2.01: 2.03: 2.04: 2.06: 2 Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters Estimating HHV (higher heating value) and LHV (lower heating value) of fuels from ultimate analysis; relating heat inputs based on HHV and LHV; relating boiler efficiencies based on HHV and LHV Estimating HHV and LHV of fuel oils if degree API is known, Calculating cost of fuels on MM Buu (million Btu) basis; comparing electricity costs with that of fuels Estimating annual fuel cost for power plants; relating heat rates with efficiency of power plants Determining gas regulator settings for different fuels Correcting fuel flow meter readings for operating fuel gas pressures and temperatures54 2.07: 2.10: 2.12: 2.13: 2.14: 2.162: 2.166: 2.17: Ganapathy Determining energy, steam quantity, and electric heater ca- pacity required for heating air Determining energy, steam quantity, and electric heater ca- pacity required for heating fuel oils Combustion calculations from ultimate analysis of fuels; de- termining wet and dry air and flue gas quantities; volumetric analysis of flue gas on wet and dry basis; partial pressures of water vapor and carbon dioxide in flue gas; molecular weight and density of flue gas Combustion calculations on MM Btu basis; determining air and flue gas quantities in the absence of fuel data Estimating excess air from flue gas CO, readings Estimating excess air from CO, and O, readings; estimating excess air from O, readings alone Effect of reducing oxygen in flue gas; calculating flue gas produced; calculating energy saved and reduction in fuel cost, Effect of fuel heating values on air and flue gas produced in boilers Determining combustion temperature of different fuels in the absence of fuel analysis Calculating ash concentration in flue gases Relating ash concentration between mass and volumetric units Determining melting point of ash knowing ash analysis Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 88 2.18: 2.19: 2.20: 2.21: 2.22: 2.23: 2.24: 2.258: 2.25b: 2.25¢: 2.26a: 2.26: 2.27: 2.28 Determining SO, and SO; in flue gases in Ib/MM Buu and in ppm (volume) Determining efficiency of boilers and heaters; efficiency on HIV basis; dry gas loss; loss due to moisture and combustion of hydrogen; loss due to moisture in air; radiation loss; effi- ciency on LHV basis; wet flue gas loss; relating efficiencies on HEV and LHV basis Determining efficiency of boilers and heaters on HEV and LHV basis from flue gas analysis Loss due to CO formation Simple formula for efficiency determination Determining radiation losses in boilers and heaters if casing temperature and wind velocity are known Variation of heat losses and efficiency with boiler load Sulfur dew point of flue gases ‘Computing acid dew points for various acid vapors Effect of gas temperature on corrosion potential Converting NO, and CO from lb/hr to ppm for turbine exhaust gases Converting NO, and CO from Ib/he to ppm for fired boilers ‘Oxygen consumption versus fuel input for gas turbine exhaust gases Relating heat rates of engines to fuel consumption36 Ganapathy 2.01 Q: How are the HHV (higher heating value) and LHV (lower heating value) of fuels estimated when the ultimate analysis is known? A: We can use the expressions [1] HHV = 14,500 x C + 62,000 x ( = + 4000 x § @ LHV = HHV - 9720 x H, — 1l0W @ where W is the fraction by weight of moisture in fuel, and C, H,, ©, and S are fractions by weight of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur in the fuel If a coal has C = 0.80, H, = 0.003, O, = 0.005, W = 0.073, § = 0.006, and the rest ash, find its HV and LHV. Substituting in Eqs. (1) and (2), we have HEY = 14,500 x 0.80 + 62,000 x (0.003 - ae) + 4000 x 0.006 = 11,771 Bru/lb LHV = 11,771 — 9720 x 0.003 - 1110 x 0.073 = 11,668 Brw/ib Fuel inputs to furnaces and boilers and efficiencies are often specified without reference to the heating values, whether HHV or LHV, which is misleading, If a bumer has a capacity of @ MM Btu/hr (million Btw/hr) on an HHV basis, its capacity on an LHV basis would be AS LEV uw = Om * FER Ga) Similarly, if nyasy and uay are the efficiencies of a boiler on an HHV and an LHV basis, respectively, they are related as fol- lows: aww % HEV = muy LHV @b) Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters = s7 2.02a Q_ How can we estimate the HHV and LHV of a fuel oil in the absence of its ultimate analysis? Az Generally, the degree API of a fuel oil will be known, and the following expressions can be used: HHV = 17,887 + 57.5 x ‘API - 102.2 x %S (4a) LHV = HHV - 91.23 x WH, (4b) where GH, is the % hydrogen, by weight 2122.5 H, = F- 2125 : API + 315 9 where 24.50 for 0 = ‘API = 9 25.00 for 9 < °API = 20 25.20 for 20 < ‘API < 30 25.45 for 30 < "API = 40 HHV and LHV are in Bub, 2.02b Determine the HHV and LHV of 30° API fuel oil in Buu/gal and in Buwb. Assume that %S is 0. A: From Eq. (4a), HHV = 17,887 + 57.5 x 30 ~ 102.2 x 0.5 = 19,651 Bewlb To calculate the density or specific gravity of fuel oils we can use the expression 14.5 = __MLs S" Bis+ an ~ Dis+37 ~ 98% © Hence Density = 0.876 x 8.335 = 7.3 Ibvgal22 ya way poxdepy aoanog ox’) 9080 Ww 8699180 te 189 StH oy oN 369 sO He roe S809 mL S80 yy fice so eM wore uF 0's fort oO yy sau's sart oro et a's set ois uz'6 ee us 00 ses se Peso te SN aso on cere 960 286 oo be 088'6 50 a 19956 x60 - ooo nor 9 , z ° uv. ota, SIO SONA Jo SusIED WOH HMR, Vz O]GVL 2 | a 3 ee g Be ¢ 8 2B & 88 5 3 388 2 3 2 33 18 a ge 8 a & £ 35 og g ee 4 =e 8 g as s2 822 $38 2 RG b Se 3 See $8. 8 gg = 2 n 28 A "a 2s E 8 a = o78 2 28 eee = € s as gf re ang gee 2 3 aos 6S 2 Se fw & me 3 g eee $ 2 a3 28 oat gee S 2 Se oS B Bu ee sea, ais 8, 2 8 3 Hl ~ 28 a Bae aioe eee a 8 g 25 3 iz B32 28 4 a B83 g 25 Bg a e382 42 a eg? 3 i ax $2.9 82 2 $2 oe § ge x § ES 32g & ae S22 72 C18 SS a5 7 Be 7 1 wu gee os x 2. 25 28 28 18 220 gp gas SF a i ae eeee Slee|= ges € 5 Sse be = 20 38 22 33 se gcse 2 asd a2 ges x8 8 ad < ag < ag «Ganapathy ity is costlier than gas. This example serves to illustrate the conversion of units and does not imply that this situation will prevail in all regions. 2.04 Estimate the annual fuel cost for a 300-MW coal-fired power plant if the overall efficiency is 40% and the fuel cost is $1.1/ MM Btu. The plant operates for 6000 hr/year. Power plants have efficiencies in the range 35 to 42%. Another way of expressing this is to use the term heat rate, defined as 3413 Heat te = Sa ia Raion BwkWh In this case it is 3413/0.4 = 8530 BrwkWh. Annval fuel cost = 1000 x megawatt x heat rate X (hr! year) X cost of fuel in S/MM Btu = 1000 x 300 x 8530 x 6000 LL : Tor = 816.9 x 10 ‘The fuel cost for any other type of power plant could be found in a similar fashion. Heat rates are provided by power plant sup- pliers. x 2.05 Q@ A. 20-MM Buwhr burner was firing natural gas of HHV = 1050 Biu/scf with a specific gravity of 0.6. If it is now required to bum propane having HHV = 2300 Buu/scf with a specific gravity of 1.5, and if the gas pressure to the bumer was set at 4 psig earlier for the same duty, estimate the new gas pressure. Assume that the gas temperature in both cases is 60°F. ‘The heat input to the burner is specified on an HHV basis. The fuel flow rate would be Q/HEV, where Q is the duty in Btwhr. ‘The gas pressure differential between the gas pressure regulator Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heater 6 and the furnace is used t0 overcome the flow resistance accord- ing to the equation AP = o where AP = pressure differential, psi : K = a constant p = gas density = 0.075s (s is the gas specific gravity; s = 1 for ain) Wy = fuel flow rate in Ibfhr = flow in scfh x 0.0755 Let the subscripts 1 and 2 denote natural gas and propane, respectively, _ 20 x 108 Wy = Ap * 0.075 x 0.6 We = DAN x 0075 x 15 2300 AP, = 4, p, = 0.075 x 0.6, and p, = 0.075 X 1.5. Hence, from Eq. (7), AR, Whe _ _4 0.6, (23007 aR Wap (0507 a or AP) = 2.08 psig Hence, if the gas pressure is set at about 2 psig, we can obtain the same duty. The calculation assumes that the back pressure has not changed. 