam permanent formwork, and the ness. Typical thicknesses of Styrofoam used
for the form work of domes follow a rule
of thumb of using approximately one inch
of thickness for each ten feet of base diam-
eter.
The Spiral Generation process is meaning-
ful in the evolution of thin shells and has
found applications in different market condi-
tions. From a technological point of view, the
validity of this process has been proven by a
series of thin shells built with this method as
indicated by case studies discussed later.
The reason the Spiral Generation process
had a short life span and failed to gain sub-
stantial momentum probably reflects the
operation of industrial dynamics. The main
intent of the Dow Company in devising this
process was to open a new market for their
Styrofoam, not to enter the building con-
struction technology field. Yet in so doing
Dow pointed out that lightweight form work
could easily be assembled by a simple me-
chanical device, which is what intrigues the
mind and opens the way to creating other
processes for generating different types of
forms. Once the form work is completed, the
process of spraying concrete over it relies on
conventional processes not peculiar to the
Spiral Generation system. The Styrofoam
8-1 Typical Spiral Generation process equipment form work of this system remains perma-
shOwing the assembling of 20 in X 20 in X 9 ft nently in place and does not require disman-
(50 em X 50 em X 2.75 m) Styrofoam strips. tling, as does conventional form work. The
198
Construction Aspects of ShelIs
199
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
200
Construction Aspects of Shells
two distinct shells structurally interconnected a special steel belt reinforces the joint to ab-
by shear-resistant elements spaced several sorb circumferential tensile force (see Fig.
inches apart to create cavities that are filled 8-4).
with loose insulating fibers. The years of experience accumulated in
One example of fiber-reinforced plastic the construction of fiberglass hulls have led
shells used to create a prototype housing unit to practical applications being extended to
is the Casa Finlandia Futura, in Finland some building structures. Occasional isolated
(1967 -1968), designed by the architect prototypes demonstrate ingenious uses de-
Matti Suuronen. The structure is of the sand- rived by some manufacturers. For example, a
wich type, with a polyurethane foam core. futuristic molded fiberglass structure built on
Each unit has a diameter of 26 ft (8 m) and the outskirts of a resort town in southern
consists of two circular shells, one atop the Italy in the early 1970s is cylindrical in con-
other. The top one (convex) connects to the figuration and covered with a monolithic
bottom one (concave) at the equatorial line to shallow spherical dome. It has a diameter of
form a continuous spheroidal surface that is approximately 30 ft (9.1 m) and is two stories
pierced by a series of small windows. Each high, in two interconnected shells forming a
shell is constructed of four segments, so that combined insulated wall approximately 1 ft
the erection sequence includes assembling all (30 cm) thick. The structure, used appropri-
components by mechanically joining and ately as a nightclub because of its open floor
sealing their edges. At the structure's equa- plan, has minimal fenestration and doors that
tor, where the two half-shells are connected, fit smoothly within the curvature of the walls.
201
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
. , / ~.-.;::::--~
j~~~
{( \-
The tactile characteristics of the indoor and site and assembled there to complete a domi-
outdoor surfaces of this structure, in their cal roof structure, sealing the joints and
continuous molded, rounded configurations, creating a monolithic surface impervious to
remind one of the finishing of the plastic inte- water. Structural reinforcement could easily
riors of present-day commercial aircract. be installed at the base in a matter of minutes,
Such occasional prototypes that could be within a preformed groove. Minor reinforce-
industrially manufactured in large quantities ment in the form of a small steel cable could
remain isolated cases. Extensive application even be posttensioned, if so desired, in con-
of the methodology has not yet gained a foot- necting the various roof segments. Stand-up
hold in the building industry. The lack of seams could be sealed with cementing com-
practical acceptance seems to result from so- pounds to create structural bonding capable
ciological rather than climatological condi- of absorbing tension stresses whenever they
tions, probably because of these synthetic occur. These examples are only an indication
products' striking contrast with conventional of the many possibilities fiber-reinforced
building materials which are preferred by the shells could offer.
public at large.
This method of using molded, fiber-rein- PSEUDOSHELLS
forced domical structures for a single build- Occasionally a structure is not really what it
ing unit is not the only approach to follow appears to be in a statical sense. When form
and may in fact have led to the overall lack of and structure do not correlate, this is usually
success of fiber-reinforced building construc- the result of construction limitations. Some
tion. Instead, a more appropriate approach curvilinear surfaces that seem to be concrete
for this technology might be to use molded thin shells may actually have a structural sys-
components incorporated within different tem totally different from the one expected.
kinds of building processes. Specifically, pre- The purity of continuous surfaces cannot
cast curvilinear fiber-reinforced roof seg- always capitalize on the inherent structural
ments could be used to generate domical roof values of membranes and thin shells. Yet
structures by being assembled together and apart from this structural rationale, the ge-
erected over a compatible building form. ometry of forms has its own validity for the
Lightweight double-shelled components justification of the shape of the delineated
sandwiched with rigid insulation like Styro- structure and the configuration of the en-
foam can be easily built and transported to a closed space.
202
Construction Aspects of Shells
Pseudoshells built with structural systems To avoid the complications of using form-
other than that of thin shells may have strong work in this location, this shell was not built
reasons to diverge from the typical methods in structural concrete. Similarly, the U.S.
of shell construction. For instance, the lack Capitol building in Washington, D.C., is
of certain materials or the absence of re- crowned by a dome whose masonry appear-
quired building trades in a given area could ance conceals a cast-iron framework.
justify realizing a specific form using a substi-
tute system. The relationship between form
and structure must always be interpreted in
terms of prevailing circumstances. There SUPPORTS
may be many controlling factors in addition
to structural efficiency. In this regard the Edges and Boundary
pseudoshell has its own validity. Members Framework
The nature of pseudoshells might seem to
exclude them from association with thin Edge members are necessary to transfer
shells per se, but it is logical to identify them membrane stresses from the shell to its sup-
in some way within the overall context of thin ports. They constitute a primary framework
shells. Examples of such structures, sup- supporting the shell from the ground up.
ported by a hidden interior framework, can Their characteristic is that they develop reac-
be found in many wooden domes of the an- tions in a plane tangential to the shell at its
cient world and in some steel domes today. boundary. They should also theoretically
The structure shown in Figure 8-5 is a shal- allow certain displacements within the shell
low spherical dome consisting of a structural that are induced by membrane stresses. How-
steel system covered with a nonstructural ever, because in reality the reactions in these
concrete shell. This 1966 structure is the res- members are not exactly tangential to the
idence of its architect, Charles Deaton, on shell, as they should be, bending moments
Genesee Mountain near Golden, Colorado. arise in both the edge members and the shell.
8-5 A pseudoshell supported by structural steel. This residential structure is shaped to resist hiBh wind
forces.
203
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
204
Construction Aspects of Shells
at the edge of the membrane will always be are tensile. Although in this case the edge of
tangent to the membrane itself and moments the shell and the edge member are both in
will not transfer from the tension ring to the tension, the difference in stiffness here be-
membrane. For this isostatic condition to tween the two would generate different free
occur it is also required that the edge mem- displacements, separating the shell and edge
ber itself be simply supported. member. There are two practical options to
If these conditions are not totally satisfied approximate a support condition that would
the dome becomes hyperstatic and additional make the shell isostatic and reduce the in-
stresses arise. The shell cannot resist these compatibility between the structural behav-
stresses generated by bending because of its ior of the shell's edge and the edge member.
structural inability to do so, as inherent in the One is to eliminate the tension ring com-
very definition of thin shells. The isostatic pletely and use the edge of the membrane to
conditions of support also guarantee that resist the tensile force, provided the shell is
thermal expansion and contraction of such a thick enough to include the necessary rein-
shell occur freely, without generating an op- forcement. The other is to incorporate the
posing reaction, and thus without adding fur- tension ring in the shell itself, making the two
ther stresses. compatible in the elastic sense, that is, equally
There is another consideration involving stiff. This can be done by slightly increasing
the support of domical thin shells to make the the thickness of the shell around its edge and
shell behave according to theoretical assump- providing reinforcement.
tions. This is based on the fact that the edge If the dome includes a tension ring at its
of the shell and the tension ring act differ- base, a problem arises in detailing a hinged
ently from each other and undergo different connection between the shell and the ring
degrees of deformation. If they are joined around the perimeter of the dome. One solu-
together they deform equally in a given di- tion is to provide a groove in the ring, in
rection, the result of a compromise between which the edge of the shell could sit. This
shell and edge. The edge member acts upon groove would be shaped like an L with a hori-
the free edge of the shell with forces that zontal and a vertical lip capable of developing
modify the free deformation of the shell vertical and horizontal reactions, respectively
caused by membrane stresses alone. Con- (see Fig. 8-8). Another alternative would be
versely, the membrane modifies the free de- to do exactly as suggested above, but make
formation of the edge member acting inde- the edge of the shell slightly thicker, to pro-
pendently. The most important of the two vide sufficient bearing surface for the shell
actions is of course that within the shell itself,
because the stresses induced by the edge
member alter the membrane stresses in the
shell, thereby inducing bending.
A practical example to illustrate this phe-
nomenon would be a shallow dome under
vertical live and dead load with the hoop
forces in compression for the entire dome.
Because the edge member at the base is defi-
nitely in tension, along the edge where shell
and edge member meet there are the oppos-
ing forces of compression and tension, which
tend to separate the shell from the edge
member. A similar situation can be observed 8-8 An example of momentless edae support for
in a dome approaching the size of a hemi- domes. Here a hinaed connection aenerates both
sphere in which the hoop forces near its base a vertical and a horizontal reaction.
205
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
(see Fig. 8-9). Yet another solution is to use a contracts. This part of the connection would
typical concrete-hinge technique in which the provide only a vertical reaction, so the hori-
tension ring has an inclined edge perpendicu- zontal reaction around the full rim of the
lar to the meridional force at the edge of the dome would need to be furnished by another
shell. The shell will then extend into the ring part of the connection constituting the ten-
as usual. Another particularly ingenious type sion ring. An example of this system can be
of support consists of hanging the edge of the seen in the Felix und Regula Church in Zu-
shell from a continuous concrete ring above rich (see Fig. 8-10).1
it, using flexible steel rods that would deform
as would a pendulum as the shell expands and POINT SUPPORT (Ribbed Dome)
The Fieldhouse of the University of Virginia
at Charlottesville illustrates a particular type
of support for domical shells, consisting of
hinged point supports. This dome, with a di-
ameter of 282 ft (86 m), consists of a series of
radial ribs supporting precast barrel units
that form a scalloped shell. The radial-arched
ribs spring from a horizontal tension ring
that is supported by several cast-in-place col-
umns. The prestressed ring is loaded by the
radial forces coming from the arched ribs
that induce the tension. The connection de-
T
tailed in Figure 8-11 shows the ribs sup-
ported by the ring and hinged to it. Only the
vertical and horizontal reactions are pro-
vided, with moments excluded by using an
8-9 A momentless edee support. This simply L-shaped support. Two threaded steel rods
supported condition eenerates only a vertical embedded in each rib go through the joint to
reaction component. anchor the rib to the ring. These anchors are
206
Construction Aspects of Shells
Prestressed
wires
Tension ring
Packet
Column
207
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
208
Construction Aspects of Shells
209
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
8-18 The steel hin8es suPportin8 the ed8e of the dome over Kres8e
Auditorium at MIT.
210
Construction Aspects of Shells
211
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
Connection line _ _ _~
I
I
I
,
. : ....... : \........ ,
I
I
8-22 The edoes of two adjacent precast panels such as those seen in
Fioure 8-21.
212
Construction Aspects of Shells
tarium at the New Jersey Cultural Center in ft (7.1 m). They include thirty-two spherical
Trenton. This precast dome, which is 82 ft sectors extending from a precast disc at the
(25 m) in diameter at its base, was con- crown to a cast-in-place prestressed ring at
structed of thirty-two segments shaped like the base. The panels are only 1.2 in (30 mm)
spherical isosceles triangles. Two equal sides thick, with meridian members 11.8 in (300
each 63 ft (19.2 m) long followed the merid- mm) deep and hoop members 5.9 in (150
ian lines, with the 8 ft (2.44 m)-long base as mm) deep, spaced 6.4 ft (2 m) center to
part of the base hoop. The top vertex of the center, and monolithically cast. Once assem-
triangle of course coincides with the crown of bled, the thirty-two sectors were connected
the dome. The elements were 3 inches (75 along their meridians by grouting.
mm) thick, reinforced at their edges by ribs An example of the third type of assembly
so that the joint between two adjacent trian- is furnished by the 1961 dome over a sports
gular segments involved two adjacent ribs center in Tbilisi, which has a base diameter of
each 63 ft long. The profile ofthe joint shows 241 ft (75.2 m) and consists of 496 precast
that at the bottom of the joint the two adja- flat elements 1.18 in (30 mm) thick assem-
cent parts contact each other, but in the bled to form ten concentric circles into a two-
upper part of the joint there is a gap to allow layer dome. As is typical for this type of con-
insertion of pressurized nonshrinking grout. struction, the elements are trapezoidal and
When completed, the joint was covered by a vary in size as the concentric loops progress
neoprene cord which in turn was covered by from base toward crown. On the first ring
polysulfide caulking. The top of the joint and the panels had a length along the meridians
the exposed surfaces of the jointed ribs were of 16 ft (5.8 m), with the length along the
then covered with a synthetic rubber coating. lower hoop 15 ft (4.7 m) and that along the
A cast-in-place tension ring at the base and a higher hoop 7.7 ft (2.4 m).
compression ring at the top hold the thirty- A recent paper by G. K. Khaidukov4 de-
two spherical triangular segments together. scribing the technical characteristics of typi-
cal precast concrete domical shells built in the
U.S.S.R. furnishes significant data on the ef-
Examples of Precast-Shell ficiency of Soviet technology in shell con-
Technology struction as measured by the amount of steel
reinforcement used per unit area of shell
Precast concrete methodology for thin-shell surface:
domes has been particularly popular in con-
struction methods adopted in the Soviet Karaganda works (1965): 107 ft (32.5 m)
Union. The precasting process can be subdi- diameter; 3.34 Ib/ft2 (16.3 kg/m2) of
vided into three basic methods of assembly, steel reinforcement.
the first being defined as having the individ- Sports center, Tbilisi (1961): 241 ft (75.2
ual components assembled along meridian m) diameter; 3.28 Ib/ft2 (16 kg/m2)
lines extending from the base ring toward the steel reinforcement.
crown. A second type includes assembling Druzhba sports center, Moscow, for 1980
components defined by meridians and hoops Olympics: 308 ft (96 m) in diameter;
along their perimeter. The third type in- 7.78 Ib/ft 2 (38 kg/m 2) of steel
cludes assembling elements along concentric reinforcement.
circular hoops to constitute two-layered Domes for Borispol air terminal, Kiev,
domes. 513 ft (160 m) in diameter; Chelya-
The domes over the 1965 Karaganda inte- binsk, 327 ft (102 m) in diameter;
grated iron-and-steel works are examples of Minsk, 330 ft (103 m) in diameter: all
the first type of precast concrete domes. 5.53 Ib/ft2 (27 kg/m2) of steel
Their diameter is 107 ft (32.5 m), the rise 23 reinforcement.
213
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
214
Construction Aspects of Shells
bottom, and making the member visible their efficiency and substantially reduces the
only on the outside. amount of reinforcement needed in compari-
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.70. son to conventionally reinforced concrete.
• Shallow member following the contour of This technology used for beams, girders, and
the shell, built by thickening the shell on slabs is also valid for edge members and
top to make the member visible only from shells.
the outside. The practice of prestressing concrete
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.60. began in the United States, with circular in-
stead of linear prestressing. In 1935 the Pre-
There are also four basic types of edge load Company introduced a new method for
members, as follows: winding wire reinforcement through a spe-
cial apparatus to stress the wires. This process
• Deep rectangular members along the edge made possible the prestressing of circular
of the shell in which the shell frames at the storage tanks such that they gained substan-
mid-depth of the member. tially in efficiency and thus in popularity.
Assumed cost factor: 1.00. Over a thousand of these structures were
• Deep rectangular members along the edge built up to the mid-1960s.
of the shell in which the shell frames at the The pioneering stage shows prestressed
top of the member. concrete technology being applied to arched-
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.80. floor systems, as patented by P. H. Jackson in
• Shallow rectangular members along the 1886 in San Francisco. Two years later, C. E.
edge of the shell in which the shell frames W. D. Doehring in Germany patented an-
at the bottom of the member. other method for prestressing concrete. Both
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.70 methods failed from a practical point of view
• Shallow rectangular members along the because the pretensioning in the steel was lost
edge of the shell following the inclination as the concrete contracted through creep and
of the shell so that the member appears to natural shrinkage. Then in 1925 R. E. Dill in
be an edge with increased thickness. Nebraska applied a posttensioning method of
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.60. coating steel reinforcements to prevent their
bonding with concrete, then tensioning the
The rectangular cross-section for the edge reinforcement and anchoring it with nuts to
members mentioned is just a schematic indi- the concrete once it had set. In 1928 E.
cation of a generic cross-section that can actu- Freyssinet in France finally devised the first
ally take any configuration desired, from a practical method of prestressing concrete, by
triangular to any other polygonal shape, solid using high-strength steel wires with a yield
or hollow. It should also be mentioned that point in excess of 180,000 psi (1,240 MPa) to
regardless of the shape of the cross-section attain a prestressing value of 150,000 psi
the boundary member can have throughout (1,035 MPa) and a strain of approximately
its length whatever cross-section is required 0.005. This left enough strain and tension in
by the variation of the load. Tapered edge the reinforcement even after creep and
members are in fact commonly used in many shrinkage had occurred. Subsequently, in
thin-shell designs as accepted practice. 1939, Freyssinet developed conical wedges
for anchoring and special jacks for tension-
ing. In 1940 a Belgian named G. Magnel
PRESTRESSING developed another anchoring method.
The most significant contribution to pre-
stressing was the industrial application of
As described before, the technique of pre- prestressed beams by a German named E.
stressing concrete structures greatly increases Hoyer. In his system wire reinforcement sev-
215
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
eral hundred feet long was tensioned be- tween steel and concrete along the length of
tween two solid anchorages attached to the the beam required no end anchorage.
ground. Several beams separated by spacers
were cast along the length of the reinforce-
ment. When the concrete hardened, the Prestressing in Isostatic Domes
wires were cut, separating the beams from
each other (see Figs. 8-23 and 8-24). In Prestressing the edge rings of domes is a con-
Hoyer's method the continuous bond be- venient procedure that offers several advan-
tages. When the wires in the ring are pres-
tressed, then released after the concrete has
hardened, the ring is set in compression. As a
result, the dome lifts, detaching itself from
the form work. This makes the removal of the
forms much simpler and also eliminates
saggmg.
It is especially important to determine the
prestressing force recommended in the ring.
The simplest approach is to apply enough
compression to balance the tension that will
be induced in the ring by full dead and live
loads on the dome. Doing so will let the dome
rise from the form after prestressing, because
only the dead load would be applied when
the forms are removed. Later, when full live
loads are applied, there will be no deforma-
8-23 End anchorage devices for prestressed tions and the ring at the base will be in a state
concrete. of repose.
8-24 The industrial application of prestressing as designed by E. Hoyer. Prestressing of several beams
at the same time by tensioning a wire reinforcement several hundred feet long, then cutting it after the
concrete has hardened, thus securing the bond.
216
Construction Aspects of Shells
V=---
w 150
21lr sin A (8-4) w = 12 X 4 = 50 psf (2,400 N/m2)
P = W . 80
SIn A= = 0.6575702
• 21l tan A (8-6) 121.66
217
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
218
Construction Aspects of Shells
The relationship between the prestressing by means of a special jack. The solid cone is
force and the gap is given by the following then placed inside the hollow one and the
expressIOn: wires gripped in the grooves between the two
cones. As the wires tend to regain their origi-
nal length they pull the two cones together,
(8-10) thus increasing the gripping force.
219
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
8- 2 5 A posttensioned shell structure at the University of Illinois. One of the laraest concrete domes of
the time (1961). It is 400 ft. in diameter and is constructed in liahtweiaht concrete with a total
weiaht of 10,700 kips.
An example of a modern posttensioned enter into the final details of specific building
shell structure, at the University of Illinois, systems that constitute the avant-garde in the
Urbana (1961), is shown in Figure 8-25. The design profession. Concrete thin-shell struc-
architects were Harrison and Abramovitz; tures fall without a doubt into this category.
structural engineers, Ammann and Whitney. It is essential for structural designers of thin
The ring at the base of this 400 ft diameter shells to locate practical sources of informa-
dome was stressed with a reinforcement hav- tion to complement theory and to receive
ing a cross section of 85 sq in of steel consist- practical guidance. In terms of scientific in-
ing of 2,503 wires with a diameter of 0.236 in formation and education, U.S. cultural and
each. The prestressing in the wires consisted professional organizations are clearly the best
of 150,000 psi, which induced 1000 psi com- sources. Their collections of information,
pressive stress in the concrete base ring. usually derived from scholarly papers pre-
sented at international symposia, are usually
processed and redistributed in a technically
applicable format. From highly scientific for-
mats to applicable routines that are easy to
PROFESSIONAL GUIDANCE apply, the professional literature published
FOR THIN-SHELL by these organizations can be of extraordi-
DESIGN WORK nary help to any designer feeling isolated in
professional terms.
Because the design of thin shells does not
Usually outside the cultural sphere of influ- fall within conventional educational topics in
ence of the United States it is hard to find most architectural and engineering schools, it
professional guidance in designing specific is fundamental to point out in this context
structures requiring experience and judg- the practical availability of technical litera-
ment that cannot reasonably be acquired in ture from U.S. professional societies. This is
conventional educational institutions. Build- of special significance for professionals out-
ing codes are usually the only source of guid- side the United States and particularly for
ance around the world, but they seldom those in developing countries, for apart from
220
Construction Aspects of Shells
the glamor inherent in the geometry of thin ing commentaries are fundamental guide-
shells, these structures should be of great in- lines essential to designers worldwide. The
terest to economically depressed countries. 126 ACI committees contribute to its pro-
The low cost of concrete and minimal duction of a number of technical reports in
amount of material that thin shells require, addition to the codes, which are routinely
along with the labor this work will require, improved and updated. Chapter 19 of the
make thin-shell construction important for "Building Code Requirements for Rein-
countries poor in materials but rich in un- forced Concrete " (ACI 318-89) is included
skilled labor. in the Appendix, with a reprint of Chapter
Although it was founded in the United 19, dealing with thin shells and folded plates.
States in 1903 and operates primarily there, Also included in the Appendix is a reprint of
the American Concrete Institute (ACI) has the ACI commentary on the building codes
worldwide validity for anybody interested in dealing with Chapter 19.
the various aspects of shell engineering. The The Portland Cement Association,
ACI constitutes a fundamental source for founded in 1916, is another major organiza-
guidelines covering the scientific aspects of tion in the United States and Canada whose
structural analysis and design, as well as tech- main objectives include the promotion of
nological aspects of construction and the concrete structures. Supported by its mem-
maintenance of structures. Because of the bership of cement manufacturers, this orga-
general validity of the scientific role that nization produces numerous technical ser-
the ACI has assumed, the potential restric- vices in the research and development of
tions offered by local building codes do not concrete structures. Presently its seven dis-
invalidate the practical importance of ACI trict offices in the United States and five in
guidelines in other countries. Once the basic Canada reach architects, engineers, and con-
concepts expressed in ACI publications are tractors with information and product dem-
understood, it is not hard to accommodate onstrations. Although the Portland Cement
the possible restrictions that local building Association's technical papers cannot strictly
codes can legally impose. speaking be called codes of standard practice
The ACI is a professional society of some in the way the ACI codes are, they are ex-
nineteen thousand members that includes tremely valuable practical guidelines for the
practitioners in engineering and architecture design of concrete structures, including, of
as well as educators and builders in these course, thin shells.
fields. This wide spectrum of interested indi- The International Association of Shell
viduals includes those whose roles could be Structures, as indicated by its name, was an
either of producing knowledge and informa- organization dedicated to the study of shell
tion on concrete or benefiting from the dis- structures that in their avant-garde status
semination of information and guidelines would have benefited from the sharing of
that the Institute can provide. The Institute data among scholars around the world. This
is a technical organization dedicated to im- organization, founded in Spain, was origi-
proving the design and construction of con- nally promoted by Eduardo Torroja, whose
crete structures within the great multiplicity reputation in reinforced concrete structures,
of existing structural typologies, which runs and particularly in thin shells, had spread
from conventional structures to the unique beyond his own country. A new organization
and innovative, including thin shells. eventually grew out of the original in 1959
The invaluable contributions of the ACI by extending the field of interest from shell
to those working in concrete structures are structures per se to spatial structures. In so
basically represented in the publications pro- doing the new organization changed its name
duced by the Institute, among which the to the present International Association for
Codes of Standard Practice and accompany- Shells and Spatial Structures (lASS).
221
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
The authority and prestige of this organi- tribute to the professional papers presented
zation have been apparent from its inception at its meetings. The extremely wide scope of
because of the scholars who joined it and the the association includes the history of archi-
worldwide international pool from which it tecture, design concepts, structural design
gathers experts together. The widespread in- theories, and construction aspects, resulting
ternational character of the lASS, which in an efficient approach to the development
covers the world with its symposia, is ex- of shells within the professional circles involv-
pressed by the international sources that con- ing these disciplines.
NOTES
222
CHAPTER 9
h=50 ft (15.24 m)
223
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
and a height h = 50 ft (15.24 m) at its crown. 83.938 ft, 92.154 ft, 99.578 ft, 106.147 ft,
The origin of the xyz coordinate system coin- 111.893 ft, 116.499 ft, 120.194 ft, 122.856
cides with the center of the sphere. The hori- ft, 124.463 ft and finally at the point of the
zontal axes are x and y, with the vertical axis crown, at 125.000 ft (38.10 m). Each hoop
being z, directed upward. All the supports at contains 36 nodes so that the total number of
the base have an elevation of 75 ft (22.85 m) nodes, including those at the crown, is 361
above the point of origin, with the crown (see Fig. 9-2).
having an elevation of 125 ft (38.10 m). For The surface is divided into 360 elements
this analysis the dome will be subdivided into (Fig. 9-3) arranged so that there are 36 ele-
360 finite elements. The dome is subdivided ments between two consecutive hoops. The
by 10 horizontal hoops that are each at a incidence of each element is given by the
given elevation above the point of origin: at nodes at each corner of the element, taken in
75.000 ft (22.85 m) for the base, then at a clockwise direction. For example, element
"LOAD DL*LL MeN Itl.n 1" .2 126 HORIZONTAL FT Ul<ITS PER l"eN
14 . 2126 VUT/CAl FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION' Z ••• v •.• ~ a.,
361
9-2 Computer-nenerated drawinn showinn a simple supported dome all around its edne at the base.
224
Computer Analjrsis of Shells and Domes
1 has an incidence of 1, 2, 38, and 37 (see in Figures 9-7 to 9-9, are all shaped as similar
Fig. 9-4). Element 360, whose shape is trian- quadrilaterals and identified as type SBQH6.
gular, has an incidence of 360,325, and 361 From 325 through 360, all around the
(see Figs. 9-5 and 9-6). The elements are not crown, as shown in Figure 9-10, the elements
all equal and are of two different types. The are all similar triangles, identified as SBHT6.
elements from 1 to 324 inclusively, as shown The thickness of the dome is constant over
225
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
its entire surface at 5 in (127 mm). The dead psf (1.44 kPa). Note that there is a significant
load on the shell, including the concrete shell difference between the dead and live loads.
itself, the roofing, the ceiling, and other ele- In accordance with the general assump-
ments is 150 psf (7.19 kPa), which is oriented tions of this example problem, this dome is
in the z direction and applied on each ele- assumed to be simply supported around the
ment. The live load is applied on each ele- edge at its base. All the supports on the
ment in the z direction in the amount of 30 ground can therefore provide only vertical
253 254
9-5 A dome with its joints labeled from 253 throuoh 324.
226
Computer Ana{ysis of Shells and Domes
reactions, that is, in the z direction. Since the x and y directions, but none vertically. This
joints are considered fully restrained, they joint is thus released accordingly, as indicated
must be released from the horizontal reac- in the computer printout.
tion components in the x and y directions and The so-called incidence of each element is
from any restraining moment. the identification of the element in terms of
The apex of the dome, joint 361, is as- the nodes Goints) constituting the vertices of
sumed to generate horizontal reactions in the the element. Thus, in writing the incidence
9-6 A dome with its joints labeled from 325 throunh 360.
227
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
for each element, the node Uoint) number of Output: It is impossible to reproduce here
each vertex is written. the entire output for this example, but fortu-
As mentioned, elements 1 through 324 nately the symmetry of the geometry and of
are tra~zoidal, thus they have four vertices. the loading of the dome make it unnecessary
Elements 325 though 360 are triangular, so to cover all the elements and nodes. For this
that they have only three vertices. reason, provided below are only selected e1e-
9-7 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 1 throuoh 216.
228
Computer Analjrsis of Shells and Domes
ments within two adjacent meridians that go the second. The elements within these merid-
from base to crown. These two meridians can ians, starting from the base and proceeding
be identified by the nodes that they connect: toward the crown are: 1, 37, 73, 109, 145,
1,37,73,109,145,181,217,253,289,325, 181, 217, 253, 289, and 325. Therefore, the
and 361 for the first one and 2, 38, 74, 110, results listed hereafter will be limited mostly
146, 182, 218, 254, 290, 326, and 361 for to those for the preceding elements. All the
9-8 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 217 through 288.
229
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
9-9 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 289 throuah 324.
230
Computer Analysis of Shells and Domes
z
L~ HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH
2.S8e~
VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
2.S8e~
ROTATION: Z e.e V e., x 270.0
9-10 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 325 throuah 360.
231
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
SXY
..
)
SXX SXX
J SXY
.. SYX
MYV
.... o VYV
°1-
..
MXX
MXY
MXX
VYV®
----I.~.~ MYV
232
STRUDL I DOME I I SHELL ANALYSIS OF DOME I
$
$ FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF DOME
$ THE VERTICAL AXIS OF THE DOME IS THE GLOBAL Z AXIS
$
TYPE PLATE
UNIT FEET DEGREES
$
$ SPECIFY MATERIAL PROPERTIES
$
MATERIAL CONCRETE CONSTANT STANDARD VALUES
$
$ TURN OFF OUTPUT FROM AUTOMATIC GENERATION OF COORDINATES AND
$ INCIDENCES
$
PRINT GENERATE OFF
$
$ 53. 13 DEGREES IS THE ANGLE OF THE SWEEP FROM THE TRUE
$ CENTER OF THE SPHERE (75 FT BELOW THE GROUND) AND THE
$ GROUND TO THE TOP OF THE SPHERE.
$
$=============================================
$ THE FOLLOWING COMMANDS WILL GENERATE ALL THE COORDINATES
$ FOR 361 JOINTS. THE GENERATION IS DONE IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES
$ AND THEN CONVERTED INTO CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
$
GENERATE 36 JOINTS SPHERICAL Z ID 1,1 R 125. PZ 53.13 TZ O. ,10.
MODIFY 9 ID 36 PY -5.313
JOINT 361 COORD Z 125
$
$=============================================
$
$
$=============================================
$
$ THE FOLLOWING COMMANDS WILL GENERATE ALL THE ELEMENT INCIDENCES FOR
$ THE QUADRILATERAL AND TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS
$
$ GENERATE QUADRILATERAL FINITE ELEMENTS
$
GENERATE 35 ELEMENTS ID 1, 1 FROM 1, 1 TO 2, 1 TO 38,1 TO 37,1
MODIFY 8 ID 36 FROM 36 TO 36 TO 36 TO 36
GENERATE 9 ELEMENTS ID 36,36 FROM 36,36 TO 1,36 TO 37,36 TO 72,36
$
$ GENERATE TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS AT TOP
$
GENERATE 35 ELEMENTS ID 325,1 FROM 325,1 TO 326,1 TO 361,0
ELEMENTS 360 INCIDENT 360 325 361
$
$=============================================
$
$ SUPPORT ALL THE JOINTS AT THE BASE AND THEN ADD JOINT RELEASES TO HINGE
$ THE BASE
$
ST ATUS SUPPORT 1 TO 36
$
JOINT RELEASES
1 TO 36 MOMENT X Y Z
9-13a Running the program: a printout (input). The symbol "$" indicates the insertion of a
comment; this insertion will not affect the program and will not be read by the computer.
233
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
MYY is the bending moment acting per- The values for the individual forces S, V,
pendicular to the y-y axis, that is, in the di- and M are given at each node according to
rection of the hoops, acting on a cross-section the elements of which the node is a part.
that is 1 ft long and 5 in thick lying along the Since these values differ from element to ele-
meridians. ment, the practical value to use would be an
$
$==============================================
$
$==============================================
$
$ SPECIFY THE TYPE OF ELEMENT AND THE THICKNESS
$
UNITS INCHES
ELEMENT PROPERTIES
1 TO 324 TYPE' SBHQ6' THICKNESS 5. $ QUADRILATERAL ELEMENTS
325 TO 360 TYPE 'SBHT6' THICKNESS 5. $ TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS
$
$==============================================
$
$
$==============================================
$
$ SPECIFY LOADING CONDITIONS
$
UNIT FEET POUNDS
LOAD 'DL' 'DEAD LOAD'
ELEMENT LOAD
1 TO 360 BODY FORCES GLOBAL BZ -150 $ LBS/FT**3
$
LOAD 'LL' 'LIVE LOAD'
ELEMENT LOAD
1 TO 360 SURFACE FORCES PROJECTED PZ -30 $ PSF
$
LOADING COMBINATION 'DL+LL' 'DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD' COMBINE 'DL' 1. 'LL' 1.
$
$==============================================
$
$
$==============================================
$
$ PERFORM ANALYSIS, OUTPUT RESULTS AND SAVE DATA BASE FOR FURTHER USE SUCH
$ AS GRAPHICAL DISPLAY OF DEFORMED SHAPE OR CONTOUR PLOTTING.
$
STIFFNESS ANALYSIS
$
LIST DISP
$
LIST STRESSES
$
CALCULATE AVERAGE STRESSES TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM SURFACES
$
SAVE I DOMEANAL I
$
$==============================================
FINISH
234
Computer Ana&,sis of Shells and Domes
ELEMENT STRESSES
ELEMENT
NODE 1 SXX ·0 285921E+04 SYY -0 167305E+05 SXY -0. 162354E+03
MXX O. 189720E+03 MYY -0. 154592E+03 MXY O. 131623E+03 VXX 0.106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 2 SXX ·0 285921E+04 SYY -0 167305E+05 SXY O. 162361E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154588E+03 MXY -0. 131624E+03 VXX -0.106418E+03 VYY 156598E+03
NODE 38 SXX -0 276891E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY 0 174147E+03
MXX 0 309075E+03 MYY 0 .652732E+03 MXY a 150687E+03 VXX -0 9B5700E+02 VYY -0.301232E+03
NODE 37 SXX -0 276881E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY -0.174141E+03
MXX 0 309080E+03 MYY 0 .652735E+03 MXY -0 150687E+03 vxx 985708E+02 VYY ·0 301232E+03
NOOE 3 SXX -0. 285921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY -0. 162368E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154589E+03 MXY 0 131623E+03 VXX O. 106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 4 SXX -0. 285920E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY O. 162359E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154591E+03 MXY -0 . 131623E+03 VXX -0. 106418E+03 VYY 156597E+03
NODE 40 SXX -0. 276878E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY 0.174145E+03
MXX a . 309076E+03 MYY 0 652734E+03 MXY O. 150687E+03 VXX -0 985704E+02 Vyy -0 301232E+03
NODE 39 SXX -0. 276878E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY -0 174157E+03
MXX 0 .309077E+03 MYY 0 . 652732E+03 MXY -0 150687E+03 vxx 985704E+02 VYY ·0 301232E+03
235
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
236
Computer Anao/sis of Shells and Domes
pressed in terms of the movement of their placement of each node occurs along radial
components in the x, y, and z directions. directions. Because of the orientation of the
The first nodes to be analyzed are the sup- two horizontal axes x and y, the radial dis-
ports on the ground, numbered from 1 placement of nodes 1 and 19 have ranged
through 36. The first hoop on the ground from +0.423 in to -0.423 in, the positive
constitutes the edge of the base of the dome, and negative signs being in respect to the
which must be in tension, regardless of the orientations of the axes. These displacements
stress conditions in the hoops above. The dis- are centrifugal. Since the y axis is positive in
237
Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
the direction of node 1, the centrifugal dis- ment of node 1 in the y direction is inward.
placement of this node must be positive, with Some of the negative displacements for the
that of node 19 required to be negative. nodes aligned with node 1 are inward, some
Similarly, we can see that the positive dis- outward. From the computer output can be
placement of node lOis in the direction of seen the following:
the x axis, equal to +0.423 in, and the nega-
tive displacement of node 28, also on the x
axis, is likewise equal to -0.423 in, in which DISPLACE-
MENT
both displacements are centrifugal. All the NODE HOOP /:;. (ft) (mm)
nodes on the ground have 0 vertical (z direc- 1 1 -0.0352500 inward (10.74)
tion) displacement. 37 2 +0.0056879 outward (1. 73)
Horizontal displacement can be calculated 73 3 -0.0080555 inward (2.45)
109 4 -0.0058910 inward (1.80)
by adding vectorally the displacement com- 145 5 -0.0041729 inward (1.27)
ponents of any of these nodes in the x and y 181 6 -0.0029016 inward (0.88)
directions. 217 7 -0.0008663 inward (0.26)
253 8 +0.0011710 outward (0.36)
289 9 +0.0042273 outward (1.29)
325 10 +0.0197200 outward (6.01)
Displacement at the Apex 361 11 0.0000000 (0.00)
238
Part III
Practical Aids for the
Preliminmy DesiEJIl of
Thin Shells
CHAPTER 10
241
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
day engineer who depends more on scientific masonry domes. He described some of the
knowledge than experience. Many of these relationships between the clear span (internal
rules, known among the building trades and diameter) of a masonry dome and certain
passed along from generation to generation, other geometric elements, such as the radius
were not codified and were subject to inter- of the intrados and extrados, the diameter of
pretation and change according to the ap- the lantern, the thickness of the dome at its
proach of the individual builder. Only in the base and of the drum, and how to locate the
Renaissance, with the beginning of scientific center for the intrados curve and extrados
methodology, did some of these rules of curve. Although these observations were
thumb come to be expressed gradually and merely empirical and without scientific ratio-
more clearly by theoreticians in the building nale, these rules produced gigantic domes
sciences. Several Italian architects wrote ar- such as that of St. Peter's in Rome, which is
chitectural treatises and dissertations that still standing safely, despite cracks that devel-
codified and explained many of these rules in oped centuries ago.
scientific terms.
242
Empirical Desinn of Masonry Vaultinn
characteristics and construction details. The through the centroid of the cross-sections of
rule provides a geometric method that can be the structure.
used to calculate the widths of abutments for In a 1748 work I Poleni showed graphi-
vaults and arches, but no other members. Its cally the composition of two forces by the
application, illustrated in Figure 10-1, can be rule of the parallelogram, according to the
summarized as follows. Taking the vault or graphic statics of today. In one figure he
arch in question, inscribe an isosceles trape- showed the diagramatic composition of an
zoid in it, with the upper base and two sides arch consisting of spherical elements that
of equal length. Extend one of the sides of could transfer only normal loads from one to
the trapezoid downward for a length equal to the other. He showed clearly the composition
its own length, then consider the horizontal of the gravity force in each element with the
projection that will give the required thick- force coming from the element above. In so
ness for the abutment. doing he determined from the top of the
structure down to its abutments the resultant
line of thrust through the structure.
