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Networkanalaysis Srininvas-Compiled
Networkanalaysis Srininvas-Compiled
By
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Net work Topology
Definition:
The term circuit topology refers to the science of placement of elements and is a study of the
geometric configurations.
“Circuit topology is the study of geometric properties of a circuit useful for describing the circuit
behavior“
Node
It is a point in the network at which two or more circuit elements are joined. In the graph shown 1,
2, 3 and 4 are nodes.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Oriented Graph
If directions of currents are marked in all the branches
of a graph then it is called an oriented (or directed) graph .
Connected graph
A network graph is connected if there is a path between any two nodes .In our further
discussion,let us assume that the graph is connected. Since, if it is not connected each disjoint part
may be analysed separately as a connected graph.
1 2
4 3
Unconnected graph
If there is no path between any two nodes,then the graph is called an unconnected graph.
1 2 4 1 2 4
3 5
3 5 3 5
Planar graph
A planar graph is a graph drawn on a two dimensional plane so that no two branches intersect at
a point which is not a node.
A B C A B
E
E E
D D C
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Non – planar graph
A graph on a two – dimensional plane such that two or more
branches intersect at a point other than node on a graph.
Tree of a graph
Tree is a set of branches with all nodes not forming any loop or closed path.
(*) Contains all the nodes of the given network or all the nodes of the graph
(*) No closed path
(*) Number of branches in a tree = n-1 , where n=number of nodes
A 2 B C A B C
2 4
5 6 5
D D
Graph
Co- tree
A Co- tree is a set of branches which are removed so as to form a tree or in other words, a co- tree
is a set of branches which when added to the tree gives the complete graph. Each branch so
removed is called a link.
Number of links = l = b – (n-1) where b = Total number of branches
n = Number of nodes
Incidence Matrix
Incidence matrix is a matrix representation to show which branches are connected to which nodes
and what is their orientation in a given graph
(*) The rows of the matrix represent the nodes and the columns represents the branches of the
graph.
(*) The elements of the incidence matrix will be +1, -1 or zero
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(*) If a branch is connected to a node and its orientation is away from the node the corresponding
element is marked +1
(*) If a branch is connected to a node and its orientation is towards the node then the corresponding
element is marked – 1
(*) If a branch is not connected to a given node then the corresponding element is marked zero.
Incidence Matrix
An incidence matrix in which the summation of elements in any column in zero is called
a complete incidence matrix.
(*) There are four nodes A, B, C and D and six branches 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Directions of
currents are arbitrarily chosen.
(*) The incidence matrix is formed by taking nodes as rows and branches as columns
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Nodes Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6
A -1 +1 +1 0 0 0
B 0 -1 0 -1 +1 0
C 0 0 -1 +1 0 +1
D +1 0 0 0 -1 -1
P = -1 1 1 0 0 0
0 -1 0 -1 1 0
0 0 -1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 -1 -1
In the above example the fourth row is negative of sum of the first three rows. Hence the fourth
can be eliminated as we know that it can be obtained by negative sum of first three rows. As a
result of this we get the reduced incidence matrix.
PR = -1 1 1 0 0 0
0 -1 0 -1 1 0
0 0 -1 1 0 1
Example 2 : The incidence matrix of a graph is as shown. Draw the corresponding graph.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Solution : 1 0 0 0 1 -1
The sum of each column of the -1 1 1 0 0 0
given matrix is zero. Hence it 0 -1 0 -1 0 1
is a compete incidence matrix. 0 0 -1 1 -1 0
D
Example 3: The incidence matrix of a graph is as shown. Obtain the corresponding graph
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
0 -1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 -1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 -1 1
Solution:- Given incidence matrix is a reduced incidence matrix as the sum of each column is not
zero. Hence it is first converted in to a complete incidence matrix by adding the deleted row. The
elements of each column of the new row is filled using the fact that sum of each column of a
complete incidence matrix is zero.