2.06 Q__ Gas flow measurement using displacement meters indicates actu- al cubic feet of gas consumed. However, gas is billed, generally, at reference conditions of 60°F and 14.65 psia (4 07). Hence gas flow has to be corrected for actual pressure and temperature, Plant engineers should be aware of this conversion.ez Ganapathy In a gas-fired boiler plant, 1000 cu ft of gas per hour was measured, gas conditions being 60 psig and 80°F. If the gas has a higher calorific value of 1050 Btu/scf, what is the cost of fuel consumed if energy costs $4/MM Btu? ‘The fuel consumption at standard conditions is found as follows. Wa MR X Se (8) = fuel consumption, standard and actual, cu fvhr reference temperature of $20°R actual temperature, °R standard and actual pressures, psia 'y, = 100 x (0 + 14.22) x ea < " 2900 scfh Hence Energy used Cost of fuet 2900 x 1050 = 3.05 MM Bu/hr 3.05 x 4 = $12.2hr If pressure and temperature corrections are not used, the displacement meter reading can lead to wrong fuel consumption data. 2.07 Estimate the energy in Btu/hr and in kilowatts for heating 75,000 Ibhr of air from 90°F to 225°F, What is the steam quantity required if 200 psia saturated steam is used to accomplish the duty noted above? What size of electric heater would be used? ‘The energy required to heat the air can be expressed as Q= WC, ar o where duty, Brw/hr air flow, Ib/he 20 Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 63 G ar C, may be taken’as 0.25 for the specified temperature range. Q = 75,000 x 0.25 x (225 — 90) = 2.53 x 10° Buwhr Using the conversion factor 3413 Bia = 1 kWh, we have 10° . Q=253 x op = 741 kW ‘A 750-KW heater or the next higher size could be chosen. If steam is used, the quantity can be estimated by dividing Q in Buw/hr by the latent heat obtained from the steam tables (see the Appendix). At 200 psia, the latent heat is 843 Bru/ib. Hence = Joe Steam required = 2.55 x py = 3046 lb/hr specific heat of air, Bru/lb °F temperature rise, °F 2.08 Q: Estimate the steam required at 25 psig to heat 20 gpm of 15° API fuel oil from 40°F to 180°F. If an electric heater is used, what should be its capacity? Table 2.2 gives the heat content of fuel oils in Btu/gal [2]. At 180°F, enthalpy is 529 Btu/gal, and at 40°F it is 26 Baw/gal Hence the energy absorbed by the fuel oil is Q = 2 x 60 x(529 — 26) = 0.6 x 10° Btuhr 10° 3413 Latent heat of steam (from the steam tables) is 934 Btu/lb at 25 psig or 40 psia. Hence 0.6 x = 175 kW Steam required = 0.6 x eg = 646 Ibe If an electric heater is used, its capacity will be a minimum of 175 kW. Allowing for radiation losses, we may choose 2 200- KW heater.Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters os Ganapathy In the absence of information on fuel oil enthalpy, use a specific gravity of 0.9 and a specific heat of 0.5 Btu/lb °F. Hence Table 2.2 Heat Content (Biu/gal) of Various Oils* the duty will be Gravity, °API at 60°F (15.6°C) 3 3 34s 0. a 9659 0.9340 0.9042 0.8762 0.8498 0.8251 0.8017 teen oo = 0.63 x 10° Behr 3 2 0 0 0 0 ° ° = 5 5 6 0 ry 0 ° 0 (7.48 is the conversion factor from cubic feet to gallons.) om 9% 9 2 9 8 87 86 85 965 2.094 joo 237,233 a6 asa 1065, 1062 Q: Natural gas having CH, = 83.4%, CH, = 15.8%, and Ny 120 310 305 300, 295 290 286, 281 0.8% by volume is fired in a boiler. Assuming 15% excess T6112 air, 70°F ambient, and 80% relative humidity, perform detailed 140 384, 378 371 366 360 355 Ans 116 combustion calculations and determine flue gas analysis. 160 460 1 453445438 Treen A: From Chapter 1 we know that air at 70°F and 80% RH has a a 38 529 520 sn 503 496 488. ‘Moisture content of 0.012 Ib/ib dry air. Table 2.3 can be used to foo 7s um figure air requirements of various fuels. For example, we see that 200 (GI:7geeee GUT pareuy S95 eeeet SG 7e emis 77 emren 560 een S60) CH, requires 9.53 mol of air per mole of CH,, and C,H, requires 1378 1352 1335 327 16.68 mol. 220 697 686, 674 663, 652 643, ee ma Let us base our calculations on 100 mol of fuel. The theoreti- 1434 M2 240, 779 166, ‘753, 741 729 718 707 cal dey air required will be 1498 1474 ‘1452 Maz 83.4 X 9.53 + 16.68 X 15.8 = 1058.3 mol a Considering 15% excess, 300 1034 «1017. «99986 GR 85939 Actual dry air = 1.15 x 1058.3 = 1217 mol 1699 1668 1639 1626 Excess air = 0.15 x 1058.3 158.7 mol 400 148914634396 1393713521333 Excess 0 = 158.7 x 0.12 = 333 mol 2088 206420412018 199719771958 500 198119471914 «188418541826 1799774 2497-24643 2408S 237623482324 600 251128672426 «2387-2350 «23142281 248 2942 2901 622825 27BD NSE 2713 700 307830252975 «2927«288L_-«2837 «27962756 3678 342533743327 «3813237319656 800 368336193559 35023447 «3305-3345, 3297 dog 394438843827 «37723720 36703622 Excess N; = 1217 x 0.79 = 961 mol (Air contains 21% by volume O, and the rest is Np.) 0.012 is (We multiplied moles of air by 29 to get its weight, and then the water quantity was divided by 18 to get moles of water.) Table 2.3 can also be used to get the moles of CO,, HC, and 0; 3). Moisture in air = 1217 x 29 x = 23.5 mol “Values in regular type are for liquid; bold values are for vapor.Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 67 66 Ganapathy Table 2.3 Combustion Constants re =a i Ta oa et aah a HO & Bo ama Ge Ge a Partin sees Ces | 26 uxs| oo | Meee Few asa ones ose eps at a0 tim m3] cox tene SH ow Som ita tome |e se ia toe How] ous poe Gh Noe elise’ SG SS [Sho ee isu ‘So tom| ome onwne —ehly Seine Gases Gan towsse [3B ee (Sm His] oo ntemane Gite ies aie Sa ere fae ae ssn 149s 1105] orn (ECS Gi it Gime | SE Sar |S ine oan tise time] or ‘exeme [ene aus ioe Sas ane [odo oe ra tm] 8 | ‘seat (Gm Gis eine Se ime [oe nas On i | sss] om | ‘cnr ca mos oor m2, oss ie soa 3s) om | 1 hep Sk Eon olte am or itor an tia | em Meters bake Gon Set otamr Soe tae Bio toe ie) on ‘otanace jee Siu Shaw Shae tase |e tno Woe He es Soetemne [hte Sttsn erisy Slee ter [Same So one aw Wrest ge eles ey en fe Bin aim 70 2 Sou/31@ Wea a Siu aoe tan] oa | eaeoes ees ie caoa tts) ieee sank best naaticiat \ Soo h8 $8 dSu|3uah tosw nee a3 een 10590) Oat Sion Cite eran eater Ser Seow [mw spe tna Sena cm maw comm insu coum [up ee stm arm wae airy Sim oe 49 ssim|amm nam nie 34h Oaeh Saat Mim. (SRR a a 13 ASS Tue 3g 2 anime me Ga an Ae) ce Deiat” — [enon cer ome ‘bane tear [egos 10s saat om ams asa — 1s am |i san gon" se sit] om |mamos (GN Sr cae ata aor [St St aa‘ - ~ boom aan cans Se aan] oon poe 2 — f= aa ae Se eee a ‘aa tom wonie mei nf Joule he arin Chee Se. any 189. ‘Deanne frm gs thang vale ocd Saunng TRIO Bis pe pad no we pot ‘ons. Gtr, Seon sn Gigs, Mecancal Enieeng 13 Mach 193-1 Osbor, Sn, ak ‘Dents tei he deny rb ete of exes sen sed, Sa he man a est pe (°F and 05g re, wich ce eas ae ios rear ts eon tens Unt sc oan 9 win Ae sh em ul Pe iw eh pe SnurceReprmed oe Fal Far Cat, 18 eon come of Amin Gas Assan ‘ost pr"e.Canyre wth 0 GMs? vhost rs poet at. When es wee alu ‘cn of Sanat, ee of Ap 0.157. cee asGanapathy 1x 83.442 x 158 mol 2 x 83.4 +3 xX 15.8 + 23.5 = 237.7 mol 33.3 mol N, = 961 + 0.8 = 961.8 mol The total moles of flue gas produced is 115 + 237.7 + 33.3 + 961.8 = 347.8. Hence us 13478 %CO, = x 100 = 8.5 Similarly, HO = 17.7, 80, = 25, %N, = 713 ‘The analysis above is on a wet basis. On a dry flue gas basis, 100 REO, = 8.5 X Gy aT = 10.3% Similarly, WO, = 3.0%, — WN, = 86.7% To obtain Win, War Mig» ANG Wye, WE need the density of the fuel or the molecular weight, which is 1 ate x 634 X 16 + 158 X30 +08 x 28) = I Top % G34 x 16 + 158 x 30 + 0.8 x 26) = 18.30 on x 2 = 19.29 0 dey ait fuel 100 x 183 ° 235 x18 19.29 + So 19.59 th wet aint fuel 18.3 % 100 MS x 44 + 933. 