ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD ! water makes life pos- sible: The cells of your body could not function without weter in which to dissolve essential biological molecules. What electrical proper- ties of woter make it such a good solvent? ack in Chapter 5, we briefly mentioned the four kinds of fundamental forces. To this point the only one of these forces that we have examined in any detail is gravity. Now we are ready tw exaunine the force of elect romagnetism, which encompasses both electricity and magnetism. Our explo- ration of electromagnetic phenomena will occupy our attention for most of the remainder ofthis book. Electromagnetic interactions involve particles that have a property called lectric charge, an sttribute that is as fundamental 2s mass. Just as objects with mass are accelerated by gravitational forces, so electrically charged objects are accelerated by elecuc forces. The annoying electric spark you feel when you scuff your shoes across a carpet and then reach for a metal doorknob is due t0 ‘charged particles leaping betweea your finger and the doorknob. Electric cur- rents, such as those in a fleshlight or a television, arc simply streams of charged particles flowing within wires in response to elect forces, Even the forces that hold atoms together to form solid matter, and that keep the ators of solid objects from passing through each other, are fundamentally de to electric interactions ‘between the charged particles within atoms. ‘We begin our study of electromagnetism in this chapter by examining the nature of electric eharge, We'll find that electric charge is quantized and that it obeys a conservation principle. We then turn to adiscussion ofthe interactions of electric charges that are at rest in our frame of reference, called electrostatic interactions. Such interactions are of tremendous importance in chemistry and biology and have many technological applications. Electrostatic interactions are ‘governed by a simple relationship known as Coulomb's law and ate most conve niently described by using the concept of electric field. In later chapters we'll ‘expand our discussion to include electric charges in motion. This will leed us to an understanding of magnetism and, remarcably, ofthe nature of Tight ‘While the key ideas of electromagnetism are conceptually simple, applying them to practical problems will make use of many of your mathematical skills, 21 LEARNING GOALS ‘By sedyng this chapter, you mil Tere: +The naure of elecic charge and how we know that elect charge is consened + How objec become lecticaly charged. + Hows t use Couemi law t ea cuete the elec force bemveen charges. + The distinction between clecie force ad lect fed + How t calla the lec fikd ue to a ealecion of charges. + How tse the loa of eactic field resto vale and interpret lect eds + How to calla the properties of ect polesTIO CHAPTER 21, ect Charge and Elec Field specially your knowledge of geometry and integral ealculus. For this reason you ‘may find this chapter and those that follow to be more mathematically demand- ing than earlier chapters. The reward for your extra effort will be a deeper under- standing of principles that are atthe heart of modern physics and technology. 21.1 Electric Charge ‘The ancicat Grecks discovered as catly as 600 v.c. that after they rubbed amber ‘with wool, the amber could atract other objects. Today we say that the amber has acquired a net electric charge, or has become charged. ‘The word “electri” is derived from the Greck word elektron, meaning amber. When you scuff your shoes across a nylon cerpet, you become electrically charged, and you can charge ‘.comb by passing it through dry hai. Plastic rods and fur (real or fake) are particularly good for demonstrating electrostatics, the interactions between electric charges that are st rest (or nearly s0)- Figure 211a shows two plastic rods and a piece of fur. After we charge each rod by rubbing it with the piece of fur, we find that the rods repel each other, ‘When we rub glass rods with silk, the glass rods also become charged and repel each other (Fig. 21.1b). But a charged plastic rod attracts a charged glass rod; furthermore, the plastic rod and the fur attract each other, and the glass rod and the sik attract each other (Fig. 21.1c). ‘These experiments and many others like them have shown that there are exactly two kinds of electric charge: the kind on the plastic rod rubbed with fur ‘and the kind on the glass rod rubbed with silk. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) suggested calling these two kinds of charge negative and positive, respectively, ‘and these names are still used. The plastic rod and the silk have negative charge: ‘he glass rod and the furhave positive charge. ‘Two positive charges or two megative charges repel each other. A positive charge ‘and a negative charge attract each other. 21.1 Experiments in eloozostatics. (8) Negatively charged objects repel each oxher. (b) Positively charged cbjects repel each other, (© Positvely charged objects and negatively charged cbjects attrac: each other. (@) Imerseion berweenplaticrodsnibbed | (p)Ieracion between glassrods nibbed_ | (€) Interaction berween cbjects wits oppoiie on fir Plan plastic rod neither oat shee Pan lan co er Tee fireti i ant arene vodand eal rbd glo par we ‘ihe x =a <‘21.2. Schematic diagram of the operation ofa laser printer. (@ Laser beam “wets” on the drum, laving negatively" 21 Bectie Charge 717 ‘cgi ara where te imge lb “ FR re cosy aren @ Wire sprays ions ooto dram, giving the druc” ‘| Tec + @ranp setups tom naif” CE) charged onccto dram ito star he process over. Toner adheres only to negatively charged areas @iuucnion ppc fda” by ea ‘ane perce echo, “ = Paper (feeding to left) Fe wie spy anncngaementve neg ‘on paper so toner wil adheret (ERUTION) ctectric attraction and repulsion “The attraction and repulsion of two charged objects are sometimes summarized as “Like charges repel, and opposite charges: tract” But keepin mind that the phrase “like charges” doce not ean that the two charges are exactly identical, only that both charges have the same algebraic sgn (bth ‘positive or both mogative). “Opposite charges” means that both objects have an ¢lectric charg, and those charges have difret signs (ne positive end the cher negative). © One technological application of forces between charged bodies isin a laser printer (Fig, 21.2). intially the printers light-sensitive imaging drum is given a positive charge. As the drum rotates, 2 laser beam shines on selected areas of the ‘drum, leaving those areas with a negative charge. Positively charged particles of toner adhere only tothe areas of the drum “written” hy the baser. When piece af ‘paper is placed in contact with the drum, the toner particles stick tothe paper and form an image. Electric Charge and the Structure of Matter ‘When you charge a rod by rubbing it with fur or silk as in Fig. 21.1, there is no Visible change in the appearance of the rod, Wht, then, actually happens to the rod when you charge it? To answer this question, we must look mote closely at the structure and electric properties of atoms, the building blocks of ordinary ‘matter ofall kinds, ‘The structure of atoms ean be described in terms of three particles: the nega- tively charged eleetron, the positively charged proton, and the uncharged neutron (Fig. 21.3). The proton and neutron are combinations of other entities called quarks, which have charges of +} aad 4 times the electron charge. [50- lated quacks have not been observed, and there are theoretical reasons to believe thatit is impossible in principle to observe a quark in isolation, ‘The protons and neutrons in a atom make up a small, very dense core called the nucleus, with dimensions of the order of 10""'m, Surrounding the nucleus ze the electrons, extending out to distances of the order of 10-® m from the ‘cleus. Ifan atom were a few kilometers across its mucleus would be the size of a tennis ball. ‘The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by the “attractive electric forces exerted on them by the positively charged micleus. (The protons and neutrons are held within the stable atomic nuclei by an attractive interaction, called the sirong nuclear force, that overcomes the electc repulsion of the protons. The strong nuclear force has a short range, and its effects do not ‘extend far beyond the nucleus.) 21.3 Thestructure of an stom. The partic ‘ular atom depicted here is Fithium (see Fig. 21.43), Proton: Postive cha Maas = 1678 2 10-778, eatron: Nocuage Mus = 1.675 10-28 © ttectrom: Negative charge Ngee = 0 1083 10g, ‘The chaiges ofthe electron and proton ae equal x magnitude712 CHAPTER21. Hectic Charge and Flac ald 21.8 (@) Avera atom bas as many ele @ Protons (4) trons ast does protons. (2) A positive ion a Cee haasa deficit of electrons. (2 Anegative ion bas an excess of electrons (The electron f “shells” area schematic representation of the actual electron distribution, diffuse ‘Cov una thes Inger da the uuecleas) (0) Nentral chum atom (Lis (b) Positive lthiom fon (Li")s(€) Negative Mthinma oa (LA): 3oprotons 34) 3 protons 34) Sproioas 4) 44 nensoms 4 neato ‘neato Seterone =) 2etenrne(=) ‘eter (4) ‘Bectroes equa protons: “Fewerelectronsthan protons, More electrons than rotons ‘eronet change Prathe netchange [Negathe netchage ‘The masses of the individual particles, to the precision that they are presently known, are ‘Mass of electron — m, — 9.1093826(16) ¥ 10-7 kg Mass of praton = my = 1.67262171(29) X 107? kg ‘Macs of neutron = m, = 1.67492728(29) % 10-7 kg ‘The numbers in parentheses are the uncertainties in the last two digits. Note ‘that the masses of the proton and neutron are neatly equal and are roughly 2000 times the mass ofthe electron, Over 9.9% of the mass of any atom is con- contrat init nucleus. ‘The negative charge of the electron has (within experimental error) exactly the same magnitude as the postive charge of the proton, Ina neutral atom the number of clectrons equals the number of protons in the mcleus, and the net electric charge (the algebraic sum of all the charges) is exactly zero (Fig. 2148). The number of protons or electrons in a neutral atom of an element is called the ‘atomic number of the element. Ione or more electrons are removed, the remain- ing povtively charged structure is called a positive ion (Fig. 21.4). A negative fon isan atom that has gained one or more electrons (Fig. 21 4c). Tis gaining or ‘osing of eleezrons is ealled ionization, ‘When the total nmber of protons in a macroscopic body equals the total mam ‘ber of electrons, the total charge is zero and the body as a whole is electrically neutral. To give « body an excest negative charge, we may either add negative charges to a neutral body or remove positive charges from that body. Similarly, ‘we cnn create an excess postive charge by eithor adding positive change or removing negative charge. In most cases, negatively charged (and highly mobile) electrons are added or removed, and a “positively charged body” is one tha has lost some of its normal cornplement of electrons. When we speak of the charge of aabody, we always