In the given matrix in first, third, fifth and the seventh column the sum is made zero by adding –1
in the new row and the corresponding node is E. The complete incidence matrix so obtained and
also the graph for the matrix are as shown.
Nodes Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
B 0 -1 1 1 0 0 0
C 0 0 0 -1 1 1 0
D 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1
E -1 0 -1 0 -1 0 -1
Graph:
7
Net work Topology
E
SESSION :2
Tie – set Analysis:
In order to form a tree from a network several branches need to be removed so that the
closed loops open up. All such removed branches are called links and they form a Co-
tree. Alternatively when a link is replaced in a tree, it forms a closed loop along with
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
few of the tree branches. A current can flow around this closed loop. The direction of
the loop current is assumed to be the same as that of the current in the link. The tree –
branches and the link that form a loop is said to constitute a tie – set.
Definition
A tie – set is a set of branches contained in a loop such that the loop has at least one link
and the remainder are twigs (tree branches)
6 6
z
4 B 5 4 B 5
A C A C
x y
2 2
1 3 1 3
D D
Graph tree (In thick lines) Co-tree (In dotted lines)
We see that by replacing the links 1, 4 and 5 three loops are formed and hence three loop
currents x, y and z flow as shown. The relationships obtained between loop currents, tree
branches and links can be scheduled as follows
The Tie – set schedule shown above can be arranged in the form of a matrix where in the
loop currents constitute the rows and branches of the network constitute the columns
Entries inside the matrix are filled by the following procedure :
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
By following this procedure we get the Tie – set matrix which is shown below:
Loop Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6
currentss
x 0 +1 +1 0 +1 0
y +1 +1 0 +1 0 0
z 0 0 0 +1 -1 -1
Or
0 1 1 0 1 0
Bf = 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 -1 -1
(i) Column wise addition for each column gives the relation between branch and loop
currents
That is i1 = y
i2 = x+y
i3 = x
i4 = y+ z
i5 = x-z
i6 = -z
i1 0 1 0
i2 1 1 0
i3 1 0 0 x
i4 = 0 1 1 y
i5 1 0 -1 z
i6 0 0 -1
In compact form IB = B fT IL
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Where IB = Branch current matrix
B fT = Transpose of the tie- set matrix
IL = Loop current column matrix
(ii)Row wise addition for each row gives the KVL equations for each fundamental
loop
Row - 1 : V 1 + V2 + V3 = 0
Row - 2 : V 1 + V2 + V4 = 0
Row - 3 : V4 - V5 - V6 = 0
V1
0 1 1 0 1 0 V2
1 1 0 1 0 0 V3
0 0 0 1 -1 -1 V4 = 0
V5
V6
Equilibrium equations
Vk = Ik Zk + VSK- - - (2)
Since the network has b branches one such equation could be written for every branch of
the network. That is
V1 = Z1 I1 + Vs1
V2 = Z2 I2 + Vs2
‘ , , ,
‘ , , ,
‘ , , ,
Vb = Zb Ib + Vsb
Putting the above set of equations in a matrix form we get
VB = ZB IB+ VS - - - (3)
Where VB = Branch – Voltage column matrix of order b x 1
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Z1 0 - - - 0
ZB = 0 Z2 0 0 - 0 = Branch Impedance matrix (bX b)
0 0 - - - ZB
and Vs = Vs 1
Vs 2
Vs3
‘
‘
‘ = Voltage source column matrix of order bx1
Vs b
The elements in the voltage source matrix are positive if the branch currents enter the
positive terminal of the source otherwise negative
Bf [ ZB B fT IL + Vs ] = 0