SHAPE OPTIMIZATION
EMPIRICAL RULES
The concept that form and mass constitute FOR BUCKLING
the basic elements of any structural composi-
tion is also applicable to thin shells. Probably
because of their high efficiency, the relation- Structural failure under compressive loads
ship of mass to form is most significant in that is caused by geometric instability in the
these structures. In this case geometry pre- material is called buckling. This phenome-
vails, allowing dramatic reductions in the non occurs not only in such linear structures
mass of the material needed. This becomes as beams, columns, and struts but also in
particularly obvious if one experiments in a planar structures like plates and in spatial
simple, intuitive manner. Almost any struc- structures such as thin shells.
tural designer has noted the rigidity that can Although thin shells gain substantial stiff-
be obtained from a thin piece of cardboard if ness from their curvature, which of course is
it is properly folded. one of their fundamental inherent character-
Historically, an intuitive understanding of istics, they are still vulnerable to the critical
the contributions of geometry to structural effects of buckling. Often buckling rather
strength can probably be traced back to eigh- than the allowable membrane stress turns out
teenth-century experiments. Then, consider- to be the controlling factor in establishing a
ations of shapes for arches and domes on the required minimum thickness for a given thin
basis of the loads to be superimposed on shell.
these structures were substantially developed Formulas to determine allowable buckling
by the Venetian nobleman, Marquis Gio- loads are presented below. These formulas
vanni Poleni (1685-1761). This nobleman are particularly valid for use in preliminary
became a philosopher, humanist, theologian, design and are simple to use. Their nature is
physicist, mathematician, and professor of as- partly empirical in that they have a tangible
tronomy at the University of Padua by the validity that is supported by experience
time he was twenty-five. He discovered that rather than theoretical assumptions. It is im-
the funicular polygon of equally spaced loads portant to note that strictly theoretical for-
is a catenary that is very close to a paraboloid. mulas do not always provide answers that are
Therefore, arches and domes constructed to in accord with actual tests, so that empirical
follow this configuration have meridional formulas are the ones that are in fact prac-
axial forces of compression only, which pass tically used. These formulas vary according
243
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desinn of Thin Shells
to the different types of shells; spherical diameter at its base and a 20 ft (6.1 m) rise at
(domes), rotational (in general), translational its crown that has a thickness of 4 in (10 cm)
(synclastic), and barrel types. Of these only and carries a live load of 30 psf (1.44 kPa).
the spherical and the barrel are considered Solution: Since the dome is close to being
here. hemispherical, K = 0.3, E is found by E = 33
wl. 5 -IPC where w = the unit weight of con-
Buckling in Spherical Domes crete (in pef) and r c = the ultimate strength
of the concrete at 28 days (in psi). Then, by
The empirical formula to determine the load substituting we find that E = 33 (150)1.5
that would cause a spherical dome to buckle ~4,000 = 3,834,000 psi. Then r = 25.625
is as follows: 2 ft = 307.5 in. Finally, we can determine the
allowable load by substituting
K E t2
WeT = (4)2
W a ll=1/3 X.3 X 3,834,000 X (307.5)2
where. 65 psi=
9,342 psf (0.45 MPa)
W CT= Critical distributed load, in psi, on
the dome, either as dead load or live However, the actual distributed load is
load or a combination. Although one (150 X 0/12) + 30 = 80 psf. Because 80 psf
load is distributed over one sf of the «9,342 psf, the shell is quite stable against
dome and the other over one sf of buckling.
horizontal projection, they are not
differentiated here, to simplify this Buckling in Long Barrels
approximated formula.
K = Coefficient that varies from 0.30 for A long barrel shell acts like a simply sup-
hemispherical domes to 0.15 for ported beam spanning from one supporting
shallow domes (with a rise equal to arch to another generating longitudinal com-
1/10 the base diameter) pression forces near its top, with longitudinal
E = Modulus of elasticity, in psi tension forces near the bottom. Buckling can
t = Thickness of the dome, in inches thus occur in the zone of maximum compres-
r = Radius of the sphere, in inches sion, which is the longitudinal strip that goes
from one arch to the other near the crown.
The allowable load would of course be The empirical formula for the critical load
only a fraction of the critical load that would that can produce buckling is as follows:
cause the buckling of the dome. This fraction
could vary between 1/2 and 1/3. With the latter,
the most conservative case, the allowable load
to prevent buckling in a spherical dome be-
comes where
244
Empirical Desinn of Masonry Vaultinn
The allowable load would be only a frac- structure. The method is of course equally
tion of the critical load causing the buckling valid to determine the optimal shape of an
of the barrel, varying as before between 1/2 arch in pure compression under the same
and 1/3. Again taking the latter as the more loads when the catenary curve is reversed
conservative case, the allowable load to pre- from this concave to a convex configuration.
vent buckling in a long barrel becomes Corresponding to this empirical method
of modeling is the graphic method of draw-
1 t2 ing funicular polygons, which is widely
W =-K E-
.I1 3 r2 enough known to require no further descrip-
tion. However, in using the funicular poly-
where W.I1 is in psf and the other quantities gon to determine the configuration of a cable
are as previously defined. or arch it is necessary to follow a special pro-
cedure to establish the location of a certain
EXAMPLE: Check the stability against buck- pole. In constructing a force polygon a pole P
ling of a long concrete barrel shell that is is selected arbitrarily, with the resulting
supported at each end by circular arches hav- funicular polygon being one of many belong-
ing a 50 ft (15.2 m) span and a 20 ft (6.1 m) ing to a specific family of curves. Among the
rise. The shell is assumed to be 4 in (10 em) curves in this family there is one in particular
thick and carry a live load of 30 psf (1.44 that passes through three specific points that
kPa). together identify the desired configuration of
Solution: The value of K = 0.6 (constant). the cable or arch. These three points coin-
E is found from the equation. E = 33 W1.5 ../PC cide with the two supports at each end and
where w = the unit weight of concrete (in with either the lowest or highest point corre-
pcf) and f' c = the ultimate strength of con- sponding to the sag of a cable or rise of an
crete at 28 days (in psi). Then we find by arch. The description that follows briefly
substituting that E = 33 (150)1.5 ..'4,000 = outlines the method for determining the new
3,834,000 psi and t = 4 in and we calculate pole P'
r = 307.5 in. Establish first the location of the two sup-
Finally, by substituting we determine that ports X and Z and the location of the vertical
loads. Now draw a force polygon, using an
(4)2 arbitrary pole P, and draw a funicular poly-
w.I1 = 1/3 X 0.6 X 3,834,000 X ---'--'--- gon (see Fig. 10-2). Then draw vertical lines
(307.5)2
through supports X and Z and through the
130 psi= 18,684 psf (0.9 MPa)
loads. Next find X' and Z' as the intersections
of the vertical lines through X and Z and the
However, the actual distributed load is
funicular polygon. Then locate point Y (in
(150 X '¥'12) + 30 = 80 psf. In conclusion, be-
reference to X and Z) which defines the sag
cause 80 psf < < 18,684 psf, the shell is quite
or rise of the cable or arch. Now draw a
stable against buckling.
vertical line through Y that intersects the
funicular polygon at point Y'. Draw lines X Y
and Z Y. From pole P draw line m parallel to
FUNICULAR POLYGONS line X Y and then find point A, which is the
THROUGH THREE POINTS intersection of line m and the force line in the
force polygon. Similarly, from point P draw
line n parallel to line Z Y and find point B,
The catenary curve attained by suspending the intersection of line n and the force line in
loads from a string under tension is one of the force polygon. Through point A now
the most practical empirical methods for de- draw a line m' parallel to line X'Y'. Similarly,
termining the exact shape wanted in a tensile through point B draw a line n' parallel to line
245
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
0.2
~
"", ~
k" V
foo""'"
"
i"'"
V
~
V
0.1
/
Y
o
o· 100' 200' 300'
Z'Y'. The intersection of line m' and line n' included in the building code in the area for
will then locate the new pole P'. which the structure is being designed or can
Using the pole P', construct now a new be found in prepared charts. s Next calculate
funicular polygon. This polygon will be the the dynamic pressure q (psf) from the follow-
exact configuration of the cable or arch that ing expression:
has the desired span and sag or rise.
q = 0.00256 V2
246
Empirical Desion of Masonry Vaultino
NOTES
1. See Giovanni Poleni, Memorie Istoriche della Gran Cupola del Tempio Vaticano, 1748.
2. See Mario Salvadori and Matthys Levy, Structural Design in Architecture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1981), 393. Note differences there in symbols.
3. See Michele Melaragno, Wind in Architectural and Environmental Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982,
48, Fig. 2-9.
4. See Ibid., 194, Table 3-2 (27).
247
CHAPTER 11
Spherical Shells
249
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desien of Thin Shells
Rectangular Plan
Sectional spherical domes are attained by in-
tersecting a spherical dome with three or
more vertical planes and generating a poly- , ~ TEN~ION RING
gonal floor plan that will produce arches at
the intersections. Such a structure can be
looked at from different points of view. On 11-1 Plan (top) and elevation (bottom) of
the one hand, the intersection of the dome spherical dome.
250
Spherical Shells
z'
I
I a
I ~
I F2
I m'
I
I F3
I
m' y' I
x'
I I p'
F4 (.'lew po!e)
I I n
I I
I I
I I
3 i
IF IF. IFS IFS: n'
I I
I
: I
x~z min
I
y
11-2 Graphic illustration of the optimized proportions for the preliminary design of spherical domes.
with the vertical planes can be thought to same concept even if the proportions are
mutilate the structural integrity of the mono- drastically changed. After all, the new con-
lithic dome. On the other hand, the portion crete domes do have different structural re-
of the dome constituting the arches and pen- quirements than their masonry counterparts.
dt;ntives can be considered the supporting According to the number and orientation
structure for the dome above. In this case the of the intersecting planes, floor plans for
dome resting on the pendentives and arches spherical sectional domes can be regular or
is in itself structurally integral. irregular polygons, with or without equal
The supporting arches, which are geo- sides. It is possible to have sectional domes
metrically part of the same sphere that in- with triangular, square, or even pentagonal
cludes the dome, have their own structural configurations. Rectangular floor plans can
individuality. Their thickness will thus be be designed by intersecting the dome with
larger than the thickness of the dome, mak- two pairs of vertical parallel planes perpen-
ing them individual members, which are usu- dicular to each other. The vertical planes will
ally necessary components of shells in then intersect each other at points located on
general. the circular perimeter at the base of the
The configuration of a sectional dome is dome. In this respect some sectional domes
that of a dome with pendentives coming with rectangular and square floor plans will
down to constitute the points of support. be examined later. Although the square plan
This geometric form has been seen to be has been much more widely used throughout
used historically quite often, especially in history, rectangular floor plans offer a
Byzantine domes, yet it can still be employed broader range of design options.
in contemporary architecture by applying the The geometry of sectional domes includes
251
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
several interrelated factors. By knowing the tion automatically defines the radius of the
correlations between them it is possible to sphere RI of which the dome is a part. Now
deduct some of the factors after selecting de- RI can be derived, as follows:
sired values for the others. These factors in-
clude the following: RI2 = R2 + (RI - He)2
LL R He LT R, HT HL
ft (m) I! (m) ft (m) I! (III) I! (m) I! (m) ft (m)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 10 (1.05) 50 (15.24) 161.2 (49.13) ±2 (0.61) ±8 (2.44)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 15 (4.57) 50 (15.24) 111.7 (34.05) ±3 (0.91) ±12 (3.66)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 20 (6.10) 50 (15.24) 88.1 (26.85) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 25 (7.62) 50 (15.24) 75.0 (22.86) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 15 (4.57) 100 (30.48) 424.1 (129.27) ±3 (0.91) ±12 (9.66)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 20 (6.10) 100 (30.48) 322.5 (!l~.30) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 25 (7.62) 100 (30.48) 262.5 (80.01) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 20 (6.10) 150 (45.72) 713.1 (287.35) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 25 (7.62) 150 (45.72) 575.0 (175.26) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 30 (9.14) 150 (45.72) 483.7 (147.43) ±6 (183) ±24 (7.32)
252
Spherical Shells
Therefore, Therefore,
R=
=
~ ~L( r ~T r
55.9 ft (17.04 m)
+(
Substituting the values already known, we
Let the height of the dome at its crown be now have HT = 2.0 ft (0.61 m). Thus, be-
assumed to be Hc = 10 ft (3.05 m), from cause HL + HT = Hc we can verify that
which can be determined radius RI of the 8.00 + 2.00 = 10.00 ft (3.05 m).
sphere, as follows: For the practical design of rectangular sec-
tional domes, refer to Table 11-3.
RI2 = R2 + (RI - He) 2 Spherical sectional domes with square
R2 + Hc 2 plans, which have been more popular than
the rectangular type, can be considered vari-
2Hc
ations on the rectangular ones. Table 11-3
= 161.24 ft (49.15 m) gives suggested dimensions for thicknesses of
shells and arches for different cases. Unlike
Once all the perimeters are established, those for the rectangular sectional domes,
HL and HT can be found. the symbols used here are all the same, be-
The great circle's radius is RI = 161.24 ft, cause the four arches in this case are all equal.
so that x2 + y2 = R12. Thus, to calculate HL
assume that EXAMPLE: Design a sectional dome over a
square floor plan, with a low height at the
crown of Hc. Table 11-4 considers spans L,
which vary from 100 ft (30.5 m) to 300 ft
in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
5 (12.7) 4 (10.2) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 10 (25.4) 14 (35.6) 18 (45.7) 18 (45.7) 15 (38.1) 14 (35.6)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
5 (12.7) 4 (10.2) 30 (76.2) 40 (101.6) 24 (61.0) 34 (86.4) 40 (101.6) 40 (101.6) 34 (86.4) 34 (86.4)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 26 (66.0) 36 (91.4) 22 (55.9) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 35 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 20 (50.8) 36 (91.4) 16 (40.6) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
8 (20.3) 5 (12.7) 50 (127.0) 68 (172.7) 44 (111.8) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 58 (147.3)
7 (17.8) 5 (12.7) 44 (111.8) 64 (162.6) 38 (96.5) 54 (137.2) 64 (162.6) 64 (162.6) 54 (137.2) 54 (137.2)
6 (15.9) 5 (12.7) 38 (96.5) 62 (157.5) 32 (81.3) 52 (132.1) 62 (157.5) 62 (157.5) 52 (132.1) 52 (132.1)
253
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desion of Thin Shells
(91.4 m). Assume a 100-ft-square floor plan point of view the variation would hardly be
in this case, which corresponds to a circle at appreciable, and from a construction point of
the base with radius R = 141.4 ft (43.10 m). view the savings in concrete might not justify
The height of the shell at the crown Hc con- the complicated form work demanded by a
sidered for such a span varies from 10ft variable shell thickness. It might thus be ad-
(3.05 m) to 25 ft (7.62 m). Assume a height of visable, if the designer chooses to do so, to
10ft (3.05 m) for a very shallow dome. From keep the arches with a constant cross-section
the table, the radius RI of the sphere of equal to that which is required at the base.
which the dome is a part is 1004.7 ft (306.23 With three dimensions known, the de-
m). The recommended thickness of the dome signer can now shape the overall configura-
at the base (T B) is 4 in (10.1 cm) and the tion by working out the details. These might
recommended thickness of the dome at the include, for instance, any cross-sectional
crown (Td is the same, so that the shell has a shape for the arches that is larger than the
constant thickness throughout. The four minimum required. The details of the sup-
equal arches, spanning 100 ft (30.48 m), have ports of the arches over piers or walls and of
a recommended width at the base (Bx max.) the members connecting the four supports
of 30 in (76.2 cm) and the same recom- might also be added. The supports them-
mended depth at the base (Dx max.). At the selves could constitute major architectural
crown the arches instead have a recom- components with hinges of either concrete or
mended width (Bx min.) of 24 in (61.0 cm) steel.
and a recommended depth (Dx min.) of24 in The tie members could have various con-
(61.0 cm) also. Therefore, with their square figurations. In pier supports, for instance, the
cross-sections the arches can taper slightly. ties could be exposed rods or concrete
Such a small change in the required cross-sec- beams. In supporting walls the ties could be
tion makes it questionable whether the taper- reinforcing steel rods embedded in the upper
ing would really be beneficial. From a visual parts of walls so as not to be visible. Re-
254
Spherical Shells
member that these tie members are necessary and He. Even for these shells, however, the
to absorb outward horizontal reactions at the relationship HL + HT = He still holds true.
bases of the arches and are essential struc- In Table 11-5 the preliminary design di-
tural components of the dome as a whole. mensions for the shell and arches are given
With this in mind, it might be desirable to for various cases, as indicated. The similar-
express them architecturally by making them ities between spherical and nonspherical
visually independent in such a way as to domes allow reference to the same figures
clearly indicate their function. illustrating spherical sectional domes to visu-
alize these domes as well.
NOTES
1. From R. M. Gensert, Uldis Kirsis, and Miklos Peller, "Economic Proportioning of Cast-in-Place Concrete
Thin Shells." ACI Publication SP-28, 1970. Used with the permission of the American Concrete Institute.
255
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
SHELL THICKNESS
LL LT He HT HL At Base At Crown
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 5.0 (1.52) 5.0 (1.52) (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 3.8 (1.16) 6.2 (1.89) (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 1.7 (0.52) 8.3 (2.53) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29) 7.5 (2.29) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 5.6 (1.71) 9.4 (2.87) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 2.5 (0.76) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.86) 15.6 (4.75) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (30.48) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29) 7.5 (2.29) 8 (20.3) (12.7)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 15 (4.57) 5.6 (1.71) 9.4 (2.87) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 15 (4.57) 2.5 (0.76) 12.5 (3.81) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (30.48) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.87) 15.6 (4.75) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 14 (35.6) 4 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 12 (30.5) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 8 (20.3) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 12 (30.5) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.87) 15.6 (4.75) 10 (25.4) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 7 (17.8) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 15.0 (4.57) 15.0 (4.57) 10 (25.4) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 11.2 (3.41) 18.8 (5.73) 7 (17.8) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 5.0 (1.52) 25.0 (7.62) 6 (15.2) 5 (12.7)
256
Spherical Shells
257
CHAPTER 12
Barrel Shells
259
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
NON-RIGID
EDGE~
yo SUPPORTING ARCH
12-1 Plan (top) and perspective (bottom) of a short-barreled shell with a nonrisid edse.
260
Barrel Shells
shell. Edge thickness characteristically in- Short Barrels with Rigid Edge Beams
creases from the bottom up to a certain point
about 4 to 5 ft (1.20-1.50 m) from the edge. As do all barrel shells, these short barrels also
The increase in the thickness of a shell can span structurally from one support to an-
more than double. Thus, except for these other which consist of arches built integrally
longitudinal strips of variable thickness, the with the shell. Short-barrel shells with longi-
rest of a shell will have a constant thickness tudinal edge beams stiffening their edges as
throughout. In this case the supporting seen at the bottom of Figure 12-3 behave
arches would have a constant width and a structurally in a manner implying that these
constant depth throughout. Instead, barrel beams do not carry the weight of the shell
shells with rigid edge beams are recom- from support to support, as would be the case
mended to have a variable thickness from the with masonry vaults. Instead these beams act
edge to the crown. The optimized propor- only as stiffeners for the shell. The shell is
tions for preliminary design can be found also stiffened to a lesser degree by thickening
from Figure 12-2. its edges as shown in the last case. Note that
0.4
coti /'
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en
0.3
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w
en
a::
w
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en ~0' ~
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0.1
261
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desi8n of Thin Shells
zl
rt
(/)
zl
rt
(/)
{STIFFENING
EDGE BEAMS
STIFFENING
EDGE BEAM
edge beams have a rectangular cross-section The optimized proportions for prelimi-
and should not be confused with the thicker nary design can be found in Figure 12-4.
stiffening edge strips in the previous case,
even if they both do perform as stiffeners.
Table 12-2 gives the information neces- The Design of Short-Barrel Shells
sary to design short-barrel shells with stiffen-. with Nonrigid Edge Beams
ing edge beams and stiffening edge strips.
The table supplies detailed dimensions for Whenever a barrel's longitudinal span is
the constant thickness of the shell, the width shorter than its transverse, we have to use the
of its stiffening strip, and dimensions for the term short barrel. In this case the longitudinal
transverse arched rib and edge beams. The edge of the shell does not include an edge
arched ribs constituting the supports are rec- beam, but in place of the edge beam the shell
ommended in this case to have a variable is stiffened by a thicker edge strip.
depth, whereas for the short barrel with The specifications upon which Tables
nonrigid edges the supporting arches were 12-1 and 12-2 are based include using con-
recommended to be uniform in depth. The crete with a minimum specified strength of
recommended depth of the arches actually !C' = 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa) at 28 days, rein-
increases from the bottom up, so that their forcing steel of grade 40 (276 MPa), live
maximum depth is at the crown. loads of 30 psf (1.44 MPa) of horizontal shell
262
Barrel Shells
0.3
--
\ ~
....-I--r-
-
~N
60'
111( INP ~Sf
-- - -
~tJ(:;
....
V I--
z ~, ~N '" 50
::... --
Cf. 0.2
L bN<: ~ f--
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-
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z
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- - -
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I
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I
0.1
o
0' 100' 200' 300'
projection, and dead loads from the weight of shells with longitudinal spans from 30 ft
of the concrete itself based on 150 pef (2,400 through 80 ft (9-24 m). For each span the
KG/m~), plus 5 psf (0.25 kPa) for roofing table shows transverse spans from 100 ft
and another 5 psf for miscellaneous loads. through 300 ft (91.4 m). Then various shell
Unlike the net shell type that has a short heights are considered for each individual
barrel with stiffening edge beams, which has case, from shallow to deep. For example, for
a variable cross-section, this type includes a longitudinal span of 30 ft and a transverse
shells that are uniformly thick except for span of 100 ft (30.5 m) the table includes a
their thicker edge strips. height at the crown from 15 ft through 45 ft
Table 12-1 includes five different groups (4.61-13.7 m).
263
TABLE 12-1 Short-Barrel Shells with Nonriaid Edaes
THIN SHELL DIMENSIONS
Width of
Transverse Longitudinal Constant Strip of
Span (width Span (length Height Thickness Shell Variable TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB
of barrel) of barrel) at Crown at Bottom Thickness Thickness Width De~th
Jt (m) Jt (m) Jt (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 15 (4.6) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3 1/ . (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 30 (9.1) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 40-70 (12.2)-(21) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 40 (12.2) 8 (20) 4 (10) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 If., (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 50 (15.2) 9 (23) 4 (10) 72 (183) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 65 (19.8) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 80-110 (24.3 - 33.5) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 55 (16.8) II (28) 4 (10) 88 (224) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 70 (21.3) 9 (23) 3'/. (9) 72 (183) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 85 (25.9) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 100-145 (30.5-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 50-70 (15.2-21.3) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 55 (16.8) 8 (20) 3'/. (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 65 (19.8) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 80 (24.3) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 95-110 (29.0-33.5) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 85 (25.9) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 100 (30.5) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 115-145 (35.1-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 25 (7.6) 8 (20) 3 If., (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 50 (15.2) 6 (15) 3 If., (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 60-70 (18.3-21.3) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 55 (16.8) II (28) 3'/. (9) 88 (224) 10 (25) 22 (56)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 70 (21.3) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 85 (25.9) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 80 (24.4) 9 (23) 3 If., (9) 72 (183) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 95 (29.0) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 110 (33.5) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 100 (30.5) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 115 (35.1) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 130-145 (39.6-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 8 (20) 3 If., (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
TABLE 12-1 (continued)
THIN SHELL DIMENSIONS
Width of
Transverse Longitudinal Constant Strip of
Span (length Height Thickness Shell Variable TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB
Span (width
of barrel) of barrel) at Crown at Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Depth
It (m) It (m) It (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
150 (45.7) 60 (IS.3) 60-70 (lS.3-21.3) 5 (13) 31/2 (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 60 (IS.3) 70 (21.3) S (20) 3'j, (9) fi4 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 60 (18.3) S5 (25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 60 (IS.3) 95 (29.0) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 60 (18.3) 110 (33.5) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 60 (IS.3) 115 (35.1) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 60 (lS.3) 130-145 (39.6-44.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (fil)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) lfi (41)
100 (30.5) SO (24.4) 45 (13.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) SO (24.4) 60 (18.3) 7 (IS) 3'j, (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) SO (24.4) 70 (21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) SO (24.4) S5 (25.9) 6 (15) 3'j, (9) 4S (122) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) SO (24.4) 110 (33.5) 6 (15) 3'j, (9) 4S (122) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) SO (24.4) 130 (39.6) 7 (18) 3'j, (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 80 (24.4) 145 (44.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
Transverse VARIABLE
Span Shell Width of
(Width Longitudinal Height Thickness Constant Strip of Depth Depth
of Span (length at at Shell Variable Constant at at
-'~arrel) _ _ . of barrc_I_)_ _ Crown Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Bottom Crown Width
It (m) Jt (m) It (m) in (em) In (em) in (em) In (em) In (em) In (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 20-70 (6.1-21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 14 (36)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 4 (l0) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 55-70 (16.S-21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 14 (36) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) S5 (25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 12 (36) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 50 (15.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 16 (41) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 65-S0 (19.S - 24.4) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 95-110 (29.0-33.5) 5 (13) 31/2 (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 12 (30) 16 (41)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 40 (12.2) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 55 (16.S) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 70-S5 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 100-115 (30.5-35.1) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 12 (30) IS (46)
400 (121.9) 30 (9.2) 50-70 (15.2-21.3) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (SI) 16 (41) 20 (51)
400 (121.9) 30 (9.2) 90-150 (27.4-45.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 20 (51)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 65 (19.S) 7 (IS) 5 (13) 2S (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 22 (56)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 90 (27.4) 6 (15) 4 (10) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 22 (56)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 115-190 (35.1-57.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 22 (56)
(continued)
TABLE 12-1 Short-Barrel Shells with Nonriaid Edaes (continued)
LONGITUDINAL
THIN SHELL TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB EDGE BEAM
Transverse VARIABLE
Span Shell Width of
(Width Longitudinal Height Thickness Constant Strip of Depth Depth
of Span (length at at Shell Variable Constant at at
Barrel) of barrel) Crown Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Bottom Crown Width De~
I! (m) I! (m) I! (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 18 (46)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 30-70 (9.1-21.3) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 18 (46)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 20 (51)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 3 11. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 20 (51)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 55-85 (16.8-25.9) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 14 (36) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 50-65 (15.2-19.8) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 80-110 (24.4-33.5) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 12 (30) 14 (36) 24 (61) 20 (51) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 70 (21.3) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 85-115 (25.9-35.1) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) 22 (56)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 50 (15.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 20 (51) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 70 (21.3) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 20 (51) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 90 (27.4) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 110-150 (33.5-45.7) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 24 (61)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 65 (19.8) 7 (18) 5 (13) 28 (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 90 (27.4) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 115 (35.1) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 140-170 (42.7-51.8) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 26 (66)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 20 (6.1) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 30 (9.1) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 40-70 (12.2-21.3) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 25 (7.6) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 10 (25) 14 (36) 16 (41) 20 (51) 24 (61)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 24 (61)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 55-85 (16.8-25.9) 5 (13) 3 11. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 24 (61) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 35 (10.7) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 10 (25) 14 (36) 20 (51) 20 (51) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 50 (15.2) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 65 (19.8) 5 (13) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 16 (41) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 80-110 (24.4-33.5) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 12 (30) 14 (36) 24 (61) 20 (51) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 20 (51) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 100-115 (30.5-35.1) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) 26 (66)
Barrel Shells
These shells are classified as having short Long barrel shells (see Fig. 12-5) are charac-
barrels because their length is equal to or less terized by the fact that their longitudinal
than their width, and they also have rigid span is substantially larger than their trans-
edge beams. For all the shells in this chapter verse span. In the cases shown in Table 12-3,
the design specifications call for using con- the longitudinal spans vary from two to four
crete with a minimum specified strength of times the width of the barrel.
4,000 psi (2.26 MPa) at 28 days, weighing The structural behavior of the long barrel
150 lbs. per ef (2,400 kG/m 3 ), reinforcing shell is somewhat different from that of the
steel of grade 40 (2.76 MPa), a live load of 30 short-span one. For one thing, the beam ac-
psf (1.5 kPa) of horizontal shell projection, tion in long-span barrel shells resembles the
and a dead-load weight of the concrete itself structural behavior of a girder. Because of
plus 5 psf (.25 kPa) for roofing and another 5 the elongated rectangular shape of the long
psf for miscellaneous loads. The shell thick- barrel, it is necessary to combine several such
ness is constant except for a strip near the barrels together to cover buildings with floor
edge, where it increases steadily, to its maxi- plans that are almost square. The barrels are
mum at the bottom. connected along their longitudinal edges so
that each edge supports the adjacent one.
Outside edges will remain unstiffened, how-
The Effects of Rigid Edge Beams ever, unless an edge beam is provided.
The optimized proportions for the prelim-
Even when other factors vary, shells' uniform inary design of long barrel shells can be
thicknesses will always be equal for shells re- found in Figure 12-6.
gardless of whether or not they have rigid
edge beams. Differences will occur only in
edge strips, where thickness and width will Design of Long Barrel Shells
vary. In two short-barreled shells in which
one is rigid along its edges because it has rigid The optimal dimensions in terms of the
beams but the other does not, if their longi- height of a shell at its crown with respect to
tudinal spans, crown heights and transverse its longitudinal span vary according to the
spans are equal, the shells will have a uniform ratio between its longitudinal and transverse
thickness. In a nonrigid-edged barrel with a spans. The values given here have been de-
longitudinal span of 40 ft (12.2 m), a crown rived from shells designed to employ con-
height of 15 ft (4.6 m), and a transverse span crete with a minimum specified strength of
of 100 ft (30.4 m), the stiffening strip will be 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa) at 28 days weighing 150
80 in (203 em) wide, with a thickness at its pef (2400 kG/m 3 ), reinforcing steel of grade
base of lOin (25 cm) that reduces gradually 40 (276 MPa), a live load of 30 psf (1.5 kPa)
to 31/2 in (9 cm). In a barrel having the same of horizontal shell projection, and a dead
dimensions but with rigid edge beams, the load, including the weight of the concrete
stiffening edge is only 20 in (51 cm) wide, itself, of 150 pef (2,400 kG/m 3 ), plus 5 psf
with the thickness at the base also being 10 (0.25 kPa) for roofing and another 5 psf
in, reducing gradually to 3 1/2 in (9 cm). (0.25 kPa) for miscellaneous loads.
267
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
SUPPORTING ARCHES
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268
Barrel Shells
The recommended approximate values lections. Table 12-4, which follows, deals
for the dimensions of long-barrel shells are with long barrel shells, showing four to five
given in Table 12-4. different values for the height of a crown for
The values indicated here are average any given combination of longitudinal and
heights within the range of various possible transverse spans.
dimensions and do not represent specific se-
TABLE 12-3 Dimensions for Selected Standard Spans and Heights of Long Barrel Shells
TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL
THIN SHELL ARCHED RIB EDGE BEAM
Transverse Height Constant
Longitudinal Span (width at Shell
S~an at Barrel) Crown Thickness Width DeEth Width Depth
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) In (em) In(em) In(em) in (em) In (em)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (1.5) 4I/2 (11 ) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 6 ( 1.8) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 8 (2.4) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 5 ( 1.5) 4 1/2 (11 ) 24 (61) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 6 ( 1.8) 4 (10) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 8 (2.4) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5 ) 50 (15.2) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
150 (45.7) 25 (7.6) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 25 (7.6) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 24 (61 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 10 (3.0) 5 1/2 (14) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 14 (36) 54 (137)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 14 (4.3) 3 1/2 (9) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 10 (25) 40 (102)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 10 (3.0) 6 ( 15) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 14 (4.3) 3 1/2 (9) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 10 (25) 44 (112)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 16 (4.9) 3 1/2 (9) 32 (81 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 40 (102)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 18 (5.5) 5 1/2 (14) 34 (86) 34 (86) 16 (41 ) 50 (152)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 20 (6.1 ) 4 (10) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 60 (152)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 22 (6.7) 3 1/2 (9) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 56 (142)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 24 (7.3) 3 1/2 (9) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 52 (132)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 18 (5.5) 5 1/2 (14) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 16 (41) 64 (123)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 20 (6.14) 4 (10) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 14 (36) 64 (123)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 22 (6.7) 3 112 (9) 36 (91) 30 (76) 14 (36) 60 (152)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 24 (7.3) 3112 (9) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 12 (30) 56 (142)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 18 (5.5) 5112 ( 14) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 16 (41 ) 64 (163)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 20 (6.1 ) 4 1/2 (11 ) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 14 (36) 64 (163)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 32 (9.8) 3 1/2 (9) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 12 (30) 60 (152)
269
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
Structural Characteristics of the gly standing barrel, its longitudinal edges are
Long Barrel Shell free, so it is advisable to stiffen them with
longitudinal edge beams. Similarly, in a series
The long barrel shell spans longitudinally of adjacent barrels the outside edges of the
from one support to the next. The supports first and last barrels should be stiffened with
for it, the transverse arched ribs, are built edge beams.
integrally with the shell. These arched ribs Table 12-4 furnishes the necessary dimen-
are in turn supported in various manners. sions for many given combinations of longi-
The long barrel acts primarily as a beam with tudinal spans, transverse spans, and heights
an upper zone in compression and a lower of crowns. The design dimensions also in-
zone in tension, divided by a line acting as a clude the thickness of the shell, which is kept
neutral axis. constant throughout, and give the width and
Long barrels can stand alone individually depth of the arched ribs, which also have
or be combined into a series of adjacent shells constant cross-sections, and the width and
mutually supporting each other. With a sin- depth of the edge beam.
270
CHAPTER 13
271
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
SUPPORT
ZONES OF
SECONDARY STRESS
~ HIGH TIP
SUPPORT
13-1 A horizontal plan of a saddle-type hyperboliC paraboloid with a square plan on two supports.
SUPPORT
13-2 An elevation of a sloped saddle-type hyperboliC paraboloid with a square plan on two supports.
of the square projection of the hyperbolic main supports with their bearing capacity in
paraboloid, this makes the structure quite un- compression and minimizes the visual effect
stable if its loading is asymmetrical. It is thus of having additional supports, is to add verti-
important to stabilize the structure with addi- cal tensile members at either the two upper
tional supports to avoid its overturning. One tips of the shell or along its cantilevered
elegant solution, which keeps only the two edges.
272
The Desien of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
0.3
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SPAN IN FEET
273
TABLE 13-1 Horizontal Saddle-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan on Two Supports
THIN SHELL
VARIABLE EDGE BEAMS
Constant
Shell Minimum Section Maximum Section
Diagonal Tip
Span Side Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) ft (m) !! (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 10 (3) 3112 (9) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 3112 (9) 28 (71) 28 (71) 10 (25) 10 (25)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 20-50 (6.1-15.2) 3112 (9) 34 (86) 34 (86) 12 (30) 12 (30)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 25 (7.6) 4 (10) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 30-55 (9.1-16.8) 31/. (9) 36 (91) 36 (91) 14 (36) 14 (36)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 30 (9.1) 5 (13) 46 (117) 46 (117) 18 (46) 18 (46)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 46 (117) 46 (117) 18 (46) 18 (46)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 40-60 (12.2-18.3) 3112 (9) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61 )
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 52 (132) 52 (132) 24 (61) 24 (61)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 45 (13.7) 4 (10) 52 (132) 52 (132) 24 (61) 24 (61)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 50-65 (15.2-19.8) 3112 (9) 50 (127) 50 (127) 20 (51) 20 (51)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 40 (12.2) 8 (20) 60 (152) 60 (152) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 45 (13.7) 6 (15) 58 (147) 58 (147) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 50 (15.2) 5 (13) 58 (147) 58 (147) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 55 (16.8) 4 (10) 58 (147) 58 (147) 28 (71) 28 (71)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 60-70 (18.3-21.3) 3112 (9) 58 (147) 58 (147) 28 (71) 28 (71)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 45 (13.7) 10 (25) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 7 (18) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 60 (18.3) 5 (13) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 65-70 (19.8-21.3) 4 (10) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 3112 (9) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
The Design of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
The recommended optimal values for the different heights from the ground.
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic The sloped hyperbolic paraboloid is a par-
paraboloid are as follows (see Fig. 13-3). ticular case with respect to the horizontal
type, which is more orthodox. By sloping the
Diagonal Span Tip Height whole shell, dramatic effects can be attained,
100 ft (30.5 m) 12.5 ft (3.8 m) as seen in a number of Felix Candela's shells
200 ft (61 m) 40 ft (12.2 m) in Mexico.
300 ft (91.4 m) 75 ft (22.9 m) The recommended optimal dimensions
for this type of shell (see Table 13-2 and
Figures 13-4 - 13-6) are based on the same
Square Plan on specifications for materials and loads given
Two Supports (Sloped) with Table 13-1.
The recommended optimal values for the
This type of structure is geometrically similar average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
to the saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloid de- paraboloid are as follows:
scribed above, the only difference being that
in this case the whole structure is rotated Diagonal Span Tip Height
around a horizontal axis that passes through 100 ft (30.5 m) 12.5 ft (3.8 m)
the two lower supports. An inclined or sloped 200 ft (61 m) 50 ft (7.6 m)
structure thus has its two cantilevered tips at 300 ft (91.4 m) 100 ft (30.5 m)
SUPPORT
HIGH TIP
'-.->
SUPPORT
1 3-4 The plan of a sloped, saddle-type, square-plan hyperbolic parabolOid on two supports.
275
TABLE 13-2 Sloped Saddle-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan on Two Supports
THIN SHELL VARIABLE EDGE BEAMS
Tip Constant Minimum Maximum
Diagonal Height Shell Section Section
S~n Side MAX. MIN. Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) ia (CIII)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 10-20 (3-6.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 22 (56) 22 (56) 20 (25) 10 (25)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 25-40 (7.6-12.2) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 15-20 (4.5-6.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 30 (76) 30 (76) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 28 (71) 28 (71) 10 (25) 10 (25)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 10 (3) 5 (13) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) to (3) 4 (10) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 35-50 (10.7-15.2) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 34 (86) 34 (86) 12 (30) 12 (30)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 30 (9.1) 10 (3) 6 (15) 48 (122) 48 (122) 20 (51) 20 (51)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 35-40 (10.7-12.2 10 (3) 4 (10) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 45-55 (13.7-16.8) to (3) 3'1.r (9) 36 (91) 36 (91) 14 (36) 14 (36)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 7 (18) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 45 (13.7) 10 (3) 6 (15) 48 (122) 48 (122) 20 (51) 20 (51)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 50 (15.2) 10 (3) 5 (13) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 55-60 (16.8-18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 65 (19.8) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 50 (15.2) 10 (3) 9 (23) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 55 (16.8) 10 (3) 7 (18) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 60 (18.3) 10 (3) 6 (15) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 65 (19.8) 10 (3) 5 (13) 56 (152) 60 (152) 28 (71) 28 (71)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 70-75 (2l.3-22.9) 10 (3) 4 (10) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 65 (19.8) to (3) 9 (23) 70 (178) 70 (178) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 70 (21.3) 10 (3) 8 (20) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 75-80 (22.9-24.4) 10 (3) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 85-90 (25.9-27.4) 10 (3) 5 (13) 58 (147) 58 (147) 26 (66) 26 (66)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 85 (25.9) 10 (3) 8 (20) 74 (188) 74 (188) 34 (86) 34 (86)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 90 (27.4) 10 (3) 7 (18) 70 (178) 70 (178) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 95-100 (29.0-30.5) 10 (3) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 105-110 (32.0-33.5) 10 (3) 5 (13) 64 (163) 64 (163) 26 (66) 26 (66)
The Desian of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
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277
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desinn of Thin Shells
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278
The Design of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
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TABLE 13-3 Four-Gable Hyperbolic Paraboloid with a Square Plan
VARIABLE HORIZONTAL VARIABLE INCUNm
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAMS EDGE BEAMS
ConsIant Minmum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Side Tip Shell Section Section Section Section
Span Height Thickness Width DefIth Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth
f!. (m> ft (m> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII>
60 (18.5) 10 (5) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (SO) 10 (25) 6 (15) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
60 (18.5) 15-55 (4.6-10.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 4 (10) 52 (81) 16 (41)
80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (56) 14 (56) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (56)
80(24.4) 25 (7.6) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (50) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
80(24.4) 50 (9.1) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (50) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
80(24.4) 55 (10.7) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (50.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (l!J)10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 5 (l!J) 44 (1l2) 22 (56)
100 (50.5) 50 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 6 (15) 40 (102) 20 (51)
100 (50.5) 55 (10.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 52 (81) 18 (46)
100 (50.5) 40 (12.2) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 52 (81) 16 (41)
100 (50.5) 45 (l!J.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (56) 14 (S6) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (lJ6)
100 (50.5) 50 (15.2) 5'h ... (~ ._10 (25_)_ 10 (25) 14 (56) _1.!.....iS.fj) ---.!Q. (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (lJ6)
The DesiBn of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
square plan may be more practical because of 13-10- 13-12) are based on the same specifi-
its biaxial symmetry, the rectangular plan has cations given with Table 13-1.
much to recommend it. Its strong resem- The recommended optimal values for the
blance to a typical gable roof elimintes the a verage dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
dramatic effects that hyperbolic paraboloid paraboloid (see Fig. 13-9) are as follows:
surface can produce. And this type of assem-
bly of hyperbolic paraboloid surfaces can Long Side Short Side
produce practical roof structures in shell con- SEan SEan TiE Height
struction, to enjoy its desirable economic 100 ft 60 ft 20 ft
values. The economy of this form capitalizes (30.5 m) (18.3 m) (6.1 m)
on the simplicity of form work of using 140 ft 60 ft 20 ft
straight-line generatrices and the economy (42.7 m) (18.3 m) (6.1 m)
that any thin-shell structure offers, due to the 160 ft 80 ft 32 ft
minimal amount of concrete it uses. (48.8 m) (24.4 m) (9.8 m)
The recommended optimal dimensions 180 ft 80 ft 45 ft
for this type of shell (see Table 13-4 and Figs. (54.9 m) (24.4 m) (13.7 m)
SUPPORT SUPPORT
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-
RIDGE BEAMS j
SUPPORT
t.SLOPED EDGE BEAMS I SUPPORT
281
TABLE 13-4 Four-Gable Hyperbolic Paraboloid with a Rectansular Plan
VARIABLE HORIZONTAL VARIABLE INCLINED
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAMS EDGE BEAMS
Long Short Constant Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Side Side Tip Shell Section Section Section Section
S~an S~an Height Thickness Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 20-40 (6.1-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 30-45 (9.1-13.7) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (51) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 30-40 (9.1-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 45-50 (13.7-15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 36 (91) 18 (46)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 30-45 (9.1-13.7) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 36 (91) 18 (46)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 35-50 (10.7-15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 36 (19) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 36 (19) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 35-40 (10.7-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 45-55 (13.7-16.8) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 6 (15) 40 (102) 20 (51)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 18 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 45-50 (13.7-15.2) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 55-60 (16.8-18.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 5 (13) 48 (122) 24 (61)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 44 (112) 22 (56)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (18) 40 (102) 20 (51)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.8) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 5 (13) 48 (122) 24 (61)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 44 (112) 22 (56)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (18) 40 (102) 20 (51)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 55-60 (16.8-IS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (SI) 16 (41)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 26 (66) 26 (66) 10 (25) 5 (13) 52 (132) 26 (66)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 4S (122) 24 (61)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 44 (112) 22 (56)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.S) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 40 (102) 20 (51)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 60 (lS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) IS (46) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 36 (91) IS (46)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 65 (19.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (\8) 32 (SI) 16 (41)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 26 (66) 26 (66) 10 (25) 5 (13) 52 (132) 26 (66)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 48 (122) 24 (61)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 44 (112) 22 (56)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 40 (102) 20 (51)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 65 (19.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) IS (46) IS (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) IS (46)
The Desion of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
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283
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desi8n of Thin Shells
, ZONEOF
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STRESSES
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~
bolic paraboloid on two supports. this type is loads given with respect to Table 13-1.
quite economical and practical for one-story The recommended optimized values for
modular concrete buildings. By using these as the average dimensions of this type of hyper-
the basic model. a large structure can be built bolic paraboloid are as follows (see also Fig.
in modular formwork to cast individual units 13-12):
that can then be joined together.