mean its net charge. The net charge is slwaye avery sul frac- tion (typically no more than 10~™) of the total positive charge or negative charge inthe body. Electric Charge Is Conserved [implicit in the foregoing discussion are two very important principles. Fists the ‘Principle of conservation of charge: ‘The algebraic sum ofall the electric charges in any closed system is constant. If we rub togcther a plastic rod and a piece of fur, both initially uncharged, the rod acquites a negative charge (nce it takes electrons from the fur) and the Fur aaoquires a positive charge ofthe same magnitude (sine ithas lost as many elec-25.2 Conductors, Insulators and Induced Charges 713 tens a the rod has gained). Hence the total elecric charge on the two bodies 21.5 Mostof he forces on this wate tier together does not change. In any charging process, charge is not crested or sr electric, Blecuicinerscdons between destroyed; it is merely ransferred from one body to another. seen maecules vee othe force of Conservation of eharge is thought to be @ universal conservation Law, No [be was cults: he train nthe wr experimental evidence for any violation of this principle has ever been observed. lcs body. leeic interactions a0 hold Even in high-energy ineractions in which parieles are created and destroyed, th atoms ofthe skiers body togeber suchas the creation of electron-posiron pairs, the total charge of any closed sys- Only one wholly noneleszcforee acts on tem is exactly constant. the skier: the fore of gravity, “The second important principle is: a ‘The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton isa natural unit of charge. Every observable amount of electric charge ix slways an integer multiple of this | ‘asic unit. We say that charge is quantized. A familiar example of quantization is money. When you pay cash for an item in a store, you have to do it in one-cent increments. Cash can't be divided into emousts smaller than one cent, and elec- tric charge can't be divided into amounts smaller then the charge of onc electron ‘or proton. (The quark charges, +! and +3 of the electron charge, are probably not observable as isolated charges.) Thus the charge on any macroscopic body is slways elther zero oe an integer multiple (negative or positive) of the electron charge. ‘Understanding the electric nature of matter gives us insight into many aspects of the physical world (Fig. 21.5). The chemical bonds that hold atoms together to form molecules are due to electri interactions between the atoms. They include the strong ionie bonds that hold sodium and chlorine atoms together to make table salt end the relatively weak bonds between the strands of DNA that record your ‘body's genetic code. The normal force exered on you by the chair in which ‘you're sitting arises from electric forces between charged particles in the atoms of Your seat and in the atoms of your chair. The tension force in z stretched string and the adhesive force of glue are likewise du to the electric interactions of atoms. ‘Test Your Understanding of Section 21.1 (a) Strictly speaking, does the plastic sod in Fig. 21.1 weigh more, less or the same afer rubbing it with fc? (6) Wat ebout the plas rod after rubbing it with silk? What about () the fur and (2) the silk? mea 21.2. Conductors, Insulators, and Induced Charges Some materials permit electric charge to move easily from one region of the ‘material to another, while otbers do not. For example, Fig. 21.6a shows a copper ‘wire supported by a nylon thread. Suppose you touch one end of the wire to a ‘charged plastic rod end attach the other end to a motal ball that is initially ‘uncharged; you then remove the charged rod and the wire. When you bring ‘another charged body up close to the ball (Figs. 21.65 and 21.6c), the ball is attracted or repelled, showing that the ball has become electrically charged. Elec- tric charge has been transferred through the copper wire between the bal and the surface of the plastic rod. ‘The copper wire is called x conductor of electricity. If you repeat the experi- rent using a robber band or nylon throad in placs of the wire, you find that no charge is transfered to the ball. These materials are called insulators. Conduc- tors permit the easy movement of charge through them, while insulators do not. (The supporting nylon threads shown in Fig. 21.6 are insulators, which prevents ‘charge from leaving the metal ball and copper wire.) ‘As an example, carpet fibers on a dry day are good insulators. As you walk cross 2 carpet, the rubbing of your shoes against the fibers causes charge to buildTVA CHAPTER 21. ect Charge and Elec Field 121. Coppers good condactroflee- tricity non s ago inaustor (2) Tae copper wire conducts change between he ‘metal ball and the charged plastic rod to charge the ball negatively. Afterward, the ‘metal ball is (b) repelled by a negatively hanged plas roland (9 attracted oa posivey carps glass od. o "The wite conducts charge from he negatively charged plac rod tothe metal bal. 21.7 Charging 1 metl ball by induction Blecuon Mest eefciongy ball Negatively charged Taig, rae ated = _ (@)Unctarpcc metal ball (b) Negev carpe cm tO ‘pels eleezons, costing ‘ones of negabe snd ‘up on you, and this charge remains on you because it can't flow through the insu- ting fibers. If you then touch a conducting object such ax a doorknob, a rapid charge transfer takes place between your finger and the doorknob, and you feel a shock. One way to prevent this is to wind some of the carpet fibers around con- ducting cores so that any charge that builds up on you can be transferred harm- lessly to the carpet. Another solution isto coat the carpet fibers with an antistatic layer that does not easly transfer electrons to or from your shoes; this prevents aay charge from building up on you inthe first place, "Most metals are good conductors, while most nonmetals are inewlators, Within aa solid metal such as copper, one or more outer electrons in each atom become detached and can move freely throughout the material, just as Uae molecules of a ‘gs can moye through the spaces between the grains in a bucket of sand, The ‘motion of these negatively charged electrons carries charge through the metal, ‘The other electrons remain bound to the positively charged nuclei, which them- selves are bound in nearly fixed positions within the material. In an insulator there are no, oF very few, free electrons, and electric charge cannot rove freely through the materisl. Some materials called semiconductors are intermediate in their properties between good conductors and good insulators. Charging by Induction ‘We can change a metal ball using a copper wire and an electrically charged plastic rod. as in Fig. 21.60, In this process, some of the excess electrons on the rod are ‘tansferred from it to the ball, leaving the rod with a smaller negative charge. ‘There is a different technique in which the plastic rod can give another body a charge of opposite sign without losing any of its own charge. This process is called charging by induction. Figure 21.7 shows an example of charging by induction, An uncharged metal ball is supported on an insulating stand (Fig. 21.7). When you bring a negatively charged rod near it, without actuslly touching i (Fig. 21.72), the free electrons in ‘the metal bell are repelled by the excess electrons on the rod, and they shit toward the right, away from the rod, They cannot escape from the ball because ‘he supporting stand and the surrounding air arc insulators. So we get excess neg ative charge atthe right surface of the ball and a deficiency of negative charge (hat is, a net positive charge) atthe left surface. These excess charges are called induced charges. ‘Not all of the fice clectrons move to the right surface of the ball. As soon any induced charge develops, it exerts forces toward the left on the other free electrons. These electrons are repelled by the negative induced charge on the right and attracted toward the positive induced charge on the left. The system reaches an equilibrium state in which the force toward the right on an electron, due to the charged rod, is just balanced by the force toward the left due to the induced charge. If we remove the chargcd rod, the free electvons shift back to the Jef, and the uriginal neutral condition is restored,21.2 Conductors, Insulator, and Induced Charges 715 ‘21.8 Tho charges within the molecules of an insulating material can shift slightly. As a result, aeomb with either sign of charge attracts ‘neutral insulstor. By Newton's third lew the neutral insolator exerts an equal magnitude ettractive force on the comb. (@) Actargod comm pitang up uncharged (@) How aaceatvely charged comb atzactsan (©) How a posively charged comb ates an ‘leces ofplasic fesulator BFF ssacatsoe (aierssincach GE ssizcslouccdotto @@ soominaartec) SO) coprmtotdsaeye face fom becom Thee ensttoneisetacte. ‘What happens if, while the plastic rod is nearby, you touch onc end of a con- ducting wire wo the right surface of the ball amd the other end to the earth Fig. 21.76)? The earth is a conductor, and it is so lage that it can act as a practi cally infinite source of extra electrons or sink of unwanted electrons. Some of the negative charge flows through the wire to the earth. Now suppose you disconnect ‘the wire (Fig. 21.74) and then remove the rod (Fig. 21.7e); a net positive charge is left on the ball. The charge on the negatively charged rod has not changed dur ‘ing this process. The earth aoquires a negative charge that is equal in magnitude o the induced positive charge remaining on the ball. Charging by induetion would work just as well if the mobile charges in the ball were positive charges instead of negatively charged electrons, or even if both positive and negative mobile charges Were present. In a metallic conductor the mobile charges are always negative electrons, but it is often convenient to describe a process as though the moving charges were positive. In ionic solutions and ionized gases, both positive and megative charges are mobile. Electric Forces on Uncharged Objects Finally, we note that a charged body can exert forces even on objects that are not charged themselves. If you rub a balloon on the rug and then hold the belloon ‘against the ceiling, it sticks, even though the ceiling has no net electric charge. Afier you electrify » comb by running it through your heir, you can pick up “uncharged bits cf paper or plastic with the comb (Fig, 21.88). low is this pocsible? ‘This interaction is an induced-charge effect. Even in an insulator, electric ‘charges can shift back and forth a litle when there is charge nearby. This is shown in Fig, 21.8; the negatively charged plastic comb causes a slight shifting of ‘charge within the molecules ofthe neutral insulator, an effec called polarization, ‘The positive and negative charges in the matcrial are present in equal amounts, but the positive charges ar closer to the plastic comb and so feel an atraction that is (Qsopur tie Sabena I stronger than the repulsion felt by the negative charges, giving a net attractive force, (In Section 21.3 we will study how electric forces depend on