Bf ZB B fT IL+ Bf Vs = 0
(*) The branch currents are then found using the matrix equation IB = B fT IL
(*) Finally the branch voltages are found using the matrix equation VB = ZB IB+ VS
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
A
5 5
Example: For the network shown in figure, write a 10
Tie-set schedule and then find all the branch 50 ± B
Currents and voltages V
10 5
C D
Solution: The graph and one possible tree is shown: 5
1 2
5 1 5
B 2
x y
4 6 6
4
C D z
3
3
ZL = 1 0 0 1 -1 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 -1 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 10 0 0 1 0 -1
0 0 0 0 5 0 -1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 5 0 -1 1
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
20 -5 -10
ZL = -5 20 -5
-10 -5 20
Loop Equations : Z L IL = - B f V s
-50
20 -5 -10 x 1 0 0 1 -1 0 0
-5 20 -5 y =- 0 1 0 0 1 -1 0
-10 -5 20 z 0 0 1 -1 0 1 0
0
0
20x-5y-10z =50
-5x+20y-5z = 0
-10x-5y+20z =0
Branch Currents : IB = B fT IL
I1 1 0 0
I2 0 1 0 x
I3 0 0 1 y
I4 = 1 0 -1 z
I5 -1 1 0
I6 0 -1 1
V1 5 0 0 0 0 0 I1 -50
V2 0 10 0 0 0 0 I2 0
V3 = 0 0 5 0 0 0 I3 0
V4 0 0 0 10 0 0 I4 + 0
V5 0 0 0 0 5 0 I5 0
V6 0 0 0 0 0 5 I6 0
V1 = 29.17 volts
V2 = 16.67 volts
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
V3 = 12.5 volts
V4 = 16.67 volts
V5 = - 12.5 volts
V6 = 4.17 volts
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Net work Topology
SESSION :3
A cut – set of a graph is a set of branches whose removal , cuts the connected graph in to two
parts such that the replacement of any one branch of the cut set renders the two parts
connected. A A
1 5
Example
4 B 3 D 4 B D
2 6 3
C
C
Directed graph Two separate graphs created by the cut set (1, 2, 5, 6)
Fundamental cut – set is a cut – set that contains only one tree branch and the others are
links
Formation of Fundamental cut – set
Example 1 : For the given graph write the cut set schedule
A
1 5 A
4 B 3 D 1 5
2 4 B 3 D
6 2 6
C The fundamental cut –set of the
Selected tree is shown in figure C
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
4 B 3 D B 3
2 D
2 4 6
6
C C
FCS -2 FCS -3
It should be noted that for each tree branch there will be a fundamental cut – set. For a graph
having ‘n’ number of nodes the number of twigs is (n-1).Therefore there will be (n-1)
(n-1) fundamental cut-sets.
Once the fundamental cut sets are identified and their orientations are fixed, it is
possible to write a schedule, known as cut – set schedule which gives the relation between
tree – branch voltages and all other branch voltages of the graph.
The elements of the cut set schedule may be written in the form of a matrix known as the cut
set matrix.
1 0 0 -1 -1 0
Qf = 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 -1
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Analysis of a network using cut set schedule
(*) Column wise addition of the cut set schedule gives the relation between tree branch
voltage and the branch voltages for the above cut the schedule
V1 = e 1
V2 = e 2
V3 = e 3
V4 = - e 1 + e 2
V5 = - e1+ e3
V6 = e 2 - e 3
In matrix form
V1 1 0 0
V2 0 1 0 e1
V3 0 0 1 e2
V4 = -1 1 0 e3
V5 -1 0 1
V6 0 1 -1
In compact form
In matrix form
1 0 0 -1 -1 0 I1
0 1 0 1 0 1 I2
0 0 1 0 1 -1 I3 = 0
I4
I5
I6
In compact form Qf IB = 0 …………………(2) Where Qf = cut set matrix
IB = Branch current matrix
IK VK
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(*) Let us consider a network having ‘b’ branches.