924 961K a at dn 7 LA US Xx 46 + 33.3 x 32 + 257.7 x 18 + 961.8 x 28 1830) = 20.40 Ih wet gas fuel This procedure can be used when the fuel analysis is given. More often, plant engineers will be required to perform estimates of air for combustion without a fuel analysis. In such situations, the MM Btu basis of combustion and calculations will come in handy. This is discussed in Q2.10. =D 2D DS 2 Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers ang Heaters oe 2.09b Q: For the case stated in Q2.09a, estimate the partial pressure o! water vapor, p,, and of carbon dioxide, p., in the flue gas. Alsc estimate the density of flue gas at 300°F. A: The partial pressures of water Vapor and carbon dioxide are important in the determination of nonluminous heat transfet coefficients. volume of water vapor total flue gas volume volume of carbon dioxide total flue gas volume = 0.177 atm = 2.6 psia Pw = = 0.085 atm = 1.27 psie Pe To estimate the gas density, its molecular weight must be ob- tained (see Q1.05) MW = & (MW, x y)) 28 X 71.3 + 18 X 17.7 + 32X25 +44 X85 100 = 20.7 Hence, from Eq. (6), 14.7 359 x 760 x 14.7 ‘The gas pressure was assumed to be 14.7 psia. In the absence 0 flue gas analysis, we can obtain the density as discussed ir 21.7 x 492 x 0.05 Ibicu f 1.03. 40 Pe = Fg” = 9.052 Ibvew ft 2.10a Q Discuss the basis for the million Btu method of combustior calculations. A: Each fuel such as natural gas, coal, or oif requires a ceriait amount of stoichiometric air per MM Btu fired (on an HH basis). This quantity does not vary much with the fuel analysi:70 Ganapathy and hence has become a valuable method of evaluating combus- tion air and flue gas quantities produced when fuel gas analysis is not available. For solid fuels such as coal and oil, the dry stoichiometric air wy in Ib/lb fuel can be obtained from ace 8 where C, Hs, Oz, and S are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur in the fuel in fraction by weight. For gaseous fuels, w, is given by Wan = 2.47 X CO + 34.34 x H + 17.27 x CH, + 13.3 X GH, + 14.81 x CH, + 16.12 x GH, — 4.32 x 0; EXAMPLE | Let us compute the amount of air required per MM Btu fired for fuel oil. C = 0.875, H = 0.125, and °API = 28. Solution. From (42), HHV = 17,887 + 57.5 x 28 — 102.2 x 0 = 19,497 Bruilb Wa = 11.53 x C + 34.34 x (i - ) +4.29xs ‘Amount of air in Tb/Ib fuel from the above equation is Way = 11.53 X 0.875 + 34.34 X 0.125 = 14.38 Ibid fuel 1 MM Btu of fuel fired requires (1 x 109/19,497 = 51.28 Ib of fuel. Hence, from the above, 51.28 Ib of fuel requires 51.28 x 14.38 = 737 Ib of dry air ‘Table 2.4 shows a range of 735 to 750. To this must be added excess air; the effect of moisture in the air should also be considered. EXAMPLE 2 Let us take the case of natural gas with the following analysis: methane = 83.4%, ethane = 15.8%, and nitrogen = 0.8%. Solution. Converting this to percent weight basis, we have Fuels, Combustion, ana Emiciency or ssouters ana Heaters 7 Table 2.4 Combustion Constant A For Fuels No. Fuel A 1 Blast furnace gas 515 2 Bagasse 650 3 ‘Carbon monoxide gas 670 4 Refinery and oil gas 70 3 Natural gas 730 : 6 Furnace oil and lignite 745-750 7 Bituminous coals 760 8 ‘Anthracite 780 9 Coke 800 Fuel % Vol Col2 x col3 EW cH 83.4 16 1334.4 72.88 GH 15.8 30 474 25.86 Ny 08 28 224 1% Let us compute the air required in Ibv/b fuel. From Table 2.3, Air required = 17.265 x 0.7289 + 16.119 x 0.2589 = 16.75 Tb/lb fuel 7289 x 23,876 + 0.2589 x 22,320 = 23,181 Brwlb where 23,876 and 22,320 are HH of methane and ethane fron Table 2.3. The amount of fuel equivalent to 1 MM Bm would & (1 x 10%/23,181 = 43.1 Ib, which requires 43.1 x 16.75 = 722.1 of air, or 1 MM Buu fired would need 722 Ib of dry air this is close to the value indicated in Table 2.4. Let us take the case of 100% methane and see how much air i needs for combustion. From Table 2.3, air required per Ib 0: methane is 17.265 Ib, and its heating value is 23,879 Btw/lb. Ir HEV of fuel =Ganapathy this case 1 MM Btu is equivalent to (1 x 10°)/23,879 = 41.88 Ib of fuel, which requires 41.88 x 17.265 = 723 Ib of dry air. ‘Taking the case of propane, 1 Ib requires 15.703 tb of air. 1 MM Buu equals 1 x 10°/21,661 = 46.17 Ib of fuel. This would require 46.17 x 15.703 = 725 Ib of air ‘Thus for all fossil fuels we can come up with a good estimate of theoretical dry air per MM Buu fired on an HV basis, and gas analysis does not affect this value significantly. The amount of air per MM Btu is termed A and is shown in Table 2.4 for various fuels. 2.10b Q A A fired heater is firing natural gas at an input of 75 MM Btu/hr on an HHV basis. Determine the dry combustion air required at 10% excess air and the amount of flue gas produced if the HHV of fuel is 20,000 Bruwtb. From Table 2.4, A is 730 Ib/MM Btu. Hence the total air required is W, = 75 x 1.1 x 730 = 60,200 Ib/hr The flue gas produced is 108 20,000 ‘These values can be converted to volume at any temperature using the procedure described in Chapter 1 ‘The MM Btu method is quite accurate for engineering pur- poses such as fan selection and sizing of ducts and air and gas systems. Its advantage is that fuel analysis need not be known, which is generally the case in power and process plants. The efficiency of heaters and boilers can also be estimated using the MM Bu method of combustion calculations. W, = Wa + W, = 60,200 + = 60,250 Ib/hr 2.10c @ A coal-fired boiler is firing coal of HHV = 9500 Btu/lb at 25% excess air. If ambient conditions are 80°F, relative humidity 80%, and flue gas temperature 300°F, estimate the combustion Fuels, Combustion, and Efticiency of Bowers ana Heaters 7s air in Ib/lb fuel, the volume of combustion air in cu fulb fuel, the flue gas produced in Ib/Ib fuel, and the flue ges volume in cu fulb fuel Since the fuel analysis is not known, let us use the MM Btu method. From Table 2.4, A = 760 for coal. 1 MM Btu requires, 760 X 2.15 = 950 Ib of dry air. At 80% humidity and 80°F, air contains 0.018 Ib of moisture per pound of air (Chapter 1). Hence the wet air required per MM Btu fired is 950 x 1.018 Ib. Also, | MM Buu fired equals 10/9500 = 105 Ib of coal. Heace 950 Wag = ary air, Iblb fuel = S72 = 9.05 1018 wet air, bib fuel = 950 x IE. = 9.21 , 492 Pe = density of air at 80°F = 29 x aS = 0.0736 Ibieu ft (see Ch. 1, Q. 1.03) Hence Volume of air = 221 = 125 on fulb fuel 0.0736 Pi, = density of flue gas = & = 0.0526 Ibicu ft = dry flue gas in totb fact = 222-= HE ~ 10.05 10.05 _ Volume of flue gus, cu fulb fuel = oor = 191 Is there a way to figure the excess air from flue gas CO, readings? ‘Yes. A good estimate of excess air E in percent can be obtained from the equation E = 100 x [(Ky%CO,) - 1) (10a)74 Ganapathy Table 2.5 _K, Factors for Fuels Fuel type K, Bituminous coals 18.6 Coke 20.5 Oil 15.5 Refinery gas and gas oil Ba Natural gas 125 Blast Source: Ref. 1 212 furnace gas 25.5 %CO; is the percent of the carbon dioxide in dry flue gas by volume, and K; is a constant depending on the type of fuel, as seen in Table 2.5. For example, if %CO, = 15 in flue gas ina coal-fired boiler, then for bituminous coal (K, = 18.6), 18.6 E = 100 x (4 ~1) = 24% Discuss the significance of %CO, and %O2 in flue gases. Excess air levels in flue gas can be estimated if the %CO, and %O, in dry flue gas by volume is known. The higher the excess air, the higher the flue gas quantity and the greater the losses. Plant engineers should control excess air levels to help control plant operating costs. The cost of operation with high excess air is discussed in Q2.13. A formula that is widely used to figure the excess air is [1] cor , — COR where O;, CO, and N, are the oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen in dry flue gas, vol %, and E is the excess air, %. Another formula that is quite accurate is {1} E = 100 x (10b) Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 7S Table 2.6 Constant Kz Used in Eq. (102) Fuel Ky Carbon 100 Hydrogen 80 Carbon monoxide 121 Sulfur 100 Methane 90 - oi 94.5 Coal ” Blast furnace gas 23, Coke oven gas 99.3 Source: Ref. 1 21 (10e) where K, is a constant that depends on the type of fuel (see Table 2.6). 