distance.) Note that a neutral insulator is elso attracted to a positively charged comb (Fig, 21.8c).. [Now the charges in the insulator shift in the opposite direction: the negative ‘charges in the insulator are closer to the comb and fee! an attractive force that is stronger than the repulsion felt by the positive charges in the insulator. Fenco a charged object of either sign exerts an attractive force on an uncharged insulator. ‘The anraction between charged object and an uncharged one has many {important practical applications, including the electrostatic painging process used in the automobile industry (Fig. 21.9). A metal object to be painted is connected fo the earth (“ground” in Fig. 21.9), and the paint droplets are given an electric charge as they exit the sprayer nozzle. Induced charges of the opposite signTG — CHAPTER 21. ect Charge and Elec Field prt 11 Bede Fore Cais tan 112 Weave Foe Supopeton kev 113 Bletre Force: Superpostion (Quaniiaive) 21.10 (8) Measuring the electric force ‘between point charges. (6) The electzic forces between point charges obey New- ton’s third law: Poa = ‘appear in the object as the droplets approach, just as in Fig. 21.7b, and they attract the droplets to the surface. This process minimizes overspray from clouds of stray paint particles and gives a particularly smooth finish. ‘Test Your Understanding of Section 21.2 Youbavetwolightucight metal spheres, each hanging from m inslating nylon thread One of the spheres has amet nege- tive charge, while he other sphere has no net charge. () I the spheres ae close togstber ‘bt donot touch, wll they @) attract each othe, i) repel each other, o (i exert 20 ores on each other?) You now allow the tno spheres to touch. Once they heve touche, wil he two spheres @) ata each ther, G) repel each eter, or (i exe 90 force on each other? 1 21.3 Coulomb’s Law Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) studied the interaction forces of ‘charged particles in detail in 1784. He used a torsion balance (Fig. 21.10a) simi- {ecto the one used 13 years later by Cavendish to study the much weaker gravita- tional interaction, as we discussed in Section 12.1. For polnt charges, charged ‘bodies that are very small in comparison with the distance r between them, Coulomb found that the electric force is to Ifr?, That is, whem the distance r doubles, the foree decreases to 4 ofits initial value; when the distance is halved, the force increases to four Gimes its initial value. ‘The electric force between two point charges also depends on the quantity of ‘charge on each body, which we will denote by q or Q. To explore this depend- ence, Coulomb divided a charge into two equal parts by placing a small charged spherical conductor into contact with an identical but uncharged sphere; by sym- ‘metry, the charge is shared equally between the two spheres. (Note the essential role of the principle of conservation of carge in this procedure.) Thus he could ‘obtain one-half, one-quarter, and so on, of any inital charge. He found that the forces that two point charges gy and q, exert on each other are proportional to cach charge and therefore are proportional to the product qy9, ofthe two charges. ‘Thus Coulomb established what we now call Coulomb’s law: ‘The magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly propor- flonal to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of ‘the distance between them. @) Atomion balance ofthe ype used by (Covlom to mena the elect foe 3. s 7 me ea Ciera tens teyeatty cept sodncjoue samen see | roves els Fecsinc tn TortusJn mathematical terms, the magnitude F of the force that each of two point charges ¢y and q, a distance r apart exerts cm the other ea he expressed 2s — lave Foee au here é is a proportionality constant whose numerical value depends on the sys- ‘tem of units used. The absolute value bars are used in Eq. (21.1) because the charges a and gs can be either positive or negative. while the force magnitude F is always positive. ‘The directions of the forces the two charges exert on cach other are slways long the Hine joining them, When the charges q, aad q, have the same sign, ‘either both postive or both negative, the forces are repulsive; when the charges have opposite signs, the forces are attractive (Fig, 21.10b). The two forces obey Newton's third law; they are always equal in magnitude and opposite in dirce- sion, even when the charges are not equal in magnirade ‘The proportionality of the electric force to Ifr? has been verified with great precision. There is n0 reason to suspect that the exponent is different from pre- cisely 2. Thus the form of Eq, (21.1) isthe sarnc as that of the law of gravitation. Butelectsic and gravitational interactions are two distinet classes of phenomena. Bleetrc interactions depend on electric charges and can be either attractive or repulsive, while gravitational interactions depend on mass and are always attrac- tive (because there is no such thing as negative meas). Fundamental Electric Constants ‘The value ofthe proportionality constant k in Coulomb's law depends on the sys- tom of units used. In our study of electricity and magnetism we will use ST units ‘exclusively. The SI electric units include most of the familiar units such as the volt, the ampere, the ohm, and the watt. (There is no British system of electric unis.) The ST uni of electric charge is called one eowlomb (1 C). In St units the ‘constant kin Eg. (21.1) is BWTSSTTID X10 N-me/C? 8.98 TOP /CE ‘The value of & is known to such a large number of significant figures because this value is closely related to the speed of Hight in vacuum. (We will show this in Qhapter 32 when we study electromagnetic radiation) As we discussed in Section 1.3, this speed is defimed to be exactly c = 2.99792458 x 10" mfs. The ‘numerical value of k is defined in terms of c to be precisely k= (10 W-SIC8)e* ‘You should check this expression to confirm that kas the right units, In principle we can measure the electric force F between two equal charges q aia measured distance r and use Coulomb's law to determine the charge, Thus wwe could regard the value of k-as an operational definition of the coulomb. For reasons of experimental precision it is better to define the coulomb instead in terms of a unit of electric current (charge per unit time), the ampere, equal to 1 coulomb per second. We will return to this definition in Chapter 28. In St units we usually write the constant k in Eq, (21.1) as 1/47¢9, where «9 (Cepsilon-nought” or “epsilon-zero") is another constant. This appears to compli- ‘cate matters, but it actually simplifies many formulas that we will encounter in later chapters. From now on, we will usually waite Coulomb's law as 1 lagl — (Coulomb's taw: force between Ame ‘two point charges) ey 21.3 Coulomb's aw m7ne ‘CHAPTER 21, Becvic Charge and Elec Field ‘The constants in Eq. (21.2) are approximately 1 €9 = 8.854 X 10 CIN m? and 7 — = k= 8.988 X 10°N- mC? . y x f Inexamples and problems we will often use the approximate value 1 are which is within about 0.1% of the correct valu. ‘As we mentioned in Section 21.1, the most fundamental unit of charge is the magnitude of the charge of an electron or a proton, which is denoted by e. The ‘most precise value available as of the waiting ofthis book is 9.0 x 10°N-mAc? = 1.60217653(14) x 107°C One coulomb representa the negative of the total charge of about 6 10! clec- trons. For comparison, 2 copper cube 1 cm on a side contains about 2.4 x 10% electrons. About 10" clectrons pass through the glowing filament of a flashlight bulb every second. In clectrostaties problems (that is, problems that involve charges at rest). it's ‘very unusual to encounter charges as large as 1 coulomb. Two 1-C charges sepa- rated by 1 m would exert forces om each other of magnitude 9 X 10N (about 1 milion tons)! The toral charge of all the electrons in a copper one-cent coin is coven greater, about 14 X 10°C, which shows that we can't disturb electric neu- tality very much without using enormous forces. More typical values of charge range from about 10" to about 10°® C. "The microcaulomb (1.40 = 10°C) and the nanocoulomb (1 nC = 10°? C) are often used as practical units of charge. FERREIEIE ctectric force versus gravitational force ‘An a panicle (lpha’) is the nucleus of & heliom atom. It bas ‘mass m= 6.64 % 10-2"kg snd charge q = ¥2e = 32 x 10-C. Compare the force of the electric repulsion between two a peticles withthe force of gravitational stration between them, IDENTIFY: This problem involves Newton's lew forthe gravita: ‘onal force F; botwoen patisls (008 Section 12.1) and Coslom’s lave forthe elect foceeF, between point charges. We ae asked to compare these forces, so our target variable isthe ratio of these two forces, PF SET UP: Figure 21.11 shows our sketch. The magnitude of the repulsive elect force is given by Eg. (21.2): 1¢ fare? EXECUTE: ‘The eatlo of the electic force tn the gravitational EVALUATE: ‘This astonishingly lage number shows tha the gravi- {ational force inthis situation is completely negligible in compari- son to the electric foree. This is always true for interactions of ‘azomiic and subatomic particles. (Notice that this result doesa't ‘depend on the distance r between the two particles.) But within bjects the size of « persoa or a plane, the positive and nogatve ‘charges wre nearly equal in magnitude, end the net electic force is vuwally much smaller dan the grwvitational force. 21.11 Our sketch for this problem. 4232x1086 n= 66451077 kgSuperposition of Forces 21.3 Coulomb's aw 719 Conlomb's aw as wo have stated it describes only the interaction of two point ‘charges. Experiments show that when two charges exert forces simultaneously on third charge, the total force acting on that charge isthe vector sum of the forces that the two charges would exert individvally. This important property, called the principle of superposition of forces, holds for any number of charges. By using this principle, we can apply Coulomb's law to any collection of charges. Several ‘of the examples at the end of this section show applications of the superposition principle. Strictly speaking, Coulomb's law as we have stated it should be used only for point charges in a vacuum, If matte is present in the space between the charges, the net force acting on each charge is altered because charges aro induced in the molecules of the intervening material. We will describe this effect Inter. As a ‘practical matter, though, we can use Coulomb's law unaltered for point charges in air, At normal atmospheric pressure, the presence of air changes the electric force from its vacuum value by only about one part in 2000. IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: Coulomb's few comoe into play whenever you need to know the elects force acting between charged particles. SET UP the problem using the following steps: 1. Make a drawing showing the locations of the charged particles, and label each particle with its charge. This step is particaladly {important if more than two charged particles ae pretent. 2, IF thos or more charge are pretsctand they do otal ie on ‘he same line, setup an ay-coordinate system. 