Such structures have sometimes been used Side Spans Tip Height
as individual structures with self-standing sta- 50 ft X 50 ft 7.5 ft (2.3 m)
bility attained by the proper footing. In the (15.2 m X 15.2 m)
United States outdoor shelters shaped as hy- 100 ft X 100 ft 29 ft (8.8 m)
perbolic paraboloidal umbrellas have been (30.5 m X 30.5 m)
built as typical structures in state parks. 150 ft X 150 ft 55 ft (16.8 m)
The recommended optimized dimensions (45.7 m X 45.7 m)
for this type of shell (see Table 13-5) are 200 ft X 200 ft 86 ft (26.2 m)
based on the specifications for materials and (61 m X 61 m)
284
TABLE 13-5 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAM
CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Constant
Section Section EDGE BEAM
Side Peak Shell
Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
(m) (m) In (em) in (em) In (em) In (em) in (em) In (em) in (em)
ft ft
40 (12.2) 5 (1.5) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 3 (8) 40 (102) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3'1. (9) 10 (25) 3 (8) 20 (51) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3'1. (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 13 (33) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'1. (9) 5 (13) 3 (8) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 4 (10) 3 (8) S (20) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 22 (56) 3 (8) 54 (137) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'1. (9) 18 (46) 5 (13) 36 (91) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 14 (36) 5 (13) 27 (69) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 11 (28) 5 (13) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 9 (23) 5 (13) IS (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) S (20) 5 (13) 15 (38) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
SO (24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 2S (71) 6 (15) 70 (17S) 15 (38) 10 (25) 12 (30)
SO (24.4) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 24 (61) 7 (IS) 52 (132) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 7 (18) 42 (107) 15 (38) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'1. (9) 16 (41) 7 (18) 35 (S9) 15 (38) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) 14 (36) 7 (18) 30 (76) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'1. (9) 12 (30) 7 (IS) 26 (66) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 9 (23) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) S5 (216) 17 (43) 12 (30) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 36 (91) 9 (23) 6S (173) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 34 (S6) 10 (25) 57 (145) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) 32 (SI) II (28) 49 (124) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3'1. (9) 2S (71) II (2S) 43 (109) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'h (9) 25 (64) II (28) 3S (97) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'1. (9) 22 (56) 11 (2S) 34 (S6) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
U mbrella-Type Hyperbolic
Paraboloids (Rectangular Plan)
This structure, which is similar to the pre- Long Side Short Side
vious one, differs only in that the shape of its Span Span Tip Height
plan is rectangular rather than square (see 120 ft 40 ft 25 ft
Figs. 13-15 and 13-16). Once again the rec- (30.6 m) (12.2 m) (7.6 m)
ommended optimized dimensions for this 120 ft 60 ft 29 ft
type of shell (see Table 13-6) are based on the (36.6 m) (IB.3 m) (B.B m)
specifications given for Table 13-1. 130 ft BO ft 36 ft
The recommended optimal values for the (39.6 m) (24.4 m) (11 m)
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic 140 ft 100 ft 43 ft
paraboloid are as follows: (42.7 m) (30.5 m) (13.1 m)
~ZONEOF
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13-15 The plan of an umbrella-type rectanaular plan hyperbolic
paraboloid.
286
TABLE 13-6 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Rectan9ular Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Short Short CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Long Short Constant
Section Section Section Section EDGE BEAM
Side Side Peak Shell
S~an S~an Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) (m) It (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
ft
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 27 (69) 5 (13) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3'/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 5 (13) 3 (S) 12 (30) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 13 (33) 5 (13) 3 (S) 9 (23) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) II (2S) 5 (13) 3 (S) 7 (IS) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 9 (23) 5 (13) 3 (S) 6 (15) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) 3 (S) IS (46) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 26 (66) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 9 (23) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 15 (3S) 7 (IS) 3 (S) S (20) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 14 (36) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 7 (IS) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (S) 42 (107) 9 (23) S (20) 3 (S) 17 (43) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 34 (S6) 9 (23) 3 (S) 14 (36) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 29 (74) 9 (23) 6 (I 5) 3 (S) 12 (30) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 25 (64) 9 (23) 3 (S) 10 (25) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 22 (56) 9 (23) 3 (S) 9 (23) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 15 (4.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) S (20) 3 (S) 26 (66) 7 (IS) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 7 (I 8) 6 (I 5) 3 (S) 20 (51) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 7 (18) 3 (8) 16 (41) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) IS (46) 7 (18) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (38) 7 (18) 3 (8) II (28) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 3 (8) 10 (25) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 43 (109) 9 (23) 8 (20) 3 (8) 26 (66) 9 (23) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3'/2 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 34 (S6) 9 (23) 3 (8) 22 (56) 9 (23) 12 (30) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 29 (74) 9 (23) 6 (15) 3 (8) 17 (43) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 25 (64) 9 (23) 3 (8) 15 (38) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 22 (56) 9 (23) 3 (8) 13 (33) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 19 (48) 9 (23) 3 (8) 12 (30) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 50 (127) II (28) S (20) 3 (8) 25 (64) II (28) 14 (36) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 42 (107) II (28) 3 (8) 21 (53) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 36 (91) II (2S) 3 (S) IS (46) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 32 (81) II (28) 6 (15) 3 (8) 16 (41) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 28 (71) II (28) 3 (8) 14 (36) II (28) 10 (25) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 25 (64) II (28) 3 (8) 13 (33) II (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (IS.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 10 (25) 3 (8) 58 (147) 13 (33) 10 (25) 3 (8) 25 (64) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 50 (127) 13 (33) 8 (20) 3 (S) 22 (56) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 44 (112) 13 (33) 3 (8) 19 (48) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 39 (99) 13 (33) 3 (8) 16 (41) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 35 (S9) 13 (33) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (3S) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 55 (16.8) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 32 (81) 13 (33) 6 (15) 3 (S) 14 (36) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
(continued)
TABLE 13-6 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a ltectQlIJIUlar Plan (continued)
VARIABLE INCUNED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Short Short CONSTANT
Long Short Constant Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORlWNTAL
Side Side Peak Shell Section Section Section Section EDGE BEAM
Span Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (-) ft (-) ft (-) in (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (IS) 10 (25) S (8) 4S (109) 9 (2S) 10 (25) S (8) S4 (86) 9 (2S) 18 (46) 18 (46)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S4 (86) 9 (2S) 8 (20) S (8) 28 (71) 9 (2S) 14 (S6) 14 (S6)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 28 (71) 9 (2S) S (8) 2S (58) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 25 (64) 9 (2S) S (8) 20 (51) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 22 (56) 9 (2S) S (8) 17 (4S) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 45 (IS.7) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 19 (48) 9 (2S) S (8) 16 (41) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) 10 (S) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 27 (69) 5 (IS) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 5 (IS) S (8) 12 (SO) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 5 (IS) S (8) 9 (2S) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 11 (28) 5 (IS) S (8) 7 (18) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 9 (2S) 5 (IS) S (8) 6 (15) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S5 (89) 7 (18) 8 (20) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) S (8) 9 (2S) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 15 (S8) 7 (18) S (8) 8 (20) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 14 (S6) 7 (18) S (8) 7 (18) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 42 (107) 9 (2S) 8 (20) S (8) 17 (4S) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'h (9) 8 (20) S (8) 54 (86) 9 (2S) S (8) 14 (S6) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 29 (74) 9 (2S) 6 (15) S (8) 12 (SO) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 25 (64) 9 (2S) S (8) 10 (25) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 22 (56) 9 (2S) S (8) 9 (2S) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S5 (89) 7 (18) 8 (20) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 6 (15) S (8) 20 (51) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 21 (5S) 7 (18) S (8) 16 (41) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.S) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 15 (S8) 7 (18) S (8) 11 (28) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) S (8) 10 (25) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
The Desian of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
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Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
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290
TABLE 13-7 Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan
THIN SHELLS VARIABLE INCLINED
EDGE BEAMS
Constant CONSTANT HORIZONTAL
Side Edge Shell Minimum Section Maximum Section EDGE BEAM
SEan Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
It (m) ft (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
40 (12.2) 5 (1.5) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 20 (51) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 10 (25) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 7 (18) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 5 (13) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 31/. (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 4 (10) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 6 (15) 3 (8) 27 (69) 5 (13) 12 (30) 12 (30)
60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3 1;' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 18 (46) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 14 (36) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 11 (28) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 9 (23) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 8 (20) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 6 (15) 3 (8) 35 (89) 7 (18) 16 (41) 16 (41)
80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 14 (36) 14 (36)
80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 7 (18) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (38) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 9 (23) 8 (20) 3 (8) 42 (107) 8 (20) 24 (61) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 6 (15) 3 (8) 34 (86) 8 (20) 20 (51) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 6 (15) 3 (8) 28 (71) 8 (20) 16 (41) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 24 (61) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 19 (48) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 17 (43) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
Practical Aids for the Preliminary Design of Thin Shells
EDGE MEMBERS 1
l.-t==f::=;;:::::===;t
, ZONE OF
SECONDARY
STRESSES
~SLOPED BEAMS
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13-21 The perspective for an inverted umbrella-type, rectangular plan hyperbolic paraboloid.
292
TABLE 13-8 Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Rectangular Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Shon Shon CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Long Shon Constant
Section Seaion Seaion Seaion EDGE BEAM
Side Side Edge Shell
Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
S~n
(m) It (m) It (a) in (C7II) in (CJII) in (CIII) In (CIII) in (OIl) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (ca) in (ca) in (OIl) in (OIl)
ft
60 (18.~) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 3 (8) 54 (137) 10 (25) II (28) 3 (8) 36 (91) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) ~'/. (9) II (28) 3 (8) 36 (91) 10 (25) 7 (18) 3 (8) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 27 (69) 10 (25) 5 (I~) 3 (8) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 22 (56) 10 (25) 4 (10) 3 (8) 14 (36) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1}. (9) 5 (13) 3 (8) 18 (46) 10 (25) 4 (10) 3 (8) 12 (~O) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) ~'h (9) 15 (38) 3 (8) 69 (175) 14 (36) 7 (18) 3 (8) 35 (89) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1}. (9) II (28) 3 (8) 52 (132) 14 (36) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 35 (89) 14 (36) 4 (10) 3 (8) 17 (4~) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) ~'h (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 30 (76) 14 (36) 3 (8) 3 (8) 15 (38) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
SO (24.4) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 27 (69) 14 (36) 3 (8) 3 (8) 14 (36) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
100 (~0.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 38 (97) 5 (13) 85 (216) IS (46) 15 (38) 5 (13) 34 (86) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 30 (76) 5 (13) 68 (173) 18 (46) 12 (30) 5 (13) 27 (69) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 25 (64) 5 (13) 57 (145) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 23 (58) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3 1}. (9) 22 (56) 5 13 49 (124) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (13) 19 (48) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 19 (48) 5 (13) 43 (109) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (13) 17 (4~) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'h (9) 26 (66) 5 (13) 69 (175) 14 (36) 19 (48) 5 (13) 52 (132) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.~) 20 (6.1) ~'h (9) 19 (48) 5 (13) 52 (132) 14 (36) 14 (36) 5 (13) 39 (99) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 15 (38) 5 (13) 42 (107) 14 (36) II (28) 5 (13) 31 (79) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 12 (30) 5 (I~) 35 (89) 14 (36) 9 (23) 5 (13) 26 (66) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) II (28) 5 (13) ~O (76) 14 (36) 8 (20) 5 (I~) 22 (56) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 9 (23) 5 (13) 26 (66) 14 (36) 8 (20) 5 (13) 20 (51) 14 (~6) 6 (15) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.~) 20 (6.1) 3 1}. (9) 24 (61) 5 (13) 85 (216) 18 (46) 14 (36) 5 (1~) 51 (130) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.~) 25 (7.6) ~I}. (9) 19 (42) 5 (13) 68 (173) 18 (46) II (28) 5 (13) 41 (104) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (~0.5) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 5 (13) 57 (145) 18 (46) 9 (23) 5 (13) 34 (86) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (~0.5) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 14 (36) 5 (13) 49 (124) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (I~) 29 (74) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3 1}. (9) 12 (30) 5 (13) 43 (109) 18 (46) 7 (18) 5 (13) 26 (66) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) ~'h (9) II (28) 5 (13) 38 (97) 18 (46) 6 (15) 5 (13) 23 (58) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 32 (80) 7 (18) 100 (254) 22 (56) 16 (41) 7 (18) 50 (127) 22 (56) 8 (20) 8 (20)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) ~O (9.1) 3 1}. (9) 27 (69) 7 (18) 84 (21~) 22 (56) 14 (36) 7 (18) 42 (107) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 23 (58) 7 (18) 72 (183) 22 (56) 12 (30) 7 (18) 36 (91) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 7 (18) 63 (160) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) 45 (1~.7) 3 1}. (9) 18 (46) 7 (18) 56 (142) 22 (56) 9 (23) 7 (18) 28 (71) 22 (56) 8 (20) to (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.~) 50 (15.2) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 7 (18) 50 (127) 22 (56) 8 (20) 7 (18) 25 (64) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) ~O (9.1) ~'h (9) 32 (81) 7 (18) 1I7 (297) 26 (66) 13 (~~) 7 (18) 50 (127) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) ~'h (9) 27 (69) 7 (18) 100 (254) 26 (66) 13 (~3) 7 (18) 4~ (109) 26 (66) 10 (25) to (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 40 (12.2) ~'h (9) 24 (61) 7 (18) 88 (224) 26 (66) 10 (25) 7 (18) 38 (97) 26 (66) 10 (25) to (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) ~'h (9) 21 (5~) 7 (18) 78 (198) 26 (66) 9 (23) 7 (18) 33 (84) 26 (66) 10 (25) 12 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3'h (9) 19 (48) 7 (18) 70 (178) 26 (66) 8 (20) 7 (18) ~O (76) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 55 (16.8) ~'h (9) 17 (43) 7 (18) 64 (163) 26 (66) 7 (18) 7 (18) 27 (69) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (I~) 31 (79) 7 (IS) 85 (216) 19 (48) 25 (64) 7 (18) 68 (173) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3 1}. (9) 32 (81) 9 (23) 68 (173) 19 (48) 26 (66) 9 (23) 55 (140) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 27 (69) 9 (23) 57 (145) 19 (48) 22 (56) 9 (23) 46 (1I7) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 23 (58) 9 (23) 49 (124) 19 (48) 18 (46) 9 (23) 39 (99) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 9 (23) 43 (109) 19 (48) 16 (41) 9 (23) 34 (86) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 45 (13.7) 3'h (9) 18 (46) 9 (23) 38 (97) 19 (48) 15 (38) 9 (23) 31 (79) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
Part IV
Skeletal Steel Structures
and Megadomes
CHAPTER 14
Trussed Domes
297
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meoadomes
baroque era was distinguished by a new form architectural significance expressing the ma-
of expression brought about through new ture forms of a number of elements. John
materials available for building construction: Claudius Loudon was already known for de-
cast iron and wrought iron. These two, com- sign work in iron and glass domes applied to
bined with glass, generated unique domes greenhouses when he built the dome for a
that had no precedent. The metal framework greenhouse in 1827 for Bretton Hall in
formed by thin structural elements could be- Yorkshire that was 100 ft (30.5 m) in diame-
come minimal, leaving the glass surface to ter with an iron framework. Other notable
dominate. For the first time, a transparent domes were those over the greenhouse pavil-
enclosure could create a protective space that ions in the Wilhelma Botanical Garden in
could bring full sunshine indoors. Light and Stuttgart by Ludwig von Zanth built 1842-
heat thus trapped became available to be 1853 in glass and iron with a configuration
fully enjoyed in a space with a unique charac- having a Moorish flavor and, finally, the
ter. In an elegant, subdued statement the dome over the Palm House at Sefton Park,
iron skeleton gently delineated a silhouette Liverpool (1896), by Mackenzie and Moncur.
that, without imposing, outlined the overall Within the urban context are many emi-
configuration of the dome. Luminance, bril- nent examples of the glass and iron dome
liancy, and iridescence all became key words from the nineteenth century, including the
associated with glass domes made possible by following:
iron skeletons. So it was that at the beginning
of the nineteenth century the dome reap- London Coal Exchange (1846-1849), by
peared with new vigor under the impulse of a J. B. Bunning
new technology and revitalization of certain New York World's Fair (Crystal Palace),
architectural forms. Bryant Park, Manhattan (1853), by
The first applications of iron domes were George Casten son and Charles Geld-
in combination with metal sheathing, which meister, which was of major importance
soon extended to the iron and glass combina- for the acceptance of the iron and glass
tion used for pavilions and greenhouses in dome throughout the rest of the cen-
public parks and, later, within the urban tury
framework, as in the Italian gallerie. Among Austro-Hungarian Bank, Vienna (1856-
significant iron domes of the 1800s are the 1860), by H. von Ferstel
domes over the Bourse du Commerce in New Corn Exchange, Leeds (1860-
Paris (1806 -1811), which has a diameter of 1863), by C. Brodrick
approximately 130 ft (40 m) and consists of a Palmhouse (greenhouse), Munich (1860-
cast-iron framework and cooper sheathing; 1865), by A. von Voit
the Royal Brighton Pavilion (1815-1823), St. Augustin, Paris (1860-1871), by V.
with a cast-iron framework and an exterior Baltard
onionlike configuration by architect John Funthaus Church, Vienna (1864-1875),
Nash; St. Petersburg Cathedral (1840- by F. Fowke
1842), by Auguste Ricard de Montferrand, Galleria Victor Emmanuel II, Milan
which included a concealed, complex cast- (1865-1877), by G. Mengoni, which
iron framework supporting an external hemi- had a base of 119 ft (36.21 m) and a
spherical dome. height of 154 ft (47.08 m)
Various other examples of nineteenth-cen- Albert Hall, Kensington (1871), by H. G.
tury iron and glass domes could be cited. One Scott, which had an elliptical base with
is the hemispherical dome in the center of minor and major axes respectively of
Syon House, or Greenhouse, in 1827 by 190 ft (58 m) and 223 ft (68 m) and a
Charles Fowler, an example usually reported height of 213 ft (65 m)
in the literature not for its engineering but its Kibble Palace, Botanic Gardens, Glasgow
298
Trussed Domes
299
Skeletal Steel Structures and Me8adomes
tures. However, such small-scale domes as the throughout Europe. His contributions in-
glazed botanical greenhouses of the early cluded both the construction aspects as well
twentieth century have a great deal of charm as the statical analysis of structures. Innova-
and are currently enjoying a resurgence in tive structural design was codified through
construction. It seems feasible to predict that his publications that spread throughout the
there will be a new generation of small-scale professional circles of Europe.
domes. The opportunities seem endless. We will focus on Schwedler's major role in
For instance, imagine bronze-finished metal the field of metal trussed domes. Six of his
members in triangular patterns, with dark- papers written in 1866 proposed a new struc-
tinted glass forming the skin and pure ab- tural system for trussed domes that attained
stract forms of crystals recalling Platonic and major popularity in Europe as well as in the
Archimedean solids. Springing from a low United States. The Schwedler dome system
base on the ground or projecting from the was very successful and continues to be used
fa~ade of a building, covering a terrace at a today. Although the first prototypes were
corner of a high rise or over a roof garden, built out of cast iron, the domes that followed
these metal and glass domes could be fitted used the new material, steel. In the 1950s, a
onto or within building masses as effectively Schwedler steel dome attained the world
as setting precious stones in a jeweled piece. record for reaching the largest trussed dome
diameter at its base. In a 1984 publication,l
Schwedler is referred to as the "father of
TRUSSED DOMES domed structures."
AND THEIR BUILDERS Schwedler started his career with a practi-
cal approach - by passing the licensing
exams as a surveyor first and then acquiring
Several men contributed variously to the de- considerable experience in hydraulics and
velopment of the trussed dome, among them road construction as a construction inspector.
Schwedler, Zeiss, Dykerhoff, Widmann, and At 28, even before attaining an engineering
Zimmerman. Their names remain associated license, he won the competition for the de-
with the types of domes they created. Above sign of a cast-iron railroad bridge over the
all, however, one man dominates the field of Rhine River at Cologne, basing his design on
trussed domes-Buckminster Fuller, an en- theoretical statical analysis rather than the
gineer and philosopher, master builder and empiricism and practical model analysis ap-
inventor. proach used by the engineering practice at
that time in England. In his publication
Johann Wilhelm Schwedler "Theory of Bridge Girder Systems" in 1851,
(1823 -1894) Schwedler proved scientifically the empirical
design formulas used in Britain. He began his
Born in Berlin in the first part of the nine- long career in the design of steel structures
teenth century, Schwedler represents a major through a series of government appoint-
figure in the field of structural engineering. ments and teaching positions. An exception-
He specialized in metal structures when the ally brilliant engineer, he had a strong back-
material was just at its early stages of applica- ground in mathematics and physics. A major
tion, although cast iron was already in a ma- part of his work included steel railroad
ture stage of development in England. In the bridges through girders and suspension sys-
progressive and highly industrialized world tems. His government appointments brought
of nineteenth-century Prussia, Schwedler ex- him much recognition and gave him at one
panded the British innovative technology of time major control over on all government
cast-iron structures for bridges and build- buildings in Prussia and supervisory author-
ings and attained outstanding recognition ity on engineering licensing boards.
300
Trussed Domes
With its practical and theoretical back- far beyond architectural circles so that it is
ground, the Schwedler method for dome de- known by laymen and professionals alike. No
sign was based on simple calculations since other structural system has achieved such
the structures wer~ statically determinate. popularity among the general public. As a
The simplicity of the system and the clarity of matter of fact, the popularity of this particu-
presentation that characterized his writing lar type of dome has made the modern dome
explain the popularity and long-lasting suc- known to those who would otherwise have
cess of Schwedler's contributions to the de- remained unaware of dome structures in any
sign of trussed domes. form.
Basically an engineer, Fuller was also rec-
Hermann Zimmermann (1845-1935) ognized in architectural circles. Queen Eliza-
beth II decorated him with the Royal Gold
Born in Langensalza, Germany, Zimmer- Medal for Architecture. His many design ef-
mann has an important place in the historical forts include a uniquely conceived prototype
development of the trussed metal dome. At housing unit, with which he was directly in-
sixteen years of age, the young Zimmermann volved in its mass production, as well as float-
went to sea. Eight years later, he entered the ing cities, underwater human stations, and
Polytechnic of Karlsruhe where he began in space-frame construction systems. He was ba-
mechanical engineering and later changed to sically an engineer with a global vision of
civil engineering. After attaining a doctorate world-scale problems (see Figure 14-2.)2
in philosophy in 1874 and a doctorate in en- Fuller's accomplishments were numerous
gineering in 1875, he launched his engineer- and of a singular quality, though always in-
ing career with the German railroads in spired by basic essential human needs. He
Strasbourg, where he built his first steel should be regarded as an engineer, however,
dome. He later moved to Berlin and contin- even if the common usage of this term is
ued his work in steel structures. A prolific interpreted in a far more restrictive manner
author in structural engineering for steel than his career exemplified. By probing into
constructions, he made a brilliant contribu- philosophy and looking at individual prob-
tion in steel space frames which culminated
with the dome of the Reichstag in Berlin
(dome of the Parliament). The pattern of the
structural assembly that characterized his
steel domes constituted a structural typology
that gained exceptional popularity in Europe.
The specifics of the Zimmerman domes are
later illustrated in this chapter with other
major structural dome types.
301
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meoadomes
302
Trussed Domes
responsible for. Most of his reputation is finally for the Florida Suncoast dome, the
based on his innovative work in tensile struc- largest dome in the world, 690 ft (210m) in
tures and his writings on cable domes, which base diameter (see Figs. 14-4 and 14-5).
are particularly impressive. In this respect he Also of great interest are other long-span
was the engineer of two domes in Seoul, steel tensile structures with extraordinary, in-
Korea, for the 1988 Olympics, for a dome novative structural concepts, among them
over the Illinois State University Arena , and the following.
14-5 The Suncoast Dome with its roof completed. (Courtesy of GeiBer
EnBineers)
303
Sleeletal Steel Structures and Meeadomes
304
Trussed Domes
305
Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
PLATONIC SOLIDS
The family of Platonic solids includes five
regular polyhedra: the tetrahedron, the octa-
hedron, the exahedron (cube), the dodecahe-
dron, and the icosoahedron, named, respec-
tively, for the number of faces they have.
One trait of these solids is that each type A
contains edges that are of equal length. An-
B
other characteristic is that each solid has all
its faces equal to each other. For instance, the
tetrahedron has four faces consisting of equal
equilateral triangles, and the dodecahedron
has twelve faces in the shape of equal penta-
gons (see Fig. 14-9).
ARCHIMEDEAN SOLIDS
Another group, with thirteen regular polyhe- c
dra, constitutes a family referred to as the
Archimedean solids, which are more com-
plex than the Platonic solids previously seen
(see Fig. 14-10). The solids involved are
given in Table 14-1.
In this family of geometric solids the faces
of any given solid are not all equal, as they
were in the case of the Platonic solids, and o E
not all the edges in each solid are of equal
length. 14-9 The Platonic solids. a) The tetrahedron,
with four vertices, four faces, and six edges; b)
DUALS an octahedron, with six vertices, eight faces, and
There is a certain relationship among some twelve edges; c) a cube or hexahedron, with eight
pairs of regular solids that is referred to as vertices, six faces, and twelve edges; d) a
duality. By virtue of this relationship two dodecahedron, with twen9' vertices, twelve faces,
solids are said to be duals if the sum of the and thiTo/ edaes, and e) an icosahedron, with
number of vertices, faces, and edges of one twelve vertices, twen9' faces, and thiTo/ edaes .
306
Trussed Domes
8 c
307
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
308
Trussed Domes
Stressed-skin domes: domes in which the intuitive structure that evolved from the no-
skin and the members are intercon- tion of arches. If the dome is conceived as
nected and act structurally together being an extension of arches rather than a
Surface domes: domes with the skin as the superposition of concentric rings, then the
structural part that consists of precut ribbed dome is the most intuitive kind of
panels of steel and aluminum con- dome system.
nected along the edges. The panels are
cut, and then their edges are bent per-
pendicularly to the surface creating a Schwedler Domes
standing lip that can be mechanically
fastened. Kaiser domes made of alumi- Schwedler domes, named after their inven-
num are included in this category. tor, J. W. Schwedler, are essentially ribbed
domes characterized by each panel being en-
A third classification of steel trussed closed by two consecutive ribs and hoops and
domes is the following: 3 braced by two diagonal members so thin as to
be able to carry only tension. No compression
Ribbed domes can be allowed, since they would buckle from
Schwedler domes their slenderness. When an asymmetrical
Network domes load generates tension in one diagonal and
Zimmermann domes compression in the other, the diagonal under
Framed domes tension responds and provides the dome the
Lamella domes necessary equilibrium. When the load is re-
Grid domes (either two-way or three-way) versed, the other diagonal will be stressed in
Geodesic domes tension to do the necessary work. This type
Space-frame domes of dome can be recognized by its network of
Cable (tensegrity) domes major ribs and hoops with slender, cross-di-
Pneumatic domes agonal bracing (see Fig. 14-11).
These domes appeared first at the end of
the last century in Germany. The largest
Ribbed Domes span, built in Vienna in 1874, had a diameter
of 210ft (64 m). The largest Schwedler
Ribbed domes are structures with their main, dome, built in 1955, covers the Charlotte
arched ribs arranged radially, connected at Coliseum in Charlotte, North Carolina (see
the crown and base. They are also referred to Fig. 14-12). 4 The architect for the project
as stiffened domes, if the ribs are connected was Odell Associates, the engineering firm
to a horizontal ring at the base, and unstiff- responsible for the design of the dome Fred
ened domes, if they are hinged to isolated Severud Elstadt, and Kruger of New York.
footings. The connections at the crown can This dome is supported by a series of con-
also be either hinged or fixed. With a hinge crete piers located at the springing points of
at the crown, the ribs must be supported by the meridian ribs. The major components of
diagonal members. In general the ribbed the dome are these meridian ribs and hori-
dome is completed by several horizontal rings zontal hoops, which produce trapezoidal sec-
and the resulting trapezoidal panels are then tors that are diagonally braced. The struc-
divided by a diagonal member into two trian- tural steel employed for the meridians and
gles. The diagonals are stressed only when hoops is shaped out of wide flange sections.
the load is asymmetrical. This type of dome The steel sections were welded together.
can be considered to consist of an assembly of Covering the dome is a lightweight deck com-
arches and is an expression therefore of an posed of a mixture of fibers and cement that
309
Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes
is supported by structural bulb tees. The the welding of the base ring was completed,
deck, of Porex, also provides thermal insula- contraction caused by temperature changes
tion in addition to its structural sheeting ac- made the crown spring up from the scaffold.
tion. It is covered with a reflective aluminum
lamina that consists of a series of aluminum
panels with clamped edge seams that are al- Network Domes
lowed to move under thermal expansion and
contraction. The dome has a diameter of 332 Network domes consist of a series of horizon-
ft (101 m) and a rise of60 ft (18.3 m). It was tal polygonal hoops arranged so that each
erected using nothing but scaffolds for the hoop is rotated with respect to the hoop
crown ring. It is interesting to note that when below to an angle equal to 180 divided by the
310
Trussed Domes
Framed Domes
311
Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
FORCE DISTRIBUTION
IN LAMELLA DOMES
The distribution of axial forces among the
members in a lamella dome can best be illus-
trated with a practical example, as seen in
Figure 14-16. This example consists of a sin-
gle concentrated vertical load at the crown of
the dome. Although force distribution varies
according to the orientation and points of
application of loads, the drawing provides a
general indication of the relative magnitude
of the forces under vertical loads and speci-
fies the nature of the forces, whether of ten-
sion or compression.
The lamella dome in question is a rela-
tively shallow structure consisting of a series
of hoops and diagonal members. Notice that
it is possible to identify six modular sectors
(see the shaded one) arranged radially
14-14 A lamella roof structure showing a around the center. The forces in each sector
complete lamella element (two adjacent X's) are symmetrically distributed such that the
consistinn of interlaced X-shaped members. At members in the hoops are all in tension,
each nodal point one member is continuous, the whereas some of the diagonals are in tension
other not. The lennth of each member is 2A. and some in compression. The thin lines in
312
Trussed Domes
313
Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
which is below grade. The translucent third dome included aerodynamic wind-tunnel
of the roof includes 4,600 skylights. In to- testing on a 1/8 in = 1 ft 0 in (approximately
tal the roof surface measures 350,000 ft 2 1 : 100) scale model by McDonnell Aircraft in
(32,500 m 2 ) and includes 2,150 tons of steel. St. Louis. No fewer than forty-eight condi-
The huge tension ring at the base of the tions were analyzed, to consider different
dome has a calculated weight of 376 tons angles of attack by the wind flow. Wind gusts
independent of the dome. The dome, with its of 165 mph (265 km/h) and sustained speeds
total dead load of 2,526 tons for the struc- of 135 mph (217 km/h) were considered.
tural steel, carries a uniformly distributed Positive pressure of 40 psf (1.95 kPa) and
load of 16.6 psf (0.80 kPa). The circular floor negative pressure (suction) also of 40 psf
plan (see Fig. 14-17) allows a seating capacity were the recommended loading values de-
varying from 45,000 to 66,000 spectators ac- rived from this wind study. Then various
cording to the type of events, from sports to phases of analysis refined the design by read-
political conventions. justing the structural sizing of the trussed
The structural steel dome adopted to components.
cover the clear span over this stadium was not In addition to these specific values, the
just an architectural solution based on form various loading conditions used included a
configuration but rather the result of a care- dead load of 30 psf (1.44 kPa), a live load of
ful comparative study of various feasible sys- 15 psf (0.72 kPa), and a 7.5 psf (0.36 kPa)
tems. Among the systems taken into consid- asymmetric load on half of the structure.
eration were geodesic domes in both steel Other conditions had to be investigated as
and aluminum, Kaiser domes, air-supported well, including temperature expansion and
pneumatic membrane structures, aluminum contraction from variations within a 140 ° F
geodesic space frames, wooden space frames, (78°C) range. Furthermore, particular con-
and suspension-type cantilever trusses. Al- centrations of mechanical-system components
though the Kiewitt type of lamella dome sys- generated asymmetrical loads that also had to
tem had previously been employed with suc- be examined.
cess, the largest span ever reached to date To visualize the scale of the individual
had been only 285 ft (86.9 m), yet the engi- components in the Astrodome note that the
neers felt confident that it was capable of members within the tension ring had an ap-
reaching the much larger span required for proximate length of 32 ft (9.75 m), while
this project. those within the lamella units in the roof
The structural analysis performed for this sometimes reached 122 ft (37.2 m) in length.
14-17 An interior view of the Astrodome, about one year from completion.
314
Trussed Domes
The construction methods employed in At the bottom of the dome, under its ten-
this project required erecting thirty-seven sion ring, the dome rests on seventy-two
steel towers, including one in the middle that uniquely connected support columns. These
extended to a height of 212 ft (64.6 m). columns are free to translate radially with
These towers had a temporary function of respect to the tension ring but are semirigidly
supporting the centering during construction fastened sideways in the tangential direction.
and were eventually disassembled and sal- This kind of support prevents a bending mo-
vaged. These towers tapered from 20 ft by ment between the dome and its supporting
20 ft (6.1 m by 6.1 m) at the base to 10 ft by columns.
10 ft (3.05 m X 3.05 m) at a height of 100 ft This megastructure, which at the time of
(30.5 m). Looking like derricks, these towers its construction held the world record for
were increased in height as the erection of being the largest covered structure of its
the trussed, arched ribs progressed. After the kind, is unique in its construction. For one
tension ring was completed, the erection of thing, almost all its connections are welded.
the dome started with the trussed, arched Exceptions include the rolling connections
ribs going from the tension ring to the between the tension ring and the supporting
crown. These trusses were fabricated in 55 ft columns, which allow for free expansion and
(16.8 m) sections in the shop, then brought to contraction of the dome without stressing the
the site. Two consecutive ribs were welded at columns. Another unique characteristic is
ground level to form one segment 110ft that the connections between the 110 ft (33.5
(33.5 m) long. These segments were then m) segments of the trussed ribs were field
erected in sequence, using the towers as tem- bolted, not welded. All the remaining con-
porary supports, while being connected to nections between the various components of
each other by bolts. Between the twelve ribs the trusses and the connections between
the X-shaped lamellae completed the struc- trusses were welded. The electrodes used
ture of the dome. The length of the lamellae throughout were E7018 (low hydrogen) for
legs was about 60 ft (18.3 m). As discussed the tension ring and E60 10 for the field
earlier, the various lamellae when connected splices on the main ribs and the hoop ring.
to each other form diamond-shaped patterns. The difference in the electrodes come from
When the six hoop rings were installed, the the differences in the thicknesses and types of
lamella diamonds became subdivided into steel of the sections being welded. Butt welds
two triangles approximately 30 ft (9.1 m) in were used in the tension ring to connect
length. Then each of these triangular areas beams with flanges up to 23/4 in thick. The
was filled with purlins, which finally com- steel used for the tension ring was high-
pleted the framing of the dome. strength A 441, but for the rest of the dome it
All the elements of the Astrodome were was A36. To check the dependability of the
made of curved shapes. These include the welds, the Magnaflux Corporation took 478
tension ring, the domes ribs, the X-shaped gamma-ray shots of critical welds. More spe-
lamellae, the hoops, and the purlins. All these cifically, the Engineering Testing Laboratory
trusses consisted of wide-flanged shapes for of Houston, which was in charge of testing,
the top and bottom chords, with the diagonal subcontracted the testing of welds to Magna-
members consisting of 3-in (7.6 cm) square flux (now MQS) specialists for field opera-
equal leg angles in various thicknesses. The tions while retaining for itself the job of eval-
overall depth of the dome was a constant 5 ft uating and certifying the welds. Magnaflux
(1.5 m). The wide flange chords were placed MTL tested the welds by radiographing them
with their flanges oriented vertically and with cameras placed right over the welds to
their webs horizontally so that the diagonal be inspected. Cobalt 60 provided the energy
angles were welded between the inside faces source for the gamma rays that were used to
of the wide flanges. sensitize the film placed in the camera. The
315
Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
results of the daily shootings were processed ization of the Superdome started with its
in Magnaflux's laboratory and analyzed by origination by a legislative act on November
experts in the Engineering Testing Lab. 8, 1966, followed by its initial construction
The dependability of a weld is often taken phase begun August 11, 1971, and its open-
for granted and subjected only to visual in- ing day of August 3, 1975. The architects for
spection, yet some imperfections may not be the Superdome included Curtis and Davis,
visible. This was certainly proven in the case Edward Silverstein and Associates, Nolan,
of the tension ring for the Astrodome, Norman and Nolan, and Sverdrup and Par-
in which twenty-three welds inspected by cel. The contractors were Huber, Hunt and
gamma rays, after previous usual acceptance, Nichols and Blount Brothers.
were found to be faulty and had to be re- The total area of the Superdome's roof is
moved and rewelded before certification 9.7 acres (39,254.4 m2 ). Its maximum height
could be granted. The testing of the welds measures 273 ft (82.3 m) The total cost of the
within the lamella dome itself, not in the ring, project, which included a great spectrum of
was performed by a team of inspectors with facilities, was $173 million. To place these
portable testing cameras that used Radium overall costs in perspective, consider the fol-
192 in a dosage of ten curies. Even some lowing data. The total area of the project
welds in the lamella portion of the dome consisted of 52 acres (21 hectares) and fea-
were found faulty; ten of them had to be tured 52 convention rooms, 68 restrooms, 64
removed and redone. Interestingly, the private box suites, garages for 5,000 cars and
checking operation for welds was extended to 250 buses, 32 escalators, and 9 elevators.
evaluate the performance of the individual The cost of the dome itself must of course be
welders on the project. This method con- separated from the costs of the rest of the
sisted of testing each welder at least once, structure to make meaningful comparisons
which turned up more defective welds. among various structural systems involving
domes.