213 Q ina natural gas boiler of capacity 50 MM Buu/hr (HHV basis), the oxygen level in the flue gas is reduced from 3.0% to 2.0%. What is the annual savings in operating costs if fuel costs $4! MM Btu? The HHV of the fuel is 19,000 Btu/b. The exit gas temperature is 500°F, and the ambient temperature is 80°F. Az The original excess air is 90 x 3/(21 — 3) = 15% (see Q2.12) ‘The excess air is now 2.0 B= 9x => = 947% With 15% excess, the approximate air required (see Q2.10a) is 50 x 746 x 1.15 = 42,895 Ib/hr. 10° 19,000 Flue gas = 42,895 + 50 x = 45,256 Ib/hr76 214 A Ganapathy With 9.47% excess air, Air required = 50 x 746 x 1.0947 = 40,832 lb/hr 108 19,000 Flue gas produced = 40,832 + 50 x = 43,463 lb/hr (45,526 — 43,463) x 0.25 X (500 — 80) = 0.22 MM Btwhr This is equivatent to an annual savings of 0.22 x 4 x 300 x 24 = $6336. (We assumed 300 days of operation a year.) could be a significant savings considering the life of the plant. Hence plant engineers should operate the plant realizing the implications of high excess air and high exit gas temperature. Oxygen levels can be continuously monitored and recorded and hooked up to combustion air systems in order to operate the plant more efficiently. (It may be noted that exit gas temperature will also be reduced if excess air is reduced. The calculation above indicates the minimum savings that can be realized.) Reduction in heat loss Fuels are often interchanged in boiler plants because of relative availability and economics. It is desirable, then, to analyze the effect on the performance on the system. Discuss the implica- tions of buming coal of 9800 Btwilb in a boiler originally in- tended for 11,400-Btw/lb coal. Let us assume that the duty does not change and that the effi- ciency of the unit is not altered. However, the fuel quantity will change. Combustion air required, being a function of MM Btu fired, will not change, but the flue gas produced will increase. Let us prepare a table. We can use the same fans, as the variation in flue gas pro- duced is not significant to warrant higher gas pressure drops. We must look into other aspects, such as the necessity of higher Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 7 | estimation, we may decrease the adiabatic combustion tempera i Coal 1 Coal 2 Fuel HHV, Buu/lb 11,400 9800 Fuel fired per MM 87 102 Btu (JO%HV) Air required per MM 760 x 1.25 = 950 Buu (25% excess 760 x 1.25 = 950 air) Flue gas, 1b 1037 1052 Ratio of flue gas 1 1.015 combustion air temperature (due to higher moisture in the fuel), ash concentration, and fouling characteristics of the new fuel. If a different type of fuel is going to be used, say oil, this will be a ‘major change, and the fuel-handling system burners and furmace design will have to be reviewed. The gas temperature profiles will change owing to radiation characteristics, and absorption of surfaces such as superheaters and economizers will be affected. A discussion with the boiler design engineers will help. ‘What is meant by combustion temperature of fuels? How is it estimated? ‘The adiabatic combustion temperature is the maximum tempera- ‘ure that can be attained by the products of combustion of fuel ‘and air. However, because of dissociation and radiation losses, this maximum is never attained. Estimation of temperature after dissociation involves solving several equations. For purposes of | { ture by 3 to 5% to obtain the actual combustion temperature. From energy balance it can be shown that ' _ LAV + Aa x HEV x Cy x (i ~ 80/)0% “ “(= % ash/100 + Aa x HHV/109 x C,, ay78 Ganapathy where LHV, HHV = lower and higher calorific value of fuel, Buwllb A = theoretical air required per million Btu fired, tb a = excess air factor = 1 + £/100 fay fe = temperature of air and combustion tempera- ture, °F yas Cop = specific heats of air and products of com- bustion, Btullb °F For example, for fuel oil with combustion air at 300°F, LHV = 17,000 Btw/lb, HHV = 18,000 Btu/lb, a = 1.15, and = 745 (see Table 2.4). We have 17,000 + 745 x 1.15 x 18,000 x 0.25 x (300 ~ s0y/10® (1+ 745 x 15 x 18,000/105 x 0.32 = 3400°F Coa and Cy, were taken as 0.25 and 0.32, respectively. 2.16a Q AL How is the ash concentration in flue gases estimated? Particulate emission data are needed to size dust collectors for coal-fired boilers. In coal-fired boilers, about 75% of the ash is carried away by the flue gases and 25% drops into the ash pit. The following expression may be derived using the MM Buu method of combustion calculation (5} 240,000 x (% ash/100) Co" FER IO HRV & (100 + E) +1 = CeaaTOO) (12a) where Cy = ash concentration, grains/cu ft excess air, % gas temperature, *R heating value, Brw/lb Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 79 EXAMPLE, If coals of HHV = 11,000 Btw/lb having 11% ash are fired ina boiler with 25% excess air and the flue gas temperature is 850°R, determine the ash concentration. Solution. Substituting into Eq. (12a), we have 240,000 x 0.11 * 11,000 x 125 + 1 — 0.11) 850 x (7.6 x 10 = 2.75 grainsicu ft 2.16b Q_ How do you convert the ash concentration in the flue gas in % weight to grains/acf or grains/sct? A: Flue gases from incineration plants or solid fuel boilers contain dust or ash, and often these components are expressed in mass units such as Ib/hr or % by weight while engineers involved in selection of pollution control equipment prefer to work in terms of grains/acf or grains/sef (actual and standard cubic feet). The relation is as follows: C, = 0.01 x A x 7000 x p = 704 (126) where gas density, Ib/cu ft = 39.5/(460 + 1) aS temperature, °F sh content, grains/acf or grains/scf depending on whether density is computed at actual temperature or at 60°F, A = ash content, % by weight ‘The expression for density is based on atmospheric flue gases having a molecular weight of 28.8 (see Q1.03). Flue gases contain 1.5% by weight of ash. The concentration in grains/acf at 400°F is 39.5, C= WK 1S x Se 4.8 grains/ach217 Q A Ganapathy and at 60°F, C, = 70 x 1.5 x = 7.98 grainsisef Discuss the importance of the melting point of ash in coal-fired boilers. How is it estimated? In the design of steam generators and ash removal systems, the ash fusion temperature is considered an important variable. Low ash fusion temperature may cause slagging and result in deposi- tion of molten ash on surfaces like superheaters and furnaces, The furnace will then absorb less energy, leading to higher furnace exit gas temperatures and overheating of superheaters A quick estimate of ash melting temperature in °C can be made using the expression [6] in = 19 X ALO; + 15 x (SiO, x TiO,) + 10 x (CaO + MgO) + 6 X (Fe,0; + Na,O + K,0) (a3) where 1, is the fusion temperature in °C, and the rest of the terms are percent ash content of oxides of aluminum, silicon, titanium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, and potassium, EXAMPLE, Analysis of given ash indicates the following composition: ALO; = 20%, SiO, + TiO, = 30% Fe,0; + NaO + K,O = 20%, CaO + MgO = 15% Find the fusion temperature. Solution Substituting into Eq. (13), we find that fq, = 1100°C. 2.188 e ‘What is the emission of SO, in !b/MM Btu if coals of HHV =. 