4. Oftea you will nced to id the cee fores on just one part ele. If so, identify that particle, EXECUTE the solution 2 fellows: 1. For each pantle that exerts force onthe particle of teres, ‘calculate the magnitude of that force using Eq.(21.2), 2. Shkoish the electric foro vectors asting on the parelel®) of interest duc to cach of the other particles (tha is, maka fece- ‘body diagram). Remember tha the force exerted by particle 1 ‘on particle 2 pits from panicle 2 toward pane 1 if the two harps have oppose signs, but poins trom parle 2 arecuy ‘vay from particle Lif the charges have the same sig. 3. Calculate the total eecticforeeon the partcle(s) of interest. Remember that the louie fore, like any force, isa vector ‘Wher the forces ating ona charge are cased by two or mare ‘other charges, the total free on the charge isthe vecor sum of ‘he individual force. You may waat to go back and review the ‘vector algebra in Sections 1.7 through 19. Hs often hell to Use compocentsinan.y-coordinae system. Be sure to use cxr- rect voctor notation; if a symbol reprosents a vector quantity, put en arrow over it. IF you get sloppy with your noation, you ‘will alo get sloppy with your thinking. 4. Ae always, using consistent unite i essential. With he value of -E= freq given abovo distanocs must bein mctrs, charge in ‘coulomb, and fore in newons. If you aze given distances in ‘centimeters, inches, or furlongs, dont forge to convert! When a charge is given in microcoulombs (iC) or nanccavlomi (nC), remember that 1 uC = 10-°Cand 1 nC = 10°C. ‘5. Some cxamples and problems in this and lator cheptors involve ‘8 continsoos dstibation of charge along a line or over a su face. In these eases the vector sum deserbod in step’ becomes a vectorintegal, usually ewcied outby use of components. We [Note that 9, is repelled by 1 (which has the same sigr) and auraced to (wich has the apposite sigr). Converting charge to coulomb snd ditnee to meters, wwe wn Fg. 212) ta Bd the agnitde Fes OF te foree of Gy On as: 1 lal ire? = 0x10 N-nefey™ = 112 * 10 +N = 12 Nn ‘This foroe has a negative x-component boceuse q is rpelled (that, is, pushed in the negative x direction) by 4. Fee 0 x 10°C)(50 x 10°C) (0.020m)* 21.12. What force does q, exert on g, and what force does q, ‘exert on 4? Gravitational forces are eligible. ]@ memocnages GO) EeeDoEy cig (0 Fretosy aug foccharge go foccharge gy o 2 Ro, ak 8 pane Gee (@) Newion's thizd law applies to the eleciic force Byen hough the charges bave different magnitudes, the magnitude of ‘the foree that g; exerts on gy isthe same asthe magnitude of the force that q,exests on gt Ri 1019 N [Newton's third law also states tha the direction of the force that ga execs on g; is exseily oppasite the direction of the force that ‘exerts on gs; this is shown in Fig. 21.12. EVALUATE: Note that the Force on gis directed toward qi. it must be, since charges of oppesite sign attract each othe. ‘Vector addition of electric forces on a line “The magnitude Faqs OF te forse of go om gis 1 lal fae? = (00 N-n3fC) Frees (30% 107€)(3.0 x 107) (000m)? = 84x 107 N= 84 ‘This force has apoatves-component because gi atactd (that, 4s, plied in the postive x-direction) by q. The sum of he x-com- ponents is = ~1DUN + 84 N= -28 uN “There are no y- or z-componeats, Thus the total force on 4 is iscled tothe left, with magnitude 28 uN = 28 X 10° N. EVALUATE: To check the magitales ofthe individual forces ‘ote that g hes thee times as much charge (in magnitude) as ‘uti twice as er fom gy. From Bg, 21.2) this means that Fas rust be 3/2 = 3 as nrg a8 gy Teed, caress show that this rato fs (84.8) /(12 uN) — O75. The ceeion oF We met force also makes sense: Fis opposite to and has a larger msg situde than Fy n3- 80 the nct force is in the direction Of Fee. 21.15 Our sketches for this problem. (On agra cf the sitaton (©) Fro body diagram foray y y BON Ye LOre qr—a0re FF Ole x21.4 Eleatic Fel ard Weewic Forces 721 [EEEEIEZY vector addition of electric forces in a plane ‘Two equal postive point charges q, = 92 = 2.0 4C are Hocated at x= 0,y = 030m and x= 0,y= ~0.30m, respectively. What ‘ae the magnitude and direction of the total (net) electic force that these cbarges exert on a third point charge O = 40C at ¥=040m,y = 07 IDENTIFY: As in Example 21.3, we have to compute the force ‘that each charge exerts on Q and thea find the vector sum of the forces. ‘SET UP: Figure 21.14 shows the situation. Since the three charges EXECUTE: Figure 21.14 shows the force on Q due to the upper cargeq From Caulomb's aw he magne Fotis force (40 x 10-*c)(20 x 10~*c) Fama (90% 1 Wnffes) OO ESN IS) =0nN ‘The angle below the sais the componcols a his force ‘are given by om (Frovo)e = (Fran) 06a = (029) 95pm, ~ 023 OAT N dovolal is onalioe totet wey eacne bforcetatg, Piecl~ ~CFag)ea = ~(029N)g sou ‘and as exert isto use components, ‘The lower charge q, exerts a foree withthe seme magnitude but at fan engle a above the x-axis. From symmetry we see that its x- component isthe seme as that due to the upper charge, but its y- ‘component hes the opposite sign. So the components ofthe total force Fon Q are F,=023N +023N=046N R= -Q17N + O17N ‘The total force on Q isin the +x-direction, with magnitude 0.46N. EVALUATE: The total force on Q is in « direction that points nei- ther direstiy away fom a nor dicey away from a. Retr. this direction is a compromise that points away from the system of charges gad qy Can you ses thatthe ttl free would mat be in the +x direction if gard, were not equl or if the geometical arrangement ofthe changes Were not to symmetrical? 21-14 Ourstetch for this problem. Test Your Understanding of Section 21.3 Suppose that charge gin ‘Example 21.4 were ~2.0 uC. inthis case, the total electric force on @ would be {@ in the positive x-direction; (i) inthe negetivex-diroction; (ii) in the positive rection iv) im the negative y-direction (v) zero; (i) none ofthese. & 2145 Aster oty erates ede Bub Aco (@)A and B cxert eloctic forces on cach other. i Fy 4 21.4 Electric Field and Electric Forces ‘When two electrically charged particles in empty space interact, how does each a ‘one Know the other is there? What yoes on in the space DeLween thern to commu nicate the effect of cach one to the other? We can begin to answer these ques- tions, and at the same time reformulate Coulomb's law in a very useful way, by using the concept of electric field Electric Field “To introduce this concept, let's look at the mutual repulsion of two positively charged bodies A and B (Fig. 21.15a). Suppose 8 has charge qo, and let Fy be the electric force of A on B. One way to think cbout this force is as an “action-at- é ‘Test cage go distance” force—ihat is, as a force that acts across empty space without need- ~~ ing any mater (such as a push rod or a rope) to transmit it through the ge intervening space. (Gravity can also be thought of as an “action-at-a-distance” A % CQ medy A ets upon eecese aid at poi P. force.) But a more fruitful way to visualize the repulsion between A and B is as: Bistie toe perunt two-stage pmcess. We first envision that body A, as a result of the charge that ‘charge osatadby A ‘carries, somehow modifies the properties of the space around it. ‘Then body B, 25, fonatesteharge at722 CHAPTER 21. Weevie Charge and Elec Field Acty PHysies 114 Gece ick Poin Cnge 113. Movi of a Charge in an Eectic elds ocucton 11.10 Motion in an Bete ike: Problems The face = oy exenad cna charge qyplaedinan eee bea. @ —_-" ‘The force ona poste tet charge pola in the diretin of the elect ed @ 3 2 Egor charge) “Tne force on amegative test charge gy points spprete tothe eeente fell ‘result of the charge that it caries, senses how space has been modified at its Position. The response of hatly Bis to experience the force Be ‘To elaborate how this two-stage process occurs, we first consider body A by itself: We remove body B and label its former position as point P (Fig. 21.15b). ‘We say thatthe charged body A produces or causes an electric field at point P (aod at all other points in the neighborhood). This elect field is present at P even f there is no charge at P, itis a consequence ofthe charge-on body A only. IF ‘point charge qp is then placed at point P, it experiences the force Fy, We take the point of view that this force is exerted on q by the field at P (Fig. 21.15). Thus the electric field is the intermediary through which A communicates its presence to ge. Because the point charge dy would experience a foree at any point in the neighborhood of A, the electric Held that A produces exists at all points in the region around A. ‘We can likewise say that the point charge q produces an electric ficld in the ‘space around it and that this elvcizie Geld exerts the force “Fo on body A. For each force (the force of A on gp and the force of gy on A), one charge sets up an electric field that exerts a force on the second charge. We emphasize that this is ‘an interaction between two charged bodies. A single charge produces an electric ficld in the surrounding space, but this electric field cannot exert e net force on the charge that created it; this is an example of the general principle that a body cannot exert» net force on itself, a discussed in Section 43. (IF this principle ‘wasn’t valid, you would be able to lift yourseif to the ceiling by pulling up on ‘your bet!) ‘The electric force on a charged body is exerted by the electric field cre- ated by other charged bodies. “To find ont experimentally whether there is an electric Feld st x particular point, we place a small charged body, which we call atest charge, atthe point (Fig. 21.15¢). If the test charge experiences an electic force, then there is an electric field at that point. Tis field is produced by charges other than gy Force is # vector quanlity, so electric field is also a vector quantity. (Note the use of vector signs as well as boldface leters and plus, minus, and equals signs in the following discussion.) We define the electric field Eat a point as the electric force F, experionced by a tost change qy at the point, divided by tho charso 4. ‘That is, the eleciic field at a certain point is equal to the electric force per unit charge experienced by a charge at that point: gf (definition of electric field as electric eat een) Jn ST units, in which the unit of force is 1 N and the unit of charge is 1 C, the unit of electric field magnitude is 1 newton per coulomb (1 N/C). If the field E at a ceriain point is known, rearranging Eq. (21.3) gives the force Feespertenced by a polnt charge qpplaced at that point. This force fs just equal to the electric fickt produced at that point by charges other than go, niultiplied by the charge go: (Fores exerted on a point charge ay Po= af by an electric field mee a “The charge qy can be either postive or negative. If gy is postive, the force Feo by the ebarge is the same eestion a8 Bs if qs negative, Fy ‘are in opposite directions (Fig. 21.16). ‘While the electric field concept may be new to you, the basic idea—thet one ody sets up a field in the space around it and n second body responds to thatficld—is one that you've actually used before, Compare Eq. (21.4) to the familiar apreaticn forthe prvtatonal fore , that teenth exersem amass mg Bye mb as In this expression, g is the acceleration due to gravity. If we divide both sides of Bq, (21.5) by the mass mo, we obtain f, an “Thus g can be regarded as the gravitational force per unit mass. By analogy to Eq, (21.3), we can interpret as the gravitational field, Thus we treat the gravits- ‘tional interaction between the earth and the mass ma as a two-stage process: The ‘earth sets up a gravitational field fin the space around it, and this gravitational field exertsa force given by Eq. (21.5) on the mass mg (which we can regard as a test mass). In this sense, you've made use of the field concept every time you've ‘used Eq. (21.5) for the force of gravity. ‘The gravitational held or gravitational force pet unit mass, is a useful concept because it does not depend on the mass of the body on which the gravitational force is exerted; likewise, the lectre field E, for electric force per unit charge, is useful because it does not depend on the charge of the body on which the electri force is exerted. (EAUTION! 