THE SUPERDOME The Superdome has a spherical configura-
After the competitive trend established by tion that is part of a sphere 600.4 ft (183 m)
the Astrodome, the New Orleans Superdome in radius, so that the dome itself is relatively
took the record for being the largest steel shallow. The structural typology of this dome
dome in the world. Actually, the competitive- is the same lamella type as the Astrodome,
ness among stadiums with large domes mostly but the construction process for the Super-
concerns the overall capacity of the structure, dome differed from the Kiewitt patented
not the size of the dome itself. In fact, the process used in the Astrodome. For the Su-
supremacy of the Superdome over the Astro- perdome the structural configuration of the
dome is mostly in its seating capacity and in lamella carried a special patent. This dome,
the ancillary structures rather than its dome designed by Binkley Engineering Associates
size (see Figs. 14-18 and 14-19). 6 of St. Louis, includes in its essential compo-
The seating arrangements for different nents a trussed tension ring, a solid compres-
events in the Superdome can include more sion crown, and six basic hoop rings between
than 20,000 seats for basketball, 63,524 seats them. The tension ring at the base of the
for baseball, 76,791 seats for football, and dome has the configuration of a truss 8.9 ft
95,427 seats as an auditorium, compared to (2.7 m) deep. This truss consists of top and
the 66,000 maximum seating capacity of the bottom chords made of W14 X 426 struc-
Astrodome. On the other hand, the differ- tural shape that is butt welded to form a con-
ence in dome diameters is not as great: 680 ft tinuous ring around the dome. The individ-
(210 m) for the Superdome and 642 ft (196 ual lamellae consist of curved members that
m) for the Astrodome. follow the line of the spherical roof. These
The various steps leading to the final real- members, 7.4 ft (2.25 m) deep, are intercon-
316
Trussed Domes
317
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
318
Trussed Domes
this goal is theoretically not possible within The icosahedron used by Buckminster
such a pattern of triangles as is necessary for Fuller for his patented domes is not the only
structural stability, the method produces polyhedral form used in designing geodesic
members whose lengths are in fact almost domes, other polyhedra have also been used.
identical. In 1976 Keno determined that in subdi-
The geometric subdivision of the dome is viding a sphere it was possible to subdivide its
that of the icosahedron, the Platonic solid surface into a maximum of 120 equal trian-
consisting of twenty identical triangles whose gles. The configuration of the triangle used
vertices all lay on the surface of the same in this subdivision is not regular, implying
sphere. In so doing one obtains a spherical that the sides of the triangle were all different
icosahedron with twenty identical spherical and that there would ultimately be three dif-
triangles, that number being the maximum ferent groups of members of different
one of equal equilateral triangles into which a lengths. This knowledge was of course a
sphere can be subdivided. There are several major factor in the continued development
criteria that must be used in subdividing a of this system, because it established the im-
sphere in a regular pattern, which is usually possibility of subdividing a sphere by using
selected on the basis of how long the member triangles of equal sides in a number larger
must be. Figure 14-20 illustrates the various than twenty and also postulated the opportu-
patterns possible. Each type of subdivision nity of using more than one length for a sin-
produces a pattern called frequency and is gle member dome.
identified by its own number-the higher Buckminster Fuller's major contribution
the number, the larger the number of ele- to the creation of the geodesic dome, as he
ments in the subdivision. Some patterns even called it, was at first more in terms of his
include hexagons and pentagons. In pin-con- devising a unique geometric subdivision of
nected members these shapes are not stable, the sphere than in structural terms.
so it becomes necessary to stabilize the struc- Structurally speaking, Fuller's domes fall
ture with additional bracing. into two basic groups: one-layer domes and
"-
FREQUENCY~16~~~ml '-...
'-.. FREQUENCY 1
'-
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FREQUENCY 8
FREQUENCY 2
FREQUENCY 4
319
Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes
two-layer domes. The one-layer dome con- in the lower part the meridional forces are
sists of members that connect nodal points all stilI in compression but the hoop forces are in
lying on the surface of one sphere. These tension.
domes are applicable only to limited spans, Some examples of popular geodesic domes
relatively speaking. More specifically, it is include the following:
useful to consider them as being subdivided
into three categories: small spans up to about Trade fair, Afghanistan, 1956, by Buck-
40 ft (12.2 m), medium spans up to 90 ft minster Fuller: temporary lightweight
(27.4 m), and large spans up to 120 ft (36.6 structure erected in forty-eight hours
m). Each of these categories requires its own Kaiser Aluminum, Honolulu, 1957, by
pattern of triangular subdivisions. Fuller: aluminum, 145 ft (44 m) in
Two-layer domes consist of two concentric diameter
spherical domes spaced apart. These domes V nion Tank Car Company plant, Baton
can have spans that are larger than those of Rouge, Louisiana, 1958-1959, by
single-layer domes. The nodal points of one Fuller: covers railroad-car rebuilding
of the concentric domes are connected to the plant and held the world record for the
nodal points of the other, creating structural largest clear-span building of the time.
unity. The exterior layer is subdivided into Diameter: 384 ft (117 m). Rise: 120 ft
triangles only, but the interior layer can be (36.5 m). Members: 321 hexagonal
subdivided into triangles, hexagons, and pen- steel panels integrated with a bracing
tagons. This subdivision does not create a system of tubular compression mem-
lack of structural stability, though, because bers and rod tension members (see Fig.
the nodes of the inner layer are all stabilized 14-21)
by the triangulated outer layer. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis,
Besides single-layer and double-layer geo- 1961, by Murphy and Mackey: alumi-
desic domes it is convenient to consider a num tubing in a double-layer hexago-
third type. The two previous types were char- nalpattern
acterized by having a skin cover superim- V.S. Pavilion, Expo 67, Montreal, by
posed on the skeletal structure, without B. Fuller and Sado: structure enclosing
structural interaction. In the third type of two-thirds of a sphere with diameter of
geodesic dome the skin provides structural 250 ft (76.2 m), height of 200 ft (61 m).
action. Within this type occur two different
situations: when the members of the dome
and its skin are structurally connected so as to
work together in tension and compression SPACE-FRAME DOMES
and when the skin carries the load alone and
the individual panels are joined together
along their folded edges to form a dome A new structural system for dome construc-
without having skeletal members. tion that capitalizes on the basic concept of
The stress distribution in geodesic domes space frames can be called space-frame
is very much like the distribution that occurs domes because of the structural systems from
in continuous domes. For instance, in both which it arises. This structural typology can
types the gravity loads that are symmetrically expand in a variety of configurations. This
applied generate only compressive forces in versatile application patented by William
the members above a certain horizontal circle Mouton can be applied to various kinds of
of latitude, whereas below it tension and vaulting, including domes, using Mouton's
compression occur. This follows the pattern techniques.
that in the upper part of a dome the meridio- By using a double-grid space-frame sys-
nal and hoop forces are in compression, but tem, or delta truss, Mouton established a fun-
320
Trussed Domes
14-2 1 Steel dome over Union Tank Car Company plant, Baton Rouoe,
Louisiana, /959, by Buckminster Fuller.
icular configuration for a whole structure square foot for spans up to 200 ft (61 m). In
under design loads. He built modular compo- such welded connections the pipes used are
nents at ground level, then erected them on cut by shearing, which squeezes the end parts
temporary supports, bolting together the to form an elliptical cross-section. The weld-
modules. The bolted connections between ing at the joints is not significantly stressed,
modules were not stressed. The modules since all the members come together at the
could have a rectangular square projection, joint so as to bear against each other in com-
as in translational shells, or a triangular pro- pression and eliminate any tensile stress. Be-
jection, as with domes. In both cases, how- sides reducing cost, welding also avoids weak-
ever, the modules had to be curved to gener- ening the cross-sections as in bolted con-
ate an overall vaulted structure. Since the nections and forms an uninterrupted connec-
curvature was derived from the funicular po- tion that not only creates a more pleasing
lygonal shape of the loads, the upper and visual effect but also offers more control over
lower grids of the modules were equally the overall dimensions of the structure. The
stressed, so that the diagonal members con- ability to build a whole structure in large pre-
necting the two were able not to be stressed fabricated components reduces to a mini-
at all. Their design was based only on their mum the problem usually encountered in er-
slenderness ratio, which was limited by a ecting space frames in situ member by
value of 200. member. The only problem consists of con-
The system as developed contained trolling the tolerance of each member at its
welded connections at the joints instead of connection to close all gaps after the erection
expensive hubs and bolts. A further substan- process is complete.
tial economy that resulted from the simpli- A significant application is the Cajun-
fied welded connections was that the overall dome, completed in 1985, conceived and de-
weight of these structures was reduced to signed by William Mouton, which was intro-
perhaps as low as three to five pounds per duced earlier under dTrussed Domes and
321
Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes
Their Builders." This dome covers the civic capable of sustaining an additional 2,500 Ibs.
center in Lafayette, Louisiana. The Cajun- (1,135 kg). Numerous catwalks are sus-
dome system involved assembling six basic pended throughout the structure to allow ad-
components connected at ground level to ditional loads at the suspension points.
form large pie-shaped spherical triangles. It seems certain that the unique concept
These large elements were then lifted and underlying the delta truss has not reached its
connected together to form the dome. They maximum potential in the Cajundome, which
were so large that only forty-eight of them has opened the way for larger-scale ap-
were necessary to complete the dome. Before plications.
these pie-shaped elements were lifted and
connected, their vertices were connected by
cables and put in tension, creating bowstring
arches along their edges. Then, after they CABLE (TENSEGRITY) DOMES
had been lifted and connected to adjacent
elements, the tensioning cables were re-
moved as the dome was completed. The latest to appear among the various struc-
With an overall depth of 70 ft (21.3 m), tural systems for trussed domes is the cable
the dome included 3-in (7.6 cm) diameter dome, sometimes referred to as the tense-
tubular members for its lower portion, 1.5-in grity dome, as developed out of Buckminster
(3.8 cm) tubing for the diagonal members, Fuller's work. As with most structures, the
and L-shaped sections for the upper mem- cable dome can be looked at from different
bers, facilitating the installation of the deck- points of view to emphasize various structural
ing. These consisted of a corrugated metal aspects. The cable dome can be seen in
deck forming a composite system that had 3 regard to its unique structural characteris-
in (7.6 cm) oflightweight concrete cover with tics that differentiate it from conventional
an ultimate strength of 28 days of f~ = 6,000 domes, or as simply another form of suspen-
psi (41.4 MPa), protected in turn by roofing sion structure. More specifically, one could
material. The concrete topping, acting in emphasize this kind of dome as a direct result
composite action with the steel deck, was of Fuller's concept of tensegrity, from the ten-
adopted basically to stiffen the metal deck sion integrity, explained below.
itself by eliminating the potential fluttering The structural behavior of the cable dome
and noise that could derive from having a is exactly opposite that of the traditional con-
resonance problem in the steel deck. ventional domes. The base ring is in com-
Further studies by Mouton on possible ap- pression rather than tension, and the ring at
plications for this system indicated the possi- the crown is in tension rather than compres-
bility of having extremely slender structural sion. Along its meridians the stresses are ten-
configurations for the tubular members of sile, contrary to the compressive stresses in
various spans of domes. To give some idea of conventional domes. And of major conse-
the great efficiency of the system, domes 100 quence is the fact that the space enclosed by
ft (30.5 m) in diameter could use tubing only the cable dome, from its base to its crown, is
1 in (2.5 cm) in diameter, 60-ft (18.3 m) not totally free and unobstructed, as it is in
domes could use s/4-in (1.9 cm) diameter tub- conventional domes, but includes instead
ing, and 40-ft (12.2 m) domes needed only structural members that are in both tension
In-in (1.3 cm) diameter tubing. and compression. Although these members
The composite action of the bottom are particularly light and diffuse, they are still
chord, top chord, steel deck, and concrete present within the dome space itself, so that
topping makes the Cajundome extremely ef- this space cannot technically be defined as
ficient and capable of carrying loads substan- being free. This point could probably be ar-
tially beyond its design loads. Each node is gued in terms of practical significance. Shal-
322
Trussed Domes
323
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
for conventional domes, so that rigid roofing main circular assembly. The structure in-
materials would not be easily adaptable for cludes a series of radial cables, diagonal
use with cable domes, making flexible-fabric cables, and compressive members completing
membranes the logical solution for cable a complex geometric assembly that supports
domes. This aspect of the cable dome may a multilayered fabric membrane that encloses
seem to give it a temporary nature in compar- the space. The horizontal projected area of
ison to the permanency associated with con- this circular dome includes an area of
ventional rigid domes, but the validity of the 371,764 ft 2 (34,556 m 2 ). The dead load for
cable dome remains untarnished. In reality, the dome totals 1,860 kips (8,273 kN), which
the membrane itself can be considered to be includes the tension and compression mem-
roofing, which by its very nature is assumed bers as well as the roofing membranes. An
to need replacement as part of its mainte- additional dead-load component includes
nance even in more permanent surfaces. This that of the mechanical room and fans,
similarity eliminates any basic conceptual dif- speakers and platforms, catwalks, bridge cat-
ference between the cable dome and others. walks, and lighting and electrical panels sus-
The cable domes just described were all pended from the major hoops. All these add
designed within a short time span by the same an additional dead weight of 714 kips (3,176
design firm in New York and reflect a uni- kN). The overall dead weight of these two
form approach with the same structural char- values together amounts to 2,574 kips
acteristics. A typical unit dead load of 3 psf (11,449 kN). Using these values, the distrib-
(0.14 kPa) applies throughout all these cases, uted dead load per square foot of horizontal
even when the size of the dome increases projection of the dome becomes approxi-
considerably, as it does in the Florida Sun- mately 7 psf (0.34 kPa). The. wind analysis
coast Dome. Even the projected costs for conducted for this dome includes an evalua-
domes under construction in the United tion of vibration frequencies for ten different
States seem to be close to the twenty dollars modes from n = 9 to the fundamental mode
per square foot value of the two domes built n = 1. The corresponding frequencies vary
in Korea.' from f= 9.791 cyc./sec. for n = 9 to f=
The 690 ft (210m) diameter base of the 4.773 cyc./sec. for n = 1. The fact that the
Florida Suncoast Dome has entered the cable fundamental frequency of free vibration is
dome into the major leagues of the world's estimated to be quite far from the frequency
largest domes, a status that could easily in- of wind-induced vibrations guarantees a safe-
crease even more, since cable structures have guard from resonance.
proven themselves to be the most efficient
long-span structures in general. At this point
in the development of the dome three differ-
ent methodologies have reached almost equal PNEUMATIC DOMES
records. The Kingdome in Seattle, the Su-
perdome in New Orleans and the Suncoast
Dome in St. Petersburg have demonstrated There has been a proliferation of pneumatic
now that concrete shells, steel trussed frame- structures built in recent years. Their inher-
works, and tension structures, followed ent curved configuration of forms associates
closely by wood domes, have all reached the the pneumatic to other curvilinear spatial
largest spans conceivable for domes. The de- structures, but their statical mechanism is so
sign profession is stiIllearning from the dome unique that they really stand out on their
of the St. Petersburg project. This dome, own. Pneumatic structures are supported by
with the compressive concrete ring at its base an interior air pressure and include single
and double tension rings at its top, includes membranes or multiple air-inflated mem-
four intermediate hoops constituting the branes made of special fabrics and usually
324
Trussed Domes
stabilized by cables. To keep this work within which opened in early 1988. It is a cable-re-
reasonable limits, pneumatic structures have inforced pneumatic dome by the structural
not been included. Several noticeable domes engineering companies Takenaka Komuten
of recent years were therefore excluded, in- Company and Nikken Sekkei Ltd., both of
cluding the Tokyo Dome, the "Big Egg," Tokyo.
NOTES
1. See Z. S. Makowski, Analysis Design and Construction of Brand Domes (Nichols Publishing Co., 1984), p. 5.
2. Figures 14-2 through 14-8 courtesy of Geiger Engineers.
3. See Z. S. Makowski, Steel Space Structures (Michael Joseph, 1965).
4. Figure 14-12 courtesy of Aerial Photography Services, Inc.
5. Figures 14-15 and 14-17 courtesy Houston Sports Association.
6. Figures 14-18 and 14-19 courtesy Louisiana Superdome.
7. See David H. Geiger, Andrew Stefaniuk, and David Chen, "The Design and Construction of Two Cables
for the Korean Olympics" in Shells, Membranes and Space Frames, Proceedings, lASS Symposium, Osaka,
Japan, 1986, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986).
325
CHAPTER 15
The following analysis of a steel dome is illus- after the specifications of the coordinates of
trated by solving a specific problem, using these points indicates their function as sup-
the powerful computer program that is inter- ports. The apex of the dome coincides with
nationally known and available world wide nodal point 25.
wherever IBM services are provided. The This dome is referred to a system of Car-
System STRUDL II was originally developed tesian coordinates, XYZ, so that the plan of
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology the dome is on the XY plane and Z is the
and it is still available, although new up- vertical axis oriented upward from the base
graded versions are also offered such as the of the dome. In the program input the nodal
one by Georgia Tech. The problem is pre- points or joints are described in terms of
sented to the attention of the reader as a their coordinates. The members are de-
simple analytical tool and can be applied by scribed by means of their so-called member
following the step-by-step sequence illus- incidence, which includes the number of the
trated hereafter. joint at the start and end of each member.
Like the joints, all members are identified by
PROBLEM: The structure analyzed here, the a number.
Schwedler dome, is a trussed steel dome with For a better understanding of the overall
a hexagonal floor plan. The dome is in- geometry of the dome, consider the follow-
scribed within a perfect hemisphere whose ing description. In this example, twenty-five
diameter is 100 ft (30.5 m). All the nodal joints are arranged in four hoops that start
points of the dome are thus located on the from the ground with hoop number 1 and go
hemisphere. The dome consists of 66 mem- up to hoops 2, 3, and 4. Joint 25 forms the
bers connecting 25 nodal points to form a crown above the hoops. The dome's 66 mem-
series of polygonal hoops and meridians. bers are arranged into 24 hoop members, 24
These hoops and meridians form a series of meridian members, and 18 diagonal ones.
isosceles trapezoids that are triangulated by Members 1 through 6 are, as stated, in the
diagonal stabilizing members. (See Figures first hoop, at the base, 19 through 24 on the
15-1 and 15-2 for a graphic illustration of the second hoop, 37 through 42 on the third
dome's plan and elevation.) hoop, and 55 through 60 on the fourth.
The nodes from 1 through 6 are at Meridian members 7 through 12 are be-
ground level and act as supports. The letter S tween the first and second hoop, 25 through
327
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
30 between the second and third hoops, 44 of inertia of the members' cross-section is not
through 48 between the third and fourth needed. Furthermore, because the members
hoops, and 61 through 66 between the are what is described as being prismatic, their
fourth hoop and the crown. Diagonal mem- cross-sections remain constant.
bers 13 through 18 are between hoops 1 and All members of this sample dome are
2,31 through 36 between hoops 2 and 3, and made of steel, as indicated by the modulus of
49 through 54 between hoops 3 and 4. No- elasticity E, specified to be 29,000 ksi for all.
tice that all the diagonal members are equally There are two loading conditions for the
inclined. Facing the dome, the diagonal dome. The first consists of a series of concen-
members go from the lower right to the trated loads applied vertically downward
upper left. (-Z) at each joint from 7 through 25, ex-
In the input, the geometry of t.he joints cluding the joints on the ground. Each load
and members is expressed in feet, with the in this first loading is - 1 kip. Loading two is
cross-sections of members AX given in the wind load. After stating the data of the
square inches. Notice also that because of the problem in these terms, specify that the pro-
absence of bending stresses in the members, gram should perform a stiffness analysis of
by the definition of space truss, the moment the structure. Then, on another line, write a
328
Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
Z=50.6
z=46.1
Z=19(
command that requests the following: the makes the first hoop unnecessary. If one
axial forces in the members, the reactions at wants to avoid this and allow the first hoop to
the supports, the distortions (the elongation work, it is necessary to release the X and Y
or contraction of the members), and the dis- reaction components at their supports.
placement of the joints. Consider that the total load on the dome is
For simplicity'S sake, the example problem equal to 19 kips (84.5 kN). Therefore, the
has been kept short, without limiting its clar- vertical reactions at the supports coincide
ity. The few joints and members shown are with
enough to present the overall behavior of a
dome of this type. The process is of course
the same for any other type of trussed dome, '6
19 = 3.16 k'IpS (14.1 kN)
regardless of the complexity of its geometry.
The computer information in the output
provides the reactions at the six supports. It OUTPUT: After the command "stiffening
has been assumed that these six supports at analysis," indicated in the input, the com-
the base are fixed hinges, which implies cer- puter resolves the structure and generates
tain effects. First, the reactions in the XY the answers to the questions that were asked.
plane are radially oriented and equal to each The units used are specified in inches and
other, as shown in terms of their X and Y kips.
components. Notice, for instance, that joints This step-by-step illustration of how to
1 and 4 have a Y component equal to 0, since enter the input of a problem can easily be
the orientation of the reaction is along the X applied to other similar problems. It is now
axis itself. Second, since the supports are essential to be able to read and understand
fixed hinges, the axial forces in the members the solutions given by the computer (see Fig.
in the first hoop are all equal to 0, which ] 5-3). The output shown considers that the
329
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
format in which the answers are given is con- symmetry is not in fact specular and there-
stant and will apply to other similar prob- fore invalid. This accounts for the variations
lems, independent of valid geometric con- in the values of the axial forces in the diago-
figurations. nals. Furthermore, in the results it is notice-
The Schwedler dome used in this example able that the axial forces in these members
reflects certain characteristics that readily be- are extremely low. Consequently, they can be
come apparent in the results of the static practically neglected when the structure is
analysis. The geometry of this dome consists loaded vertically at its nodal points. On the
of trapezoids braced by diagonal members all other hand, under other loading conditions,
inclined in the same direction, which gener- such as those of horizontal wind forces, these
ates a structure that is not totally symmetrical members of course become more significant
with respect to its vertical central axis. The than in the previous case.
INPUT
15-3 Problem input. Each of the lines in the .ftaure represents an input command that is typed on
individual lines.
330
Computer Analj'sis of Trussed Domes
S MEMBERS 1 TO 18 HAVE AX 10
1 1 2 (hoop member a t first level)
2 2 3 DO
3 3 4 DO
4 4 5 DO
5 5 6 DO
6 6 1 DO
7 1 7 (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 2 8 DO
9 3 9 DO
104 10 DO
11 5 11 DO
126 12 DO
136 7 (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
141 8 DO
152 9 DO
163 10 DO
174 11 DO
185 12 DO
S MEMBERS 19 TO 36 HAVE AX 8
197 8 (Hoop member at second level)
208 9 DO
219 10 DO
221011 DO
231112 DO
24127 DO
257 13 (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
268 14 DO
279 15 DO
281016 DO
291117 DO
301218 DO
311213 (Diagonal member from second to third hoop)
327 14 DO
338 15 DO
349 16 DO
351017 DO
361118 DO
S MEMBERS 37 TO 54 HAVE AX 6
371314 (Hoop member at third level)
381415 DO
391516 DO
401617 DO
411718 DO
421813 DO
431319 (Meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
441420 DO
451521 DO
461622 DO
471723 DO
481824 DO
491819 (Diagonal member from third to fourth hoop)
501320 DO
511421 DO
521522 DO
531623 DO
541724 DO
S MEMBERS 55 TO 66 HAVE AX 1
55 1920 (Hoop member a t fourth level)
562021 DO
572122 DO
582223 DO
592324 DO
15-3 (continued)
331
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
602419 DO
611925 (Meridian members from fourth hoop to crown)
622025 DO
632125 DO
642225 DO
652325 DO
662425 DO
OUTPUT
***************************
*RESULTS OF LATEST ANALYSES* (The following information will apply to all outputs.)
***************************
MEMBER FORCES
Note: Posi ti ve = Tension. Negative = Compression
[
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORCE.
MEMBER JOINT AXIAL
~ ; ~:~
(Zero hoop force because jOints are hinged support)
DO
3 4 0.0 DO
4 5 0.0 DO
5 6 0.0 DO
6 1 0.0 DO
(Compression force in meridian member from fi rst to second hoop)
7 7 [-3.2290678
8 8 -3.2286053 DO
9 9 -3.2275028 DO
10 10 -3.2294693 DO
11 11 -3.2288837 DO
12 12 -3.2285614 DO
(Force in diagonal member from first to second hoop)
13 7 [-0.0013212
14 8 0.0013976 DO
15 9 -0.0016562 DO
16 10 -0.0017128 DO
17 11 0.0017889 DO
18 12 0.0015042 DO
19 8 [0.8194115 (Tension force in hoop member at second hoop)
20 9 0.8197028 DO
15-3 (continued)
332
Computer Ana~sis of Trussed Domes
21
22
10
11
[ 0.8191081
0.8195431 DO
DO
23 12 0.8181520 DO
24 7 0.8191823 DO
25
26
13
14 r2605985
-2.6062346
(Compression force in meridian member from second to third hoop)
DO
27 15 -2.6068220 DO
28 16 -2.6067934 DO
29 17 -2.6062260 DO
30 18 -2.6070166 DO
31
32
13
14
[-0.0019077
0.0019513 (Force in diagonal member from second to third hoop)
DO
33 15 -0.0000778 DO
34 16 0.0015883 DO
35 17 -0.0015439 DO
36 18 -0.0000100 DO
37
38
14
15
[ 0.2983205
0.2971213
(Tension force in hoop member at third hoop)
DO
39 16 0.2960368 DO
40 17 0.2978735 DO
41 18 0.2970852 DO
42 13 0.2972810 DO
43
44
19
20
[2.,011686
-2.1003036
(Compression force in meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
DO
45 21 -2.1002312 DO
46 22 -2.0996237 DO
47 23 -2.1000576 DO
48 24 -2.0992851 DO
49
50
19
20
[0.0016220
0.0016475
(Force in diagonal member from third to fourth hoop)
DO
51 21 -0.0000305 DO
52 22 0.0003698 DO
53 23 -0.0003424 DO
54 24 -0.0000244 DO
55
56
20
21 O.91"26'
r-0.9091491
(Compression force in hoop member at fourth hoop)
DO
57 22 -0.9091181 DO
58 23 -0.9087155 DO
59 24 -0.9091525 DO
60 19 -0.9102634 DO
61
62
25
25
[-0-0.8514645
.8543866 (Compression force in meridian member from fourth hoop to crown)
DO
63 25 -0.8539101 DO
64 25 -0.8525422 DO
65 25 -0.8539518 DO
66 25 -0.8514223 DO
)
1 0.0 (Hoop member at first level)
2 0.0 DO
3 0.0 DO
4 0.0 DO
5 0.0 DO
6 0.0 DO
7
8 -0-0.0026056
00260'' ] (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
DO
9 -0.0026049 DO
10 -0.0026066 DO
11 -0.0026060 DO
12 -0.0026056 DO
13 -0 . 0000028 ] (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
14 0.0000030 DO
15-3 (continued)
333
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
15 -0.0000036] DO
16 -0.0000037 DO
17 0.0000038 DO
18 0.0000032 DO
19 0.0019579] (Hoop member at second level)
20 0.0019584 DO
21 0.0019584 DO
22 0.0019574 DO
23 0.0019547 DO
24 0.0019573 DO
25 -0.0026296] (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 -0.0026307 DO
27 -0.0026313 DO
28 -0.0026305 DO
29 -0.0026307 DO
30 -0.0026315 DO
31 0.0000045] Diagonal member from second to third hoop)
32 -0.0000044 DO
33 -0.0000002 DO
34 0.0000037 DO
35 -0.0000036 DO
36 -0.0000000 DO
37 0.0007272] (Hoop member at third level)
38 0.0007244 DO
39 0.0007217 DO
40 0.0007262 DO
41 0.0007243 DO
42 0.0007246 DO
43 -0.0028294] (Meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
44 -0.0028261 DO
45 -0.0028260 DO
46 -0.0028249 DO
47 -0.0028258 DO
48 -0.0028248 DO
49 -0.0000036] Diagonal member from thi rd to fourth hoop)
50 o. 0000037 DO
51 -0.0000001 DO
52 0.0000008 DO
53 -0.0000008 DO
54 -0.0000001 DO
55 -0.0072125] (Hoop member at fourth level)
56 -0.0071967 DO
57 -0.0071951 DO
58 -0.0071919 DO
59 -0.0071967 DO
60 -0.0071985 DO
61 -0.0068891] (Meridian member from fourth to to crown)
62 -0.0068712 DO
63 -0.0068892 DO
64 -0.0068811 DO
65 -0.0068895 DO
66 -0.0068709 DO
RESULTANT JOINT
SUPPORTS
JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE- - - - - - - - - /
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
1 GLOBAL 0.6300007 -0.0010781 3.1663551
2 GLOBAL 0.3160568 -0.5447277 3.1673689
3 GLOBAL -0.3153579 -0.5458395 3.1661491
4 GLOBAL -0.6298786 0.0013797 3.1666031
5 GLOBAL -0.3147978 0.5445471 3.1663170
6 GLOBAL 0.3139770 0.5457184 3.1672020
15-3 (continued)
334
Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
RESULTANT JOINT
FREE JOINTS
JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE- - - - - - - - - /
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
7 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0,0000000 -0.9999996
8 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
9 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
10 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
11 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
12 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999999
13 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
14 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
15 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
16 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
17 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
18 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
19 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
20 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
21 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
22 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
23 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
24 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
25 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
RESULTANT JOINT
SUPPORTS
DISPLACEMENTS -
JOINT . DISPLACEMENT
X DISP. Y DISP Z DISP.
1 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 (First hoop)
2 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 ] DO
3 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
4 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
5 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
6 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
RESULTANT JOINT
FREE JOINTS (All except supports)
DISPLACEMENTS - (note that uni ts are inches)
JOINT . DISPLACEMENT ..
X DISP. Y DISP. Z DISP.
7 GLOBAL -0.0019522 0.0000436 -0.0022687] (Second Hoop)
8 GLOBAL -0.0009459 0.0017234 -0.0022662 DO
9 GLOBAL 0.0010125 0.0016761 -0.0022665 DO
10 GLOBAL 0.0019498 -0.0000441 -0.0022695 DO
11 GLOBAL 0.0009350 -0.0017183 -0.0022682 DO
12 GLOBAL -0.0010197 -0.0016782 -0.0022666 DO
13 GLOBAL -0.0007262 0.0000320 -0.0062509] (Thi rd Hoop)
14 GLOBAL -0.0003385 0.0006478 -0.0062576 DO
15 GLOBAL 0.0003859 0.0006058 -0.0062619 DO
16 GLOBAL 0.0007241 -0.0000323 -0.0062525 DO
17 GLOBAL 0.0003268 -0.0006414 -0.0062605 DO
18 GLOBAL -0.0003974 -0.0006150 -0.0062567 DO
19 GLOBAL 0.0072192 0.0057551 -0.0232507] (Fourth Hoop)
20 GLOBAL 0.0085688 -0.0033460 -0.0231849 DO
21 GLOBAL 0.0013721 -0.0091092 -0.0232026 DO
22 GLOBAL -0.0071888 -0.0057464 -0.0231765 DO
23 GLOBAL -0.0085834 0.0033661 -0.0232072 DO
24 GLOBAL -0.0013867 0.0091049 -0.0231991 DO
25 GLOBAL 0.0000035 0.0000014 -0.0222927 (Crown)
15-3 (continued)
335
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
The program has been run again for load 2 in substi tution of load 1 in the input. The following
commands instruct the computer specifying the new load. All other commands remain unchanged.
MEMBER FORCES
MEMBER JOINT / - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - FORCE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - /
AXIAL
1 2 0.0 (Zero hoop force because joints are hinged support)
2 3 0.0 DO
3 4 0.0 DO
4 5 0.0 DO
5 6 0.0 DO
6 1 0.0 DO
7 7 0.0004548 (Compression force in meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 8 0.6681308 DO
9 9 7.6292801 DO
10 10 0.4753883 DO
11 11 -5.9938040 DO
12 12 -1.8730125 DO
13 7 -8.2662373 (Force in diagnol member from first to second hoop)
14 2 10.8226509 DO
15 9 -1.4507809 DO
16 4 -12.6774006 DO
17 11 8.5137644 DO
18 6 0.6472248 DO
19 8 -9.4929752 (Tension force in hoop member at second hoop)
20 9 -2.8740139 DO
21 10 4.7387848 DO
22 11 -4.8920145 DO
23 12 1.6189051 DO
24 7 6.1421947 DO
25 13 1.1346626 (Compression force in meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 14 -0.3914562 DO
27 15 2.7340355 DO
28 16 0.7175829 DO
29 17 -3.0081205 DO
30 18 -0.6486032 DO
31 13 -3.9879713 (Force in diagnonal member from second to third hoop)
32 8 3.5229559 DO
33 15 -0.8095253 DO
34 10 -4.5381279 DO
35 17 4.1774368 DO
36 12 0.3965685 DO
15-3 (continued)
336
Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
MEMBER FORCES
MEMBER / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISTORTION···· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. /
AXIAL SHEAR Y SHEAR Z
1 0.0 (Hoop member at first level)
2 0.0 DO
3 0.0 DO
4 0.0 DO
5 0.0 DO
6 0.0 DO
7 0.0000004 (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 0.0005392 DO
9 0.0061575 DO
10 0.0003837 DO
11 -0.0048375 DO
12 -0.0015116 DO
13 -0.0177401 (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
14 0.0232264 DO
15 -0.0031133 DO
16 -0.0272121 DO
17 0.0182749 DO
18 0.0013889 DO
19 -0.0226823 (Hoop member at second level)
20 -0.0068664 DO
21 0.0113240 DO
22 -0.0116901 DO
23 0.0038678 DO
24 0.0146760 DO
25 0.0011450 (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 -0.0003951 DO
27 0.0027597 DO
28 0.0007241 DO
29 -0.0030363 DO
30 -0.0006547 DO
15-3 (continued)
337
Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
15-3 (continued)
338
Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
15-3 (continued)
339
Epilogue
The historical continuum of human progress The demographic growth of the last part
finds what is probably its clearest expression of the twentieth century has created a world
in the evolution of architectural forms. population on an unprecedented scale, with
The morphology of curvilinear structures in needs of an astonishing magnitude. Spectacu-
present architecture is connected directly to lar sporting events, for instance, have begun
the forms developed over thousands of years to demand huge enclosed spaces for
of experience with them. Thus, only by hundreds of thousands of spectators in a new
knowing the historical development of var- generation of stadiums with immense pro-
ious curvilinear forms is it possible to fully portions. The long-span roofing systems nec-
understand their present applications. Ob- essary to enclose column-free spaces had thus
viously, the steel and concrete materials of to be developed through the ingenuity of
the present differ substantially from the ma- structural engineering to extend the limits of
sonry of the past, yet the overall structural existing systems enough to satisfy the new
concepts can be applied equally to the demands. Although some solutions have ex-
present and the past. The recent large-scale panded along new directions such as im-
megastructures over stadiums are not iso- proved suspension systems, a major impulse
lated creations but expressions of a gradual has concentrated on improving the dome
progressive development of engineering pro- that since ancient times has been used to en-
cesses that include structural analysis and ex- close the largest-spanned spaces. It is of
amining the strength of materials. From the major importance, therefore, that domical
primitive prehistoric prototypes of masonry structures be properly discussed and right-
vaulting to the large-span steel and concrete fully placed within the ranks of the other
domes of the late twentieth century, it is fun- important structural options of the present.
damental to recognize and apply the continu- This must be done to correct the erroneous
ous thread linking together so many struc- perception that many members of the design
tures. It is on this basis that the historical profession have of curvilinear structures in
development of domes has been particularly general. Whether they are of steel, rein-
emphasized in this work, hoping that the forced concrete, or wood, domes do repre-
present-day design applications of curvilinear sent the most logical structural system for the
forms would be perceived adequately in their largest column-free space, but they also have
proper historical context. major practical applications for much shorter
341
Epilo8ue
spans. The religious architecture of the Mos- present-day Western architecture is at a low
lem world alone clearly indicates, with its point, interest in the engineering aspects of
domes over present-day mosques worldwide, shells is extraordinarily high. A recent engi-
that domes still constitute a reality on a scale neering index for the United States alone
that should not be ignored. shows a remarkable number of papers pub-
The computer has been responsible to a lished in a recent year under the general
great extent for facilitating structural analysis heading of domes and shells. For instance,
in the megadomes of the present. This tool the 1989 annual, included in Appendix B,
has revolutionized the structural engineering indicates 326 papers for that year alone,
profession not only by simplifying the design while the 1988 annual shows 261 papers. N0-
of contemporary domes but also in promising tice that the 1988 and 1989 years were by no
great potential expansion for even larger means an exceptional period, since high
domes in the future. Especially for optimiza- numbers of papers were published in pre-
tion procedures that make available quick vious years as well. On the basis of such data
verifications, the computer offers an extra- it seems obvious that the engineering aspects
ordinary ability to analyze a great variety of curvilinear structures rests on solid foun-
of configurations and loading conditions. dations that are unaffected by ephemeral ar-
Within this context, the architectural and en- chitectural trends. When architects even-
gineering team can visibly scan a virtually tually rediscover the inherent structural
limitless spectrum of rational and imaginative integrity of curvilinear forms they will find a
forms with ease, resulting in the expansion of substantial body of engineering knowledge
the existing morphology. on which they can depend in creating a new
Although the use of curvilinear forms in morphology of shells.
342
APPENDIX A
Since concrete is the basic, most common material for the construction of thin shells,
the requirements of such specific codes as those of the American Concrete Institute
must be followed. Unfortunately, for many years these codes did not address in
specific terms the unique problems related to thin shells, so that in the absence of
special provisions only the common rules on concrete structures could in general be
followed. One major result has been a great thickness for shells being imposed by
minimum cover requirements for steel reinforcement. Naturally, code requirements
vary from country to country, so that although ACI restrictions were enforced in the
United States, shells only three-quarters of an inch thick were legally possible in
Mexico, as demonstrated by the numerous thin shells there by Felix Candela.
The ACI's design provisions for shells and folded plates are covered in Chapter
19 of its code. These include such major topics as definitions, criteria for structural
and model analysis, reinforcement, prestressing, and construction. In separating the
supporting members of a thin shell structure from its whole, the code explicitly
specifies that Chapter 19's provisions apply only on the thin shell portion of the
structure. The edge beams, columns, footings, and other supporting members are
covered by other chapters in the code. Naturally, thin shell designs should also be
controlled by the rest of the code, except for provisions that may conflict with those
in Chapter 19.
*From Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-89). The full text of
Chapter 19 and its Commentary are reprinted with the permission of the American Concrete
Institute, Detroit.
343
ACI Buildina Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.0-NOTATION
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (see
8.5.1)
Fe = specified compressive strength of concrete,
psi
= square root of specified compressive strength
of concrete, psi
= specified yield strength of nonprestressed re-
inforcement, psi
= thickness of shell or folded plate, in.
= develop length, in.
= strength reduction factor (see 9.3)
344
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code] [Commentary]
19.1.3 Thin shells: three-dimensional spatial R 19.1. 3 Common types of thin shells are
structures made up of one or more curved slabs domes (surfaces of revolution), 19.3. 19.6-19.9 cy-
or folded plates whose thicknesses are small lindrical shells, 19.3. 19.6. 19.8. 19.10-19.15 conoids,
compared to their other dimensions. Thin shells 19.6. 19.16-19.18 elliptical paraboloids, 19.6. 19.19 hy-
are characterized by their three-dimensional perbolic paraboloids, 19.3. 19.6. 19.8. 19.19-19.28 and
load-carrying behavior which is determined by groin vauIts.19.3. 19.19. 19.29. 19.30 Considerable in-
the geometry of their forms, by the manner in formation on the experience gained in the de-
which they are supported, and by the nature of sign, analysis and construction of these shells
the applied load. may be found in the cited references.
Less experience is available regarding other
shell types or shapes, including free-form shells.
However, a number of these have been success-
fully built.
Thin shell elements are slabs or plates with
thicknesses less than one-fifth the transverse
width and less than one-twentieth the radius of
curvature on span lengths.
19.1.4 Folded plates: a special class of shell R19.1.4 Folded plates may be prismatic,19.3.
structures formed by joining flat, thin slabs 19.6. 19.31-33 nonprismatic,19.34 or faceted. The
along their edges so as to create a three-dimen- first two types, which are the most common,
sional spatial structure. consist generally of planar thin slabs joined
along their longitudinal edges to form a beam-
like structure spanning between supports. Fac-
eted folded plates, which are much less com-
mon, are made up of triangular and/or poly-
gonal planar thin slabs joined along their edges
to form three-dimensional spatial structures
similar to continuously curved thin shells such
as domes or other shell forms. Only limited ex-
perience is available on the design, analysis, and
construction of faceted folded plates.