11,000 Btu/lb and having 1.5% sulfur are fired in a boiler? Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Bollers and Heaters si A: The following expression gives e, the emission of SO, in Ib/MM. Buu: a4) where S is the % sulfur in the fuel = 2.73 Ib/MM Bu Hf an SO; scrubbing system of 75% efficiency is installed, the exiting SO, concentration will be 0.25 x 2.73 = 0.68 Ib/MM Bu. 2.18b Q: What is the SO, level in ppm (parts per million) by volume if the coals in Q2.18a are fired with 25% excess air? A: We have to estimate the flue gas produced. Using the MM Btu method, 10° 11,000 + 1.25 x 760 = 1041 Ib/MM Bu Let the molecular weight be 30, which is a good estimate in the absence of flue gas analysis. Then, 1041 30 Moles of flue gas 34.7 per MM Buu fired 2.73 Moles of SO; = = 0.042 (from Q2.18a and Table 1.1) (64s the molecular weight of SO;. Dividing weight by molecu- lar weight gives the moles.) Hence ppm of SO, in flue gas will be 0.042 x 34.7/10° = 1230 ppm.82 Ganapathy 2.18¢ Q: _1f5% of the SO, gets converted to SO,, estimate the ppm of SO, in the flue gas. Moles of SO; = 0.05 x 22. = 0.0017 per MM Bu Hence ppm by volume of SO, = S507 x 108 = 49 ppm (80 is the molecular weight of SO,). 2.19a Q: How is the efficiency of a boiler or a fired heater determined? A: The estimation of the efficiency of a boiler or heater involves ‘computation of several losses such as those due to flue gases leaving the unit, unburned fuel, radiation losses, heat loss due to molten ash, and so on. Readers may refer to the ASME Power Test Code {7} for details. Two methods are widely used, one based on the measurement of input and output and the other based on heat losses. The latter is preferred, as it is easy to use. ‘There are two ways of stating the efficiency, one based on the HHV and the other on LHV. As discussed in Q2.01, siiv X HHV = nu x LHV The various losses are [1], on an HHV basis, 1. Dry gas loss, Z, 4-4, Ly = wy “Be (15a) 2. Loss due to combustion of hydrogen and moisture in fuel, Ly 100 HAV Ly = (9% Hy + W) X (1080 ~ 0.461, — 1.) x (a5b) Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 83 3. Loss due to moisture in air, Ls: fea te 5c) Ly = 46 X My x “EH (ase) 4. Radiation Joss, Ly. The American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) chart [7] may be referred to to obtain this value. A quick estimate of L, is Ly = 10°-0-2 bs 0 (154) For Eqs. (15a) to (154), Wag = dry flue gas produced, Ib/Ib fuel Wa, = dry air required, Ib/tb fuel H,, W = hydrogen and moisture in fuel, fraction ‘M = moisture in air, Ib/lb dry air (see Q1.0%) ty. te = temperatures of flue gas, air, °F Q = duty in MM Brwhr 5. To losses L, to L, must be added a margin or unaccounted loss, Ls. Hence efficiency becomes amv = 100 — Ly + Ly + bs + Ly + Ls) (1Se) Note that combustion calculations are a prerequisite to efficiency determination. If the fuel analysis is not available, plant engi- neers can use the MM Btu method to estimate wg, rather easily and then estimate the efficiency (see Q2.20). The efficiency can also be estimated on an LHV basis. various losses considered are the following. 1. Wet flue gas loss: ba tiv (C,. gas specific heat, will be in the range of 0.25 to 0.265 for wet flue gases.) 2. Radiation loss (see Q2.23) 3. Unaccounted loss, margin Wye X Cp X ast)2.191 Q Ganapathy ‘Then ‘tunv = 100 — (sum of the above three losses) One can also convert nny t Tuy using Eq. (3b) (see Q2.01). Yo Coals of HHV = 13,500 and LHV = 12,600 Brw/b are fired in a boiler with excess air of 25%. If the exit gas temperature is 300°F and ambient temperatures is 80°F, determine the efficien- cy on an HHV basis and on an LHV basis. From the MM Btu method of combustion calculations, assuming that moisture in air is 0.013 Ibilb dry air, | O13 x 760 x 1.25 + 10°13,500 ae 10°713,500 1036 4 (760 is the constant obtained from Table 2.4.) Hence = 140 Wet flue gas loss = 100 x 14.0 x 0.26 Om = 635% Let radiation and unaccounted losses by 1.3%. Then May = 100 — (6.35 + 1.3) = 92.34% 12,600 13,500 (Radiation losses vary from 0.5 to 1.0% in large boilers and may g0 up to 2.0% in smaller units. The major loss is the flue gas Toss.) Tum = 92.34 x = 86.18% 2.19¢ Determine the efficiency of a boiler firing the fuel given in Q2.09a at 15% excess air. Assume radiation loss = 1%, exit gas Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 85 temperature = 400°F, and ambient = 70°F. Excess air and relative humidity are the same as in Q2.09a (15% and 80%). Results of combustion calculations are already available. Dry flue gas = 18 Ib/lb fuel Moisture in air = 19.52 — 19.29 = 0.23 tbylb/ fuel, Water vapor formed due to combustion of fuel = 20.4 — 18 ~ 0.23 = 2.17 Ibib fuel 83.4 X 1013.2 + 15.8 x 1792 HEV = on = 1128 Bavew ft Fuel density at 60°F = 18.3/379 = 0.483 Ib’cu fit, so 1128 HEV = Soggy = 23.364 Bulb The losses are 1. Dry gas loss, : 400-70 _ L, = 100 x 18 x 0.24 x “IE = 6.1% 2. Loss due to combustion of hydrogen and moisture in fuel, 1080 + 0.46 x 400 — 70 b= 100 x 2.17 x Oe 3. Loss due to moisture in air, 400 - 70 Ly = 100 x 0.23 x 0.46 x “E> = 0.15% 4, Radiation loss = 1.0% 5. Unaccounted losses and margin = 0% Total losses = 6.1 + 11.1 + 0.15 + 1.0 = 18.35% Hence Efficiency on HHV basis = 100 — 18.35 = 81.65% ‘One can convert this to LHV basis after computing the LHV.86 2, @ AD Ganapathy 19d How do excess air and boiler exit gas temperature affect the various losses and boiler efficiency? Table 2.7 shows the results of combustion calculations for vari- ‘ous fuels at different excess air levels and boiler exit gas tem- perature. It also shows the amount of CO, generated per MM Btu fired, lt can be seen that natural gas generates the lowest amount of CO,. 10° 3,789 9.06 x 44 27.5700 CO,/MM Btu natural gas = x 19.17 x = 116.5 Ib (The above is obtained by converting the volumetric analysis to weight basis using the molecular weights of CO, and the flue gs.) For oil, CO; generated = 162.4 Ib, and for coal, 202.9 Ib, AA fired heater of duty 100 MM Btu/hr (HHV basis) firing No. 6 oil shows the following dry flue gas analysis: CO; = 13.5%, 0, = 2.5%, Nz = 84% ‘The exit gas temperature and ambient temperature are 300 and 80°F, respectively. If moisture in air is 0.013 Ib/lb dry air, estimate the efficiency of the unit on an LHV and an HHV basis. LHV = 18,400 Btu/lb and HHV = 19,500 Buy/b. Since the fuel analysis is not known, let us estimate the flue gas produced by the MM Btu method. First, compute the excess air, which is 2.5 E= 945 x 12.8% 27-25 ‘The factor 94.5 is from Table 2.6 (see Q2.12). The wet flue gas produced is ere e Cor Table 2.7 ition Calculations for Various Fuels 550 25 | 5 Ba] 13.38 7.10 75.43 3.94 12.88 12.37 B83 0.92 8.34 17.70 148 2.48 9.06 19.11 70.93 H,0 Ny 0, 74.19 2.53 0.90 0.15 13.42 so, 11.07 5.62 0.10 16.31 5.13 0.09 6.63 20.9 5.23 0.10 10.89 19.17 478 0.09 10.89 W/W, Ly, % Ly % 25 0.19 4.46 89) 7.63 od 6.89 6.96 0.12 6.89 7.09 0.3 11.32 6.44 0.12 11.32 ous 43 6.63 Ly % Coal 350 25 450 25 __oit 350450 5 450 5 350 5 Ly % 85.0 86.7 843 85.6 83.0 87. Bit 82.9 80.5 83.2 Ey, % 86.4 29.64 89.0 89.9 28.97 90.0 92.3 28.86 2.8 89.2 89.9 O17 27.57 27.66 92.3 Ei. % 3 Blurb; LAV = 12,634 Bulb 2 = 3 Seg ere Eos sai ies a3 as ona Q2e zie nee SE YEE ous Tis as sat SLs Ego fet oig g éGanapathy 745 x 1.128 x 1.013 10° Sere + R509 ) 17.6 Ib/lb fuel (10719,500) Hence Wet gas toss = 100 x 17.6 x 0.26 x 2OT80. = 5.40% ‘The radiation loss on an HAV basis can be approximated by Eq. (say: Radiation loss = 10°69? = @ = 9.60%; @ = 