7, = «2, is tor point test charges only ‘The electic force experienced tp neat charge aycan vty fom pn oprah oo elo fecal beet ok teen pnts Porth eon, (21.4 ean be usd only to ind te elec force ona Poin care. If charged body's age enough in ete eczeHk rey be noe {ly diferent in magnitude an resin at teen points on tbe Body, and eating the vet eleeie ter on the body can become reer compte. # ‘We have so far ignored a subtle but important difficulty with our definition of electric field: In Fig. 21.15 the force exested by the test charge gy on the charge distribution on body A may cause this distribution to shift around. ‘This is espe- cially true if body A is x conductor, on which charge is free to move. So the elec- tric field around A when go is present may not be the same as when q is absent. ‘But if qo is very small, che tedisuibuion of charge on body A is also very sina. So to make a completely correct definition of electric ficld, we take the limit of Eq. (21.3) as the test charge qq approaches zero and as the disturbing effect of gp ‘on the charge distribution becomes negligible: B= igh Pa, In practical calculations of the electric ficld E produced by a charge distribution, ‘We will eonsider the charge éistrbution to be fixed, and so we will not neod this limiting process. Electric Field of a Point Charge Ifthe source distribution isa point charge g, iti easy to find the electric field that it produces, We call the location of the charge the source point, and we call the point P where we are determining the field the field point, It is also useful to Introduce a unt vector that points along the Tine from source point to field point (Fig, 21.170). Thio unit vector is equal to the displacement vector # from the source point to the field point, divided by the distance # = || between these two points; that is, # = 7/r. If we place a small test charge qy atthe ficld point P, at a distance r from the source point, the magnitude Fy of the force is given by ‘Coulomb's lav, Eq. (21.2): 1 legal "o- ames DIA Eleatic Feld and Weewic Forces 728 21.17 The eleouic field produced at point Phy an soled point enarge gat S. ‘Note that in both (b) and (9, Bis produced by q {see Eq, QLD) but acts on Ah charge at pit P [n= By, 21.4) » z, i ¥ a | “Ateach pot Pte elatic ‘eld set up by an isolated paste pint charge g points diredy away from the ‘barge in the same Grecton as, © % at Qe Since tee 'S_ Seld setup by an isolaed nage polatna (CHAPTER 21, Becvic Charge and Elec Field 21.18 A point charge q produces an electtic From Eq. (21.3) the magnitude E of the electric field at P is field & at all points in space. The field strongth decreases With increasing distance. {@) The itd protced by a postive point carpe points aayfom the charge. w\tLe ™ — —_ e _ a ~ v14\~ () Toe feta produced by anogative point carpe points towend he charge al NV Ve oe ‘eo p=_1_lal are r Using the mit vector, we can write @ vector equation that gives both the magni- tude and direction of the electric field E: (magnitude of electric field of a point charge) @1.8) la ane? (Glecre Held of poln charge) Gu) By definition, the electric field of a point charge always points away from a posi- five charge (that ix, in the same direction as F; sce Fig. 21.176) but toward 2 neg~ ative charge (that is, in the direction opposite f see Fig. 21.17). ‘We have emphasized calculating the electric field F at a certain point. But ‘since # can vary from point to point, it ts not a single vector quantity but rather an infinite st of vector quantities, one associated with each point in space. This isan exaznple of a veetor field. Figure 21.18 shows a nutnber ofthe field vectors pro- duced by a postive or negative point charge. If we use a rectangular (sz y,z) ‘coordinate system, each component of E at any point is in general a function of the coordinates (x,y,z) of the point, We can represent the functions as E,(% 952), By(% 92), and E,(2% ¥, 2). Vector fields are an important part of the Fanguage of physics, nt justin electricity and magnetism, One everyday example of a vector field i the velocity # of wind currents; the magnitude and direetion of 1, and hence its vector components, vary from point to point inthe atmosphere. In some situations the magnitude and direction of the field (and hones its voe~ {or components) have the same values everywhere throughout a certain region; ‘we then say that the field is waiform inthis region, An important example of this is the electric field inside a conductor If there is an electri field within a condue- tor, the field exerts a force on every charge in the conductor, giving the free charges a net motion. By definition an electrostatic situation is one in which the charges have no net motion. We conclude that in electrostatics the electric field at every point within the material of a conductor must be zero. (Note that we are not ‘saying that the field is necessarily zero in a hole inside a conduetot) ‘With the concept of electric field, our description of electric interactions has ‘wo parts, Fist, a given charge distribution acts as a source of electic field. See- ond, the electric field exerts «force on any charge that is present in the field. Our analysis often has two corresponding steps: first, calculating the ficld caused by a source charge distribution; second, looking at the effect of the field in terms of force and motion, The second step often tnvolves Newton's laws as Well asthe Principles of electric interactions. In the next section we show how to caleulate fields caused by various source distributions, but first here are some examples of cclnlating the field due tox point charge and of finding the force on a charge due toagiven field B. EERE Electric-field magnitude for a point charge ‘What is the magnitade ofthe electric field at a field point 2.0 m ‘rom a point charge q = 4.0 nC? (The point charge could represeat any small charged cbject with this valuc of g, provided the dimen- sions of the object are much less than the distance from the abject (the eld poist) IDENTIFY: This problem uses the expression forthe electri field doe to. pain charge. ‘SET UP: We are given the magnitude of the charge and the dis- tance from the objet tothe Hild point, so we use Eq, (21.6) toca ‘alate the field magnitude E. EXECUTE: From Fy @1.6, 1 ld Amey = 9.0NIC (90x wN- neyEVALUATE: To check our resuit, we use the definition of cleetic ficld as the clectric force per unit charge. We can first use ‘Coulomb's law, Fg. 21.2), to find the magnitude Fy of te force on test barge iced 20a rom 1 del “capcay 10°" Clee rea atl. oo x owed = (s0nle)lal 214 HeevieFeld ard Heevi Fores 725 ‘Thea, from Bq, (21.3), the magainde of ts fe aol Because qs postive, the direction of B a this point is along the Iie rom toward gp a8 sbowa in Fig. 21.17. However, the ag nitude and direction of # do not depend cr the sign of gy. Do you so why nok? 9.0NIC Electric-field vector for a point charge ‘A point charge q = -8.0C is located at the origin. Find the ‘leetic-ild vector atthe field point x = 1.2m, y = 1.6m, En IDENTIFY: In this problem we are ssked to find the eleetrc-field ‘vector H due to a point charge. Hence we need to find either the ‘components of E or its magnitude and direction. ‘SET UP: Figure 21.19 shows the situation, The electic field is _givea in vector form by Eq. (21.7). To use this equation, we first find the distance r from the source point § (the position of the ‘charge q) othe field point P, ss well asthe unit wector that points in the direction from oP. 21-19 Oursketch for this problem. EEEEGGEM Electron in a uniform field ‘Wren the tsninals of s battery are connected to two large parle ‘conducting plates, the resulting charges on the plates cause an clectic fill B in the region betwoan the plas Ua is very ncaly uniform. (We will see the reason for this uniformity in the next secdon. Charge plies ofthis Kind ae used fm caemon lecseal evices ealled capacitors, t be dsoussed in Chapter 24) If he plates are horizontal and separated by 1.0 cm and the plates aro connected to a 100-olt bakery. the magritide of the Feld is = 1.00 x 10°N{C. Suppose the direction of Bs vertically upwacd, a shown by the vectors in Fg. 21.20.) Ian electra it released from rest at the upper plate, what i its acceleration? (©) Wht speed and kinetic enerey docs the elsizon ceauie while traveling 1.0 cm to the lower plate? (c) How much time is. EXECUTE: The distance from the charge atthe source point $ (which in this exemple is atthe origin O) wo the field post P is raat t 2 = V2)? + (16m)! - 20m ‘The unit vector # is directed from the source point to the Ald ‘Point. ‘This is equal to the displacement vector # from the source poiat tothe field poiat (shown shift to one side in Fig. 21.19 50 ‘not to obscure the other vecton), divided by its magnitude we et = (2m)i + (“16 m)E 20m Honce the electric eld yostor is #-14; deg = (90x 10 N-mtic?) = (“INCE + (14NC)p EVALUATE: Since q is negative, E points from the field point to ‘the charge (the source point}, in the direction opposite to F (com- ppace Fig. 21.170). We leave the calculation of the magnitude and Sireetion of E to you (see Exercise 21.36). # = 0.608 ~ 0.805 (80% 10°C) 0 (omy (05F- 0809) 21.20 A.uniform elooti fcld between two parallel conducting plates connected toa 100-vott battery. (The separation of the plates is exaggersted in this figure relative tothe dimensions of the plates.) “Tee tie row reprenet ‘he iform eet Bo tcov| Contin7G CHAPTER 21. ect Charge and Elec Field required for it to tavel this distance? An electron has change me = 160 % 10" Cand mass m = 9.11 X 10s, SOLUTION IDENTIFY: This exemple involves several concspts: the relation- ship terween clectic Feld and electric force, the relationship between force and sccelraion, the defiuition of knee ener, the clectic fel, 90 we use Bq. (21.4) to find the forec on the elec- ‘ron and Newton's second law to find its acceleration. Because the ‘eld is niforn between the plies, Oe force ond wcedteration are ‘constant and we can use the eonstant- acceleration formulas from (Chapter 3 to find the