19.1.5 Ribbed shells: spatial structures with R19.1.5 Ribbed shells I9.3. 19.35. 19.36 generally
material placed primarily along certain pre- have been used for larger spans where the in-
ferred rib lines, with the area between the ribs creased thickness of the curved slab alone be-
filled with thin slabs or left open. comes excessive or uneconomical. Ribbed shells
also have been used because of the construction
techniques employed and to enhance the aes-
thetic impact of the completed structure.
19.1.6 Auxiliary members: ribs or edge beams R 19.1.6 Most thin shell structures require ribs
which serve to strengthen, stiffen, and/or sup- or edge beams at their boundaries to carry the
port the shell; usually, auxiliary members act shell boundary forces, to assist in transmitting
jointly with the shell. them to the supporting structure, and to accom-
modate the increased amount of reinforcement
in these areas.
345
ACI BUilding Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.1.7 Elastic analysis: an analysis of defor- R 19.1. 7 Elastic analysis of thin shells and
mations and internal forces based on equilib- folded plates means any method of structural
rium, compatibility of strains, and assumed elas- analysis which is based on assumptions which
tic behavior, and representing to suitable provide suitable approximations to the three-
approximation the three-dimensional action of dimensional behavior of the structure. The
the shell together with its auxiliary members. method must provide the internal forces and
displacements needed in the design of the shell
proper, the rib or edge members, and the sup-
porting structure. Equilibrium of internal
forces and external loads and compatibility of
deformations must be satisfied.
Methods of elastic analysis based on classical
shell theory, simplified mathematical or analyti-
cal models, or numerical solutions using finite
e1ement,19.37 finite differences, or numerical in-
tegration techniques, are described in the cited
references.
The choice of the method of analysis and the
degree of accuracy required depend on certain
critical factors. These include: the size of the
structure, the geometry of the thin shell or
folded plate, the manner in which the structure
is supported, the nature of the applied load and,
finally, the extent of personal or documented
experience regarding the reliability of the given
method of analysis in predicting the behavior of
the specific type of shell or folded plate.
19.1.8 Inelastic analysis: an analysis of defor- R19.1.8 Inelastic analysis of thin shells and
mations and internal forces based on equilib- folded plates means a refined method of analy-
rium, nonlinear stress-strain relations for con- sis based on the specific nonlinear material
crete and reinforcement, consideration of properties, nonlinear behavior due to the crack-
cracking and time dependent effects, and com- ing of concrete, and time dependent effects
patibility of strains. The analysis shall represent such as creep, shrinkage, temperature, and load
to suitable approximation the three-dimen- history. These effects are incorporated in order
sional action of the shell together with its auxil- to trace the response and crack propagation of a
iary members. reinforced concrete shell through the elastic,
inelastic and ultimate ranges. Such analyses usu-
ally require incremental loading and iterative
procedures to converge on solutions which sat-
isfy both equilibrium and strain compatibil-
ity.19.38 Analysis of this type generally requires
extensive computer time.
346
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code] [Commentary]
19.2.2 Inelastic analyses may be used where it R19.2.2 Inelastic analysis procedures will gen-
can be shown that such methods provide a safe erally require extensive use of computer proce-
basis for design. dures. Several references indicate possible solu-
tion methods.19.~8-19.40
347
ACI Buildino Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.2.5 Approximate methods of analysis not R19.2.5 In general, solutions that include
satisfying compatibility of strains either within both membrane and bending effects and satisfy
the shell or between the shell and auxiliary compatibility of strains and equilibriums are
members may be used where it can be shown preferred. Approximate solutions which satisfy
that such methods provide a safe basis for statics but not the compatibility of strains may
design. be used only when extensive experience has
proved that safe designs have resulted from
their use. Such methods include beam-type
analysis for barrel shells and folded plates hav-
ing large ratios of span to either width or radius
of curvature, simple membrane analysis for
shells of revolution, and others in which the
equations of equilibrium are satisfied, while the
strain compatibility equations are not.
However, in complex structures where sev-
eral shells join together, or where shells join
auxiliary members, a more accurate analysis
should be used.
348
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code] [Commentary]
19.2.6 In prestressed shells, the analysis must RI9.2.6 If the shell is prestressed, the analysis
also consider behavior under loads induced must include its strength at factored loads as
during prestressing, at cracking load, and at well as its adequacy under service loads, the
factored load. Where prestressing tendons are load which causes cracking, and the behavior
draped within a shell, design shall take into ac- under loads induced during prestressing. This
count force components on the shell resulting was recommended in ACI 318R-77, 19.2.3,
from tendon profile not lying in one plane. and was moved to the code for clarity. Axial
forces due to draped prestressed tendons may
not lie in one plane and due consideration must
be given to the resulting force components.
The effects of post-tensioning of supporting
members on the shell must be taken into
account.
19.2.7 The thickness h of a thin shell, and its RI9.2.7 In general, Chapter 19 assumes the
reinforcement, shall be proportioned for the use of the strength design method of 8.1.1. On
required strength and serviceability. All ele- this basis the thin shell's thickness and rein-
ments shall be proportioned by the same forcement must be proportioned to satisfy the
method, using either the strength design strength provisions of this code, so as to resist
method of 8.1.1 or the alternate design method internal forces obtained from an analysis, an
of 8.1.2. experimental model study, or a combination
thereof. The thickness of the shell is often dic-
tated not by the requirements of strength, but
by the limitation of deflection of edge members,
by the requirements of stability imposed by
19.2.8, or by the required reinforcement cover
and the construction exigencies.
The necessary thickness and reinforcement
may be also provided by using the alternate
design method prescribed in 8.1.2. The design
method chosen shall be used consistently
throughout the structure.
If composite action is involved, the provi-
sions of Chapter 17 must be satisfied. Chapter
16 applies if elements are precast. When shell or
folded plate elements are precast and connected
by cast-in-place segments, composite action
must be considered.
349
ACI BUilding Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.2.8 Shell design shall investigate and pre- R19.2.8 Thin shells, like other structures that
clude the possibility of general or local insta- experience in-plane compressive forces, are
bility. subject to buckling when the applied load
reaches a critical value. Because of the surface-
like geometry of shells, the problem of calculat-
ing buckling load is complex. If one of the prin-
cipal membrane forces is tensile, the shell is less
likely to buckle than if both principal mem-
brane forces were compressive. The kinds of
membrane forces that develop in a shell depend
on its initial shape and the manner in which the
shell is supported and loaded. In some types of
shells, post-buckling behavior must be consid-
ered in determining safety against instability. 19.2
Investigation of thin shells for stability shall
consider the effect of the following factors: (1)
anticipated deviation of the geometry of the
shell surface as built from the idealized, perfect
geometry, (2) large deflections, (3) creep and
shrinkage of concrete, (4) inelastic properties of
materials, (5) cracking of concrete, (6) location,
amount, and orientation of reinforcement, and
(7) possible deformation of supporting ele-
ments.
For shells of moderate size, the smallest
practical shell thickness used in reinforced con-
crete construction is such that the danger of
buckling is usually minimal and simplified anal-
yses suffice. Practical measures to improve re-
sistance to buckling successfully used in the past
include the provision of two mats of rein-
forcement - one near each outer surface of the
shell, a local increase of shell curvatures, the use
of ribbed shells, and the use of concrete with
high tensile strength and low creep.
A practical procedure for determining criti-
cal buckling loads of shells is given in the lASS
recommendations. 19.2 Some recommendations
for buckling design of domes used in industrial
applications are given in ACI Committee 344
Report. 19.5 Approaches for other shells are con-
tained in "Concrete Shell Buckling," ACI
SP_67. 19,42
350
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code] [Commentary]
19.2.9 Auxiliary members shall be designed RI9.2.9 Auxiliary members must be designed
according to the applicable provisions of this in accord with the general provisions of the
code. The design method selected for shell ele- code, using one of the two methods prescribed
ments under 19.2.7 shall also be used for auxil- in 8.1, which is consistent with the design
iary members. A portion of the shell equal to method of the shell elements. Portions of the
the flange width specified in 8.10 may be as- shell may be utilized as flanges for transverse or
sumed to act with the auxiliary member. In longitudinal frames or arch-frames and beams.
such portions of the shell, the reinforcement Such flanges may be curved or sloping. Canti-
perpendicular to the auxiliary member shall be lever action of the flanges must be investigated
at least equal to that required for the flange of a in determining reinforcement in the flange per-
T-beam by 8.10.5. pendicular to the longitudinal axis of the sup-
porting member, as required by Chapter 8. In
all cases, at least the minimum shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement must be used.
19.4.3 The area of shell reinforcement at any R19.4.3 Minimum membrane reinforcement
section as measured in two orthogonal direc- corresponding to slab shrinkage and tempera-
tions shall not be less than the slab shrinkage or ture reinforcement must be provided in at least
temperature reinforcement required by 7.12. two approximately orthogonal directions even
if the calculated membrane forces are compres-
sive in one or more directions.
351
ACI BuiJdina Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.4.5 The area of shell tension reinforce- R19.4.5 The requirement that the tensile re-
ment shall be limited so that the reinforcement inforcement yield before the concrete crushes is
will yield before crushing of concrete in com- consistent with 10.3.3. In shells, initial crushing
pression can take place. of the concrete is not likely to occur. However,
it has been suggested that such crushing would
occur in some portions of some shells where the
principal membrane forces are approximately
equal and opposite in sign. It can be shown l9 .45
that a limit on the maximum amount of rein-
forcement effective in resisting the principal
tensile membrane force will insure that the
crushing of concrete does not take place before
the yielding of reinforcement. The limit sug-
gested on the ratio of reinforcement in any por-
tion of shell is the smaller of 0.6f'. J, or 2,400/
J,. These limits are the same as those used in
ACI 318-77 but are expressed here in ratio
form.
352
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code] [Commentary]
19.4.6 In regions of high tension, membrane RI9.4.6 It is generally desirable for all shells
reinforcement shall, if practical, be placed in and particularly important in regions of sub-
the general directions of the principal tensile stantial tension that the directions of reinforce-
membrane forces. Where this is not practical, it ment approximate the directions of the princi-
is permitted to place membrane reinforcement pal tensile membrane forces. However, in some
in two or more component directions. structures it is not always possible or practical
for the reinforcement to follow the stress trajec-
tories. For such cases, orthogonal component
reinforcing is allowed.
19.4.7 If the direction of reinforcement varies RI9.4.7 When the directions of reinforce-
more than I 0 deg from the direction of princi- ment deviate significantly (10 deg) from the di-
pal tensile membrane force, the amount of rein- rections of the principal membrane forces,
forcement may have to be increased to limit the higher strains in the shell must occur to develop
width of possible cracks at service load levels. the capacity of reinforcement. 19.44 This might
lead to the development of unacceptably wide
cracks. The crack width should be estimated
and controlled if necessary.
Permissible crack widths for service loads
under different environmental conditions are
given in the report of ACI Committee 224.19.46
Crack width can be limited by an increase in the
amount of reinforcement used, by reducing the
stress at the service load level, by providing re-
inforcement in three or more directions in the
plane of the shell, or by using closer spacing of
smaller diameter bars rather than wider spaced
larger bars.
19.4.8 Where the magnitude of the principal RI9.4.S The practice of concentrating tensile
tensile membrane stress within the shell varies reinforcement in the regions of maximum ten-
greatly over the area of the shell surface, rein- sile stress has led to a number of successful and
forcement resisting the total tension is to be economical designs, primarily for long folded
concentrated in the regions of largest tensile plates, long barrel vault shells, and for domes.
stress where it can be shown that this provides a The requirement of providing the minimum re-
safe basis for design. However, the ratio of shell inforcement in the remaining tensile zone is in-
reinforcement in any portion of the tensile zone tended to control cracking.
shall be not less than 0.0035 based on the over-
all thickness of the shell.
19.4.9 Reinforcement required to resist shell RI9.4.9 The sign of bending moments may
bending moments shall be proportioned with change rapidly from point to point of a shell.
due regard to the simultaneous action of mem- For this reason, bending reinforcement, where
brane axial forces at the same location. Where required, is to be placed near both outer sur-
shell reinforcement is required in only one face faces of the shell. In many cases, the thickness
to resist bending moments, equal amounts shall required to provide proper cover and spacing
be placed near both surfaces of the shell even for the multiple layers of reinforcement may
though a reversal of bending moments is not govern the design of the shell thickness.
indicated by the analysis.
353
ACI Buildino Code Requirements
[Code] [Commentary]
19.4.10 Shell reinforcement in any direction RI9.4.10 The value of cp to be used is that
shall not be spaced farther apart than 18 in. nor prescribed in 9.3.2.2(a) for axial tension.
five times the shell thickness. Where the princi-
pal membrane tensile stress on the gross con-
crete area due to factored loads exceeds 4cp if.
reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart
than three times the shell thickness.
19.4.11 Shell reinforcement at the junction of RI9.4.11 and RI9.4.12 On curved shell sur-
the shell and supporting members or edge faces it is more difficult to control the alignment
members shall be anchored in or extended of precut reinforcement. This must be consid-
through such members in accordance with the ered to avoid insufficient splice and develop-
requirements of Chapter 12, except that the ment lengths. Sections 19.4.11 and 19.4.12
minimum development length shall be 1.2t" but specify extra reinforcement length to maintain
not less than 18 in. the minimum lengths on curved surfaces.
19.5 Construction
19.5.1 When removal of formwork is based on RI9.5.1 When early removal of forms is nec-
a specific modulus of elasticity of concrete be- essary, the magnitude of the modulus of elastic-
cause of stability or deflection considerations, ity at the time of proposed form removal must
the value of the modulus of elasticity E. shall be be investigated in order to insure safety of the
determined from flexural tests of field-cured shell with respect to buckling, and to restrict
beam specimens. The number of test speci- deflections. 19.s. 19.47 The value of the modulus of
mens, the dimensions of test beam specimens, elasticity E. must be obtained from a flexural
and test procedures shall be specified by the test of field-cured specimens. It is not sufficient
Engineer. to determine the modulus from the formula in
8.5.1, even if f. is determined for the field-
cured specimen.
19.5.2 The Engineer shall specify the toler- RI9.5.2 In some types of shells, small local
ances for the shape of the shell. If construction deviations from the theoretical geometry of the
results in deviations from the shape greater shell can cause relatively large changes in local
than the specified tolerances, an analysis of the stresses and in overall safety against instability.
effect of the deviations shall be made and any These changes can result in local cracking and
required remedial actions shall be taken to en- yielding which may make the structure unsafe
sure safe behavior. or can greatly affect the critical load producing
instability. The effect of such deviations should
be evaluated and any necessary actions should
be taken promptly.
354
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
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10 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 4.
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19.6. Billington, David P., Thin Shell Concrete Structures, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
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19.7. Ketchum, Milo S., "Design of Shell Structures-Short Shells and Domes of
Revolution," Consulting Engineer, V. 17, No.1, July 1962.
19.8. Tedesko, Anton, "How Have Concrete Shell Structures Performed?," Bulletin,
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19.9. Christiansen, j. V., "The King County Multipurpose Domed Stadium," Proceedings,
lASS World Congress on Space Enclosures (Montreal, 1976), Building Research Centre,
Concordia University, Montreal, 1976, V. 2, pp. 11)49-1061.
19.10. "Design of Cylindrical Concrete Shell Roofs," Manual of Engineering Practice No. 31,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1952, 1977.
19.11. Chinn,j., "Cylindrical Shell Analysis Simplified by Beam Method," ACIJoURNAL,
Proceedings V. 55, No. 11, May 1959, pp. 1183-1192. Also, Discussion, ACIJoURNAL,
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19.12. Gibson, j. E., The Design of Shell Roofs, 3rd Edition, E. & F. Spon Limited, London,
1968, 300 pp.
19.13. Bryant, Anthony H., and Scrivener, John C., "Cylindrical Shell Roofs with Draped
Prestressing," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, ST4, Apr. 1969, pp. 611-634.
19.14. Harris, Harry G., and White, Richard N., "Inelastic Behavior of RC Cylindrical Shells,
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 98, ST7, July 1972, pp. 1633-1653.
19.15. Mast, Paul E., "Design and Construction of Northlight Barrel Shells," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 59, No.4, Apr. 1962, pp. 481-525. Also, Discussion, ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 59, No. 12, Dec. 1962, pp. 1903-1910.
19.16. Hadid, H. A., and Chandra, R., "An Experimental Investigation of a Reinforced
Mortar Parabolic Conoidal Shell," Bulletin, International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures (Madrid), No. 28, Dec. 1966, pp. 53 - 62.
19.17. Hadid, H. A., "Variational Methods for the Analysis of a Conoidal Shell," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 35, Sept. 1968,
pp. 23-36.
19.18. Medwadowski, S. j., "Bending of Thin Shell Conical Frustum Segments," Proceedings,
lASS Symposium on Simplified Calculation Methods (Brussels, 1961), North-Holland
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1962.
19.19. Parme, Alfred L., "Hyperbolic Paraboloids and Other Shells of Double Curvature,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 82, ST5, Sept. 1956, pp. 1057-1081. Also, Discussion, V. 83, ST2,
Mar. 1957.
19.20. Candela, Felix, "General Formulas for Membrane Stresses in Hyperbolic Paraboloidal
Shells," ACIJoURNAL, Proceedings, V. 57, No.4, Oct. 1960, pp. 353-371.
355
ACI Building Code Requirements
19.21. Scordelis, Alexander C.; Ramirez, H. D.; and Ngo, D., "Membrane Stresses in
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells Having an Arbitrary Quadrilateral Shape in Plan," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 67, No. I,Jan. 1970, pp. 36-44.
19.22. Schnobrich, William C., "Analysis of Hipped Roof Hyperbolic Paraboloid Structures,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 98, ST7,July 1972, pp. 1575-1583.
19.23. Shaaban, Ahmed, and Ketchum, Milo S., "Design of Hipped Hypar Shells," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, STll, Nov. 1976, pp. 2151-2161.
19.24. Schnobrich, W. C.; Mohraz, B.; and Hoebel, J. L., "Influence of Edge Beam Properties
on the Stress in Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells," Proceedings, lASS International Colloquium on
Progress of Shell Structures in the Last Ten Years and Its Future Development (Madrid,
1969), International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, Madrid, 1970, V. 3.
19.25. Gioncu, V., "Stresses and Deflections in Umbrella Roof HP Shells," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 56, Dec. 1974,
pp.31-38.
19.26. White, Richard N., "Reinforced Concrete Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 101, ST9, Sept. 1975, pp. 1961-1980.
19.27. Scordelis, Alexander C., and Ketchum, Mark A., "Structural Behavior and Design of
Saddle HP Shells," Proceedings, lASS World Congress on Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid,
1979), Laboratorio Central de Ensayo de Materiales de Construccion, Madrid, 1980, V. 2,
pp. 4.239-4.254.
19.28. Tedesko, Anton, "Shell at Denver-Hyperbolic Paraboloidal Structure of Wide
Span," ACIJoURNAL, Proceedings, V. 57, No.4, Oct. 1960, pp. 403-412.
19.29. Csonka, P., "Composite Sectorial Shells with Cantilevered Front Side," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 28, Dec. 1966,
pp.25-36.
19.30. Scordelis, Alexander C., "Analysis and Design of HP Groined Vaults," Proceedings,
lASS World Congress on Space Enclosures (Montreal, 1976), Building Research Centre,
Concordia University, Montreal, 1976, pp. 561-568.
19.31. Pultar, Mustafa; Billington, David P., and Riera, Jorge D., "Folded Plates Continuous
Over Flexible Supports," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 93, ST5, Oct. 1967, pp. 253-277 .
. 19.32. Cheung, Yau-Kai, "Folded Plate Structure by the Finite Strip Method," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 95, STl2, Dec. 1969, pp. 2963-2979.
19.33. Klaiber, F. Wayne; Gutzwiller, MartinJ.; and Lee, Robert H., "Analytical and Model
Studies of Prestressed Folded Plates," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 99, ST6, June 1973, pp.
1287-1307.
19.34. Johnson, Claude D., and Lee, Ti-Ta, "Long Nonprismatic Folded Plate Structures,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 94, ST6, June 1968, pp. 1457 -1484.
19.35. Esquillan, Nicholas, "The Shell Vault of the Exposition Palace, Paris," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 86, STl,Jan. 1960, pp. 41-70.
19.36. Esquillan, Nicholas, "Olympic Ice Stadium at Grenoble," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V.
66, No.7, July 1969, pp. 513-521.
19.37. Ashwell, D. G., and Gallagher, R. H., Editors, Finite Elementsfor Thin Shells and Curved
Members, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1976, 268 pp.
19.38. Lin, Cheng-Shung, and Scordelis, Alexander C., "Nonlinear Analysis of RC Shells of
General Form," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 101, ST3, Mar. 1975, pp. 523-538.
19.39. Hand, Frank R.; Pecknold, David A.; and Schnobrich, William C., "Nonlinear Layered
Analysis of RC Plates and Shells," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 99, ST7, July 1973, pp. 1491-1505.
19.40. Kabir, Ahmad F., and Scordelis, Alexander C., "Analysis of RC Shells for Time
Dependent Effects," Bulletin, International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures
(Madrid), No. 69, Apr. 1979, pp. 3-13.
19.41. Models for Concrete Structures, SP-24, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1970, 448 pp.
19.42. Concrete Shell Buckling, SP-67, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981,234 pp.
19.43. Gupta, Ajaya K., "Membrane Reinforcement in Shells," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 107,
STl, Jan. 1981, pp. 41-56.
356
Thin Shells and Folded Plates
19.44. Baumann, T., "On the Question of Multi-Directional Reinforcement of Plate and Shell
Structure," Der Bauingenieur (Heidelberg), V. 97, No. 10,1972 (in German).
19.45. Fialkow, Morris N., "Ductility Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Cylindrical Shells
and Folded Plate Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 77, No.2, Mar.-Apr. 1980, pp.
82-86.
19.46. ACI Committee 224, "Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures," (ACI 224R-80),
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1980, 42 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 3.
19.47. Tedesko, Anton, "Construction Aspects of Thin-Shell Structures," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 49, No.6, Feb. 1953, pp. 505-520.
357
APPENDIX B
Reprinted with the permission of Engineering Information, Inc. The full text of most of
articles referred to herein can be ordered directly from Engineering Information, Inc., 345
East 47 St., New York, NY 10016.
359
Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
036954 Numerical Study of Axisymmetric transmit loads to the foundation. The article
Waves in an Elastic Cylindrical Shell discusses the foundation requirements, cutting
Partially Filled with a Viscous Liquid. This and assembling the triangular panels; setting
paper is devoted to a study of the natural steel and applying concrete; interior and
longitudinal-transverse waves in an elastic exterior finishes; and the costs and material
cylindrical shell of the Kirchoff-Love type, quantities.
filled with a viscous compressible liquid. Hurd, M.K. Caner Constr v 33 n 11 Nov 1988 4p.
Direct numerical integration of the equations
of motion is the basis of this study. Examples
of the calculation of the eigenvalues of 036957 Transient Waves in Inhomogeneous
natural and steady oscillations in this Anisotropic Elastic Shells. This paper
formulation of the problem are discussed. For considers the problem of transient wave
a shell with a viscous compressible liquid there propagation in linearly elastic Cosserat shells
are an infinite number of modes with of constant thickness that may be anisotropic
complex eigenvalues. The Wien effect is and inhomogeneous. The methods of rays and
observed for the upper conical waves. 12 Refs. of singular wave curves are combined to find
Nochkin, I.M. (Moscow Inst of Electronics and and integrate the transport equations
Mechanical Engineering, Moscow, USSR); Pashkov, governing growth-decay behavior of the six
LA.; Troyanovskii, I.E. Sov Appl Meek v 24 n 2 Aug possible wave modes. Conditions on material
1988 P 144-148. parameters and wave geometry are obtained
for various different uncouplings of the wave
modes. Some special cases of propagation
036955 Axisymmetric Problem of the conditions and of decay equations are worked
Penetration of a Compressible Fluid by out in detail. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Thin Elastic Spherical Shells. This article Cohen, H. (Univ of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manit,
describes the solution of a linear axisymmetric Can); Thomas, R.S.D. Acta Meek v 77 n 1- 2 Apr
problem concerning the penetration of a 1989 p 47-67.
compressible fluid by thin elastic spherical
shells. The problem is solved in four
formulations with different boundary 036958 Elasto/Visco-Plastic Dynamic
conditions on the free surface of the fluid. In Response ofAxisymmetrical Shells Under
the first two formulations, the free surface is Mechanical and/or Thermal Loading. An
assumed to be movable. However, its rise near analytical method for the e1asto/visco-plastic
the penetrating shell is not considered in dynamic problems of axisymmetricaI thin
formulation 1 and is accounted for in shells subjected to mechanical and/or thermal
formulation 2. In the other two formulations, loads is developed. The equations of motion
the free surface is constrained by a rigid and the relations between the strains and
shield in formulation 3 and by a deformable displacements are derived by extending
shield in formulation 4. It is assumed that the Sanders' elastic shell theory. For the
wetted surface of the shell is impermeable to constitutive relations, Perzyna's elasto/visco-
the fluid and that the disturbances generated plastic equations including the temperature
in the fluid by the shell decay at infinity. 6 Refs. effect are employed. The derived fundamental
Kubenko, V.D. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian equations are numerically solved by the finite
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Gavrilenko, V.V. Sov Appl Meek difference method. As numerical examples,
Oct 1988 p 374-384. the simply supported cylindrical shells made of
mild steel are treated and the following two
cases are analyzed: a nonuniform temperature
036956 Geodesic Dome of Polystyrene and cylinder subjected to impulsive internal
Concrete. Structurally, the geodesic dome is a pressure, and an internal pressure cylinder
space truss and is the strongest known subjected to impulsive thermal load. In both
straight-line form enclosing space. It is cases the variations of displacements and
efficient as well as strong; there is no straight- internal forces with time are discussed.
line geometric form that requires less surface (Author abstract)
skin to enclose a given amount of space than Tao, Katsumi (Toyohashi Univ of Technology,
a geodesic dome. In the concrete and Toyohashi, jpn); Takezono, Shigeo; Taguchi,
polystyrene dome described, folds in the Toshihiro; Hotada, Kazuo. ]SME Int] Ser 1 ]SME
concrete shell replace the straight bars. The Int] Ser 1 v 32 v32 n3 n3 jul jul 1989 1989 P
folds, however, act just as the bars would to 341-347.
360
Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
361
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Chonan, s. (Tohoku Univ, Sendai, Jpn); Koriyama, cylindrical shells weakened by a curvilinear
H.i Sound Vib v 126 n 3 Nov 8 1988 P 525-532. hole. A modified method of series expansion
in a small parameter is proposed in this paper,
036965 Simplified Method for a which can be utilized in analyzing cylindrical
Hydrodynamic Loading Prediction of an composite orthotropic shells weakened by
Acoustic Wave. This paper discusses existing small and medium elliptical holes. 13 Refs.
methods for the hydrodynamic loading Revenko, V.P. (Scientific-Production Organization,
prediction on a circular cylindrical shell USSR). Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 368-373.
subjected to an underwater weak shock wave.
To this end, a new, special purpose finite 036968 Fourier Integral Representation of
element program was developed. The new Curvilinear Influence Functions Applied to
program treats the acoustic fluid medium by Surface Structures. The paper proposes the
an equation which defines the incident application of curvilinear influence functions
particle velocity in the fluid in the absence of represented by Fourier integrals to problems
the structure. This is then coupled to the of surface structures. It investigates in detail
structure to yield the total fluid loading. characteristic properties of such integrals.
Tensile pressures are not allowed by Particular attention is called to differentiation
restricting the water pressure to above of the integrals representing functions with
ambient level. (Edited author abstract) 14 Refs. curvilinear discontinuities, as in this case their
Moussouros, Minos (US Naval Surface Warfare distributional features are most visible. The
Cent, Silver Spring, MD, USA). Am Soe Meeh Eng problem is illustrated by an example of an
Pap Preprint - American Society of Mechanical infinite plate. (Author abstract) 12 Refs.
Engineers, Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22-25 1989. Muc, A. (Technical Univ of Cracow, Cracow, Pol);
Publ by American Soc of Mechanical Engineers Zielinski, A.P. Thin-Walled StTuct v 7 n 2 1989 P
(ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1989 OCN12 18p. 85-98.
036966 Inelastic Response of an Infinite 036969 Co Shell Plate and Beam Elements
Cylindrical Shell to Transient Acoustic Free From Their Deficiencies. The author
Waves. The geometrically and constitutively proposes a generally applicable new
nonlinear response of an infinite, circular, formulation which removes all shear and
cylindrical shell submerged in an infinite fluid membrane locking mechanisms from the finite
medium to a transverse, transient acoustic element equations of the structural Co shell,
wave is analyzed. Circumferential Fourier plate, and beam elements. Employment. of full
series solutions are obtained through the integration with the proposed formulatIon
numerical integration of coupled ordinary eliminates also the zero energy modes problem,
differential equations and convolution and!or softening effects, associated with the
integrals. Numerical results are presented in use of the technique of reduced integration in
the form of response histories, response Co plate and shell element applications. The
snapshots, and iso-damage curves for incident formulation proposed is obtained through a
waves of rectangular pressure profile. simple and cost effective scheme. (Edited
Response solutions obtained with the first- author abstract) 52 Refs.
order doubly asymptotic approximation are
compared with their 'exact' counterparts. Briassoulis, Demetres (Agricultural Univ of Athens,
(Edited author abstract) 25 Refs. Greece). Comput Methods Appl Meeh Eng v 72 n 3
Mar 1989 p 243-266.
Geers, T.L. (Univ of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA);
Yen, C.-L. AMD Symp SeT ASME Appl Meek Div v 94 036970 Analysis of Simply-Supported
1988 Large-Scale Interaction Problems, Presented Laminated Circular Cylindrical Shell
at the Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME, Roofs. An elasticity solution has been
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27-Dec 21988. p 13-45. presented for the analysis of a laminated
circular cylindrical shell roof with simply.
supported edges, and the displacements and
ANALYSIS stresses of the solution are expressed in terms
of infinite series. A solution according to the
036967 Analysis of the Stress-Strain State of classical shell theory (CST) is also developed.
a Nonshallow-Orthotropic Cylindrical Shell Computations are made for various ratios of
with an Elliptical Hole. The method of midsurface radii to thicknesses and the results
expansion in a series in a small parameter has of the CST have been examined in the light of
been applied successfully in analyzing isotropic the elasticity solution results. (Author abstract)
362
Excerpts from The Ensineerins Index Annual 1989
Ren, J.G. (Changsha lnst of Technology, Hunan, coupled first order differential equations is
China). Compos Struct v 11 n 4 1989 P 277 - 292. solved for each shell substructure using the
Pade approximation for matrix
036971 Continuum-Based Stiffened exponentiation. The substructures are then
Composite Shell Element for Geometrically joined by matching all of the displacement and
Nonlinear Analysis. A continuum-based, force boundary variables. The strength of
laminated, stiffened shell element is used to SSM from the substructure synthesis viewpoint
investigate the static, geometrically nonlinear is demonstrated by analyzing several shell
response of composite shells. The element is structures including a hermetic capsule and a
developed from a three-dimensional continuum refrigeration compressor shell. In all
element based on the incremental, total examples, finite element method (FEM)
Lagrangian formulation. The Newton-Raphson predictions are used to support SSM results.
method or modified Riks method is used to For the compressor shell, SSM results compare
trace the nonlinear equilibrium path. A well with the limited experimental data.
number of sample problems of un stiffened and (Edited author abstract) 58 Refs.
stiffened shells are presented to show the Tavakoli, M.S. (Georgia lnst of Technology,
accuracy of the present element and to Atlanta, GA, USA); Singh, R. ] Sound Vib v 130 n 1
investigate the nonlinear response of laminated Apr 8 1989 P 97 -123.
composite plates and shells. (Author abstract)
28 Refs. 036974 Extending Life of LD Converter
Liao, C.L. (Virginia Polytechnic lnst & State Univ, Vessel. At Kakogawa Works, all three LD
Blacksburg, VA, USA); Reddy,J.N. AlAAJ v 27 n 1 converter vessels were renewed for 1987-
Jan 1989p95-101. 1988 because of working limits caused by shell
deformation. In renewing the vessels, an
036972 Accurate Rigid-Body Modes analytical method was developed to quantify
Representation for a Nonlinear Curved deformation of the barrel shell, which is the
Thin-Shell Element. For certain highly curved dominant factor in vessel life. Based on the
shells, such as bellows, the formulation of a analytical results, an air jet cooling technique
curved-shell finite element with curvilinear and steel plate were developed and applied to
displacement components may fail to properly the new vessels. As a result, it is now possible
model some rigid body modes, even with to extend the life of vessels using a high ratio
either the explicit inclusion of rigid-body terms of MgO-C bricks. (Author abstract) 4 Refs. In
or the use of high-order displacement Japanese.
functions. It is suggested in this paper that the Kita, Ryuji; Nishikawa, Tsuneaki; Okazaki,
rigid-body modes can be properly included if Toshiyuki; Mine, Takao; Nishijima, Akifumi;
the Cartesian displacement components are Kawasaki, Hiroya. R&D Res Dev Kobe Steel Ltd v 39
used. A 48-degree-of-freedom (DOF) curved n 1 Jan 1989 p 61-64.
thin-shell element is formulated, and both the
curvilinear and the Cartesian forms are used 036975 Review on the Analysis of
for this investigation. Examples of the Laminated Shells. Laminated shell structures
nonlinear analyses of a bellows shell and a are increasingly being used in chemical,
spherical cap are given to demonstrate the mechanical, marine and aerospace
advantage of using the Cartesian formulation. applications. A significant amount of research
Curved elements may also suffer from has been conducted in the past on studying
membrane locking, which is caused by the the structural response of these structures. A
inability of an element to bend without review of various investigations on the analysis
stretching. (Edited author abstract) 53 Refs. of these shells is given here. Specifically, this
Yang, T.Y. (Purdue Univ, West Lafayette, IN, review deals with the development of various
USA); Kapania, Rakesh K.; Saigal, Sunil. AlAAJ v 27 theories for modeling the thick laminated
n 2 Feb 1989 p 211-218. shells, including shear effects; analytical
studies, development of various finite elements
036973 Eigensolutions of Joined/Hermetic to model these shells, including applications to
Shell Structures Using the State Space tire modeling; buckling and post-buckling
Method. A substructure synthesis method analysis of perfect and imperfect laminated
based on state space mathematics is proposed shells; and vibration and dynamic response
for the eigensolution of axisymmetric joined/ analysis of various laminated shells. (Author
hermetic thin shell structures. In the state abstract) 157 Refs.
space method (SSM), a system of eight Kapania, R.K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
363
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA). J Pressure Vessel in the form of elastically or rigidly fastened
Tecknol Trans ASME v III n 2 May 1989 p 88-96. plates and shallow shells. We employ
Timoshenko's theory of shells. The desired
036976 Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis of unknown functions are represented as series in
Shallow Shells Using Higher Order Finite the coordinate functions, each of which may
Elements. Based on K. Marguerre's shallow not necessarily satisfy the specified attachment
shell theory, a family of higher-order finite conditions for the structure. We employ
elements each consisting of 17 - 25 nodes and solution methods for problems of plates and
with separate in-plane and bending shells based on the use of complete functionals
displacement variables has been developed for and of the contour equation of the domain in
the geometrically nonlinear analysis of shallow setting up the approximating function. (Edited
shells subjected to lateral loads. A step- author abstract) 11 Refs.
iteration Newton-Raphson scheme has been Serazutdinov, M.N. Meek Solids v 23 n 3 1988 P
adopted in solving the final system of 136-14l.
recurrent nonlinear equations. Several
numerical examples, including a spherical cap 036979 Analysis of Simply Supported
and a square shallow shell with surface in Orthotropic Cylindrical Shells Subject to
double sine curves, are presented to Lateral Impact Loads. An analytic solution is
demonstrate the versatility and convenience of given for the problem of simply-supported
the use of higher-order elements in modelling orthotropic cylindrical shells subject to impact
shallow shells and also the sufficient accuracy loading. The closed-form solution has not
of the predictions made by the present been obtained previously. The analysis is based
formulation in the context of geometrically on an expansion of the loads, displacement
nonlinear analysis. (Author abstract) 13 Refs. and rotations in a double Fourier series which
Chan, H.C. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong); satisfies the end boundary conditions of
Chung, W.C. Comput Struct v 31 n 3 1989 P simple support. Each expansion is assumed to
329-338. be separable into a function of time and a
function of position. By neglecting in-plane
and rotary inertia the problem becomes a
036977 Nonlinear Analysis of Shell second order ordinary differential equation in
Structures by Degenerated Isoparametric
time for the Fourier coefficients of the radial
Shell Element. Two rotation strategies
deflection. For a given loading impulse the
termed the finite rotation method and the
solution can be found by invoking the
mixed rotation method are proposed to
described the rotation of the shell normal and convolution integral. The results show that
four rotation strategies in the literature are for impact by a heavy mass, the solution is
equivalent to that obtained by an approximate
reviewed. The rotation variables of the finite
procedure of neglecting the mass of the shell,
rotation method are chosen to be the
incremental rotations with respect to the Xl which leads to a simple single degree of
freedom analysis. For problems of impact by
and X2 axes of a moving coordinate system
rigidly tied to the shell. Both the rotation smaller masses, the higher response
frequencies of the cylinder become important.
increments between two successive increments
The impact duration, peak force, and peak
and the rotation corrections between two
deflection relative to the quasi-static response.
successive iterations are used as the
(Edited author abstract) 17 Refs.
incremental rotations. The previous covergent
stress is employed to update the geometric Christoforou, A.P. (Univ of Utah, Salt Lake City,
stiffness matrix and its performance is UT, USA); Swanson, S.R. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD
compared with that of the standard geometric v 13 Recent Advances in the Macro- and Micro-
stiffness matrix update method. (Edited Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures,
author abstract) 20 Refs. Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Hsiao, Kuo-Mo (Nat! Chiao Tung Univ, Hsinchu,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27-Dec 21988. Publ by
Taiwan); Chen, Yeh-Ren. Comput Struct v 31 n 3
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
1989 P 427 -438.
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 77-84.
036978 On the Analysis of Shallow Shells ANISOTROPY
with Complex Contours. In this paper, we
offer a variational method and some solutions 036980 Membrane Theory for Anisotropic
for the problem of determining the stress- Laminated Shells of Revolution. The
strain state of thin-walled structural elements present paper discusses the derivation and
364
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual J989
application of the membrane theory equations spherical shells with simply supported
governing the small deformation of laminated, boundaries. Numerical examples show that
anisotropic, elastic shells of revolution. The the approach developed in the paper is
equations are derived by use of the Hellinger- effective. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Reissner variational principle in conjunction Ye, Jianqiao (Hefei Polytechnical Univ, Hefei, Jpn).
with the asymptotic expansion technique. Appl Math Modelling v 12 n 5 Oct 1988 p 467 - 470.