100 MM Biw/hr Let us use 1.0% on an LHY basis, although this may be a bit high. Hence the efficiency on an LHV basis is 100 — 6.47 = 93.53%. The efficiency on an HHV basis would be (Eg. (3b)] tun X HAV = tua x LHV or Tum = 93.53 * ‘Thus, even in the absence of fuel ultimate analysis, the plant personnel can check the efficiency of boilers and heaters based ‘on operating data How is the loss due to incomplete combustion such as formation of CO determined? Efforts must be made by the boiler and bumer designers to ensure that complete combustion takes place in the fumace. However, because of various factors such as size of fuel parti- cles, turbulence, and availability of air to fuel and the mixing process, some carbon monoxide will be formed, which means losses. If CO is formed from carbon instead of CO,, 10,600 Btu/ 1b is lost. This is the difference between the heat of reaction of the two processes C+0,500, ad C+0,>00 Fuels, COMbUSHION, anu EMICIERLY UF KUUCIS ate NCOKS oe The loss in Btw/b is given by [1] co L= oa coy * Wo xc where C is the carbon in fuel, fraction by weight, and CO and CO, are vol % of the gases. EXAMPLE, : Determine the losses due to formation of CO if coal with HHV of 12,000 Btu/lb is fired in a boiler, given that CO and CO, in the flue gas are 1.5% and 17% and the fuel has a carbon content ‘of 56%. Solution. Substituting into the equation given above, Ls 0.56 L= gs * 10160 x 9 00 or 3.8% on HV basis (dividing loss in Btu/lb by HHV) = 0.038, is there a simple formula to estimate the efficiency of boilers and heaters if the excess air and exit gas temperature are known and the fuel analysis is not available? Boiler efficiency depends mainly on excess air and the difference between the flue gas exit temperature and the ambient tempera- ture. The following expressions have been derived from combus- tion calculations of typical natural gas and oil fuels. These may be used for quick estimations. For natural gas: ‘namivs % = 89.4 ~ (0.001123 + 0.0195 x EA) x AT (16a) ‘nuivs % = 99.0 — (0.001244 + 0.0216 x BA) x AT (6b) For fuel oil sav % = 92.9 ~ (0.001298 + 0.01905 x EA) x AT Tiny, % = 99.0 — (0.001383 + 0.0203 x EA) x AT where EA = excess air factor (EA = 1.15 means 15% excess air)On Ganapathy AT = difference between exit gas and ambient tempera- tures EXAMPLE, Natural gas at 15% excess air is fired in a boiler, with exit gas temperature 280°F and ambient temperature 80°F. Determine the boiler efficiency. EA = 1.15 and AT = (280 — 80) = 200°F. Solution. ‘wy = 89.4 — (0.001123 + 0.0195 x 1.15) X (280 ~ 80) = 84.64% Tunv = 99.0 — (0.001244 + 0.0216 x 1.15) X (280 — 80) = 93.78% The above equations are based on 1% radiation plus unaccounted losses. 3 The average surface temperature of the aluminum casing of a gas-fired boiler was measured to be 180°F when the ambient temperature was 85°F and the wind velocity was 5 mph. The boiler was firing 50,000 scfh of natural gas with LHV = 1075 Btu/scf. Determine the radiation loss on an LH basis ifthe total surface area of the boiler was 2500 ft”. Assume that the emis- sivity of the casing = 0.1. ‘This example shows how radiation loss can be obtained from the measurement of easing temperatures. The wind velocity is mph 440 fpm. From Q4.51 we see that the heat loss q in Bew/ft? hr will be 1.173 x 1078 x 0.1 x [(460 + 180)* — (460 + 85)4) ao _—_——_—— 2 440 + 69 + 0.296 x (180 - 85) x {a 252 Buwft br an ‘The total heat loss will be 2500 x 252 = 0.63 x 10° Buwhr. The radiation loss on an LHV basis will be 0.63 x 10° x 100/ Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 1 (90,000 x 1075) = 1.17%. If the HHV of the fuel were 1182 Buulscf, the radiation loss on an HHV basis would be 0.63 x 1182/1075 = 1.06%. 2.24 @ A How does the radiation loss vary with boiler duty or load?: does this affect the boiler efficiency? The heat tosses from the surface of a boiler will be nearly the same at all loads if the ambient temperature and wind velocity are the same. Variations in heat losses can occur owing to dif- ferences in the gas temperature profile in the boiler, which varies With load. However, for practical purposes this variation can be Considered minor. Hence the heat loss as a percent will increase as the boiler duty decreases. ‘The boiler exit gas temperature decreases with a decrease in load or duty and contributes to some improvement in efficiency, which is offset by the increase in radiation losses. Hence there will be a slight increase in efficiency as the load increases, and after a certain load, efficiency decreases. The above discussion pertains to fired water tube or fire tube boilers and not waste heat boilers, which have to be analyzed for each load because the gas flow and inlet gas temperature can vary significantly with load depending on the type of process or application, 2.25a Q A Discuss the importance of dew point corrosion in boilers and heaters fired with fuels containing sulfur. During the process of combustion, sulfur in fuels such as coal, cil, and gas is converted to sulfur dioxide. Some portion of it (1 to 5%) is converted to sulfur trioxide, which can combine with ‘water vapor in the flue gas to form gascous sulfuric acid. If the surface in contact with the gas is cooler than the acid dew point, sulfuric acid can condense on it, causing corrosion. ADP (acidGanapathy dew point) is dependent on several factors, such as excess air, percent sulfur in fuel, percent conversion of SO; to SOs, and partial pressure of water vapor in the flue gas. Manufacturers of economizers and air heaters suggest minimum cold and tempera- tures that are required to avoid corrosion. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are typical. Sometimes, the minimum fluid temperature, which af- fects the tube metal temperature, is suggested. The following equation gives a conservative estimate of the acid dew point [8]: Tay = 1.7842. + 0.0269 log p, ~ 0.129 log pso, + 0.329 log py X log Pso, (18) acid dew point, K partial pressure of water vapor, atm Partial pressure of sulfur trioxide, atm Pso, > 40 20. ‘Area of Corrosion, Fouling and Acid Soot Emission é £ Area of Safe 10 Operation $05 Concentra 100 120 140 180 Acid Dewpoint Temperature (AOTC) Figure 2.1 The relation: Combustion inc.) ip between SOs and ADT. (Courtesy of Land Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 93 260; Feadual On 240 Coal Goker| or Dintlate OW 20 200 5 nS 380 4 ‘Coal (F.C. Burner or Cyclone Fut 140 Design Minimum Metal Temperature, F “Sooo) aco) oot is 3050 (ppm) Opp) (100 ppm) Sulfur in Fuct % by Weight (as fred) Figure 2.2 Limiting tube-metal temperatures to avoid external corrosion in economizers and air heaters when burning fuels containing sulfur. (From Steam: Its Generation and Use, 39th ed., Babcock and Witeox, courtesy of the publisher.) Table 2.8 gives typical pso, values for various fuels and excess air. Q2.18c shows how pso, can be computed. ‘A practical way to determine Tjy is to use a dew point meter. ‘An estimation of the cold-end metal temperature can give an indication of possible corrosion. 