eloctron’s velocity and travel time. We find the kinetic energy using the defrtion K = Jai. EXECUTE: (a) Note that is upward (in the + y-direction) but Fis, downwant because the charge of the electron is negative. Thus F, 1 meyatve, Because F, is constant, the electron moves with con- stant acceleration 4, piven by ek _ (1.60 x 10°C) (1.00 x 10*NJC) nn 911 X 107 76 x 10 ms “Thisis an enormous seosertion! To give 10O0LKg ear tis wece ‘eration, we would need a force of sbout 2X 10*N (about 2X 10* tons). Tho gravitational force on the electron is com- pletely negligible compared tothe elect fore. EESEIEDY 1m electron trajectory If we launch an electron ito the elecrc field of Example 21.7 ‘ih an nial horizontal velcty oy (Fig. 2121), wat is the equa ‘ton of its trajectory? SOLUTION IDENTIFY: We found the electoe's acceleration in| Exar ple 217. Our goal into ind the trajectory that correspon to tha acceleration SET UP: The acceleration fsconstant and inthe negalvey Section (here is no acceleration in the x-direction). Hence we can use the inemutic equations ftom Chapter 3 for two-dimensional ion ‘with constant acceleration. EXECUTE: We have <0 and a= (—e)Em At r= 0, 2) ~ yo ~ 0,0, ~ Bp OR by ~ Oj hoses a ime f Lees am" 1 x=vg and y= boy" lininating 1 blweea these equations, we get Lek 2mud™ (b) The electro starts from ret, s0 its motion is in the >> ‘rection only (the direction ofthe acceleration}. We can find the clectron’s speed at eny position using the constent-acceleration formula u? = vg? + 2ay(y — ye)» We have ug, = 0 and yp = 0, so the speed |v when y = ~1.0em = =1.0 10? mis Via = V2(-176 ¥ 105 mf2)(-1L0 107m) 59x 10° ms The velocity is downward, a0 its y-component is v, 10° m/s. The electron’s kinetic energy is 1 x 10-™ kg) (5.9 % 10° mfs)?* ly, 59% Lied Ka Fm? = 3 = 16 10-77 (© From the constantsacceleration formula v, ~ uy + 6, We ‘ind th the hme repel every bre 59 x 10° ms) — (Om/s) 176% 10% mje 34x 10% (We could also fave found the time by solving the equetion Y= Yo + Cyt + 4a," fors) EVALUATE: This exsmple shows that in problems about sub- ‘omic particles such as electrons, many quantties— including ‘acceleration, speed, kinetic energy, and time—will have very dif- ferent values from what we have sen for ordinary chects such as ‘beschalls nd automobiles. EVALUATE: This isthe equstion of « parbols, ju ike the tac tory of # projectile Isunched horizontally in the eurth’s gravita- tional field (discussed in Section 3.3). For a given initial velocity cftheeloouoa, the curate of the uajectory depends onthe Held tagnitade E. If we reverse the signs ofthe charges onthe two ‘lates in Fig. 2121, the dieation of # reverses, and the electron trxjeciry will eave up, not down, Hence we can “ster” the ees. tron by varying the charges on the plates. The electric field between charged conducting plates can be used in this way to con- trl the trajectory of electron beams in eniloscopes. ‘21.21 ‘The parabolic trajectory ofan electron in a uniformelectic‘Test Your Understanding of Section 21.4 («) A ncgative point charge fe) roves slong # straight-line path dircfly tard a staionary positive point charg. ‘Which aspects) ofthe electric force on the negative point charge wil rena constant xx itmoves? @) magnitude; Gi direction; (i) bota magninae and direction; iv) neither ‘magnitode nor direction. (6) A negative point charge moves elong e circular ori around ‘positive point charge, Which aspects) ofthe elecrcforoeon the nogaive point charge will remain constant as it moves? G) magnitude; (ip direction; Gi) both magnitude and rection; iv) nether magritade nor direeSon. > 21.5 Electric-Field Calculations Equation (21.7) givesthe electric field caused by asingle point charge. But in most realistic situations that involve electric fields and forces, we encounter charge that is distributed over space. The charged plasticand glass rods in Fig. 21.1 haveelec- tric charge distributed over their surfaces, as does the imaging drum of a laser printer (Fig. 21.2) In this section we'll earn to celealate electric fields caused by ‘various distributions of electric charge. Calculations ofthis kind are of tremendous importance for technological applications of electric forces, To determine the tra- jectoties of elections in a TV tube, of atomic nucle in an accelerator for cancer ‘adiotherapy, or of charged particles in a semiconductor electronic device, you ‘have to know the decailed nature ofthe electric field acting on the charges. The Superposition of Electric Fields ‘To find the field caused by a charge distribution, we imagine the distribution to ‘be made up of many point charges dy 3s dy -»- (This is actually quite a real- istic description, since we have scen that cherge is cartied by electrons and pro- tons that are so small as to be almost pointike,) At any given point P, each point charge produces its own electric field B,, By. 20. tet changed Placed uP experiences w force F, = qoBy from change gy u force Ps = dol from charge qe, and so on. From the principle of superposition of forces . SET UP: gue 2123 tows te cornu ym sad the ee fan ofthe te el pots an Electric-Field Calculations © 4 Most often you will use components to compute vector sums. Use the methods you leaned in Chapter Is review them if nes- cesory, Une proper veclor notaion: dixtingvish carefully ‘between salas, vectors, and components of vectors. Be certain ‘the components are consstemt with your ehoice of coordinate axes. 5. In working ou the directions of B vectors be earfil to distn- ‘punh betwcen the source poin nd the fel poine. The field produced by 2 point charge always poiats frm source point 10 ‘old point if the charge is positive; it poins in the opposite ‘iretion tho charge is nogative 6. In some situations you will have a continuous disrbution of ‘évarge slong a Tine, over a surface ox through 2 volume. Then you must define a small element of charge that ean be couid- ‘rod as a point, find its elo field et point P, and find « way ‘todd the filds of all Uo charge cloments. Usually tis easiest to do ths for esch component of B separately, and often you ‘will need tg evant one or mane Integral. ake certain the Timits cn your integrals are comect; especially when the situa- tionhas symmetry, make sure you don't count the charge tics. EVALUATE your axewer: Chock tha the diretion of is reason- sable. If your result forthe elec -fild magnitude E i a function of position (say, the coordinate x), check your result mary Fits {or wich you know what the magrtide should be. When poss- ‘ils, chek your antwerhy calculating itn x efferent wy 121.25 Hectic fed at three points, a,b, and ¢, st up by charges (9,204 q,, which form m electric dipcle,EXECUTE: ( Ar poi a the field caused by the positive charge 1, ad the feld H enuied by the negative change g, ae both ‘Gaveted toward the right The magnitdes of Band are Be tae lal = (9.0 10°'N- nc?) wee = 30x 10°N/C eae lal — (oo enemy ee = 68x 10'NIC “The comporentsof Bani Bae ,=30X10'NC Ey Bx 68% IONIC By Hace at point a the total cloctic feld B, ‘components (B).= Bact Bo (Ea)y = By + Bay = [At point a the total ficld has magnitude 9.8 X 10 N/C and is iocted ward hereto B, = (98x 10'Nic}t (0) Atpoint he fed B, dc tos tected toward the tf, while the fed, due tog, is dicted toward we ight. The mag sindes off and are 1 lad dag 72 7 COX ION mic) = 68x 108NIC + By has (3.0 + 68) x WIN B- 12. 10°C * (0.040 m)* 2x 10% ~ (9.0% 10° wHEY Tan ays = 055 x tote ‘The components of By, Bz, and the toial ficld By at point b ene y= -68X10'NC =O 055 x10'NIC Ey =0 Buc Ex= (—68 + 058) X 10*NIC (Ee), = By + Bay = 0 ‘That is, the electric field at b has magnitude 6.2 10*N/C and ie ected towed the le, 50 #,= (-62 x otic) (@)At point c both B, and E, bave the same magnitude, since ‘his point is equidistant from both charges and the charge magni- todos are the same: _ tld 12x 10°C Ba agg 27 OOXION MACY Oey aye = 639 x 10° NC 21S Hectic eld Calatons §— 729 The directions of and are shown in Fig 21.23. The x- components ofboth vectors rete eames, (639 x 10" wo?) = 208 x10 Nic From symmetry the ycomponents Ki, and Fs, are equal and poste and wo wl to er. Hence the componeis of ef field (Eda = Fax + Bs (E)y = By + By So at point ¢ the total electric eld has magnitude 4.9 x 10° N/C ‘and is directed toward the right. $0 Ra (ox ney Does it surprise you that the fila point eis pare to the Tse between the two charges? EVALUATE: An ateratve way o find the elec feld a cin to use the vector expression for the fed of pint etary, Eg. (21.7) ‘The displacement vector #, from q to point c, o distance r= 130 cmaway.is (2.46 x 10° NIC) = 4.9 x 10° NIC A, = reosai + rsinaj ‘Hence the unit vector that points from g, to cis cocad + sinaj and the field duc to 4 at pointc is Bel 2) are A are By symmetry the ul vector F at pos from to pate bas the opposite x component bute sme component, 6 he eld sedan ais (cosa +sinaj) By gh Bhim gag Hl -cotad + sina) are? theo fel at of B.-B, +B, gh Bloosat + inaj) + gh 2 (coxa + sinaj) Frey 7 deg 1a ~ prey il Porsat) 12x wef s = (90x 101 npc ICSF = (49 x NIC} asbeles,730 CHAPTER 21. Hectic Charge and Hectic Field FES Field of a ring of charge Aing-shaped condactor with radius artis a total charge Q uni- formly distributed around it (Fig. 21.24), Find the eleeic field ata point P that Hes on the axis of the ring at a distance x from its cet. IDENTIFY: Tee rl in he sein of nce fed To ar int al techy abun eo Shay ona eng oi tnt rte of pi che SET UP: ‘The field point is an arbitrary point on the x-axis in Fig. 21.24. Our target variables the cleric feld at such & point a ‘function of the coordinate x EXECUTE: As shown in Fig. 21.24, we imagine th ing divided int infinitesimal segments of eng de. Each scgmect has cha dQ and ccs asa pin-charge source of eerie eld Led be the elec field fom one such teen the net elect fed a is then the eum ofall contributions dt fom all the segmcrs that ‘make up the ring. (This same technique works for any situation in hich charge i Gstibued along a ine or acarve) “The caution of Z is grealy simplited because he Geld point Peon te syety an ofthe ing, Conder two egrets 2th ap and btiom of the rng: The conrbution dé tothe Bed 2 fom these segments have the se component bat opposite >yoomponents. Hence the toal -oomponentof fe du 1 this Jar of sepia i acu. When we atl up tbe eontsbutoss fm "eut pis of segmens, he ol field E il bave ony com ‘ponent along the ring’s symmcty axis (Che axis) wit no ‘component porpencicaar fo thet axis (lati, no component for zecmpores). So the fed at P is descibed completely by its seeumponent 121.24 Calculating the electric field on the axis of a ing of, ‘change In this figure, the charge is essumed to be positive. ‘To eaoulsteB,, note that the square of the distance r from a ‘ing segment tothe point Pis * = x? + <2 Hence the magnitude ‘ofthis segment’ contribution df tothe elect fed al Pi Using cosa = afr = af(x* + a2)", me x component dl, of mis field is 1 a x Mi ME CO8a sey att AP —1 _sd¢ Are (2 + a) “Yo ind the total x-component &, ofthe field at, we integrate this ‘expression overall scgments ofthe ring: 1 xdo © fanaa Since x does not vary as we move fom put to point wound the ing, ll