They are then used to analyze specific shells
under loadings of practical interest. (Author 036984 Optimal Design of a Cylindrical
abstract) 3 Refs. Shell Under Overall Bending with Axial
Logan, D.L. (Rose-Hulman lnst of Technology, Force. The problem of optimal design of a
Terre Haute, IN, USA); Widera, G.E.O. J Pressure cylindrical shell loaded by bending moment
Vessel Technol Trans ASME viii n 2 May 1989 p Mo and axial force N is presented. As a
130-135. criterion of optimality we assume the
minimum value of the cross-sectional area for
BENDING given values of external loadings. In the
general case the shape of the central line of
036981 Plane Bending of a Long Cylindrical the profile and thickness of the wall of a shell
Shell During Simple Thermomechanical are used as design variables. The constraints
Deformation. This paper examines dynamic are connected with strength and with local
processes in a long cylindrical shell-tube in the stability of the wall of a shell. The concept of
case of simple thermomechanical deformation a 'shell of uniform stability' is applied and two
under the influence of mechanical and different types of profiles of uniform stability
thermal loads. Since the shell is long it is are looked for, namely the uniform stability
regarded as a beam with corrected stiffness in profile with variable thickness and a constant
bending, tension, and torsion. Governing thickness profile of uniform stability. (Author
relations for small strains and finite abstract) 9 Refs.
displacements are obtained on the basis of Kruzelecki, Jacek (Technical Univ, Cracow, Pol).
thermodynamic relations from the nonlinear Bull Pol Acad Sci Tech Sci v 36 n 3-4 1988 P
theory of elasticity. Nonlinear equations of 141-150.
motion for the plane bending of such a
shell-tube are obtained. 10 Refs. 036985 Theory and Numerics of Thin
Kayuk, Ya. F. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian Elastic Shells with Finite Rotations. A
SSR, Kiev, USSR); KiI'chinskaya, G.A. Sov Appl bending theory for thin shells undergoing
Mech v 24 n 2 Aug 1988 P 157-162. finite rotations is presented, and its associated
finite element model is described. The
036982 Monomial Test: Testing the Flexural kinematic assumption is based on a Reissner-
Behavior of the Degenerated Shell Mindlin theory. The work-conjugate stress
Element. Shear locking of the degenerated resultants and stress couples are integrals of
shell element is a result of the development of the Biot stress tensor. This tensor is invariant
spurious shear strain by the element, when with respect to rigid body motions and
subjected to high order Kirchhoff therefore appropriate for the formulation of
displacement fields. The shear locking constitutive equations. The rotations are
phenomenon is analyzed in this paper using described by using Eulerian angles. The finite
an analytical test. The effects of the element descretization of arbitrary shells is
integration scheme, order of the element, performed using isoparametric elements. The
order of the modeled Kirchhoff field and the advantage of the proposed shell formulation
element distortion are analyzed explicitly and and its numerical model is shown by
quantitatively for the four-node, eight-node application to different non-linear plate and
and nine-node degenerated shell elements. shell problems. Finite rotations can be
(Author abstract) 23 Refs. calculated within one load increment. Thus
Briassoulis, Demetres (Univ of Illinois, the step size of the load increment is only
Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA). Comput Struct v 29 n limited by the local convergence behaviour of
6 1988 P 949-958. Newton's method or the appearance of
stability phenomena. (Edited author abstract)
036983 New Approach for the Bending 27 Refs.
Problem of Shallow Shell by the Boundary Gruttmann, F. (Univ Hannover, Hanover, West
Element Method. A very simple method is Ger); Stein, E.; Wriggers, P. Ing Arch v 59 n 1 1989
suggested in this paper to analyze shallow P 54-67.
365
Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
366
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
367
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
tests on steel and aluminum specimens. uniform external pressure is analysed using
(Edited author abstract) 9 Refs. the spline finite strip method. A Total
Iseki, H. (McMaster Univ, Hamilton, Ont, Can); Lagrangian formulation on the displacement
Sowerby, R.; Bhattacharyya, D.; Gatt, P. J Appl Meeh dependent pressure load in the orthogonal
Trans ASME v 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 96-104. curvilinear reference frame is derived. An
improvement for the arc-length iteration
036996 Buckling of Edge Damaged, method is presented. The postbuckling
Cylindrical Composite Shells. The stability equilibrium path and the contour map of
of thin composite layered anisotropic equal radial deflection computed an~ in good
cylindrical shells under axial compression is agreement with the experimental and
considered for the case of nonuniform analytical results reported in Esslinger, M. and
boundary conditions. Such conditions are Geier, B., Postbuckling Behaviour of
employed to model the situation where there Structures, Springer-Verlag, Wien, New York,
is edge damage to the shell. The influence of 1975. (Author abstract) 14 Refs.
weakening or a crack at an edge on the Cheung, Y.K. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
critical buckling load of a variety of single and Zhu, D.S. Thin-Walled Struet v 7 n 3-4 1989 P
multilayered shells is investigated. Results 239-256.
indicate that isotropic shells exhibit a rather
sudden steep reduction in the critical buckling 036999 Non-probabilistic Models of
load for relatively small edge damage. Uncertainty in the Nonlinear Buckling of
However, some anisotropic composite shells Shells with General Imperfections:
may not be so sensitive and, in contrast, only Theoretical Estimates of the Knockdown
a gradual reduction may be brought about by Factor. A nonprobabilistic, set-theoretical
the edge damage. The degree of sensitivity to treatment of the buckling of shells with
edge damage appears to be dependent, in uncertain initial geometrical imperfections is
some complex fashion, on the various presented. The minimum buckling load is
geometric and physical shell parameters. determined as a function of the parameters
(Author abstract) 8 Refs. which describe the (general infinite) range of
Sabag, M. (Technion - Israel Inst of Technology, possible initial imperfection profiles of the
Haifa, Isr); Stavsky, Y.; Greenberg, J.B. J Appl Meeh shell. The central finding of this paper is a
Trans ASME v 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 121-126. theoretical estimate of the knockdown factor
as a function of the characteristics of the
036997 Bifurcation Buckling of Circular uncertainty in the initial imperfections. Two
Cylindrical Shells Under Uniform External classes of set-theoretical models are employed.
Pressure. This paper presents asymptotic The first class represents the range of
solutions for the eigenvalue problems of variation of the most significant N Fourier
buckling under uniform external pressure of a coefficients by an ellipsoidal set in N-
circular cylindrical shell having an arbitrary dimensional Euclidean space. The minimum
combination of the boundary conditions for buckling load is then explicitly evaluated in
the simply supported, clamped, and free ends. terms of the shape of the ellipsoid. (Edited
A simple formula for the buckling pressure is author abstract) 29 Refs.
derived, which is shown to be accurate Ben-Haim, Yakov (Technion - Israel Inst of
enough for engineering purposes by Technology, Haifa, Isr); Elishakoff, Isaac. J Appl
comparison with available results. The Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n 2 Jun 1989 p 403 -41 o.
eigenvalues calculated for all possible
combinations of the boundary conditions show 037000 Post-buckling Behavior and
that the buckling pressures are affected Imperfection Sensitivity of Spherical Shells
significantly by the presence of a free end as Based on Nonlinear Elastic Stability
well as axial constraint at a supported end. Theory. Using the nonlinear elastic stability
(Author abstract) 17 Refs. theory and its applications to shells, we have
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn); investigated the post-buckling behavior and
Morimatsu, Shigeyuki. AIAA J v 27 n 2 Feb 1989 p imperfection sensitivity of spherical shells with
242-248. amplitude modulation. For this purpose, we
assume that the buckling modes have the
036998 Postbuckling Analysis of Circular form of Legendre polynomials with an
Cylindrical Shells Under External exponential function as a modulating factor.
Pressure. The postbuckling behavior of We use a numerical analysis technique with
circular cylindrical shells of finite length under high precision. The amplitudes of the post-
368
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
buckling modes and the critical loading design procedure is suggested. (Edited author
factors of the spherical shell with various abstract) 15 Refs. In German.
imperfection modes are presented. (Edited Knoedel, Peter (Univ Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, West
author abstract) 10 Refs. Ger); Maierhoefer, Dieter. Stahlbau v 58 n 3 Mar
Fan, Q.S. (Tsinghan Univ, Beijing, China). 1989 p 81-86.
Thin-Walled Struct v 8 n I 1989 P 1-18.
037004 Experimental Investigation on the
037001 Postbuckling Analysis of Shells by Dynamic Buckling of a Cylindrical Shell
Spline Finite Strip Method. The postbuckling Due to Seismic Excitation. (lst Report:
analysis of shells is studied by the spline finite Plastic Buckling Due to Bending Load). The
strip method. The selection of higher order fundamental characteristics of plastic dynamic
terms in the incremental variational principle buckling of a thin cylindrical shell due to
is discussed. An improvement on the arc- seismic excitation, where bending load was
length iteration method is presented. The predominant, were clarified experimentally.
examples all demonstrated the versatility and The relationship between seismic response
accuracy of the present method. The displacement acceleration, strain of cylindrical
computed results for a circular cylindrical shell model and input acceleration was
shell under axial compression correlate very investigated. The dynamic buckling load was
well with the experiment results. (Author compared with that for static buckling, and
abstract) 15 Refs. the differences between them were discussed
Zhu, D.S. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong); as well as the threshold for postbuckling.
Cheung, Y.K. Comput Struct v 31 n 3 1989 P (Author abstract) 6 Refs. In Japanese.
357-364. Fujita, Katsuhisa; Ito, Tomohiro; Wada, Hiroshi.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 515
037002 Transverse Shear Effects in Stability Jul 1989 P 1634-1637.
Problems of Laminated Shallow Shells. This
paper presents the analysis of the accuracy of 037005 New Solution for Vessel Liner
the classical shell theory in the prediction of Buckling Analysis. The thermally
buckling loads of laminated shallow shells of constrained and perfectly confined cylindrical
revolution loaded by external pressure or shell finds its critical buckling load in infinity.
axially compressed. The shells studied are Disturbances such as shape or support
circular cylinders, barrels, inverse barrels and imperfections are required to yield finite
spherical sections. In each case the boundary critical buckling loads. Based on a conservative
conditions are simple supports. (Author imperfection model, the new solution allows
abstract) 7 Refs. the quantification of the influence of
Muc, Aleksander (Univ of Liverpool, Liverpool, imperfections on buckling stress. As a large
Engl). Compos Struct v 12 n 3 1989 P 171-180. deflection solution, it follows the load
displacement path under increasing prestress
037003 Zur Stabilitaet von ZyIindern Vnter up to neutral equilibrium. Thus, the
Axiallast und Randmomenten. [Stability of occurrence of subcritical limit load conditions
Cylindrical Shells V nder Axial Loads and due to non-linear bending can be determined.
Edge Moments]. Existing methods of (Edited author abstract) 12 Refs.
determining the critical axial loads of Tschiersch, R.T. (Thyssen Henrichshuette AG,
cylindrical shells take into account only the Hattingen, West Ger); Huessler, W. ASME Pressure
membrane stress state. However, parts of the Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 139 Design and
shell structures are loaded by additional edge Analysis of Piping, Pressure Vessels and
moments. These result from external forces, Components, 1988, Presented at the 1988 ASME
from the edge conditions themselves or from Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh,
the deviation of the membrane forces due to PA, USA,Jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc
a break in the generatrix. This paper reports of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
on a study, which investigated the influence of USA, 1988 P 133-138.
edge moments on the nonlinear bifurcation
loads of axially compressed cylinders. Edge 037006 Static Buckling of the Shells of
moments are shown to reduce the bifurcation Revolution Due to the Asymmetric
load irrespective of the length of the cylinder. Loading. Finite element buckling analysis
The results obtained were approximated by program of the shells of revolution under an
easy to handle formulas. After some remarks asymmetric loading was developed. In this
on the imperfection sensitivity, a practical program, the buckling mode for asymmetric
369
Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
370
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
boundary value problem for linearized coordinate axes of the shell. To expand the
equations was solved by the method of initial possibility of the model for evaluating the
parameters with the use of Godunov's stress-strain state at the microscopic level, the
procedure for orthogonalization. Two cases order and number of resolvent equations
are given: a shell with a movable head made by were independent of the number of layers as
spiral winding wherein the initial form of the well as the ratio of the physico-geometric
shell is designed as being equilibrium for a properties. In this paper, the model is
recticular shell with a geodesic winding, and a generalized to the case of laminated shallow
geodesic shell wound on a mandrel of the same shells made of anisotropic layers. The model
profile for which the strains were calculated considers transverse shear and compression,
under internal pressure and a compressive tangential and normal forces of inertia, and
force applied to the head. The method makes geometric nonlinearity. Kinematic hypotheses
it possible to determine the geometry of the are introduced to reduce the three-
shell and its stress state. 6 Refs. dimensional problem to two dimensions. Two
Biderman, V.L. (N.E. Bauman Moscow Higher examples illustrating the ability of the model
Technical lnst, USSR); Mart'yanova, G.V.; Sorokin, to reflect the three-dimensional nature of the
F.D. Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 5 Mar 1988 p stress-strain state of multilaminate plates and
579-585. shells are examined. 12 Refs.
Prisazhnyuk, V.K. (Kiev Highway lnst, USSR);
037012 Optimization of Structures of Piskunov, V.G. Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 6 May
Reinforced Cylindrical Shells Made of 1988 p 719-726.
Composites. A method is given for selecting
the parameters for the design optimization of 037014 Analysis of Thermoelastic Stresses
reinforced cylindrical shells which satisfies the in Laminated Shells of Double Curvature. A
system of restrictions and minimizes the target curvilinear coordinate system was used to
function. The active physical restrictions construct a model describing the thermoelastic
included general and local stability, the stresses in laminated shells of double
strength of the material of the cloth of the curvature. It was assumed that the stresses
shell, and the reinforcing set. The design and depended linearly on strains and temperature.
technological restrictions imposed on the Near the edges of the outer layer the shell
geometrical parameters of the shell were also element was regarded as two finite elements;
taken into account. Two possible forms of the one element modeled the packet of inner
loss of stability of the reinforced shells were layers and the second modeled the outer shell
evaluated. Strength calculations of the cloth layer. The solution of the thermoelastic
were based on a macromodel according to problem satisfied the condition of the
which the load-carrying capacity of the entire minimum of potential energy of the shell.
packet was exhausted when the limiting stress Shear stress distributions were determined.
state was reached in at least one layer. An The method was applied to a stiff cylindrical
algorithm was constructed for optimum design shell with a thin outer layer heated uniformly
on the basis of heuristic combinatorial analysis. from within. The stresses determined on the
It was shown that longitudinal-transverse edge of the outer layer were compared with
reinforcement in respect of mass is 1.5-2.0 results of holographic measurements of strains
times more effective than the unidirectional of a steel shell with a sheet made of carbon-
longitudinal reinforcement. 4 Refs. fiber plastic stuck to it and were found to
Tomashevskii, V.T. (Marshall A.A. Grechko Naval agreed qualitatively with the experimental
Military Acad, Leningrad, USSR); Anufriev, A.P.; data. 4 Refs.
Shalygin, V.N.; Yakovlev, V.S.; Kalimulin, R.l. Meek Bakulin, V.N. (S. Ordzhonikidze Moscow lnst,
Compos Mater v 23 n 5 Mar 1988 p 603-607. USSR); Kaledin, V.O.; Rassokha, A.A. Meek Compos
Mater v 23 n 6 May 1988 p 732-737.
037013 Model of Composite Shallow Shells
and Plates for Solving Problems of Statics, 037015 Axisymmetric Divergence of
Dynamics, and Contact Interaction. In an Ring-stiffened Composite Cylindrical Shells
earlier paper, the authors constructed a Subject to Axial Compression. Static
theory for the evaluation of the stress-strain aeroelastic instability of structures, which is
state of composite structures for the case of also called divergence, represents an important
laminated composite shallow shells and plates theoretical and practical problem. Divergence
of orthotropic materials in which the principal of composite structures has been intensively
directions of orthotropy coincided with the studied due to increasing utilization of
371
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
composite materials in the aerospace industry. three-layer plastic structures fabricated from
In this paper, axisymmetric divergence of an ideally plastic material that obeys the Hill
simply supported, internally ring-reinforced plasticity condition. We also compare designs
composite shells is considered. The shell is obtained by the constant-dissipation method
subject to an air flow, directed parallel to the and equal-strength designs; we demonstrate
shell axis, and to static axial loading. The that equal-strength designs display a greater
analytical conditions of divergence are volume of the supporting layers. For the
obtained both for discrete ring stiffeners and sandwich shells considered here, equal-
based on the smeared stiffeners technique. 4 strength designs are understood to mean
Refs. those for which, at each meridian point, the
Birman, Victor (Univ of New Orleans, New plasticity condition is realized as an equality in
Orleans, LA, USA).] Appl Meek Trans ASME v 55 one of the supporting layers, and as a
n 4 Dec 1988 p 984-985. nonstrict inequality in the other. (Edited
author abstract) 16 Refs.
037016 Design of Composite Cylindrical Nemirovskii, Yu.V.; Shul'gin, A.V. Meek Solids v 23
Vessels for Fluid Loading. A theoretical n 51988 P 104-112.
approach is presented to examine the problem
of the fluid loading of a simply supported
037019 Finite-element Method in Problems
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) composite
cylindrical pipe. The shell layup is composed of Nonline Deformation of Reinforced
of specially orthotropic layers, the Shells of Arbitrary Shape. A method of
calculation of reinforced shells of arbitrary
arrangement of which may be nonsymmetrical
shape is proposed. It applies the finite element
through the wall thickness. The theory is
method to problems of nonlinear deformation
developed using Sanders' thin shell theory,
of these shells and it is based on specification
neglecting the effect of transverse shear. An
example of the use of the method is given, of primary geometrical information regarding
where the behavior of a horizontal pipe is the object. Such information can be provided
examined when it is partially or totally filled by the radius vectors of the nodes of the
elements and the positions of the unit normal
with fluid. Three layups are examined, one of
an isotropic construction using chopped vectors to the surface at these nodes.
strand mat (CSM) and two of a laminated Differences in the geometry of the shells
construction. (Author abstract) 5 Refs. under consideration are unimportant from the
standpoint of algorithmization of the
Banks, W.M. (Univ of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scod); calculations, since the same node-by-node
Tooth, A.S.; Wilson, P.M.] Pressure Vessel Teeknol information is required for calculations. A
Trans ASME v III n 2 May 1989 p 102-108. universal approach can &pan an extensive class
of calculation problems for reinforced shells
037017 Shear Deformable Theory of of arbitrary shape, operating in the large-
Laminated Composite Shallow Shell-type displacement region. As an example the
Panels and Their Response Analysis: II. problem of compression of a cylindrical panel
Static Response. In the second part of this of rectangular shape is considered. The
paper, by using the static counterparts of the method used allows the problem to be solved
governing equations derived in Part I, the for arbitrary elastic displacements.
static response of shallow composite shell-type
panels subjected to a sinusoidal transverse Kuznetsov, V.V.; Soinikov, Yu.V. Meek Solids v 23
load is investigated. The numerical n 31988 P 129-135.
applications, encompassing a large number of
boundary conditions and various lamination 037020 Hygrothermal Effects on the
schemes, allow one to obtain some conclusions Stability of a Cylindrical Composite Shell
which are formulated in the paper. (Edited Panel. In this paper the finite element
author abstract) 1 Ref. method is applied to study the problem of
Khdeir, A.A. (Virginia Polytechnic lost & State moisture and temperature effects on the
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Librescu, L.; stability of a general orthotropic cylindrical
Frederick, D. Acta Meek v 77 n 1- 2 Apr 1989 p composite shell panel subjected to axial or
1-12. in-plane shear loading. The element employed
is a 9-node isoparametric shell element. Since
037018 Sandwich Shells of Absolute the hygrothermal effects on the elastic
Minimum Volume. We consider a number of properties of the matrices and the fibers are
new solutions of optimal design problems for very different, the degrading of the matrices
372
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
and the fibers are very different, the Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
degrading of elastic moduli, the transverse USA, 1988 P 71-76.
shear effect and the induced initial stress are
all considered in the present study. Numerical 037022 Divergence Instability of Reinforced
investigation shows that if the temperature Composite Cylindrical Shells. Divergence
increase from 300 K to 422°K and the
0 instability of a simply supported orthotropic
moisture concentration is saturated, the composite shell reinforced in both axial and
buckling load with both the degrading of circumferential directions is considered. The
elastic moduli and transverse shear shell is subject to an axial static load and to an
deformation considered is approximately 12% action of an outside supersonic gas flow in the
lower than Snead/Papazoto's result where direction parallel to the shell axis. Two
only the degrading of elastic moduli is variants of the solution considered in the
considered. (Edited author abstract) 10 Refs. paper include discrete widely spaced stiffeners
Lee, S.Y. (Nat! Cheng-Kung Univ, Tainan, and closely spaced stiffeners; the latter case
Taiwan); Yen, W.J. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13 can be treated using a smeared stiffeners
Recent Advances in the Macro- and Micro- technique. It is proven that divergence
Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures, instability of shells treated by smeared
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the stiffeners technique can occur only if they are
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, subject to axial compressive loads exceeding
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by the static buckling value. (Author abstract) 9
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME), Refs.
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 21-31. Birman, V. (Univ of New Orleans, New Orleans,
LA, USA). ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13 Recent
037021 Delamination Effects on Composite Advances in the Macro- and Micro-Mechanics of
Shells. An analytical investigation was Composite Materials Structures. Presented at the
performed to study the effect of delamination Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society of
on the response of cylindrical composite shells Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, IL, USA, Nov
subjected to external loadings. It was of 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American Soc of
particular interest to determine the buckling Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
load and the post-buckling behavior of USA, 1988 P 169-175.
externally pressurized cylindrical composite
shells containing delamination. An analytical 037023 Failure Prediction for Composite
model was developed which consists of a Shells: Shear Deformable Finite Element
structural analysis for calculating the global Formulation. Piecewise smooth stress-based
deformations of the structures and a fracture failure criteria are implemented in a shear
analysis for determining the delamination deformable finite element formulation. Both
growth in the structures. A nonlinear finite plate and shell elements are utilized to
element code based on the updated Lagrange represent thin to moderately thick laminated
formulation was developed for the model. structures. Accurate stresses are obtained both
Based on the results of calculations, it was in the plane of each ply as well as in the
found that delamination can significantly through-the-thickness direction. Such stress
effect the buckling load and response of information is essential in differentiating
cylindrical composite shells subjected to between fiber, matrix and delamination
externally pressurized loadings, depending failures. (Author abstract) 14 Refs.
upon the initial length and location of the Engblom, JJ. (Texas A&M Univ, College Station,
delamination, ply orientation and laminate TX, USA). ASME Pet Div Publ PD v 24 Composite
curvature. The calculated strain energy Material Technology 1989, Twelfth Annual
release rate at the crack tips indicates that Energy-Sources Technology Conference and
delamination growth occurs at the wake of Exhibition, Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22 - 25 1989.
buckling due to Mode II shear fracture. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical Engineers
(Author abstract) 24 Refs. (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 37-41.
Chang, F.-K. (Stanford Univ, Stanford, CA, USA);
Kutlu, Z. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13 Recent 037024 Computer-Aided Manufacturing of
Advances in the Macro- and Micro-Mechanics of Filament-Wound Composite Shells. An
Composite Materials Structures, Presented at the interactive CAM system developed for
Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society of automated manufacturing of filament-wound
Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, IL, USA, Nov axisymmetric shells is reported.
27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American Soc of Microprocessors are designed to drive motors
373
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
for multi-axes control of mandrel rotation, dihedral angles of n-frequency spherical and
carriage and cross feeder translations, and eye ellipsoidal octahedral and icosahedral geodesic
rotation. A personal computer system is used domes with or without truncation, for plotting
as host and has software to initiate the orthographic and axonometric projections,
microprocessors, to supervise the motions of and for tabulating the chord lengths and
the rotating mandrel and of the robot-like dihedral angles for sawing the structural
assembly of carriage, cross feeder, and eye. elements for construction. (Author abstract) 4
Operator interactive capability of the software Refs.
make it possible to manually interrupt and Teter, W.D. (Univ of Delaware, Newark, DE,
perform on-the-spot adjustment and reset. USA); Nicholls, R.L. Bull Int Assoc Shell Spat Struct
The variety of filament-wound shells made by v 29-2 Aug 1988 P 47-53.
this automated system is reported. (Edited
author abstract) 12 Refs. 037027 Das System VWMESH zur
Pao, Y.C. (Univ of Nebraska, Lincoln, NB, USA); Idealisierung von Tragstrukturen im
Karamooz, S.; Spencer, B.E.; Keester, PJ. Comput CAE-Konzept. [VWMESH System for an
Eng Proc Int Comput Eng Con! Exhib v 1 (of 2), Ideal Design of Supporting Structures in the
Proceedings of the 1989 ASME International CAE Concept. Presentation of an Interactive
Computers in Engineering Conference and Module for the Eiasto-Mechanical Ideal
Exposition, Anheim, CA, USA, Jul 30-Aug 3 Design of Thin-walled Supporting
1989. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical Structures, Available for Instance in the
Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1989 P CAD Medium in Carbody Design, Aircraft
553-557. Construction, Mechanical Engineering or in
the Shipbuilding Sector]. The development
COMPUTER AIDED ANALYSIS of weight and cost optimized supporting
structures requires an early safe statement on
037025 Strength Analysis Algorithm of the performance criteria of the component
Discrete Stiffened Conic Shells. Computer which must be made available to the designer
aided analysis algorithm is developed for the in the design phase by way of suitable
stressed-strain state of circular conic shells of forecasting media. To this end the most
irregular structure stiffened by stringers and important test results obtained by the
frames under the effect of arbitrary loads application of modern simulation methods
applied to the frames. The problem solution must be brought to the attention and desk of
is obtained in the Fourier series using the the designer and must be made available for
method of the matrix pass by means of the interpretation without passing the construction
computer BESM-6-programmed algorithm. stage before. For the physical relationships
Contrary to known algorithms of the method which can be forecast by means of the FEM
of finite elements the suggested algorithm analysis idealizing networks are needed for
does not need considerable expenditures of the original structure. (Edited author abstract)
machine time and time for preparation of the 7 Refs. In German.
initial data necessary for the calculation. A Sorgatz, Ulrich (RWTH, Aachen, West Ger);
stressed state in the casting of the shell Deuter, Helmut. VDI Z v 131 n 3 Mar 1989 p 26-32.
supported as a cantilever under the effect of
tangential concentrated load, the effect of the 037028 Modeling of Plate and Shell
shell taper angle and frame elasticity on this Structures with P-Version of the FEM. Finite
state are investigated. The beam theory to element models for the analysis of plates and
calculation of broad fuselage of planes under shells, based on the concept of hp-extension
the effect of local forces is shown to be are presented. A methodology for the control
nonapplicable. (Author abstract) 4 Refs. In and analysis of the error of the finite element
Russian. solution is developed. Numerical results
Kabanov, V.V.; Levitskaya, T.E. Probl Prochn n 7 obtained using the proposed methodology are
Jul 1988 P 97 -100. given. (Author abstract) 16 Refs.
Sahrmann, Glenn J. (Sverdrup Technology Inc,
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Middleburg Heights, OH, USA). Comput Util Stroct
Eng Computer Utilization in Structural
037026 Geodesign: A Computer Program Engineering, Proceedings of the sessions at
for Geodesic Dome Geometries. A computer Structures Congress '89, San Francisco, CA, USA,
algorithm is described for obtaining the May 1-51989. Publ by ASCE, New York, NY,
coordinates of vertices, chord factors, and USA, 1989 p 277-285.
374
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
375
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
was used as the parameter characterizing the orthotropic plastic theory by Hill are
process of corrosion failure of the surface. employed in the creep range. The creep
Algorithms were constructed and used to strains are related to the stresses by McVetty's
develop a program in FORTRAN-4 language equation with a thermal effect multiplier by
with the use of which a series of problems was Arrhenius. The basic differential equations
solved. The method makes it possible to quite derived are numerically solved by a finite
effectively evaluate the behavior of shells of difference method. As a numerical example,
nonlinearly elastic materials in a corrosive the creep of a two-layered, anisotropic
medium with the relationship of the properties cylindrical shell composed of mild steel and
of the material and the corrosion rate to stainless steel subjected to uniform internal
temperature. 4 Refs. pressure is analyzed. (Edited author abstract)
Ovchinnikov, I.G. (Saratov Polytechnic lnst, USSR); 14 Refs. In Japanese.
Garbuz, E. V. Sov Mater Sci v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p Takezono, Shigeo; Migita, Kohji. Nippon Kikai
405-408. Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 54 n 507 Nov 1988 p
2019-2027.
037034 Optimization of the Life and Cost of
Cylindrical Shells Subject to Mechanical and DEFECTS
Chemical Failure. The purpose of this work
is to create mathematical models of 037036 Plates and Shells with Crack-like
optimization of cylindrical shells for general Flaws. The formulation of new hierarchial
cases in which the corrosion rate is a function finite elements for the analysis of laminated
of stresses. A thin-walled cylindrical shell of plates and shells in the presence of flaws are
specified radius and length and pivotsupported discussed. The performance of the elements is
on the ends and compressed with an axial elevated with the help of a number of
load was taken as the model structure. Two example problems and the results available in
optimization problems were formulated. The the published literature. (Author abstract) 19
first, in which the corrosion rate was assumed Refs.
as a linear function of the stress intensity, was
Basu, P.K. (Vanderbilt Univ, Nashville, TN, USA);
written in the form of linear mathematical
Ahmed, N.U.; Woo, K.S. Comput Vtil Struct Eng
programming. The second, in which the
Computer Utilization in Structural Engineering,
limitation in time was introduced, was
Proceedings of the sessions at Structures Congress
formulated in the form of nonlinear
'89, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ
programming and accounted for both the
by ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 286-295.
initial cost and expenditures made on the
structure at various times. Certain results of
calculation using the two models are DEFLECTION
considered. 5 Refs.
Zelentsov, D.G. (Ferrous Metallurgy Mechanization 037037 Deflection and Snapping of Ring-
Scientific & Production Union, Dnepropetrovsk, Loaded Spherical Caps. The axisymmetric
USSR); Pochtman, Yu. M. Sov Mater Sci v 23 n 4 behavior of both shallow, and deep, ring-
Jan 1988 p 400-412. loaded spherical caps, which are simply
supported but otherwise unconstrained at
CREEP their edges, is investigated using a large-strain
shell theory based on a variational principle.
037035 Creep of Anisotropic Multi-Layered A numerical technique is used to extract the
Moderately Thick Shells of Revolution. This solution. Particular attention is paid to highly
paper describes an analytical formulation and nonlinear phenomena such as snapthrough,
a numerical solution for creep problems of single and multiple snapback, and load-free
anisotropic multilayered moderately thick everted states. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
shells of revolution with application to a Brodland, G. Wayne (Univ of Waterloo, Waterloo,
cylindrical shell. The analytical formulation is Ont, Can); Cohen, H. J Appl Mech Trans ASME v
developed by extending the Reissner-Naghdi 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 127-132.
theory for elastic shells with consideration
given to the effect of shear deformation. For 037038 Elastic-Plastic Large Deflection
the constitutive relation, Hooke's law for Analysis of Axisymmetric Shells. A new
orthotropic materials is used in the elastic finite element formulation for elastic-plastic
deformation, and equations based on the large deflection analysis of shells of revolution
orthotropic creep theory derived from the is presented. The new formulation contains
376
Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
most of the best features of nonlinear finite orthotropic layers of variable thickness. The
element analyses currently available in the shells were deformed by shock loads. This
literature, together with some new numerical method is based on a Timoshenko-type
schemes to improve the capability, accuracy geometric equation of nonlinear shell theory
and speed of the computation. It is thoroughly and physical relations from the theory of
verified using a variety of problems. The effective moduli. The boundary value problem
doubly curved thin shell finite element used was solved by finite difference discretization
has been widely applied to linear elastic stress of the Lagrange-D'Alembert variational
analysis and linear stability analysis by the equation and by integrating over time.
present authors and their co-workers. In place Equations of motion were obtained.
of the widely-used relations of Donnell, Computations were performed on a BESM-6
Novozhilov or Sanders, more comprehensive computer. Experimental and numerical results
nonlinear thin shell strain-displacement were compared. For the experiment the
relations are used, which account for dynamic deformation of a viscoelastic shell of
nonlinear strains caused by in-plane poly methyl methacrylate was used. The shells
displacements. Unlike most previous nonlinear were formed by multiple-zone spiral winding
axisymmetric shell formulations, in-plane of glass-plastic strip. It was found that by
shearing is included throughout the treatment. varying the number of zones and layers in the
For plastic analysis, a multi-layered approach winding, the stress level in the region of the
is adopted employing the Prandtl-Reuss pole opening could be reduced. 15 Refs.
normal flow rule with isotropic hardening or Abrosirnov, N.A. (Gorkii State Univ, Gorky, USSR).
perfect plasticity. (Edited author abstract) Meeh Compos Mater v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p 447 - 453.
Teng, J.G. (Univ of Sydney, Sydney, Aust); Rotter,
J.M. Comput Struet v 31 n 2 1989 P 211-233. 037041 Nonlinear Theory of the Central
Bending of Three-Layer Shells with Defects
037039 Assumed Strain Finite Element in the Form of Sections of Bonding
Model for Large Deflection Composite Failure. Thin three-layer shells with a
Shells. A nine node finite element model has light-weight filler and having sections of
been developed for analysis of geometrically bonding failure on one of the surfaces of
non-linear laminated composite shells. The contact between the filler and an external
formulation is based on the degenerate solid layer were theoretically examined. For the
shell concept and utilizes a set of assumed case of central bending of such shells, a
strain fields as well as assumed displacement. complex of nonlinear relations was
Two different local orthogonal co-ordinate constructed which were used to formulate
systems were used to maintain in variance of nonlinear problems concerning contact
the element stiffness matrix. The formulation interaction of the external layers with the
assumes strain and the determinant of the filler, with allowance for unilateral contact on
Jacobian matrix to be linear in the thickness the sections of bonding failure. The
direction. This allows analytical integration in Kirchhoff-Love hypotheses traditionally used
the thickness direction regardless of ply in the theory of three-layer shells were
layups. The formulation also allows the adopted to describe the mechanics of
reference plane to be different from the shell deformation of the external layers. 11 Refs.
midsurface. The results of numerical tests Pairnushin, V.N. (Kazan Aviation Inst, USSR). Sov
demonstrate the validity and the effectiveness Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May 1988 p 1038 -1 043.
of the present approach. (Author abstract) 17
Refs. 037042 Approaches to Numerical Solution
Yeorn, C.H. (Univ of Maryland, College Park, MD, of Linear and Nonlinear Boundary-value
USA); Lee, S. W. Int J Numer Methods Eng v 28 n 8 Problems of the Theory of Layered
Aug 1989 P 1749-1768. Anisotropic Shells. Certain approaches to the
numerical solution of boundary-value
DEFORMATION problems are presented, describing the
stress-strain state of layered shells with
037040 Numerical Study of the isotropic and anisotropic layers of variable
Axisymmetric Deformation of Composite thickness in the linear and geometrically
Shells of Revolution Under Shock Loads. A nonlinear formulations on the basis of classical
method was proposed of numerically solving and improved models for nonuniform force
problems of transient deformation of and temperature interactions. The proposed
composite shells composed of rigidly joined approaches to the numerical solution of the
377
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
static shell problems are realized by programs well-known shear locking that appears in some
in FORTRAN and tested on many examples. finite element representations, were not
Solutions of some problems based on the observed. However, in connection with
discussed methods are demonstrated. 10 Refs. kinematically slightly supported boundaries,
Grigorenko, Va. M. (Acad of Sciences of the such as corresponding to membrane theory,
Ukranian SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n oscillating solutions may occur. 21 Refs.
10 Apr 1988 p 923-927. Wimmer, H. (Univ of Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
Austria). Aeta Meeh v 73 n 1-4 Aug 1988 P 163 -175.
037043 Deformation of a Spherical Shell
Under Internal Loading by a Shock 037046 Betti's Theorem for Rotationally
Generated by an Underwater Electrical Symmetric Infinitesimal Deformations
Discharge. This article is devoted to a Superimposed on the Finite Deformation of
theoretical and experimental study of the a Thin Shell of Revolution. It is intuitively
nonsteady hydroelastic deformation of a thin clear that the tangent stiffness matrix for a
spherical shell subjected to an underwater finitely deformed shell, treated as a two-
electrical discharge at its center. The range of dimensional continuum, should be symmetric.
application of model representation of the The governing differential equations for
latter in the form of a point source and a continuing rotationally symmetric quasi-static
source of finite dimensions with an ideally bending and extensional deformation of thin
flexible boundary is determined. The test shell shells of revolution with no shear deformation
was composed of two stamped hemispheres are employed to derive Betti's theorem from
which were subsequently welded about their which symmetry of the tangent stiffness
perimeters. 8 Refs. matrix follows, provided the pressure load is
Saprykin, Yu. V. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian conservative. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Tsurkin, V.N.; Shvets, I.S.; DaDeppo, D.A. (Univ of Arizona, Tuscon, AZ,
Sholom, V.K. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 392-396. USA); Keppel, W.J. Ind Math v 38 pt 1 1988 P
71-82.
037044 Stability of a Viscoelastic Shell of
Double Curvature. In this paper, we consider 037047 FDM in Arbitrary Curvilinear
the stability of a viscoelastic ellipsoidal shell. Co-ordinates-Formulation, Numerical
We examine the behavior of the shell in Approach & Applications. The basic concept
relation to the load, curvatures, and of automatization of operations in curvilinear
eccentricity of the support ellipse. We co-ordinate systems are briefly presented and
establish the conditions for 'snapping' of the applied to the analysis of large deformations of
shell to occur, and for asymmetrical membrane shells by the FDM. Several
equilibrium forms to appear and develop. 1 examples provide the basis for a comparison of
Ref. this approach with other descriptions of
Vorovich, 1.1.; Drobysheva, T.P. Meeh Solids v 22 n deformation. 23 Refs.
61987 P 174-178. Tworzydlo, Wlodzimierz, W. (Technical Univ of
Krakow, Cracow, Pol). Intl Numer Methods Eng v 28
037045 Application of the Two-Dimensional n 2 Feb 1989 p 261-277.
Hermitian Finite-Difference Method to
Linear Shear Deformation Theory of Plates 037048 Consistent Linearization in Elasto-
and Arbitrarily Curved Shells. In this paper Plastic Shell Analysis. The present paper is
the linear shear deformation theory of thin directed towards elasto-plastic large
shells formulated by Basar/Kratzig has been deformation analysis of thin shells based on the
used to demonstrate a special kind of the concept of degenerated solids. The main
Hermitian finite-difference method. The aspect of the paper is the derivation of an
governing differential equation system efficient computational strategy placing
established in an appropriate matrix form emphasis on consistent elasto-plastic tangent
contains only first derivatives of the unknown moduli and stress integration with the radial
tensor components. After transformation into return method under the restriction of 'zero
an algebraic form by applying two- normal stress condition' in thickness direction.
dimensional operators and solving the global The advantageous performance of the
system, no further differentiation of the standard Newton iteration using a consistent
unknown field functions is necessary. The tangent stiffness matrix is compared to the
procedure shows fast convergence and, in classical scheme with an iteration matrix based
general, numerical instabilities like the on the infinitesimal elasto-plastic constitutive
378
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
tensor. Several numerical examples also function method is used accurately to treat the
demonstrate the effectiveness of the standard contact condition involving a finite amount of
Newton iteration with respect to modified and sliding. Axisymmetric large deformations of
quasi-Newton methods like BFGS and others. contacting spherical shells are analyzed, and it
(Author abstract) 21 Refs. is shown that elastic unloading resulting from
Ramm, E. (Univ of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, West Ger); the sliding definitely affects the crushing of
Matzemiller, A. Eng Comput (Swansea Wales) v 5 n 4 one shell by another. The possibility of
Dec 1988 p 289- 299. nonaxisymmetric bifurcation of deformation is
examined on the basis of the J2-deformation
037049 Whole-Field Optical Examination of theory. (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
Cylindrical Shell Deformation. An optical Kitagawa, Hiroshi (Osaka Univ, Suita, Jpn); Hiura,
technique for the measurement of radial Seiji.]SME Int] Ser 1 v 32 n 2 Apr 1989 p 199-207.
deformation in circular cylindrical shells is
discussed. The technique is a modification and 037052 Determination of Shell
improvement of an earlier method, using a Constructions Deformations with
conical mirror of simple geometry to view a Application of Linear Transformation
grating reflected from the inner surface of the Theory. In this paper concepts for
shell. The new system allows more precise determining shell structure deformations are
alignment of the components of the optical presented for the case of the surface of a
system with the shell. Fringes obtained by tria pial ellipsoid. Observations by the spatial
superposition as in the Ligtenberg moire incision method in a rectangular xyz
method, or deviations of lines from a regular coordinate system are assumed. The method
pattern in a photographic image provide a of determining the deformation components
measure of the slope changes on the surface of in the points under examination in the
the shell. Theoretical relations are presented t = T - To time interval is based on the
for three grid orientations, at least two of principle of a minimum sum of the squares of
which have to be used in conjunction to the (vx' vy ' v,) corrections. (Edited author
determine the two components of slope. abstract) 8 Refs. In Russian.
Illustrations for the use and accuracy of the Baran, P.1. (Kiev Engineering-Constructional lnst,
technique are presented for two cases. (Edited Kiev, USSR); Przewlocki, Stefan. Zesz Nauk Politeeh
author abstract) 8 Refs. Lodz Budownietwo n 39 1988 P 151-159.