2.25b Q: How is the dew point of an acid gas computed? A: Table 2.9 shows the dew point correlations for various acid gases 9, = 12, SO, = 0.02, HC] = 0.0015% by volume and the rest oxygen and nitrogen. Gas pressure = 10 in. wg. Compute the dew points of sulfuric and hydrochloric acids given that 2% ofo4 Ganapathy Table 2.8 SO; in Flue Gas (ppm) Excess ee Sulfur (9%) _ Ful (%) «0S 10208. SO oil 5 2 3 3 4 5 6 rr 6 7 8 10 2 4 Cot 25 FT Td 14-28 20-40 27-54 33.66 Table 2. Dew Points of Acid Gases* Hydrobromic acid 1000 Ty, = 3.5639 — 0.1350 In (Py.0) = 0.0398 In (Pap,) + 0.00235 In (Py) In (Prep) Hydrochloric acid 1000/7, = 3.7368 — 0.1591 In Po) = 0.0326 In (Py) + 0.00269 In (Py,0) In (Puc) Nitric acia 1000Ty, = 3.6614 — 0.1446 In (Py) = 0.0827 In (Pyyo,) + 0.00756 In (Pro) In (Puno) Sutfurous acid 1000/74, = 3.9526 - 0.1863 In Puyo) + 0.000867 In (Pso,) ~ 0.000913 In (Pp,o) In (Pso,) Sulfuric acid 1000/T4, = 2.276 — 0.0294 In (Pro) — 0.0858 In (Pryso,) + 0.0062 In (Py.o) In (Paso) "Tuy is dew point temperature (K), and P is partial pressure (mm Hg). Compared with published data, the predicted dew points are within about 6 K of actual values except for H,S0,, which is within about 9 K. Source: HCl, HBr, HNO, and SO; correlations were derived from vapor-liquid cquilibrium data. The H,SO, correlation is from Ref. 5. SO, converts to SO,. In order to use the correlations, the gas pressures must be converted to mm Hg. Atmospheric pressure = 10 in. wg = 10/407 = 0.02457 atmg or 1.02457 atm abs. Fao = 0.12 X 1.02457 x 760 = 93.44 mm Hg, IW(Fino) = 4.537 SS aD ED =D aD = = 2B =p =D a] Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Bollers and Heaters 95 0.00015 x 1.0245 x 760 = 0.1168 mm Hg, Inq) = —2.1473 Partial pressures of sulfuric acid and SO, are equal. Hence Boo, = 0.02 * 0.0002 x 760 x 1.0245 = 0.0031 mmHg, InfPio) = —5.7716 Substituting into the equations, we obtain the following. ~ For hydrochloric acid: 1000 Fac, 3.7368 — 0.1591 x 4.537 + 0.0326 x 2.1473 ~ 0.00269 x 4.537 x 2.1473 = 3.0588 OF Ty = 327 K = S4°C = 129°F For sulfuric acid: 1000. ce = 2.276 ~ 0.0294 x 4.537 + 0.0858 x 5.7716 — 0.0062 x 4.537 x 5.7716 = 2.4755 or %, = 404 K = 131°C = 268°F ‘The dew points of other gases can be obtained in a similar manner. 2.25¢ Does the potential for acid dew point corrosion decrease if the gas temperature at the economizer is increased? A: Acid dew points were computed in Q2.25a. If the tube wall temperatures can be maintained above the dew point, then con- densation of vapors is unlikely. However, the tube wall tempera- ture in a gas to liquid heat exchanger such as the economizer is governed by the gas film heat transfer coefficient rather than the ttube-side water coefficient, which is very high. It can be shown by using the electrical analogy and neglecting the effects of fouling that [9] 4h 7 & x FaGanapathy tube wall temperature gas and tube-side fluid temperature = tube-side heat transfer coefficient gas-side heat transfer coefficient In an economizer, h; is typically about 1000 Btw/ft? hr °F and h, is about 15 Btw/ft? br °F, Let us assume that water temperature ; = 250°F and compute the wall temperature 1, for two gas temperatures, 350°F and 750°F. ee _ 1000 = jeep tm = 350 ~ (350 ~ 250) x +O = 252°F, 1000 faz = 750 ~ (750 ~ 250) x Sore = 258°F Hence for a variation of 400°F in gas temperature, the tube wall temperature changes by only 6°F because the gas film heat trans- fer coefficient is so low compared to the water-side coefficient. Even with finned tubes the difference would be marginal. We see that by specifying a higher stack gas temperature when selecting or designing an economizer we cannot avoid corrosion concerns if the water temperature is low or close to the acid dew point. A betier way is to increase the water temperature entering the economizer by raising the deaerator pressure or by using a heat exchanger to preheat the water. 2.264 Q@ A How do you convert pollutants such as NO, and CO from gas turbine exhaust gases from mass units such as Ib/hr to ppm? With strict emission regulations, plant engineers and consultants often find it necessary to relate mass and volumetric units of pollutants such as NO, and CO. In gas turbine cogeneration and combined cycle plants, in addition to the pollutants from the gas turbine itself, one has to consider the contributions from duct burners or auxiliary bumers that are added to increase the steam generation from the HRSGs (heat recovery steam generators). Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters 97 One can easily obtain the total Ib/hr of NO, or CO in the exhaust gas. However, regulations refer to NO, and CO in ppmwvd (parts per million volume dry) referred to 15% oxygen in the gas. The conversion can be done as follows. If w Ib/hr i the flow rate of NO, (usually reported as NO.) in a turbine exhaust flow of W Ib/hr, the following expression gives NO, in volumetric units on dry basis [9} 0/46) WIM) V = 100 x LD ag where %H,O = volume of water vapor MW = molecular weight of the exhaust gases ‘The value of V obtained with Eq. (19) must be converted to 15% oxygen on dry basis to give ppmvd of NO,: Vx Qi - 15) x 10° 21 = 100 x %OJ100 — GEO) where %O, is the oxygen present in the wet exhaust gases and factor F converts V to 15% oxygen basis, which is the usual basis of reporting emissions. Similarly, CO emission in ppmvd can be obtained as Y= = V x R20) Y, = 1.642 x ¥, (for the same w lb/hr rate) because the ratio of the molecular weights of NO, and CO is 1.642. EXAMPLE Determine the NO, and CO concentrations in ppmvd, 15% oxygen dry basis if 25 lb/hr of NO, and 15 Ib/hr of CO are pres- cent in 550,000 Ibyhr of turbine exhaust gas that has the follow- ing analysis by % volume (usually argon is added to nitrogen content): CO, = 3.5, HO = 10, N,= 75, 0, = 115 Solution. First, MW = (3.5 x 44 + 10 x 18 + 75 x 28 + 115 x 32)/100 = 28Ganapathy Let us compute NO, on dry basis in the exhaust. _ 100_x_ (25/48) EOI ¥ = “G5o;000728)700 — To) ~ 0.00003074. _ 10° x 21 ~ 15) - P= y= Tomi — yy TTS = O73 * 10 Hence ¥, = 0.00003074 x 0.73 x 10° = 16.4 ppmvd Similarly, V. = (15/25) x 1.642 x 16.4 = 16.2 ppmvd 2.26b Q A How can the emissions due to NO, and CO be converted from ppm to Ib/MM Btu or vice versa (10]? Packaged steam generators firing gas or oi! must limit emissions of pollutants in order to meet state and federal regulations. Criteria on emissions of common pollutants such as carbon mon- oxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NO,) are often specified in paris per million volume dry (ppmvd) at 3% oxygen. On the other hand, bumer and boiler suppliers often cite or guarantee values in pounds per million Btu fired. Table 2.10 demonstrates a simple method for calculating the conversion. It should be noted that excess air has litte effect on the conversion factor. Table 2.10 shows the results of combustion calculations for natural gas and No. 2 oil at various excess air levels. The table shows the flue gas analysis, molecular weight, and amount of flue gas produced per million Btu fired on higher heating value (HEV) basis. Using these, we will arrive at the relationship be- ‘tween ppmvd values of NO, ot CO to the corresponding values in Ib/MM Bru fired. CALCULATIONS FOR NATURAL GAS From simple mass to mole conversions we have N. 2-3 " ae a Pee 46 * Wem * 21-0,x¥ ey aD 2D 2 aD 66646 6 Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaters Table 2.10 Results of Combustion Calculations Percent excess ait 0 20 30 o 0 2 ‘Component (vol %) Natural gas* No. 2 oil® CO, 947 8.68 802 745 B49 12.33 1135 #0 19.9 18.38 17.08 15.96 12.88 11.90 11.07 y 70.62 12 173 R16 73.63 14.02 74.34 o 0 1 318 443 0 176 3.24 Mw 21.52 27.62 27.68 27.77 28.87 28.85 28.84 Wem 768 841-914 965790864958 "Natural gas analysis assumed: C,= 97, C,=2, Cy=1 vol %. (Higher and lower heating values 23,159 and 21,462 Btu, respectively.) ‘No. 2 oil analysis assumed: C= 87.5%, Hy= 12.5%, deg APL=32. (Higher and lower heating values = 19,727 and 512 Bru, respectively.) where MW = molecular weight of wet flue gases N = pounds of NO, per million Btu fired O, = % volume of oxygen in wet flue gases ¥, = parts per million volume dry NO, ‘Wem = flue gas produced per MM Btu fired, Ib Y = 100/100 — %H,0), where H,O is the volume of water vapor in wet flue gases. From Table 2.10, for zero excess air: Wem = (1023,789) x 18.3 = 769 Y = 100(100 — 19.91) = 1.248 MW = 27.53, 0, =0 ‘Substituting these into Eq. (21) we have Y, = 106 x 1.248 x N x 27.52 x ——J8 46 X 769 X 21) = 832N 99 30 Ye.s1 10.36 74.62 4.50 28,82 1011100 Ganapathy Similarly, to obtain ppmvd CO (parts per million volume dry CO), one would use 28 instead of 46 in the denominator. Thus the molecular weight of NO, would be 46 and the calculated molecular weight of CO would equal 28. ¥. = 1367 CO where CO is the pounds of CO per MM Btu fired on higher heating value basis. Now repeat the calculations for 30% excess air: 100 Wem = 986.6, ~ — 10 = ‘em » Y= Tage 7 be, MW = 27.77, 0; = 4.43 NO, 2.7 46 986.6 = 832 x N VY, = 10° x 1.189 x x = 18 21 — Gad x 1.189) ‘Thus, independent of excess air, we obtain 832 as the conversion factor for NO, and 1367 for CO. Similarly, the No. 2 oil and using values from Table 2.10, ¥, = 783N and, = 1286 CO EXAMPLE If a natural gas burner generates 0.1 Ib of NO, per MM Btu fired, then the equivalent would equal 832 x 0.1 = 83 ppmvd. 