he factors onthe right side except dO are constant and can be taken outside the integral. ‘The intgral of dQ is just th total charge Q. and we finally gt 1 BeBe yee aye EVALUATE: Our result for Z shows that at the center of the ring (& = 0) the fickd is zero, We should expect this; charges on opp0- Se niko of the rng weuld posh in epost dictions enw kot (Sarge te erty, and the fre wot a oe, When the ‘eld pint Pie mach facer from te rng thn i size Ut ‘>> a), the denominacr in E, 2.8) becomes approximately ‘yun to? andthe capesion bocca nprormately an Tn other words, when we are so far from the ring that its size a is eglgi in comparison tothe distance 3, is Geld i the same ws that of point charge, To an observer fa om the ring, he xing ‘would appear ikoa point, and the elocs Geld eects this In this example we use a syrimetry argument to conch that -Btad only an -component ata poet onthe sings axs of symme- tay. We'll use symmetry angorsents many times inthis and subse- ‘quent chapters. Keep in ming, however, tet such arguments can ‘be used only in special cases. At a point in the xy-planc that is mot con the canis in ig, 21.24, the symmetry argument docsnt ep, ‘and the fed asin general both 2-and y-eamponets,[EEEIEDID Field of a line of charge Positive electric chage @ is distributed uniformly along a Tne 8 Ith 25, Ig ong th yas ven 7 ea ‘a. (This might represent one of the charged rods in Fig 211) ind the ele eld pint 09h rans te tance x fromthe origin, IDENTIFY: Asin Example 21.10, our target variable is the electic field dueto a continuous distribution of charge. SET UP: Figure 21.25 sbows the situaion. We need to find the ‘leetic field at Pas afunetion of the coordinate x. The a-axis is the ‘pexpendicular bisector of the charges Tine, so as in Example 21.10 ‘We will be able to make use of a symmetry argument. EXECUTE: We divide the ine charge into infirtesimal segments, ‘each of which acts asa point charge; let the length of atypical seg- ‘ment at eight y be dy. Ifthe charge is distributed uniformly, the linear charge density A at any point on the line is qual to O/2a (he total charge divided by the fotal length). Hence the charge dQ. in segment of length dy is ay ao- aay OF ‘Toe distance from his segment Pit (32 + y2)4, 0 the mag- rite of field at P due to this segment ie 1 9 Panne +y) Menara is fn ttt an corpone a6,~ soa We note that sina = y/(x? + y#)'* and cosa: = af(x? + 9°)"%; coubining these with ibe expression for ed, we find aE dE, = dees OQ xh FO Gree Dalat +») 2 yay © ~ ames Bala? + PP ‘To ind the tor eld eaponensE, nd E,, we integrate these cx omg ta anol ens tne “ta. We ivite you to work out the details of the Integration; an integral tables helpful The nal resus are Lor 6-2 1 4ey 2a)_GP 4 AYP” Are VP +E yy 4 (+ se ar) EVALUATE: Uxing a symmetry argument as in Example 21.10, we could have guessed that £, would be zero, if we place # posiive wst charge at P, the Upper hal? of Uae Hine of cary ‘ashes downward on it, and the lower half pusbes up with equal, magnitude. DLS Hectic Field Calculations 731 21.25 Our sketch for this problem. ‘To explore our result let's it sce what happens in the Kit that xis much larger than a, Then we can neglect a in the denomi- ‘nator of Eq. (21.9), and our result becomes 19, re! any “This means tht if point # is very fr from the line charge in com parison tothe length of the Fine, the fld al isthe same as that of 5 po chagge. We found sitar seat forthe chaged sng in Example 21.10. ‘To further explore our exact result for B, Eq. (21.9), let's expres it in terms ofthe Tncar charge density A = Q/2a. Sub ‘2ah into Eq. 21.9) and simplilying, we get —- a, aV Aa) +1 Now we ean answer the question: Whats Bat distance x From a very long line of eharge? To find the answer we take the limit of ‘Eq, (21.10) a8 a becomes very Large. Ln this Limit, the term x7Ja” in te denominator becomes much smaller than Unity and can be thrown away. We areleft with en) ‘The field magnitude depend only on the distanes of point P from the line of charge. So at any point P ata perpendicular distance 7 from the line inany direction, B has magaitade Gallite Line of charge) ‘Thu the electric ld ue tom initey tng fine of charge is proportional to Ir rather than wo fr? as fo point charge. The Aimalon of sally outward rm te Hoe fis poe a radially invard if Ais negative, ‘There's really mo such thing in mature as an infinite line of charge. But when the ficld point is close enough to the Tine, there's ‘very ite diference besween the result foc an infite Hine x the ‘rea fe teense. Forexampl, ithe Astance rf the Geld ptm from th cote ofthe line ic 1% ofthe length of the ine, the vale Of differs from the infinitength vale by les than QZ.732 CHAPTER 21. Wectic Charge and Hectic Field FEEEIEEES Field of 2 uniformly charged disk Find the electric field cause by 2 disk of radius R with a uniform ‘Positive surface charge density (chexge per unit area) c, at» point ‘along the axis ofthe disk a distance x from is center. Assume that xis positive, On IDENTIFY: This example is eimiler to Examples 21.10 and 21.11 {in thot our target variable isthe electric field along a symmetry axis ofa continuous charge distribution, SET UP: Figure 21.26 shows the sitution, We can represent the charge distribution es collection of concentrcrings of charge dt, as shown in Fig. 21.26. From Example 21.10 we know the field of a single ring on its axis of symmetry, x0 ell we have to do is add ‘he contbutions of therings. EXECUTE: A typical ring has charge dO, inner radius r, and outer radius 7 + dr (Fig, 21.26). Is area dA is spproximaely equal its width dr times its circumference 2rr, or dA = 2ar dr. The charge per unt arca is o = dO[dd, so the charge of the ring is dQ = dd =o (2ardr),or dQ = 2nar dr ‘We use this in place of Q in the exprescion for the fclé due fo a ing found in Example 21.10, Bg (21.8), and also replace the ving radios with r. The field component dF, at point P duc to charge dais 1 dQ__1 (rordr)x deg daeg (22 + PVP 121.26 Our sketch for this problem. ‘To find the total field due to all the rings, we integrate dE, over 7 from r = Ot r = R (not from =R to R): a= fp Gee al rar Sydney (32 + PVP Deady (22 + AA) Remember that xis 2 constant during the integration and that the Integration vaslable i The ttegral can be evaluated by vse of the substiutionz = x? + 77. We'll let you work out the deta the resltis yarn] VERE aun V (Rie) +1 ‘The electric field due to the ring has no components perpendicular ‘tothe axis. Hence at point P in Fig. 21.26, dé, = di, = O for each ‘ng, ad the total cls has 2, = B, = O. EVALUATE Suppose we Keep increasing the radios K of the disk, ‘simultancously adding charge so that the surface charge density (charge por unit area) is constant, In the Timit that R is much larger than the distance x of the field point from the disk, the term (R[x) + 1 in Eq. (21-11) becomes negligibly small, and we get e=% (21k Deg (au) ‘Our fia! ses doesnot contain the distance x fom the plane ‘Hones the electric field produced by an infinite plane sheet of charge is independent of the distance from the sheet. The field ‘icon is everywhere prpendiclar to the sect, away from i. ‘There te auch thing as an Ufiite chet of charge, PtH the ) The electic field eunes polarization ofthe gras seeds, ‘which incur causes the seeds to ign with ‘the fel ‘eld tne NN Td fincs always pint (@) Twoequa and opposite charges (dipole) © Toon pesive charges her pimidegen te clowic Hallinan hr vio fle ints itr nay from (Hyebiee:s field voctoristangentto the field strong, farther apat where itis weaker. fad towand(~) cerges. ‘Tine passing through tht pot. line. The actual ficld vectors have been drawn at several points in each pattern. ‘Notice that in general, the magnitude of the electric field is different at different points on a given fcld lin; afield line is not a curve of constant electric-field maggitude! Figure 21.29 shows that ficld lines are directed away from positive charges (since close to a positive point charge, # points away from the charge) and toward negative charges (since closc to a negative point charge, E points toward the charge). In regions where the field magnitude is large, such as between the Positive and negative charges in Fig. 21.29, the field lines are drawn close ‘together. In regions where the field magnitude is small, such as between the two positive charges in Fg, 21.29¢, the lines are widely separated. Ina uniform feld, the field Fines are straight, parallel, and uniformly spaced, as in Fig. 21.20. Figure 21.30 is a view from above of a demonstration setup for visualizing clectic led lines, In the arrangement chown here, the tips of two positively charged wires are inserted in a container of insulating Tiquid, and some grass ‘seeds are floated on the liquid. The grass seeds are electrically neutral insulators, but the electric field of the two charged wires causes polarization of the grass ‘seeds; there is a slight shifting of the positive and negative changes within the molecules of each seed, like that shown in Fig. 21.8. The positively charged end of each grass seed is pulled in the direction of E and the negatively charged end is pulled opposite B. Hence the long axis of cach grasa acod tends to orient paral- el to the electric field, in the direction of the field line that passes through the position of the seed (Fig. 21.30b). (GRETION taectric ti ‘misconception that if charged particle of charge qis in motion where there is aa electric ficld, the particle must move along an electric field line, Because B at any pois tw the field line that pases through thet point, itis indeed true tat the force F = particle, and hence the particle's aceleraton, ae tangent tothe fild lie. But we learned in Chapter 9 that when a particle moves on a curved pat, its wceleration cannot be taa- grat tthe path. Soin general tha trajectory of a charged particle is nor the sare ns @ Geld five, F s are not the same as trajectories It's a common ‘Test Your Understanding of Section 21.6 Suppose the electric field Lines ina region of space are straight lines. If a charged partici is relasod from retin tet region, will the trajectory ofthe particle be along a ficld line? st21.7 Electric Dipoles ‘An electric dipole is pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign (a positive charge g and a negative charge ~q) separated by a distance d. We introduced electic dipoles in Example 21.9 (Section 21.5); the concept is worth ‘exploring further because many physical systems, from molecules to TV auten- nas, can be described as electric dipoles. We will also use this concept extem- sively in our discussion of diclectrics in Chapter 24, Figure 21.31 « shows a molecule of waiee (0), which ia many ways“) ‘behaves like an electric dipole. The water molecule as a whole is electrically * neutral, but the chemical bonds within the molecule canse a displacement of ‘charge: the result s a net negative charge on the oxygen end of the molecule and a net positive charge on the hydrogen end, forming an electric dipole. The effect is equivalent to shifting one electron only about 4 10- m (about the radius of a hydrogen atom), but the consequences