Krishnakumar, S. (Univ of Tasmania, Hobart, Aust); 037053 Experimental Study of Deformation
Foster, C.G. ExpMeeh v 29 n 1 Mar 1989 p 16-22. of Thin Conical Shells During Penetration
into Soil. The penetration of various solids
037050 New Method of Multisegment into deformable media has been previously
Integration for the Nonlinear Analysis of considered. At the same time, insufficient
Shells of Revolution. A new method of attention has been paid to deformation of thin
multi segment integration has been developed shells in the process of penetration into soil.
for solving boundary value problems of a This paper describes an experimental study of
system of nonlinear ordinary differential deformation of thin-walled shells upon
equations as encountered in the large indentation into soil; it determines the effect
deflection analysis of the axisymmetric of the angle of taper, the shape of the tip,
deformations of the shells of revolution. The and the manner of attachment of the
method developed here involves much less concentrated mass to the shell structure on
computational work than the multisegment the deformation process. The authors
integration developed by Kainins and Lestingi. employed an experimental setup consisting of
The new method has been applied to a number a pneumatic gun with a control panel for
of problems to ascertain its soundness and regulating the delivery of compressed gas, a
accuracy. (Edited author abstract) 28 Refs. target, and measurement and recording
Uddin, Md. Wahhaj (Bangladesh Univ of equipment with an automatic control unit.
Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh). Int The gun was capable of accelerating shells to
J Pressure Vessels Piping v 38 n 1 1989 P 39-55. specified velocities. 5 Refs.
Bakulin, V.N.; Ovcharov, P.N.; Potopakhin, V.A.
037051 Elastic-plastic Unstable Deformation Meeh Solids v 23 n 41988 P 183-186.
of Shells in Contact (Case of a Spherical
Shell). This paper deals with the numerical 037054 Deformation of Slender Shells with
analysis of large elastic-plastic deformation of Openings. Cutouts of various shapes are
shells in contact with each other. The penalty often made in shell structures for design
379
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
380
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
381
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
Brooks, G.N. (Univ of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, Radovinskii, A.L. Meeh Solids v 23 n 5 1988 P
USA); Leung, C.-P. J Pressure Vessel Technol Trans 117-122.
ASME v III n 1 Feb 1989 p 39-46.
ENERGY DISSIPATION
037066 Elastojvisco-plastic Dynamic
Response of Thin Shells of Revolution by 037068 Energy Dissipation in Braced
Means of Overlay Model. The numerical Cylindrical Shells. This paper presents an
analysis of the elasto/visco-plastic dynamic experimental and numerical investigation of
response of axisymmetricaI thin shells the energy dissipation characteristics of mild
subjected to arbitrary loads is carried out by steel cylindrical shells subjected to large
the elasto/visco-plastic overlay model which is deformations under line loadings acting
able to express the Bauschinger effect and the parallel and perpendicular to the shells'
strain rate dependence. Namely, Perzyna's longitudinal axes. The effects of diametrical
equation is used for the constitutive relation bracing, cylindrical length and external
of each layer of the overlay model, and as a loading orientation on the deformation
whole, the Bauschinger effect and the patterns and energy dissipation capacities are
influence of viscosity in plastic range of the described. The results are applied to the
material are taken into account. The equations design of a new impact attenuation system
of motion and the relations between the used in highway safety applications. (Author
strains and displacements are derived by abstract) 9 Refs.
extending the Sanders linear theory in elastic Carney III, J.F. (Vanderbilt Univ, Nashville, TN,
shells. The numerical method selected for this USA); Pothen, S. Int J Meeh Sci v. 30 n 3 -4 1988
problem is a method using finite difference in Some Papers Presented at the International
both space and time. (Edited author abstract) Symposium on Structural Failure, Second
16 Refs. In Japanese. International Symposium on Structural
Tao, Katsumi; Takezono, Shigeo; Ohtsubo, Kazumi; Crashworthiness, Cambridge, MA, USA, Jun 6-8
Mochidone, Hiroyuki; Matsuoka, Hironobu. Nippon 1988 P 203-216
Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 513 May
1989 p 1145-1152. FAILURE
382
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
383
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
384
Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
flexural and extensional deformations, the Hampton, VA, USA); Lester, H.C.; Abler, S.B. J
lesser role of transverse shear, can lead to Vib Acoust Stress Reliab Des v III n 3 Jul 1989 P
excessive stiffness ('locking'). Origins and 337-342.
procedures are described to circumvent these
problems. (Edited author abstract) 147 Refs.
Wempner, Gerald (Georgia Inst of Technology, NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Atlanta, GA, USA). Appl Meek Rev v 42 n 5 May
1989 p 129-142. 037081 Non Contacting Testing and NDT
for Composite Shells. There is, today, a
NOISE ABATEMENT strong need for reliable large-field ways of
inspecting for the initial quality of composite
037079 Statistical Theory of Internal structures and for monitoring, over long
Soundproofing in Cylindrical Shells. In a times, the continued integrity of such
number of cases of practical interest, an structures. This paper introduces two new
interesting question is about the capability of methods which, when used in combination,
thin-walled shells of localizing wave energy has strong promise of meeting this need. The
close to the radiator encased in this shell, i.e., first, called Spectral Density Analysis is a
is separated by it from the environment. This purely optical method for full field
phenomenon represents the concept of measurement of surface displacements. The
internal soundproofing (isolation). The paper second is a fiber-optic laser based method to
concludes that as the case of soundproofing of generate and detect ultrasonic waves for
a shell from the external field (enclosure), the interrogating the interior of structures. It is
following physical phenomena are important: called Thermal Acousto Photonic NDE.
1. Increase of soundproofing effectiveness is (Author abstract) 5 Refs.
nonmonotonous with respect to the frequency. Burger, C.P. (Texas A&M Univ, College Station,
2. Dips (notches) in the spectral characteristic TX, USA). ASME Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ
of soundproofing are due to resonant PVP v 146 Advances in Macro-Mechanics of
phenomena in the shell and in air volume Composite Material Vessels and Components,
within the shell. 3. The experimental analysis Presented at the 1988 ASME Pressure Vessels and
of the internal soundproofing of shells (using Piping Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Jun
standard measuring techniques) does not 19- 23 1988. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical
reveal these dips (notches) in soundproofing Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988 P
due to averaging in the octave frequency 167-171.
bands. 4 Refs.
Guzhas, D.R. Vib Eng v 3 n 1 1989 P 21- 26.
PLASTICITY
385
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
386
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
as being structurally orthotropic. The critical considered. The linear stability problem and
value of compressive forces in the radial the deformation of the shell under large
sections of the shell are determined within the deflections with the construction of the 'load-
framework of a linear formulation of the deflection' graphs is investigated. 2 Refs.
problem, with the use of analytical criteria of Samol'yanov, 1.1. (L'vov Polytechnic Inst, USSR).
dynamic instability, for linear and parabolic Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 353-357.
laws of change in the compressive forces over
time. 3 Refs. 037091 Stability of a Multilayer Cylindrical
Amiro, I. Va. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian Shell in Interlayer Pressure. The problem of
SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 10 Apr 1988 the stability of a cylindrical shell or circular
p 903-907. ring with one-side connection with the
surrounding elastic or absolutely rigid space
037088 Stability of Shells of Revolution of has been studied in a number of investigations.
Fiber Composites with Initial Cracks in the In solving this problem for thin shells it is
Microstructure. A method of calculating the possible to neglect the variation of the shell
stability and initial postcritical behavior of geometry as a result of subcritical behavior,
shells of revolution of composite materials with and also changes in the area of contact with
variable mechanical characteristics dependent the surrounding space during the loss of
on microstructural damages at the interface stability. Consequently, the solution can be
between the components is presented. The obtained in linear formulation, as carried out
stability of glass-plastic cylindrical and conical in the present paper. 4 Refs.
shells with different degrees of damage to the Pal'chevskii, A.S. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p
material is examined. The method makes it 358-362.
possible to study the stability of shells of
composite materials in which the components 037092 Analysis of Parametric Oscillations
separate from one another during mechanical of Shells of Revolution with Variable
or other types ofloading. 9 Refs. Parameters. This paper examines the
Vanin, G.A. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, parametric oscillations of thin shells of
Kiev, USSR); Semenyuk, N.P. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n revolution of arbitrary contour closed in the
10 Apr 1988 p 908-914. annular direction. The shells were assembled
from a certain number of orthotropic and
037089 In8uence of Conditions of End isotropic layers of variable thickness. The
Fixing on the Stability of Longitudinal material of each layer is assumed to be elastic
Compressed Multilayer Conical Shells. The and governed by Hooke's generalized law.
problem of the stability of multilayer The problem is solved on the basis of the
orthotropic conical shells-and also cylindrical linear theory of shells and assuming that the
shells, as a particular case - is considered, and hypothesis of nondeformable normals for the
the influence of the boundary conditions on entire packet of the shell as a whole is
the critical values of the longitudinal satisfied. 9 Refs.
compressive force is analyzed. A family of Vasilenko, A.T. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
curves of the critical load as a function of the SSR, Kiev, USSR); Cherin'ko, P.N. Sov Appl Meeh
current value of L/Rme for shells with different Oct 1988 p 363-367.
conditions at the ends is shown. Analysis of the
results offers the possibility of dividing the 037093 Initial Post-Critical Behavior and
consideration of the boundary conditions into Flaw Sensitivity of Composite Cylindrical
two groups with four versions in each. 9 Refs. Shells with Difference Reinforcement
Shul'ga, N.A. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian Schemes. Results of the stability of reinforced
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Primak, A.P. Sov Appl Meeh Oct shells are used to study the character of their
1988 p 348 - 352. post-critical behavior and sensitivity to the
initial geometrical defects. The formulated
037090 Stability of a Sloping Panel of problem is solved through the theory of initial
Negative Gaussian Curvature. The problem post-critical behavior and Koiter's special
of the stability of a thin elastic shell of the theory. A circular cylindrical shell of the
hyperbolic paraboloid type, rectangular in the length L, radius R, and thickness t consisting
plane, when the contour lines coincide with the of N layers with different fiber orientations is
direction of the principal curvatures is examined. 6 Refs.
387
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
Semenyuk, N.P. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian boards, orthogonally attached to each other
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Zhukova, N.B. Sov Appl Meeh by nails. As far as the investigated hypar-shells
Oct 1988 p 385-392. are concerned, reaching of the ultimate load
(in this paper the term 'ultimate load' is used
037094 Loss of Stability for a Spherical in a restrictive sense) is found to be the
Shell. On the basis of three-dimensional relevant mode of loss of stability. This agrees
linearized stability theory, we obtain the with experimental results reported in the
characteristic equation for determining the literature. (Author abstract) 23 Refs. In
critical inner radius of a spherical support, German.
whose outer surface is acted upon by a load Rattasepp, T. (Technische Univ Tallinn, Tallinn,
equal to the contact pressure on the boundary USSR); Mang, H.A. Bauingenieur v 64 n 6 Jun
of the support and the rock mass. The 1989 p 255-266.
magnitude of the contact pressure is
determined in solving the problem of the STEEL
precritical stress-strain state of the support and
the elastic-plastic mass, which has an interface 037097 Optimized Wall Thickness of Shells
between zones of elastic and plastic of Revolution. The aim of this paper was to
deformation. (Edited author abstract) 7 Refs. develop a concept for the design of shells of
Meshkov, S.I.; Shashkin, A.I. Meeh Solids v 23 n 5 revolution with different Gaussian curvature
1988 P 113-116 using a simplified finite element buckling
analysis. A cooling tower shell was used as an
037095 Numerische Stabilitaetsanalyse example for calculations. 7 Refs.
Linear und Nichtlinear, Deformierbarer, Wittek, Udo (Univ Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern,
Parametererregter Schalentragwerke. West Ger). Proe Sess Relat Steel Struet Stroet Congr
[Numerical Stability Analysis of Linearly Proceedings of the Sessions Related to Steel
and Nonlinearly Deformable Shell Structures at Structures Congress '89, San
Structures Under Parametric Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ by
Excitation]. The present contribution derives ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 686-695.
a numerical concept for the stability analysis
of linearly and nonlinearly responding shell STRAIN
structures under parametric excitation.
Starting from a displacement discretization of 037098 Deformation Bounds for Cyclically
the incremental principle of virtual Loaded Shell Structures Operating under
displacements and using Ljapunow's stability Creep Conditions. Constitutive relations,
definitions, handy stability bounds are based on the Bailey-Orowan's creep theory,
presented, especially also for nonlinear are used to develop a maximum work
fundamental motions. Two of many computed condition which includes the influence of an
examples demonstrate their applicability; the internal state. A bounding theorem on
correctness of the results is checked by displacement is obtained for structures
properties of line-search evaluated subjected to cyclic loading. An application of
neighbouring motions. (Author abstract) 15 the bound is illustrated. (Author abstract) 6
Refs. Refs.
Eller, Conrad (Ruhr-Univ Bochurn, Bochurn, West Cocks, Alan C.F. (Univ of Leicester, Leicester,
Ger); Kraetzig, W. B. lng Areh v 59 n 5 1989 P Engl); Leckie, F.A. J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n
345-356. 3 Sep 1988 p 509-516.
037096 Zur Stabilitaet Flacher 037099 Refined Small Strain and Moderate
Eckgestuetzter Hyparschalen aus Holz mit Rotation Theory of Elastic Anisotropic
Geradlinigen Randtraegern. [On the Stability Shells. A general refined shell theory that
of Shallow, Wooden Hypar-shells with accounts for the transverse deformation, small
Straight, Point-Supported Edge Beams]. This strains, and moderate rotations is presented.
paper is concerned with finite element The theory can be reduced to various existing
stability analysis of shallow, thin hypar-shells shell theories including: the classical (i.e.,
made of timber, with straight, COrner- linear Kirchhoff-Love) shell theory, the
supported edge beams. A feature of the Donnell-Mushtari-Vlasov shell theory, the
analysis model is the direct consideration of Leonard-Koiter-Sanders moderate rotations
the structural anisotropy of the shell shell theory, the von Karman type shear-
membrane consisting of two layers of wooden deformation shell theory and the moderate-
388
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
rotation shear-deformation plate theory IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American
developed by Reddy. The present theory is Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York,
developed from an assumed displacement NY, USA, 1988 WA/APM37 7.
field, nonlinear strain-displacement equations
that contain small strain and moderate STRESSES
rotation terms, and the principle of virtual
displacements. (Edited author abstract) 47 Refs. 037102 Analysis of an Axisymmetric
Schmidt, R. (Univ of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, West Thermoelastic Plastic Stress-Strain State of a
Ger); Reddy, IN. ] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n Laminar Shell Under Repeated Loading.
3 Sep 1988 p 611 - 61 7. Simple repeated loading processes were
considered on laminar shells of revolution by
037100 Assumed Strain Stabilization loads of both the same and the reverse sign as
Procedure for the 9-Node Lagrange Shell for the initial loading. The investigation was
Element. An assumed strain (strain done within the framework of the Kirchhoff-
interpolation) method is used to construct a Love hypothesis. It was assumed that the
stabilization matrix for the 9-node shell creep strain is negligibly small as compared to
element. The stabilization procedure can be the instantaneous elastic-plastic strains. A thin
justified based on the Hellinger-Reissner shell of revolution with meridian section of
variational method. It involves a projection arbitrary shape and consisting of variable-
vector which is orthogonal to both linear and thickness layers was considered. The shell was
quadratic fields in the local co-ordinate system subjected, from an initially unstressed and
of each quadrature point. All terms in the unstrained state, to axisymmetric loads and
development involve 2 X 2 quadrature in the nonuniform heating that varied in time in
9-node element. Example problems show such a way that plastic strain domains
good accuracy and an almost optimal rate of occurred in which unloading then took place.
convergence. (Author abstract) 40 Refs. The results of the analysis showed that the
Belytschko, Ted (Northwestern Univ, Evanston, IL, active loading process occurred in the first two
USA); Wong, Bak Leong; Stolarski, Henryk. IntJ steps in the shell in the form of a plastic strain
Numer Methods Eng v 28 n 2 Feb 1989 p 385-414. zone at the shell inner surface. 6 Refs.
Babeshko, M.E. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
037101 Refined Small Strain and Moderate SSR, Kiev, USSR); Prokhorenko, l.V.;
Rotation Theory of Elastic Anisotropic Sokolovskaya. V.l. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May
Shells. A general refined shell theory that 1988 p 1054-1058.
accounts for the transverse deformation, small
strains, and moderate rotations is presented. 037103 Combined Theoretical and
The theory can be reduced to existing shell Experimental Method of Determining
theories including the classical (i.e., linear Residual Stresses in Wound Composite
Kirchhoff-Love) shell theory, Donnell- Shells. A combined theoretical and
Mushtari-Vlasov shell theory, Leonard-Koiter- experimental method of determining residual
Sanders moderate rotations shell theory, von stresses, and the strains of wound composite
Karman type shear-deformation shell theory shells induced by these stresses, is suggested.
and moderate rotation shear deformation The method makes use of shells of revolution
plate theory developed by J.N. Reddy. The that are formed by a system of layers of
present theory is developed from an assumed unidirectional composite material placed at
displacement field, nonlinear strain given angles to the generatrix. Each of the
displacement equations that contain small elementary unidirectional layers is allotted
strain and moderate rotation terms, and the rigidities in tension and compression as well as
principle of virtual displacements. The in shear. The elastic constants of such a layer,
governing equations exhibit strong coupling including the modulus and Poisson's ratio, are
between the membrane and bending determined experimentally in tests of
deformation which should alter the bending, circularly wound tubular specimens. For
stability, and post-buckling behavior of certain determining residual stresses it is assumed that
shell structures as predicted using available the deformations of the layer are composed of
theories. (Edited author abstract) 47 Refs. elastic, thermal, and curing components and
Schmidt, R. (Univ of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, West deformations induced by prestressing of the
Ger); Reddy, IN. Am Soe Meeh Eng Pap Preprint- reinforcing elements. The method was
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, experimentally verified in tests of cylindrical
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, Chicago, shells made of glass reinforced plastic
389
Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
comprised of glass fiber VMPS and epoxy J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n 3 Sep 1988 p
resin ED-20 binder. The results confirm the 629-634.
possibility of using the combined theoretical
and experimental method for determining 037106 Stress-Strain Fields at Crack Tip in
technological stresses and deformations of Axially Cracked Cylindrical Shells and the
wound composite shells. 5 Refs. Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors. A
Morozov, E.V. (K.E. Tsiolkovskii Moscow lnst of perturbation solution for stress-strain fields
Aviation Technology, USSR). Meeh Compos Mater v (including modes I, II, III) at crack tip in
23 n 6 May 1988 p 802-807. axially cracked cylindrical shells is given. The
analysis, using 10th-order differential
equations which take the transverse shear
037104 Axisymmetric Elastoplastic Stress deformations into account, involves
State of Branched Shell Systems with perturbation in a curvature parameter y2,
Nonisothermal Loading Processes. The (y2 = [12(Inv2) J'a 2/Rh). Stress intensity
axisymmetric elastoplastic stress state of a factors for finite size cylindrical shells under
branched shell with a complex form of the bending and internal pressure loading are
meridian and poles is investigated, in evaluated. A good accuracy can be obtained
conditions of quasistatic thermal and force without using fine meshes in a region near
loading which varies over time. A shell of the crack tip. Besides, the influence of the
revolution with a branched meridian is finite size and the shearing stiffness on
considered in conditions of axisymmetric bulging factors, which are commonly used in
connective heat transfer with the surrounding engineering, are analyzed. (Author abstract) 6
medium, under the action of a variable load. Refs.
The problem is solved within the framework Liu, Chuntu (Acad Sinica, China); Wu, Xijia. Aeta
of the Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis in a Meeh Sin v 3 n 3 1987 P 223-230.
geometrically linear, quasistatic formulation;
creep deformation is neglected in comparison
with the instantaneous elastoplastic 037107 Surface Crack in Shells Under
deformation. The equations of state employed Mixed-Mode Loading Condition. The
are the relations of the theory of simple problem of a shallow shell containing a surface
loading processes, taking account of their crack and subjected to general loading
previous history which are linearized by the conditions is considered. It is shown that, as
method of variable elasticity parameters. 8 in the three-dimensional elasticity formulation,
Refs. the mode I state can be separated whereas
modes II and III remain coupled. A line
Galishin, A.Z. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
spring model is developed to formulate the
SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh Sep 1988 p
part-through crack problem under mixed-
234-38.
mode conditions. A shallow shell of arbitrary
curvature having a part-through crack located
037105 Large Elastic Deformation of Shear on the outer or the inner surface of the shell
Deformable Shells of Revolution: Numerical is then considered. Reissner's transverse shear
and Experimental Results. Through an theory is used to formulate the problem by
integrating matrix approach, a numerical assuming that the shell is subjected to all five
solution is obtained to the equations governing moment and stress resultants. The uncoupled
large elastic deformation of a clamped circular antisymmetric problem is solved for
cylinder due to internal pressure. The shell cylindrical and toroidal shells having a surface
equations include the effects of large strains, crack in various orientations and the primary
thickness changes, and transverse shear and the secondary stress intensity factors are
deformation. The numerical solution is given. (Edited author abstract) 20 Refs.
compared to results from an asymptotic Joseph, P.F. (Lehigh Univ, Bethlehem, PA, USA);
analysis and from experiments on rubber Erdogan, F. J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n 4 Dec
cylinders. A specialized Rivlin-Saunders 1988 p 795-804.
strain-energy density function is assumed for
the rubber, with material constants 037108 Investigation of the Spherical
determined from tensile tests and deformed Membrane Cap Under Partial Load. It is
cylinder profiles at a high inflation pressure. shown how the internal forces due to an
(Author abstract) 15 Refs. axially non-symmetric load of a spherical cap
Kempski, M.H. (Rochester lnst of Technology, can be determined within the framework of
Rochester, NY, USA); Taber, L.A.; Su, Fong-Chin. the membrane theory. We present the
390
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
method of internal forces for the terms of the 037112 Bifurcation of Axisymmetric
Fourier expansion. In a numerical example Equilibrium of Thin Shells of Revolution
these forces are computed for a spherical cap with Regular Shaped Imperfections. An
with the half central angle cPo = 38 As can
0
• asymptotic formula is derived to characterize
be seen, for n = 2,3,4 closed formulae can be the effect of a regular axisymmetric shape
obtained, while for n ~ 5 the calculation has imperfection upon the classical critical load of
to be carried out numerically. (Edited author a perfect convex shell belonging to a certain
abstract) 4 Refs. class. 4 Refs.
Olitzscher, Frank. Acta Tech (Budapest) v 100 n 3-4 Teterin, I.Yu. (Leningrad Univ, Leningrad, USSR).
1987 P 225 - 238. Leningrad Univ Mech Bull n 2 1988 P 62-64.
391
Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
scalar mathematics form, by linear, small-strain steady operating conditions is presented. The
elasticity principles, for the case of general heat conduction equation incorporating heat
thick-walled shells under general loading. generation due to solidification was solved by
These reduce to well-known forms for the finite element method to obtain the spatially
particular cases of flat-plates and thick circular steady temperature distribution when
cylindrical shells. (Author abstract) considering material flow. Elastic-plastic
Donnell, Lloyd H. ] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n stresses in the solidified shell were also
2Jun 1989 p 391-394. evaluated. A parameter study was carried out
in order to obtain the optimal operating
037116 Shear Deformable Finite Element condition such as shell thickness, site of crater
for the Analysis of General Shells of end, and stress distribution as functions of the
Revolution. A 64-dof isoparametric casting speed and cooling condition. (Author
quadrilateral finite element is presented for abstract) 6 Refs. In Japanese.
the analysis of generally laminated shells of Tatsumi, Naohisa; Wang, Zhi-Gang; Inoue, Tatsuo.
revolution. The effects of shear deformation Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 514
and rotary inertia are accounted for by using Jun 1989 p 1389-1393.
shear deformation theory that employs the
parabolic shear strain variation across the 037119 Elastic Stress Analysis of Two
thickness. The classical thin shell theory is the Oblique Intersecting Cylindrical Shells
special case of shear deformation theory used Subjected to Internal Pressure. In this paper,
in the present study. Thus, the thin shell the elastic stress distribution in two oblique
element also can be obtained from the present intersecting cylindrical shells subjected to
thick shell element by simply having the internal pressure is discussed. We first
displacement parameters (UI and VI) associated investigated the elastic stresses and
with the shear rotations as zeros. The displacements to the intersected shell
numerical results presented illustrate the (cylindrical vessel) with an arbitrary curved
performance of the element and the effects of hole under internal pressure. In making this
shear deformation. (Author abstract) 33 Refs. analysis, a curvilinear coordinate system (e, ~)
Bhimaraddi, A. (Univ of Canterbury, Christchurch, e eo
is used and one of which = is made to
NZ); Carr, A.J.; Moss, P.J. Comput Struet v 31 n 3 coincide with the hole contour r. The
1989 P 299-308. governing equation is the equation of shallow
shell in this coordinate system. When the hole
037117 Stressed State of Inhomogeneous contour is an ellipse, the obtained solution is a
Elastic Shells of Revolution. An extension is complex function expressed in Mathieu
discussed regarding an averaging technique function. Then, we discussed the stresses and
for the case of quasi-periodic structures with displacements expressed in the edge effect
curvilinear anisotropy, as applied to problems form on the basis of Flugge's equations for the
of elasticity written in the displacements. In intersecting shell (nozzle). At last, a boundary
this paper, the authors employ the technique condition along the intersection curve is
to reduce the static problem of derived. Numerical computation was
inhomogeneous elasticity in the stresses, conducted, and the results are compared with
utilizing hypotheses of shell theory (i.e., the experiments. (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
problem of equilibrium of an inhomogeneous Chien, Huei-Lin (Nanjing lnst of Chemical
anisotropic shell of quasi-periodic structure to Technology, Nanjing, China); Wu, Shao-Jun. ASME
a recursive sequence of problems for a Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 139 Design
homogeneous anisotropic shell. The authors and Analysis of Piping, Pressure Vessels and
offers a solution for the problem of Components, 1988, Presented at the 1988 ASME
equilibrium of a shell formed by a winding or Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh,
coil that is acted upon by internal pressure. 8 PA, USA,Jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc
Refs. of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
Levin, V.D.; Pobedrya, B.E. Meeh Solids v 23 n 4 USA, 1988 P 119-124.
1988 P 140-145.
037120 Cutouts in Laminated Plates and
037118 Simulation of Temperature and Shells. A finite element method for evaluating
Elastic-Plastic Stresses in Solid Shell During stresses around cutouts in thin to moderately
Continuous Casting Process. An analytical thick laminated composite plate and shell
method to simulate the temperature and the structures is presented. Ahmad's eight noded
stress fields in a continuous casting slab under isoparametric quadrilateral shell element
392
Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
037122 Step Pressure and Blast Responses 037124 Investigation of the Spherical
of Clamped Orthotropic Hemispherical Membrane Cap under Partial Load. This
Shells. This paper is concerned with studies paper shows how the internal forces due to an
on the axisymmetric free vibration and axially non-symmetric load of a spherical can
dynamic response of polar orthotropic cap be determined in the frame of the
393
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
membrane theory. It presents the method of excitation sweeps showed a dynamic instability.
internal forces for the terms of the Fourier The frequency range over which the response
expansion. In a numerical example these is unstable decreases with increasing
forces are computed for a spherical cap with a pretension. The dynamic to static strain ratio
particular half central angle. Calculation decreased from 20% to 2.3% as pretension
results are discussed. (Edited author abstract) increased from the lowest to the highest
5 Refs. value. (Author abstract) 20 Refs.
Olitzscher, Frank. Acta Tech (Budapest) v 100 n 2-3 Gasparini, D.A. (Case Western Reserve Univ,
1987 P 225-238. Cleveland, OH, USA); Perdikaris, P.C.; Kanj, N.]
Struct Eng v 115 n 2 Feb 1989 p 363 - 381.
037125 Formulation and Accuracy of a
Circular Cylindrical Shell Theory Due to a 037127 Infinite, Elastic, Cylindrical Shell
Higher-Order Approximation. In this paper, with a Finite Number of Ring
the most general higher-Qrder equations of Constraints. The axisymmetric excitation of
three-dimensional static and dynamic theories an infinite, elastic, cylindrical shell with a
for a circular cylindrical shell are derived by finite number of ring constraints is discussed.
expanding the displacements into an infinite Exact solutions are presented for the cases of
power series with respect to the radial one and two constraints. These are then
coordinate of the shell. The present examined in an asymptotic limit that
formulation can be taken into account actually corresponds to light fluid-loading and small
any higher-order terms for both cases of static curvature. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
and dynamic problems. Several theories which Lawrie, J.B. (Univ of Bristol, Bristol, Engl).] Sound
were proposed previously, can be deduced by Vib v 130 n 2 Apr 22 1989 P 189-206.
the employment of the lower-order terms in
our theory. Three typical theories such as 037128 Membrane Shell as an Under-
3-order theory, Levinson-type theory and constrained Structural System. Statical-
Levinson-Voyladjis-Baluch-type theory are also kinematic analysis is employed to provide a
newly derived from the present formulation. new perspective on the structural behavior of
Numerical results of natural frequencies for membrane shells and the related limitations of
simply-supported cylindrical shells are the linear membrane theory. The obtained
compared to the exact solution as well as results include a resolution of an apparent
many theories. (Author abstract) 8 Refs. In paradox in the statics of membranes, a
Japanese. description and explanation of the peculiar
Hirano, Kisaburou; Hirashima, Kenichi. Nippon behavior of toroidal membranes with an
Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 54 n 506 Oct 1988 arbitrary cross-section, and a stronger version
p 1915-1919. of a central theorem in the membrane theory.
(Author abstract) 7 Refs.
037126 Dynamic and Static Behavior of Kuznetsov, E.N. (Univ of Illinois at
Cable Dome Model. The static and dynamic Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA).] Appl Meek Trans
behavior of a cable dome was studied by ASME v 56 n 2 June 1989 p 387 - 390.
testing a 1/50 scale model. Three different
pretension levels were considered. The static 037129 Modal Analysis of a Shell's Acoustic
response of the model under a symmetric and Radiation in Light and Heavy Fluids. A
an antisymmetric loading was investigated. modal analysis study of acoustic radiation by a
The cable dome's behavior changes from a finite cylindrical shell immersed in light of
compressive to a tensile membrane with heavy fluid is presented. Attention is focused
increasing applied central load. The cable on the explanation of radiation phenomena in
model exhibits a hardening response, both fluids. The concepts of radiation,
especially in the antisymmetric mode. The structural and evenly damped modes are
nonlinearity becomes more pronounced with explained. These lead to clarification of the
decreasing pretension. The stiffness in the shells' vibro-acoustic behaviour in heavy fluid
antisymmetric mode is dominated by the and to confirmation of the well known case of
geometric stiffness from pretensioning. In the light fluid. Relationships between these new
vertical acceleration (symmetric) test at the concepts and the more classical one of radiating
intermediate pretension the first dominant and non-radiating modes are presented. It is
mode was antisymmetric. A sail exciter was shown that this previous classification of modes
also used to apply a single asymmetric is insufficient to clarify the heavy fluid-shell
controlled force. Up and down harmonic coupling, especially in the critical frequency
394
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
range. In this range the behaviour of a shell in also built and tested in laboratory to validate
water is very different from that of one in air, the results. (Author abstract) 24 Refs.
and is entirely controlled by modes which are Tzou, H.S. (Univ of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,
overdamped by radiation. In particular, it is USA); Gadre, M.] Sound Vib] Sound Vib v 132 v
shown that structural damping is ineffective in 132 n 3 n 3 Aug 8 Aug 819891989 P 433-450.
reducing radiated power in the critical
frequency range when the fluid is water. 037132 Analysis of Laminated Shells.
(Author abstract) 22 Refs. Laminated shell structures are increasingly
Laulagnet, B. (INSA, Villeurbanne, Fr); Guyader, being used in chemical, marine and aerospace
J.L.] Sound Vib v 131 n 3 Jun 22 1989 P 397 - 415. applications. A significant amount of research
has been conducted in the past on studying
037130 Analysis of Elasto/Visco-Plastic the structural response of these structures. A
Dynamic Response of General Thin Shells by review of various investigations on the analysis
Means of Overlay Model. The numerical of these shells is given here. Specifically, this
analysis of the elasto/visco-plastic dynamic review deals with the development of various
response of the general thin shells to arbitrary theories for modelling the thick laminated
loads is carried out by the use of the elasto/ shells including shear effects; analytical
visco-plastic overlay model which is able to studies, development of various finite elements
express the Bauschinger effect and the strain to model these shells including applications to
rate dependence. Namely Perzyna's equation is tire modelling; buckling and post buckling
used for the constitutive relation of each layer analysis of perfect and imperfect laminated
of the overlay model and as a whole the shells; vibration and dynamic response analysis
Bauschinger effect and the influence of of various laminated shells. (Author abstract)
viscosity in the plastic range of the material are 148 Refs.
taken into account. The equations of motion Kapania, R.K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
derived from the Sanders nonlinear theory for Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA). ASME Aerosp Div Publ
thin shells by adding the inertia terms are used, AD v 13 Recent Advances in the Macro- and
and the relations between strains and Micro-Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures,
displacements where rotations of the shell are Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the
considered for the membrane strains are American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
employed. (Edited author abstract) 18 Refs. In Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by
Japanese. American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
Tao, Katsumi; Takezono, Shigeo. Nippon Kikai New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 177-187.
Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 514 Jun 1989
p 1453-1460. 037133 Analysis of Glulam Lattice Dome.
Glued-laminated timber (glulam) domes have
037131 Theoretical Analysis of a Multi- become competitive in the engineering of
Layered Thin Shell Coupled with large-span roof structures. Three-way glulam
Piezoelectric Shell Actuators for Distributed grid domes, such as the Triax and Varax
Vibration Controls. Structural dynamics and domes, are particularly well-suited for glulam
controls of distributed mechanical systems have construction because the members lie on great
drawn much attention in recent years. In this circles and, thus, have the same radius of
paper, a multilayered thin shell coupled with an curvature. The curved members are
active distributed vibration actuator- interconnected by patented steel hubs. The
polymeric piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride restraints offered by these connectors are the
(PVDF)-is proposed and evaluated. Dynamic major differences in the designs of the Triax
equations for the generalized multi-layered and Varax domes. The domes rest on tension
thin shell coupled with the polymeric rings made of steel or reinforced concrete.
piezoelectrets are derived based on Love's Because of their economy and acoustic
theory and Hamilton's principle. Each layer of quality, Triax and Varax domes are widely
the shell can be a polymeric piezoelectric used for multipurpose facilities involving
control layer subjected to feedback voltages sports, recreational, and social activities. The
resulting in a local control force to suppress the purpose of this paper is to report on a project
vibration of the shell. To demonstrate the that was initiated to formulate a finite
derived equations, a cantilever beam coupled element method of analysis that can predict
with the polymeric piezoelectric actuator is the complete structural response of glulam
derived by directly simplifying the modified space frames and lattice domes up to collapse.
Love's equations. An experimental model was 25 Refs.
395
Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
Holzer, S.M. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Huang, C.Y.; USA, 1989 P 743-751.
Davalos, J.F.; Loferski, J.R. Struet Des, Anal Test
Structural Design, Analysis and Testing, STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Proceedings of the sessions at Structures Congress
'89, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ 037136 Carrying Capacity and Optimal
by ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 914-921. Design of Reinforced Cylindrical
Shells. Models were constructed for
calculating the carrying capacity and
037134 Why Bifurcation: A Study of a optimizing the design of cylindrical shells
Recticulated Dome. Numerical results for a reinforced by regular frames and supported
hexagonal lattice dome subjected to uniform by discrete 'saddle' supports of various
gravity loading are presented. We demonstrate configurations or resting on a continuously
that a perfect nonlinear bifurcation analysis plastic base. The closed shell was considered
plays a crucial role in the identification of the to be made from an ideal rigidly plastic
critical imperfection. In the process we also material with constant thickness with a given
advertise the capabilities of some recently yield point and to be filled with fluid. It was
developed techniques for computational assumed that exhaustion of the shell carrying
bifurcation problems with symmetry. (Author capacity occurs with rupture. Calculations of
abstract) 6 Refs. the upper boundaries of the limit loads were
Healey, Timothy L. (Cornell Univ, Ithaca, NY, performed in a broad range of thicknesses.
USA). Struet Des, Anal Test Structural Design, Parameters for the analysis of the shell
Analysis and Testing, Proceedings of the sessions at carrying capacity reinforced by regular
Structures Congress '89, San Francisco, CA, USA, annular ribs were established. Analysis of the
May 1-5 1989. Publ by ASCE, New York, NY, optimal designs shows that the models first
USA, 1989 P 942 - 948. tend to assure a given carrying capacity
because of an increase in thickness and only
037135 Application of Mathematical then are the frames introduced. 4 Refs.
Programming to the Limit Analysis of Shell Dekhtyar, A.S. (Kiev Art Inst, Kiev, USSR). Sov
Structures. Limit analysis of a shell structure Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May 1988 p 1049-1054.
has been expressed, in the present paper, as a
nonlinear programming problem, where the 037137 Wplyw Geometrycznych I
principle of virtual displacement in Fizycznych Parametrow Trojwarstwowej
combination with rigid perfect-plastic Powloki Wnlcowoj Nn Jej Statecznosc Przy
assumption and von Mises yield criterion are Obclazenlach Zlozonych. [Influence of
used. The structure is separated into several Physical and Geometrical Parameters of
rigid and plastic regions for the purpose of Sandwich Cylindrical Shell Under Composed
saving computer storage, since the Load for its Stability]. The paper presents
displacement functions should be generated numerical analysis results of stability loss for
only in plastic regions. By use of the Lagrange an elastic, open, cylindrical sandwich shell
multiplier method, the primary problem can with light-weight core and with thin faces of
be expressed as a non-linear programming equal thickness. The shell is loaded by
problem without restrictions. By using the composed load, i.e. compression longitudinal
gradient of the object function, a set of forces, lateral surface pressure and shear edge
suitable displacement velocities can be found forces. The influence of shell curvature, shell
by iteraction to minimize the object function length, the thickness of each layer, and the
and obtain an upper bound solution of the core elasticity modulus on the values of upper
ultimate load of the structure. A cylindrical and lower critical load is investigated. (Edited
shell and a tubular T-joint are computed and author abstract) 4 Refs. In Polish.
the results are satisfactory in comparison with Sekulski, Zygmunt; Szyc, Waclaw. Arch Budowy Masz
classical solutions or experimental results. v34n31987p321-336.
(Author abstract) 7 Refs.
Chen, T.Y. (Shanghai Jiao Tong Univ, Shanghai, TESTING
China); Chen, W.M.; Wang, Y.Q. Proe Int Offshore
Meeh Arct Eng Symp v II (of VI), Proceedings of the 037138 Deformation and Fracture of
Eighth International Conference on Offshore Two-Layer Metal-Plastic Shells Under
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering-1989, Hague, Internal Shock Loading. The goal of this
Neth, Mar 19-23 1989. Publ by American Soc of paper was to study the feasibility of making
396
Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
397
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
398
Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
expanding the displacements into an infinite Temperature-time history and heat flow rates
power series with respect to the radial have been obtained. The problem considered
coordinate of the shell. The present theory has got its application in the transient thermal
takes into account any higher order terms for analysis of an adiabatic engine. Any other
both the static and dynamic problems. Several similar problem in metallurgical, aeronautical,
theories, which have been proposed, can be furnace design, boiler design applications may
deduced by using the lower order terms of our be solved by the formula obtained. (Author
theory. Three typical theories are the third- abstract) 8 Refs.
order theory, the Levinson theory and the Prasad, Ravindra (Banaras Hindu Univ, Varanasi,
Levinson-Voyiadjis-Baluch theory, which are India); Samria, N.K. Appl Sci Res (The Hague) v 46 n
redefined according to the present theory. 2Jun 1989 p 141-157
Numerical results of natural frequencies for
the simply supported cylindrical shell, as well as THERMOELASTICITY
many other theories, are compared with the
exact solutions. (Author abstract) 8 Refs. 037151 Thermoelasticity of a Regularly
Hirano, Kisaburou (Oita Natl Coil of Technology, Nonhomogeneous Thin Curved Layer with
Oita, Jpn); Hirashima, Kenichi.JSME IntJ Ser 1 v 32 Rapidly Varying Thickness. A regular
n 3Jul1989 p 337-340. nonhomogeneous (composite), anisotropic,
thin curved layer with rapidly oscillating
THERMAL EFFECTS material parameters and thickness is
considered for the case when mean thickness
037149 Parabolic Shells Subjected to Solar and period scale have small magnitudes of the
Radiation. Questions of the theory and same order. A three-dimensional
analysis of parabolic shells under solar side and thermoelasticity problem for this layer is
central illumination were considered. A reduced to a homogenized shell model by
thermal balance equation was constructed means of an asymptotic homogenization
incorporating the heat fluxes and coefficients method for periodic structures. This general
of thermal conduction and radiation transfer model is applied to the derivation of
along with expressions for the optical thermoelastic and thermal constitutive
coefficients of metals. Equations were derived equations for network periodic shells. The
for determining the temperature fields. Using relations obtained lay the foundation for a
these fields, the stress-strain states for a new continuous model of thermoelasticity and
parabolic shell closed at the apex and for the heat conductivity for network period shells
domain of connection of the shell to a stiffener and plates. (Edited author abstract) 15 Refs.
ring were examined. 6 Refs. Parton, Vladimir Z. (Moscow Inst of Chemical
Gudramovich, V.S. (Acad of Sciences of the Engineering, Moscow, USSR); Kalamkarov,
Ukrainian SSR, Dnepropetrovsk, USSR); Diskovskii, Aleksandr L. J Therm Stresses v 11 n 4 1989
l.A.; Sel'skii, Yu, S. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May P 405-420.