2.27 In gas turbine cogeneration and combined cycle projects the heat recovery steam generator may be fired with auxiliary fuel in order to generate additional steam. One of the frequently asked questions concerns the consumption of oxygen in the exhaust gas versus fuel quantity fired. Would there be sufficient oxygen in the exhaust to raise the exhaust gas to the desired temperature? Gas turbine exhaust gases typically contain 14 to 16% oxygen by volume compared to 21% in air. Hence generally there is no need for additional oxygen to fire auxiliary fuel such as gas or oil or Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Bollers and Heaters to even coal while raising its temperature. (If the gas turbine is injected with large amounts of steam, the oxygen content will be ower, and we should refer the analysis to a burner supplied.) Also if the amount of fuel fired is very large, then we can run out of oxygen in the gas stream. Supplementary firing or auxiliary firing can double or even quadruple the steam generation in the boiler compared to its unfired model of operation [1]. The energy: Q in Btu/hr required to raise W, Ib/hr of exhaust gases from a ‘temperature of t) t0 ty is given by O = W, x th, — hy) where hh, Ie = enthalpy of the gas at rand f,, respectively. ‘The fuel quantity in tb/hr is W; in Q/LHV, where LHV is the Jower heating value of the fuel in Btuilb If 0% volume of oxygen is available in the exhaust gases, the equivalent amount of air W, in the exhaust is [9] w= 100% W, x 0 x 32 . 23 x 100 x 29.5 In this equation we are merely converting the moles of oxygen from volume to weight basis. A molecular weight of 29.5 is used for the exhaust gases, and 32 for oxygen. The factor 100/23 converts the oxygen to air. W, = 0.0417 x Wx O (22) Now let us relate the air required for combustion with fuel fired. From Q1.03 to Q4.05 we know that each MM Btu of fuel fired ‘on an HH basis requires a constant amount A of air. A is 745 for il and 730 for natural gas; thus, 10°/HHTV Ib of fuel requires A Ib of air. Hence Q/LHV Ib of fuel requires Q HEV ji THy * 4% —yge Bb of air and this equals W, from (22) g HAV _ oy = Tay XA yr = = 0.047% x O (3)Ganapathy or LAV Ax AE Now for natural gas and fuel oils, it can be shown that LHV/(A X HHV) = 0.00124. Hence substituting into Eq. (24), we get Q = 584x Ww xO 25) Q = 0.0417 x W, x 0 x 10° x (ez) This is a very important equation, as it relates the energy input by the fuel (on an LHV basis) with oxygen consumed. EXAMPLE, It is desired to raise the temperature of 150,000 lb/hr of turbine exhaust gases from 950°F to 1575°F in order to double the output of the waste heat boiler. If the exhaust gases contain 15% volume of oxygen, and the fuel input is 29 MM Btu/hr (LHV basis), determine the oxygen consumed. Solution. From (4), _ 29 x 108 © 150,000 58.4 Hence if the incoming gases had 15% volume of oxygen, even after the firing of 29 MM Btw/hr, we would have 15 — 3.32 = 11.68% oxygen in the exhaust gases. ‘A more accurate method would be to use a computer program. [9], but the above equation clearly tells us if there is likely to be a shortage of oxygen. = 3.32% 2.28 How can the fuel consumption for power plant equipment such as gas turbines and diesel engines be determined if the heat rates are known? The heat rate (HR) of gas turbines or engines in Btu/kWh refers indirectly to the efficiency. 3413 BR where 3413 is the conversion factor from Bru/hr to kW. ‘One has to be careful about the basis for the heat rate, whether Efficiency = Fuels, Combustion, and Efficiency of Boilers and Heaiérs 103) itis on an HHV or LHV basis. The efficiency will be on the same basis. EXAMPLE, If the heat rate for a gas turbine is 9000 Btw/kWh on an LHV basis, and the higher and lower heating values of the fuel are 20,000 and 22,000 Brwitb, then Efficiency on LHV basis = 343 _ 9.319, or 37.9% 9000 ‘To convert this efficiency to an HHV basis, simply multiply itby the ratio of the heating values: Efficiency on HHV basis = 37.9 x 200°. = 34.455 NOMENCLATURE A ‘Theoretical amount of air for combustion per MM Btu fired, Ib C, CO, CO, Carbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide G ‘Ash concentration in flue gas, grainsicu ft G Specific heat, Btullb °F e Emission rate of sulfur dioxide, Ib/MM Btu E Excess air, % EA Excess air factor HHV Higher heating value, Bru/Ib or Btu/scf HR Heat rate, Btu/kWh Tay hy Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients, Bru/ft? br 'F K Constant used in Eq. (7) K,, Ky Constants used in Eqs. (10a) and (10c) L, 0 Ls Losses in steam generator, % LAV Lower heating value, Bru/lb or Btu/scf MW Molecular weight P, Py, Pao Partial pressures of carbon dioxide and water vapor, atm Poo, Partial pressure of sulfur trioxide, atm PAP ‘Actual and standard pressures, psia & Differential pressure, psilot Ganapathy 4 Heat loss, Buf hr Q Energy, Btwhr or kW s Specific gravity Ss Sulfur in fuel fey Temperatures of air, gas, °F tn Melting point of ash, °C; tube wall temperature, °C Te Acid dew point temperature, K Standard and actual temperatures, °R Standard and actual volumes, cu ft CO and NO,, ppmvd Weight of air, Ib/lb fuel; subscript da stands for dry air; wa, wet air; wg, wet gas; dg, dry gas Een saa w Moisture, Ib/hr W,, We, W, Flow rates of air, gas, and fuel, Ib/hr 7 Efficiency; subscripts HHV and LHV denote the basis p Density, Ib/cu ft; subscript g stands for gas, f for fuel REFERENCES 1. V. Ganapathy, Applied Heat Transfer, PennWell Books, Tulsa, Okla, 1982, pp. 14-24, - \ 2. North American Combustion Handbook, 2nd ed., North American \ Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1978, pp. 9-40. Babcock and Wilcox, Steam: ts Generation and Use, 38th ed., New York, 1978, p. 6-2. 4. V. Ganapathy, Use chart to estimate fumace parameters, Hydrocarbon Processing, Feb. 1982, p. 106. 5. V. Ganapathy, Figure particulate emission rate quickly, Chemical Engi neering, July 26, 1982, p. 82. 6. V. Ganapathy, Nomogram estimates melting point of ash, Power Engi- neering, March 1978, p. 61. 7. ASME, Power Test Code, Performance test code for steam generating units, PTC 4.1, ASME, New York, 1974. 8. V. Ganapathy, Estimate combustion gas dewpoint, Oil and Gas Jour- nal, April 1978, p. 105. 9. V. Ganapathy, Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook, Fairmont Press, Atlanta, Ga., 1991. 10. V. Ganapathy, Converting ppm to Ib/MM Btu; an easy method, Power Engineering, April 1992, p. 32. Il. K. Y. Hsiung, Predicting dew points of acid gases. Chemical Engineer- ing, Feb. 9, 1981, p. 127 ig PALO ADAP AD MAD LEAL DLE LDV LOAD ID LD PLL