of this shift are profound. Water is an ‘excellent solvent for ionic substances such aa table salt (Sodium chloride, NaCl) precisely because the water molecule is an electric dipole (Fig. 21.316). When dissolved in water, salt dissociates into a positive sodium ion (Na*) and a nega- tive chlorine ion (CI"), which tend to be attracted to the negative snd positive ends, respectively, of water molecules: this holds the ions in solution. If water molecules were not eleciic dipoles, water would be a poor solvent, and almost all of the chemistry that occurs in aqueous solutions would be impossible. This includes all of the biochemical reactions that occur in all of the life on earth, In a very real sense, your existence asa living being depends on electric dipoles! ‘We examine two questions about electric dipoles. First, what forees and torques docs an electric dipole experience when placed in an exter electric field (tht is, 2 field set up by charges outside the dipole)? Second, what electric field does an clectric dipole itself produce? Force and Torque on an Electric Dipole ‘To start withthe first question, let's place an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field R, ns shown in Fig, 21.32. The forces F, and Pon the two charges: bboth have magnitude gE, but their dircetions are opposite, and they add to zero. The net force on an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field is zero. However, the two forces don’t act along the same Tine, so their forques don’t ‘dd to zero. We calculate torques with respect to the center ofthe dipole. Let the ‘angle between the electric field # and the dipole axis be ¢ then the lever arm for both #, and Fis (d]2) sing. The torque of F, and the torque of F both have the sane magnitude of (yE)(u/2) sing), and both toryues tend 9 rotate the dipole clockwise (that is, # is directed into the page in Fig. 21.32), Hemce the ‘magnitude of the net torque is twice the magnitude of either individual torque: (gE) (asing) aus) “here d sin ¢ isthe perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the two forces. ‘The product ofthe charge q und the seperation is the magnitude of a quantity called the electrie dipole moment, denoted by p: P=ad (magnitude of electric dipole moment) au ‘The units of p are charge times distance (Cm). For example, the magnitude of the electric dipole moment of a water molecule is p = 6.13 X 10°C m. SERUTIOR) The symbol p has muitiple meanings Re carci not to confe dipole ‘oment with momertumor pressure. Tere are ws many leer ihe alphabets there are physical quantities, so some letters are used several times. The context usually makes itetear what we mean, bit be care» 21.7 UecrieDipoles 735 2131 @) Awater molecule isan example ‘of an clcetic dipole. (b) Each test tube ‘contains a solution of a different substance jn water The larg electric dipole moment ‘of water males it an oxcellont eolvent. G9) A water matecale, showing postive charge se rd and nopative cargo ae Bie eC: ‘The elecniceipole moment fis ied from the negative nd to ‘he postive ed of the molecule, &) Varows enbetances cisslved in wster 21.32 The net force on this electric dipole is zero, but there isa torque directed into ‘the page that tends to rotate the dipole clockwise.736 CHAPTER 21, Beatie Charge and Hectic Field ‘We further define the electric dipole moment to be a vector quantity . The ‘magnitude of B is piven by Eq. (21.14), aud its direction is along the dipole axis from the negative charge to the positive charge as shown in Fig. 21.32. In terms of p, Eq, (21-13) for the magnitude 7 of the torque exerted by the field becomes T= pE sings (magnitude ofthe torque on an electric dipole) (2115) Since angle qn Fig. 2.2 he angle betwen he dton of the vector B and E, this is reminiscent of the expression for the magnitude of the vector Product discussed in Section 1.10. (You may want to review that discussion) ‘Hence we can write te torque on the cipole in vector form as #=PxE (tonne onanelectric dipole, in vector form) (2115) ‘You can use the right-hand rule for the vector product to verify that in the situation shown in Fig. 21.32, 7 is directed into the page. The torque is greatest when and Face perpendicular and fs zero when they are patel ox anparalel, The tor always ends totum J to line itup with E. The position g = O, with p parallel toE, is a position of stable equilibrium, and the position ¢ = ar, with # and E antl. pralel. is a position of unstable equilibrium. The polarization of a grass sod in the apparatus of Fig. 21.30b gives it an electic dipole moment; the torque exerted by E then causes th seod to align with B and hence with the field lines. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ‘When a dipole changes direction in an electric field, the electric-ield torque does work on it, wth a corresponding change in potential energy. The work dW done by a torque 7 during an infinitesimal cisplacement d¢ is given by Eq. (10.19): dW = 7 djs. Because the torque isin the direetion of decreasing ¢, we must write the torque as 7 = —pE sing, and dW = 7 dd) = ~pE sing deb {Ina finite displacement from ¢, to 4 the total work done on the dipole is w PCpesine) ap = PE cost, — pE cos, “The work is the negative of the change of potential enerpy, just as in Chapter 7: W = U, ~ Us Soe sce that a suitable definition of potential energy U/ for this systemis U(G) = —pE cos aun) In this expression we recognize the scalar product B-B = pEcos#, so we can also waite ‘The potential enecay has its minimum value U = most negative ‘value at the stable equilibrium position, where ¢ = 0 and B is parallel to B. The poteotial energy is maximum when g ~ a and B is antiparallel to B; then U = +pE. At = 17/2, where B is perpendicular to E, U is zero. We could of course define U differently so that it is zero at some other orientation of B, but ‘ar definition i simplest.21.7 UecvieDipoles 737 Equation (21.18) gives ug another way to look at the effect shown in Fig. 21.30 "The clecitic held F gives each prass seed an electic dipsle mameat, and the grass seed then aligns itself with # to minimize the potential energy. [EEEEIESD Force and torque on an electric dipole Figure 21.338 shows an electric dipole in uniform elect fle with magninle 50 X 10° JC directed partie to the plane ofthe ‘igure. Tee eharges are +16 X 10° C; both le in the plane and ‘are separated by 0.125 am = 0.125 X 10"? (Both the charge ‘magnitude and the distance are typical of molecular quantifies) Fld (the net force exerted by the fekd on the dipole, (0) the ragnitade and direction of the electric dipole moment; (€) the ‘magnitode and direction of the torque; () the potential energy of ‘the system in the postion shown, nw IDENTIFY: This problem uss the ideas of hit section about an clocrccipole place in an cleric Bel. SET UP: Weuse the relationship F = of foreach point charge to find the force on the dipole as a whole. Equation (21.14) tells us 2133 (@ Aneteowte ampote. (6) Directions of te eleeuie pole ‘moment, electric field, and torque, the dipole moment, Fa, (21.16) tel ws te longs onthe dpe, fan F9,Q1.18) so the potent energy ofthe stm. EXECUTE: (a) Sine the field fs uniform, the foxes on the wo charges are equal and opposite, an the ttl frce is 270. (b) The magnitude p of the electric dipcle moment B is (1.6 x 10° C)(0.125 x 10° m) =20x10%C-m “Te reson of ts trom he negative to the poste charge, 143° clockwise from the elect fel ection (Fg, 21.330). (0 The mapitade of he torques = ping ~ (20 % 10° €)(50 > 10°NIC) (sin 145°) =57x10"N-m From Bi righthand rule fr vestog products (se Section 110) he Aluetion of the tse ® = B > Bn out of the page. Tis eose= sponds to counterclockwise togue tht tends to aign B with B. (@ The potential energy is Us =pleeoed = (20x 10° C-m) (50 X 10° NIC) cos145") = 82x 10%) EVALUATE: Tho pole moment, torque and potential emery ee all excoatingly sll. Don't be surprise by this esl: Remember tha: we are Tooking at single molecule, which ism very small object indeed In this discussion we have assumed that 2 is uniform, so there is ne net force ‘on the dipole. If Z is not uniform, the forees at the ends may not cancel com- pletely, and the net force may not be zere, Thus a body with zero net charge but an clectic dipole moment can experience a net force in a nonuniform electric field. ‘As we mentioned in Section 21.1, an uncharged body can be polarized by an elec tic field, giving rise to a separation of charge and an electic dipole moment, This is how uncharged bodies can experience electrostatic forces (see Fig. 21.8). Field of an Electric Dipole Now let’ think of an electric dipole as a source of electric ficd. What does the field took Tike? The general shape of things is shown by the field map of Fig. 21.29. At cach point in the pattem the total E field isthe vector sum of the fields from the two individual charges, as in Example 21.9 (Section 21.5). Try drawing diagrams showing this vector sum for several points. ‘To get quantitative information about the field ofan electric dipole, we have to do some calculating, as iliustrated in the next example. Notice the use ofthe prin- ciple of superposition of electric fields to add up the contributions tothe field of ‘the individual charges. Also notice that Wo need to use approximation techniques even for the relatively simple case of a field due to two charges. Field calcula- tions often become very complicated, and computer analysis is typically used to determine the field dve to an sebitrary charge distribution738 CHAPTER 21. Wectic Charge and Hectic Feld EERE Field of an electric dipole, revisited InFig. 21.34 anelectrc dipole is centered st the origin, with B inthe direction ofthe +y-2xis. Derive an approximate expression for the electric fest point oa the yris for which yis much Lager than 44 Use the binoma fof (I x)"—thal i, (1 x)= Tenetalas Depo —for the case |x] <1. (This problem illustrates a useful calcula- ‘ionalizchnique) IDENTIFY: We wee png af epenin: The wl tic field is the vector sum of the field produced by the positive eerie an sientetne cea SET UP: Aue et pot sown tg 2134 fil hn ‘Positive charge has © positive (upward) y-cormponent and the field Dosa ame eer: mes owen ree Caan ee ay ed ee Spout aaly ina pe 21.34 Finding the electric field of an electic dipole ata point on its exis. Test Your Understanding of Section 21.7 An lactic dipoles placed in region of uniform clectic eld B, with the elect dipole moment pointing in EXECUTE: The total y-componentE, of electric field from the two cages i 5 oer oom ‘tned — B G+ aby = ay a\* vel 3) ea) ‘We used this same approach in Example 21.9 (Section 21.5). Now comes the approximation, When ys mh ree than dts when we ae fe aay fom he dpe compre ose ‘quantity d)2y is much smaller than 1. With n = —2 and df2y play- ‘ing the role of x in the binomial expunsion, we keep only the first ‘motes The toms we eicaré are moch walle than hte we espana we ave EVALUATE: An altemative roate to this expression is to put the fractions in the E, expression over a common dexorsinator and ‘combine. then approximate the denominator (y ~ df2)"(y +

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