1988 p 1043-1049.
037152 Stochastic Thermoelasticity of
037150 Transient Temperature Distribution Laminated Shells. The paper proposes a
in an Internally and Externally Insulated theory and develops a numeric method for
Cylindrical Shell. This paper presents the computing the stochastic characteristics of
analytical solution for unsteady state stress fields in the layers of a multilayer shell
temperature distribution in a cylindrical shell needed for estimating its reliability and
having thin layer of thermal insulation coating longevity. The statistical characteristics of the
at the inner and outer surfaces. The formula external temperature field are assumed to be
has been derived assuming different initial known. Centered fields of temperatures and
temperatures of shell and insulation coating displacements are considered, assuming that
while the contact between them has also been the expectations of the fields have already
assumed to be imperfect. The internal and been evaluated. The assumptions adopted in
external surfaces of the shell and coatings are the construction of the theory are divided
exposed to the convective boundary into three kinds. Thermophysical hypotheses:
conditions of third kind. The generalized thermophysical parameters of the materials of
formula obtained has been used to obtain the the layers are temperature independent.
warming-up-period of the cylindrical wall of a Mechanical hypotheses: the rigid layers of a
Diesel engine coated internally and externally multilayer shell conform to the Kirchhoff-
by ceramic insulation material. A plot of Love hypothesis. Stochastic hypotheses: the
399
Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
statistical characteristics of displacement fields are calculated numerically, and the effects of
and stress fields are analyzed in the the spinning of the shell on the free vibration
framework of a correlation theory. The are studied. (Author abstract) 7 Refs. In
external temperature field is a stationary Japanese.
time-random, space-homogeneous field. Yamada, Cen; Kobayaski, Yukinori; Sawae,
(Edited author abstract) 14 Refs. Tatsuhiro; Irie, Toshihiro. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Butko, A.M.; Novichkov, Yu.N. Mech Solids v 23 n Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 505 Sep 1988 p 2009-2015.
21988 p 133-143.
037155 Evaluation of the Modal Density of
VIBRATIONS Paraboloidal and Similar Shells. Modal
densities of various structures have been found
037153 Nonlinear Analysis of Doubly both theoretically in terms of expressions
Curved Symmetrically Laminated Shallow involving integrals, and also experimentally.
Shells with Rectangular Plan form. A They are of interest to designers of, for
multi-mode solution to the dynamic example, satellite aerials and spacecraft
Marguerre-type nonlinear equations is structures. The theoretical method is
presented for the nonlinear free vibration of hampered by the difficulty of evaluating the
doubly curved, symmetrically laminated, integrals. For certain shells such as a thin
imperfect shallow shells of rectangular plate, spherical cap or circular cylinder, the
plan-form on a Winkler-Pasternak elastic integrals can be evaluated analytically. In this
foundation. The shell edges are assumed to paper a numerical method is presented for
be transversely supported and the variation of the computation of modal densities of other
rotational stiffness is identical along opposite shell geometries, in particular the paraboloidal
edges. Generalized double Fourier series with shell. Both the isotropic and honeycomb types
time-dependent coefficients and the method are considered. Enough details of the
of harmonic balance are used in the solution. numerical method are given to allow the
The boundary condition for the varying reader to adapt it to other shapes for which
rotational stiffness is fulfilled by replacement analytic integration is not possible. (Author
of bending moments along the four edges by abstract) 3 Refs.
an equivalent lateral pressure. Based on a Elliott, C.H. (Portsmouth Polytechnic, Portsmouth,
single-mode approximation numerical results Engl). ] Sound Vib v 126 n 3 Nov 8 1988 P 477 -483.
for the amplitude-frequency response of
doubly curved isotropic, orthotropic, cross-ply 037156 Non-Linear Vibration Analysis of
and angle-ply shallow shells with square Fluid-Filled Cylindrical Shells. A theoretical
plan form are presented for various boundary analysis is presented for determining the
conditions, material properties, curvature elastic non-linear vibrations of a prestressed
ratios, initial imperfections, edge tensions, and thin-walled cylindrical shell filled with an ideal
moduli of the elastic foundation. (Edited fluid. For the vibrations of the shell itself, the
author abstract) 25 Refs. dynamic version of the Sanders non-linear
Chia, C.Y. (Univ of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Can). equations for the case of moderately small
Ing Arch v 58 n 4 1988 P 252 - 264. rotations is employed. Modal expansions are
used for the displacements of the shell middle
037154 Free Vibration of a Spinning surface that are required to satisfy the
Spherical Shell. An analysis is presented for 'classical simply supported' boundary
the free vibration of a spinning spherical shell. conditions and the circumferential periodicity
For this purpose, the governing equations and condition. The fluid is taken as non-viscous
the boundary conditions of the shell are and incompressible, and the coupling between
derived by applying Hamilton's principle to the deformable shell and this medium is taken
the strain and kinetic energies of the shell. into account. The velocity potential is
The variables in the equations can be written expanded in terms of harmonic functions
as summation of the quasi-static components which satisfy the Laplace equation term by
which are independent of time and the term. The Galerkin method is used to reduce
dynamic ones. The linear equations on the the problem to a system of coupled algebraic
vibration about the deformed state are solved non-linear equations for the modal amplitudes.
by using the transfer matrix method. The Solutions are presented to show the effects of
method is applied to a spinning clamped-free fluid and shell parameters on the non-linear
spherical shell. The quasi-static and dynamic vibrations of the shell. (Author abstract) 27
displacement and the frequency parameters Refs.
400
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
Goncalves, P.B. (Pontificia Univ Catolica, Rio de for thick shells of revolution having
Janerio, Braz); Batista, R.C. J Sound Vib v 127 n 1 meridionally varying curvature. Based on the
Nov 221988 P 133-143. improved thick shell theory, the Lagrangian
of the shells of revolution are obtained, and
037157 Hydroelastic Vibrations of Liquid- the equations of motion and the boundary
Filled Finite Length, Rotating Cylindrical conditions are derived from the stationary
Shells. A theoretical investigation is presented condition of the Lagrangian. The method is
for the hydroelastic vibration of finite length, demonstrated for thick shells of revolution
rotating cylindrical shells partially filled with having elliptical, cycloidal, parabolical,
incompressible and nonviscous liquid. Gravity catenary and hyperbolical meridional
and surface tension is neglected, while the curvature. The results by the present method
initial tension due to the rotation is are compared with those by the thin shell
considered. On the basis of the Fluegge-type theory and the effects of the rotary inertia
equations, the shell with both edges clamped is and the shear deformation upon the natural
analyzed by the variation of parameters. It is frequencies are clarified. (Author abstract) 11
found that the magnitude of the initial Refs.
tension due to the centrifugal force depends Suzuki, Katsuyoshi; Yachita, Takumi; Kosawada,
on the rotating speed and the quantity and Tadashi. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54
density of liquid. The frequency increases n 508 Dec 1988 p 2822 - 2829.
with the initial tension, while it decreases with
the inertia of liquid. (Author abstract) 7 Refs.
In Japanese. 037160 Asymmetric Vibrations of Shells of
Revolution Having Meridionally Varying
Tani, Junji; Zhang, Hebing. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Curvature and Thickness. An exact method
Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 507 Nov 1988 P
using power series expansions is presented for
2633-2639.
solving asymmetric free vibration problems
for shells of revolution having meridionally
037158 Theoretical and Experimental Study varying curvature and thickness. The
of Vibrations of Thick Circular Cylindrical
governing equations of motion and the
Shells and Rings. The free vibrations of
boundary conditions are derived from the
thick circular cylindrical shells and rings are
stationary conditions of the Lagrangian of the
discussed in this paper. The well-known
shells of revolution. The method is
energy method, which is based on the
demonstrated for shells of revolution having
three-dimensional theory of elasticity, is used
elliptical cycloidal, parabolical, catenary and
in the derivation of the frequency equation of
hyperbolical meridional curvature. The
the shell. The frequency equation yields
natural frequencies are numerically calculated
resonant frequencies for all the
for these shells having second degree
circumferential modes of vibration, including
thickness variation. (Author abstract) 8 Refs.
the breathing and beam-type modes.
In Japanese.
Experimental investigations were carried out
on several models in order to assess the Suzuki, Katsuyoshi; Miura, Kazuyuki; Kosawada,
validity of the analysis. This paper first Tadashi. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54
describes briefly the method of analysis. In n 508 Dec 1988 p 2830- 2836.
the end, the calculated frequencies are
compared with the experimental values. A 037161 Free Vibration Analysis of Singly
very close agreement between the theoretical Curved Shell by Spline Finite Strip
and experimental values of the resonant Method. The spline finite strip method has
frequencies for all the models was obtained been applied to the free vibration analysis of a
and this validates the method of analysis. singly curved shell panel. The convergence of
(Author abstract) 14 Refs. the method is reviewed. Additional numerical
Singal, R.K. (Communications Research Cent, examples on shells of different geometrical
Ottawa, Ont, Can); William, K. J Vib Acoust Stress shapes are employed to demonstrate the
Reliab Des v 110 n 4 Oct 1988 p 533-537. accuracy and versatility of the method. Design
charts showing the variations of the four
037159 Asymmetric Vibrations of Thick lowest modes with the geometry of such panels
Shells of Revolution Having Meridionally are presented. (Edited author abstract) 20 Refs.
Varying Curvature. An exact method using Cheung, Y.K. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
power series expansions is presented for Li, W.Y.; Tham, L.G. J Sound Vib v 128 n 3 Feb 8
solving asymmetric free vibration problems 1989 P 411-422.
401
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
037162 Effect of Boundary Conditions on finitely deformed static state and the
the Free Vibrations of Circular Cylindrical superposed secondary dynamical state which
Shells. A simple formula for the natural are obtained, respectively, by the theory of
frequency is derived as an asymptotic solution finite elasticity and the theory of small
for the eigenvalue problems of the breathing deformations superposed on large, elastic
type of free vibrations of a circular cylindrical deformations are solved analytically and in
shell. It is applicable under any possible closed form to yield the frequency expression.
combinations of the boundary conditions for Some numerical results are provided to study
the simply supported, the clamped, and the the effect of several parameters. (Author
free ends. A characteristic value involved in abstract) 12 Refs.
the formula depends on the combination of Evirgen, H. (Cazi Univ, Ankara, Turk); Ertepinar,
three representative boundary conditions A.J Sound Vib v 130 n 2 Apr 221989 P 177-187.
SR(w = u = 0), SF(w = N = 0), and FR(N =
S = 0), indicating that the free vibration 037165 Vibration Analysis of Thick
characteristics depend on whether an end is Rotating Cylindrical Shells Based on the
free or supported and whether the supported Two-dimensional Elasticity Theory. Vibra-
end is allowed or not to move freely in the tion analysis of infinite thick rotating
axial direction. The accuracy of the formula is cylindrical shells is described on the basis of
examined by a comparison with numerical the two-dimensional elasticity theory. Starting
solutions and experimental results. (Author from the state of plane strain, the basic
abstract) 9 Refs. equation in the steady rotating state, which is
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn). used to obtain the initial stresses, is derived
AIAAJ v 26 n 11 Nov 1988 P 1387-1394. from Hamilton's principle, and the frequency
equation, including the effect of the initial
037163 Inextensional Free Vibrations of stresses due to the rotation, is formulated by
Circular Cylindrical Shells. Asymptotic Ritz's method. The numerical results for the
solutions are obtained for the eigenvalue frequencies in the non-rotating and rotating
problems of the inextensional free vibrations state are compared with those based on
of circular cylindrical shells, considering all 45 Timoshenko type shell theory and the
possible combinations of the boundary available range in the latter theory is
conditions, characterizing the simply examined about the thickness and rotating
supported, the clamped, and the free ends. In speed of a shell. (Author abstract) 7 Refs. In
addition to the well-known L. Rayleigh and Japanese.
A.E.H. Love types of inextensional vibrations Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru; Fujimoto, Kohji.
for shells with the free ends, a type Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 511
represented by a linear combination of those Mar 1989 p 525-53l.
classical ones is found in cases where one end
is free and the other is supported in such a
manner that it can move freely in the axial 037166 Free Vibration Analysis of Coupled
direction. The existence of the three types of External Fluid-Elastic Cylindrical Shell-
inextensional mode is proved by an Internal Fluid Systems. The free vibrations
experiment, and the mode shapes are of an infinitely long cylindrical shell under
visualized by holographic interferometry. axisymmetrical hydrodynamic pressures due to
(Author abstract) 7 Refs. external and internal fluids are studied
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn); theoretically. The basic equations of motion
Saito, Arihumi. AIAA J v 26 n 12 Dec 1988 p for axisymmetric vibrations of such a shell are
1499-1505. given, based on the bending theory. These
equations are solved analytically by means of
037164 Small Radial Vibrations of Layered, Fourier cosine transformation, and the general
H yperelastic, Spherical Shells of Arbitrary frequency equation for the coupled systems is
Wall Thickness Subjected to Finite, Initial obtained by consideration of the dynamic
Radial Deformations. Small, radial vibrations interaction between the shell surface and fluids.
of layered spherical shells of arbitrary wall Furthermore, seven cases are derived from the
thickness and subjected to initial external general coupled frequency equation. The
and/or internal pressure causing finite radial general frequency equation is calculated for
deformations are investigated. The material of some kinds of mass density of the internal
each layer is assumed to be of neo-Hookean fluid. (Edited author abstract) 6 Refs.
type. The governing equations of both the Endo, Ryuji (Inst of Vocational Training, Aihara,
402
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual J989
Jpn); Tosaka, Nobuyoshi. jSME Int j SeT 1 v 32 n 2 of circular cylindrical shells, which are used in
Apr 1989p217-221. centrifugal separators to enrich uranium, and
rotating at higher speeds, it is considered that
037167 Dynamic Stability of Fluid-Coupled circular cylindrical shells are connected with
Coaxial Cylindrical Shells under Vertical bellows. Vibration analysis of circular
Excitation. Theoretical analyses are presented cylindrical shells connected with bellows is
for the dynamic stability of a free-clamped carried out by the substructure synthesis
coaxial cylindrical shell partially filled in the method for various numbers and dispositions
annular gap with incompressible, in viscid of bellows, and the optimum ones are
liquid and subjected to vertical excitation. The examined. Moreover, the transfer matrix
dynamic version of the Donnell equations and method, by which the critical speeds are simply
the velocity potential theory are used for the obtained, is described and the results are
motions of the shell and the liquid, respectively. examined by the substructure synthesis
The problem is solved by using the modified method. (Author abstract) 5 Refs. In Japanese.
Galerkin method so as to satisfy the boundary Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru; Yachigo, Katsuyuki.
conditions, and the governing equation is Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 512 Apr
reduced to a type of coupled Mathieu's 1989 p 887 -893.
equation. The instability boundaries where
parametric resonance occurs are determined 037170 Vibrations of a Cylindrical Shell
by using Hsu's method. It is found that a Acted Upon by Concentrated Loads. We set
principal instability resonance and a up Green's matrix of harmonic vibrations of a
combination instability resonance of the sum circular cylindrical shell of finite length with
type of two natural vibrations, each of which hinging conditions on the edges. The solution
has the same circumferential wave number and is represented by a trigonometric Fourier
different axial mode of vibration, are likely to series in the circumferential coordinate. The
occur. (Edited author abstract) 6 Refs. In coefficients of the series are expressed in
Japanese. terms of elementary functions. The response
Tani, Junji; Sakai, Tatsuyoshi; Chiba, Masakatsu. of shells of infinite and finite length to
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 512 Apr concentrated actions is compared. The
1989 p 870-876. solution obtained is the kernel of the integral
equations of contact problems of shell
037168 Vibration Analysis of Thick Rotating vibrations. It also enables us, by using simple
Prestressed Cylindrical Shells (1st Report. integration, to calculate the amplitude of
The Case of Exposure to an Initial Torque). oscillation of a shell acted upon by arbitrarily
Vibration analysis of thick rotating cylindrical distributed surface loads. (Author abstract) 8
shells subjected to an initial torque is Refs.
described. The basic equations, including the Averbukh, A.Z.; Mavlyutov, I.G. Meeh Solids v 23
effects of the initial tensions and resultant n 51988 P 130-135.
shear stresses due to rotation, torque, external
pressure and axial compression load, are 037171 Free Vibrations of the Rotating
derived by the Timoshenko-type shell theory. Shells of Revolution. This paper is devoted
By the modified Galerkin's method, frequency to the problems of free vibrations of thin
analysis is carried out for four boundary con- rotating shells. The theory of vibration of
ditions (i.e., both ends (A) clamped with axial rotating shells is part of the theory of an
constraint. (B) Simply supported without arbitrary rotating body and the results which
axial constraint. (C) Simply supported with are valid for an arbitrary body are also valid
axial constraint and (D) clamped without axial for the shells. Though numerical methods are
constraint). Numerical results are compared the main approach to the investigation of the
with those based on the Flugge-type shell dynamics of rotating bodies, some analytical
theory and the difference between both results have been obtained for some simple
theories is examined. (Author abstract) 6 Refs. bodies like rotating beams and discs. The
In Japanese. mathematical theory of nonrotating thin shells
Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru. Nippon Kikai Gakkai is well developed. Several of the most
Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 512 Apr 1989 p 878-885. successful are two-dimensional theories of the
Kirchoff-Love type. The aim of this paper is
037169 Vibration Analysis of Cylindrical to apply asymptotic methods to the solution of
Shells Connected with Bellows. For the the eigenvalue problem for a rotating shell.
purpose of decreasing the lower critical speed The authors use Novozhilov's two-dimensional
403
Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
shell theory to obtain the equations of the inconsistencies in the mathematical analysis
vibration of the shell and the theory of carried out by Evensen and also in the
asymptotic integration of the differential physical behavior of the three-term model of
equation to solve the eigenvalue problem for Dowell and Ventres. The comments made by
these equations. 23 Refs. Prathap led to reinvestigation of the earlier
Smirnov, Andrei (Leningrad Univ, Leningrad, problem in the present study. The
USSR).] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n 2 Jun 1989 axisymmetric part of the assumed deflected
p 423-429. shape plays an important role in the nonlinear
behavior of the shell, and so two appropriate
037172 Dynamic Boundary Layer in three-term mode shapes for the transverse
Problems of Vibration of Shells. Within the displacement are chosen. The modal equations
framework of the three-dimensional theory, obtained by the Galerkin method are solved
the authors consider a thin elastic by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method to
axisymmetric shell of revolution of arbitrary obtain the amplitude-frequency relationship.
profile, that executes steady-state oscillations The numerical results based on the present
under the action of an edge load. It was study and on the analysis of Evensen are
established on the basis of the equations of compared with the existing experimental
the classical two-dimensional theory, that for values. (Edited author abstract) 10 Refs.
fixed m and increasing w the variability of the Varadan, T.K. (Indian Inst of Technology, Madras,
stress-strain state of the shell increases, and India); Prathap, G.; Ramani, H.V. AIAA] v 27 n 9
there exist critical frequency values above Sep 1989 p 1303-1304.
which the solution of the force-oscillation
problem becomes a solution of differing 037175 Free Vibrations of Circular
variability. In this paper, the authors consider Cylindrical Shells. The eigenvalue problem
approximate methods of setting up solutions of the free vibrations of thin elastic circular
of differing variability for the equations of cylindrical shells is a well-established classical
elasticity, and consider the use of such topic in structural mechanics. All the
solutions for purposes of approximate characteristic values of interest can now be
investigation of forced oscillations of shells at calculated to a desired degree of accuracy as
frequencies that preclude the use of the routine work with the aid of high-speed
classical two-dimensional theory. 5 Refs. digital computers. A number of analytical
Gol'denveizer, A.L. (Kaplunov, Yu.D.) Meeh Solids v solutions have been proposed, and they may
23 n 41988 P 146-155. help us gain good insight into the physical
nature underlying the numerical data. This
037173 Spline Finite Element for paper reviews the historical background and
Axisymmetric Free Vibrations of Shells of provides a unified view of the current state of
Revolution. A new isoparametric element the art through asymptotic solutions recently
suitable for the analysis of axisymmetric free obtained by the author. Emphasis is placed on
vibrations of shells of revolution is developed the effects of the boundary conditions.
in this paper. This element, which is based on (Edited author abstract) 33 Refs.
classical thin shell theory, employs a set of Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn).
B-spline shape functions for the interpolation ]SME Int] Ser 1 v 32 n 3 Jul 1989 P 311-319.
of the geometry as well as the displacements.
It inherits the merits of both the finite 037176 Improved Multi-Segmental Transfer
element method and spline interpolation. The Matrix Method for Closed Axisymmetric
efficiency and accuracy of the proposed Shells. In literature the vibrating problem of
element are illustrated by examples in the thin, elastic axisymmetric shells is modeled by
paper. (Author abstract) 20 Refs. a set of ordinary differential equations, which
Fan, S.C. (Nanyang Technological Inst, Singapore); are singular at closed ends. This paper
Luah, M.H.] Sound Vib v 132 n 1 Jul 8 1989 P presents an improved multi-segmental transfer
61-72. matrix method to overcome the numerical
difficulties resulted from the singularities.
037174 Nonlinear Free Flexural Vibration Examples are given for the calculations of
of Thin Circular Cylindrical Shells. The several typical axisymmetric shells. (Author
early development on the topic of nonlinear abstract) 5 Refs.
vibrations of isotropic circular cylindrical Jian, Zhao (Zhong Shan Univ, Guangzhou, China);
shells is well documented by Evensen. Hong-zhen, Wang; Wu-hua, Zhu. Proe Int Offshore
Subsequently, Prathap pointed out some Meeh Aret Eng Symp v II (of VI), Proceedings of the
404
Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Eighth International Conference on Offshore BirIik, G.A. (Middle East Technical Univ, Ankara,
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering-1989, Hague, Turk); Mengi, Y.] Sound Vib v 130 n 1 Apr 8 1989
Neth, Mar 19-23 1989. Publ by American Soc of P 69-77.
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1989 P 713-718. WA VE EFFECTS
VISCOELASTICITY 037179 Wave Forces on Hemicylinders.
037177 Refined Dynamic Theory for Potential solutions describing the flow about
Viscoelastic Cylindrical Shells and two-dimensional marine structures on or near
the ocean bottom are formulated, based on
Cylindrical Laminated Composites, Part 1:
Airy's wave model. The solutions for a
General Theory. Through the use of a new
half-cylinder and semicircular shell are
technique, approximate theories are developed
considered in detail and evaluated in the case
for the dynamic response of viscoelastic
cylindrical shells and cylindrical laminated of deep submergence. The formulation with
and without flow underneath the structure is
composites. The work is divided into two
given and, in particular, the existence of a
parts. The first part is devoted to the
large difference between the two cases in. the
development of the approximate theories and
vertical forces is shown. The effect of
the second part to the assessment. In this
introducing vorticity at the edges of the shell
part, first the approximate equations of a
is investigated. Numerical results for
single viscoelastic cylindrical shell are derived.
Then, a discrete model (DM) is proposed for hemicylinders resting on the bottom and
slightly raised off the bottom are presented.
a composite made of viscoelastic laminae. In
establishing DM, it is noted that the equations The results obtained for the wave forces are
of a single shell hold also in each lamina of compared with experimental results obtained
the composite. The equations of DM are for a slightly raised, open hemicylinder.
completed by adding the interface continuity (Author abstract) 17 Refs.
conditions to the above-mentioned equations. Chakrabarti, Subrata K. (CBI Research Corp,
Finally, a continuum model (CM) is developed Plainfield, IL, USA); Naftzger, Rober A. Ocean Eng
for a composite shell made of two alternating (Pergamon) v 16 n 1 1989 P 49-69.
layers by using a smoothing operation. eM
simplifies the determination of dynamic WIND EFFECTS
behavior of composite shells when the number
of laminae is large. (Edited author abstract) 037180 Stability of Wind-Loaded Cylindrical
10 Refs. Shells. Stability analysis of perfect and
Mengi, Y. (Cukurova Univ, Adana, Turk); Birlik, imperfect cylindrical shells under wind
pressures is performed using the finite element
G.A.] Sound Vib v 130 n 1 Apr 81989 P 55-67.
method. A 48 degree-of-freedom thin shell
037178 Refined Dynamic Theory for element previously developed by the present
Viscoelastic Cylindrical Shells and authors is used. The element is free from
Cylindrical Laminated Composites, Part 2: both shear and membrane locking and is
An Application. In this study, the general capable of modelling shells with arbitrary
approximate theory developed in Part 1 for imperfections. Nonlinear effects due to
shells is assessed for axially symmetric elastic pre buckling rotations are taken into account.
waves propagating in a dosed circular The nonlinear response is obtained using
cylindrical shell (hollow rod). The spectra Riks-Wempner algorithm. Effects of the
predicted by zeroth and second order imperfection amplitude and that of the
approximate theories are determined for material orthotropy on the limit load points
various values of shell thicknesses and the are studied. Wherever possible, the present
Poisson ratios and they are compared with results are compared with existing results. A
those of exact theory. It is found that the favorable agreement is observed. (Author
agreement between the two is good. abstract) 17 Refs.
Approximate and exact cut-off frequencies Kapania, Rakesh K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst &
match almost exactly. The approximate State Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Yang, T.Y.]
theory is valid for thin as well as thick shells. Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn v 28 pt 1 n 1- 3 Aug 1988
These results, which are obtained without Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on
using correction factors, give an indication of Wind Engineering, Held under the Auspices of the
the power of the general theories proposed in International Association for Wind Engineering,
Part 1. (Author abstract) 6 Refs. Aachen, West Ger,juI6-10 1987. p 281-290.
405
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1958-1959. (Oct.).
418
Index
ACI. See American Concrete Institute Army Warehouse, Columbus, Ohio, 146, 149
Acoustic wave effects, abstracts of articles on, Arslan Jadhib Tomb, Sangbast, Iran, 42, 44
361-62 Art and shell structures, 179-82
Affaita, Izydor, 74 Artificial Leather Industry building, Coswig,
Agamemnon, Tomb of, Mycenae, Greece, 14 Germany, 167
Aghia Parigoritissa, Arta, Greece, 41 Aspidin, Joseph, 122
Airport hangars Astrodome, Houston, Texas, 177, 311-12,
Chicago, 174, 175 313-16
Cuatro Vientos, Spain, 149, 150 Austro-Hungarian Bank, Vienna, 298
Marignane, France, 151, 153 Auxiliary members, 203-6, 208-9, 210, 211,
Seattle, 192 214-15,219-20
thin shells as, 193 and ACI building codes, 345, 351
Albany Mall Meeting Center, Albany, New and barrel shells, 261-63, 267 -68
York, 193
Albert Hall, Kensington, 298
Alberti, 249 Baba Luqman Mausoleum, Sarakhs, Iran, 48
Alessi, Galeazzo, 61 Balat, A. and Maguet, 299
Alfa-Romeo Factory, Milan, 146, 148 Ballou, Louis W., 85
Alvarez Ordonez, Joaquin and Fernando, 158 Baltard, V., 298
Amati, Carlo, 83 Bank of Montreal, Montreal, 86
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 221 Baptistry, Pisa, 57
Ammann and Whitney, 152, 167, 174, 193, Baroni, Giorgio, 145, 146
220 Barrel shells, 21, 26, 99, 130-32, 211
Analysis and design Base, displacement at, and computer analysis,
abstracts of articles on, 362 - 64 235-37
and ACI building codes, 347- 51 Basilica of San Gaudenzio, Novara, 82
Anisotropy, abstract of article on, 364-65 Bass, L. 0., 313
Anticlastic shells, 115, 118 Baucher, Lucien-Jacques, 108
Antonelli, Alessandro, 82 Belfry, Cathedral of Ivan the Great, Moscow,
Apex, displacement at, and computer analysis, 77, 79
237 Bellushi, Pietro, 163
Archimedean solids, 306, 307 Bending, abstracts of articles on, 365
Architects' Co-Partnership, 149 Berecci, Bartolomeo, 74
419
Index
420
Index
421
Index
Fontana, Domenico, 63-65, 72, 242 Great Mosque of the Shah, Isfahan, Iran,
Fontana's rules for masonry domes, 242 50-51,52
Forest Products Pavilion, Portland, Oregon, Greek Orthodox Church, Milwaukee, 154, 155
108 Grid domes, 318
Formige,j. C., 299 GT STRUDL. See Georgia Tech Structural
Formwork, 97,104,145,177 Design Language
plastic foam for, 197 - 200 Guastavino, Rafael, 86
pneumatic, 196 - 97 GUM Department Store, Moscow, 299
rubber membrane as, 190, 192 Gunite method, 146, 163, 195
wooden, 196,211 Gur-e Amir Mausoleum, Samarkand, Soviet
Forum Baths, Pompeii, 27 Union, 49, 50
Fougner, N. K., 124
Foundry Building, Milan, 145 Hadrian Villa, Tivoli, 30, 31
Four-gable hyperbolic paraboloids, 278-83 Hardouin-Mansart, Jules, 74
Fowke, F., 298 Hardy, L., 299
Fowler, Charles, 298 Harris County Sports Stadium. See Astrodome
Fracture, abstracts of articles on, 382-83 Harrison and Abramovitz, 193, 220
Framed domes, 311 Haruniyya Tomb, Tus, Iran, 46, 47
Free nodes displacement and computer Hayden Planetarium, Manhattan, 145
analysis, 237 Heat treatment, abstract of article on, 383
Freyssinet, Eugene, 144, 184, 215 Heins and La Farge, 86
Freyssinet System, 219 Helmle and Hubert, 86
Froehlich, Arthur, 174 Hershey Chocolate Company, ice hockey
Fuller, R. Buckminster, 299, 300, 301-2, arena for, Pennsylvania, 192
318-20,322,323 HipOdromo, Caracas, Venezuela, 174, 176
Funicular polygons, 243, 245-46 Hiroshima Peace Center Monument, 181- 82
Funthaus Church, Vienna, 298 Hisatok, T., 110
Historical masonry domes, spans of, 87 (table)
Hoechel, Eric, 168
Gabellini, 124 Hoffmann, Claus, 167
Galla Placidia, Tomb of, Ravenna, 33 Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, 36
Galleria Umberto I, Naples, 299 Hoop forces in domes, 90 - 96
Galleria Victor Emmanuel II, Milan, 298 Hornblower and Marshall, 86
Garcia de Quinones, Andres, 76 Howells and Stokes, 86
Gas Station, Deitingen, Switzerland, 170, 172 Hoyer, E., 215-16
Gaudi, Antonio, 10, 182, 183 Huber, Hunt and Nichols, 316
Gaussian curvature, 117 Hunt, Richard Morris, 299
Geiger, David H., 302-3, 304, 305, 323 Hyperbolic paraboloids, 195, 211
Geldmeister, Charles, 298 in art, 180, 181
General Motors Technical Institute, in Candela's designs, 186
auditorium for, Warren, Michigan, 149, as conoidal surfaces, 132, 133
151 Gaudi's development of, 183
Gensert, R. M., 249 Hyperboloids, 137-42
Geodesic domes, 299-300, 301, 302, 318-20 H yperstatic domes, 204 - 6, 218 - 19
Geometry of shell design, 116, 129-30,305-8
Georgia Tech Structural Design Language
(GT STRUDL), 223 lASS. See International Association for Shells
Gesu Church, Rome, 63 and Spatial Structures
Girard Trust Company, Philadelphia, 86 Ice houses, domes as, 14 -15
Glass and dome design, 297 - 98 Igloos, 22-23
Gonzales Reyna, Jorge, 152 Illinois State University Arena, Normal,
Grand Palais, Louvet, France, 299 Illinois, 303, 323
Gran Madre di Dio, Rome, 83 II Redentore, Venice, 71
422
Index
Imamzada Sayyid Ishaq Tomb, Saveh, Iran, 46 Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts Institute of
Imamzada Yahya Mausoleum, Varamin, Iran, Technology, Cambridge, Massachussetts,
46, 47 152,154,193,209
Inelastic analysis and ACI building codes, Kuh-i Banan Tomb, Iran, 48, 49
346, 347
Information Pavilion, Brussels, 108
Institute of Arts and Sciences, Brooklyn, 85 - 86 La Clerecia Church, Salamanca, Spain, 76
Instituto Tecnico de la Construccion y del Lambot, Joseph-Louis, 124
Cemento, Constillares, Spain, 160 - 61 Lamella domes, 210, 311-18
International Association for Shells and Lardy, Pierre, 190
Spatial Structures (lASS), 221- 22 Larrosa, Manuel, 157
International Exhibition Facility, New Lattice wood shells, Nara, Japan, 110
Orleans, 163, 165 Layne, Henry M., 174
International Exhibition of 1958, Phillips Le Corbusier, 159, 168
Pavilion at, Brussels, 158-59, 161 Lederer, F., 318
I Quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books Lenzlenger Sons Company building,
on Architecture) (Palladio), 71 Switzerland, 170
Ironworks foundry, Lohr, Germany, 161-62 Lesage, 122
Islamic dome, Mimar Sinan's contributions to Les Invalides, Paris, 74
the, 53-55 Leuzinger, Hans, 146
Isler, Heinz, 170, 172, 173, 174, 190-92 Lindsay Park Sports Center, Calgary, Alberta,
Isostatic domes, 204-6, 216, 217 -18 304
luvarra, Filippo, 61 Lissitzky, Elieyer, 180
Little Metropole Cathedral, Athens, 41
Lloyd and Morgan, 313
Jabal I Sang, Kerman, Iran, 45, 46 Lombardo, Pietro, 71
Jackson, P. H., 215 Lombardo, Tullio, 71
Jami Mosque, Ardistan, Iran, 44, 45 Long barrel vaults, 131,244-45,269 (table)
Jami Mosque, Ashtarjan, Iran, 46, 47 Lopez Carmona, Fernando, 154, 156, 162, 168
Jami Mosque, Golpaegan, Iran, 44, 45 Lott, H. A., 313
Jami Mosque, Qazvin, Iran, 44, 46 Loudon, John Claudius, 298
Jami Mosque, Saveh, Iran, 50, 51 Lutheran church, Warsaw, 82
Jami Mosque, Varamin, Iran, 48
Jami Mosque, Zavareh, Iran, 44, 45
Jardin d'Hiver, Laeken Royal Park, Brussels, Macalloy System, 219
299 Mackenzie and Moncur, 298
Jefferson, Thomas, 84 Maderno, Carlo, 65
Johns, Slater & Howard, 108 Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New
Johnson, Drake and Piper, 313 York, 86
Madonna di Loreto, Rome, 65, 67, 68
Madonna di San Biagio, Montepulciano, Italy,
Kaiser Aluminum building, Honolulu, 320 63
Kalff, 168 Maeno, T., 110
Kapnikarea Church, Athens, 39 Magnel, G., 215, 219
Karaganda works, Soviet Union, 213 Magni,83
Khaidukov, G. K., 213 Maguire, C. A., and Associates, 165
Kibble, John, 299 Maillart, Robert, 146, 181, 183
Kibble Palace, Botanic Gardens, Glasgow, 298 Mail-processing facilities, Providence, Rhode
Kiewitt, G. R., 313 Island, 165, 166, 167
Kiewittdomes, 311-12, 313-16 Makowsi, Z. S., 313
Kilns, domes as, 14, 15 -16 Manetti, Antonio, 60
Kingdome, Seattle, 176-78, 192, 324 Manufacture, abstracts of articles on, 383-84
Kirsis, Uldis, 249 Marcus, Henri, 313
423
Index
424
Index
425
Index
426
Index
Statical analysis of structures, 300, 301 Terminal building for Trans World Airlines,
Steel, abstract of article on, 388 Kennedy Airport, New York, 149, 152,
Steel and dome design, 82, 86, 87 (table), 299 167, 168, 169,209
Storage shed, Ferrara, Italy, 146 Testing, abstracts of articles on, 396-97
Storrs, John W., 108 Thatched domes, 21, 22
Strain, abstracts of articles on, 388 - 89 Theiler, Otto, 170
Stresses, abstracts of articles on, 389 - 93 Theodoric, Tomb of, Ravenna, Italy, 33-34
Structural analysis, abstracts of articles on, Theory, abstracts of articles on, 397 -99
393-96 "Theory of Bridge Girder Systems"
Structural behavior of shells, 89-90,122-23, (Schwedler), 300
210-11 Thermae of Agrippa, Rome, 27
conoidal domes, 95-96 Thermae of Caracalla, Rome, 30
spherical domes, 90 - 94 Thermae of Diocletian, Rome, 32
thin shells, 143 Thermal effects, abstracts of articles on, 399
Structural design, abstracts of articles on, 396 Thermoelasticity, abstracts of articles on,
STRUDL II, 327 399-400
Stupas, 23-24 Thin shells, 119-20, 135, 143, 193-94
Styrofoam, 197 - 200, 202 and ACI building codes, 343, 345
Suncoast Dome, St. Petersburg, Florida, 303, computer analysis of, 223-37
323, 324 experimentation on, 144, 145, 182
Superdome, New Orleans, 176, 177, 316, 324 and ferrocement, 125
Superga, Turin, 61 Tibaldi, Pellegrino, 61
Suuronen, Matti, 201 Tile domes, 86
Sverdrup and Parcel, 316 Timber Development Association, 108
Swimming pool, Draney, France, 318 Timbrel vaulting, 100 -1 02
Swiss National Exhibition, Cement Hall at, T.M.P. Associates, 110
Zurich, 146, 148 Tombs, rock-cut, 13 -14
Symbolism of domes, 4 - 11 Tomb Tower, Lajin, Iran, 42, 44
Synclastic shells, 115, 117, 118 Toroidal shells, 153
Syon House, 298 Torroja Miret, Eduardo, 141, 144, 145, 146,
149,185,221
Trade fair building, Afghanistan, 320
Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece, 14
Tacoma Dome, Tacoma, Washington, Trosch Company factory, Switzerland, 170
109-10, III Trowbridge and Livingston, 145
Tacoma Dome Associates, 109-10 Tylman of Gameren, 74
Taillibert, R., 170
Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 53, 54
Takenaka Komuten Company, 325 Umbrella-type hyperbolic paraboloids, 283-93
Talayots, 21 UNESCO building, entrance canopy for, Paris,
Talin, Vladimir Evgrafovitch, 180 136,137
Tange, Kenzo, 168, 181 Union Tank Car Company plant, Baton
Tedesko, Anton, 146, 185-86, 192 Rouge, Louisiana, 320
Tempietto in San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 62 Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical
Temple of Diana, Baiae, Italy, 27 Society, San Diego, 299
Temple of Mercury, Baiae, Italy, 28 University of Illinois, Assembly Hall, Urbana,
Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Syria, 32 193
Temple of Venus, Baiae, Italy, 27 University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 85
Temple of Vesta, Rome, 30 Utzon, Jorn, 136, 175
Tennis center, Heimburg, Switzerland, 170
Tensegrity, 322, 323
Terminal building, St. Louis airport, St. Louis, Vacchini, F., 158
Missouri, 152, 154, 155 Van Buren Magonigk, H., 86
427
Index
With deep appreciation I wish to acknowl- Mouton (Tulane University), Edward Allen
edge the contribution of my wife, Deborah; (Yale University), Charles Mitchell and Luz
in compiling the manuscript, she helped me Aveleyra (UNC, Charlotte), Mohsen Sefat,
to overcome a limitation derived from the Mrs. Felix Candela, D.]. Gross and James T.
onset of my visual impairment. Special grati- Langman (Roberts & Schaefer), David Kulla
tude is extended to my former student and (Duke Power), and Donald Wright (Dow
assistant Escandar Hadijizadeh, who pre- Chemical). I would like to express my sincere
pared most of the ink drawings, and to the respect for Van Nostrand Reinhold editor
many others who contributed through tele- Gene Dallaire and my gratitude for his trust
phone discussions and by sending reference in my work. I am very grateful to Joy Aqui-
materials. Among them are Dr. Anton Te- lino, also of Van Nostrand Reinhold, whose
desko, Dr. David Geiger, Dr. Stefan Medwa- efforts made the completion of this book
dowski (lASS), Jack Christiansen, Elwin C. possible.
Robison (Kent State University), William
ERRATA
xiii