Each of the branches has a representation as shown in figure YK
ISK
Referring to the figure Ik = Yk Vk + Isk
Since the network has b branches, one such equation could be written for every branch
of the network ie I1 = Y1 V1 + Is1
I2 = Y2 V2 + Is2
------------------------------
…………………………
Ib = Yb Vb + Isb
Putting the above set of equations in a matrix form we get
IB = YB VB + Is ……………………… (3)
YB = Y1 0 0 - - 0 Branch admittance
0 Y2 0 - - 0 = matrix of order bx b
- - - - - -
0 0 - - - Yb
Qf YB VB + Qf IS = 0
Qf YB QTf VT + Qf IS = 0
YC VT + QfIS = 0
or Y C V T = - Q f IS ……………………. (5)
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(*) Obtain the cut – set admittance matrix using the equation YC = Qf YB Qf T
(*) Form the KCL or equilibrium equations using the relation YC VT = - Qf IS
The elements of the source current matrix are positive if the directions of the branch
current and the source connect attached to that branch are same otherwise negative.
(*) The branch voltages are found using the matrix equation VB = Qf T VT
(*) Finally the branch currents are found using the matrix equation IB = YB VB + IS
Example 2 : For the directed graph obtain the cut set matrix
A
5 6
1
D E B
4 2
8 3 7
C
Solution : The tree (marked by thick lines)and the link (marked by doffed lines)are as
shown. The fundamental cut sets are formed at nodes A B C and D keeping ‘E’ as
reference node
Fcs - 1 -- ( 1, 5, 6) A FCS-1
Fcs - 2 -- (2, 6, 7) 1
Fcs - 3 -- ( 3, 7, 8) D 4 E 2 B FCS2
FCS4
Fcs - 4 -- (4, 5, 8)
FCS3 C
Hence the cut – set schedule is as follows:
Tree Branch
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
branch
voltage Hence the required cut –
e1 1 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 set matrix Qf = 1 0
e2 0 1 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0
e3 0 0 1 0 0 0 -1 1
e4 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 -1 0 1
0 0 0 -1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 -1 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 -1
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Example 3: Find the branch voltages using the concept of cut-sets
1
1 1
1 1
1V 1
±
The graph for the network is shown. A possible tree (shown with thick lines) and co tree
(shown by dotted lines) are shown
1mho
FCS 2 = 4, 2, 5 1mho
1mho 1mho
FCS 3 = 6, 1, 2
1A
-1 0 1 0 -1 0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Qf = 0 10 1 1 0
1 -1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
YB = 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
-1 0 1
0 1 -1
-1 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
YC= 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 -1 1 0
1 -1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
3 -1 -1
= -1 3 -1
-1 -1 3
Equilibrium Equations ; Y C V T = - Q f IS
3 -1 -1 e3 -1 0 1 0 -1 0 -1
-1 3 -1 e4 = - 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
-1 -1 3 e6 1 -1 0 0 0 1 0
0
0
0
3 e3 – e4 – e6 = - 1
-e3 + 3 e4 – e6 = 0
- e3 – e4 + 3e6 = 1
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Branch voltages VB = Qf T VT
V1 -1 0 1
V2 0 1 -1
= -0.25
V3 1 0 0 0
0.25
V4 0 1 0
V5 -1 1 0
V6 0 0 1
0.5
-0.25
= -0.25
0.0
0.25
0.25
V1 = 0.5 Volts
V2 = -0.25 Volts
V3 = -0.25 Volts
V4 = 0 Volts
V5 = 0.25 Volts
V6 =0.25 Volts
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
SESSION- 4
DUALITY CONCEPT
Two electrical networks are duals if the mesh equations that characterize one have the same
mathematical form as the nodal equations of the other.
Example 1
Figure 1
Comparing the equations (1) and (2),we get the similarity between the networks of fig(1) and
fig(2).The solution of equation (1) will be identical to the solution of equation (2) when the
following exchanges are made
R → G, L→ C, C→L and V →i
Hence networks of figure (1) and (2) are dual to each other.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Note:Only planar networks have duals.
Put a dot in each independent loop of the network. These dots correspond to
independent nodes in the dual network.
Put a dot outside the network. This dot corresponds to the reference node in the dual
network.
Connect all internal dots in the neighboring loops by dotted lines cutting the common
branches.
These branches that are cut by dashed lines will form the branches connecting the
corresponding independent nodes in the dual network.
Join all internal dots to the external dot by dashed lines cutting all external branches.
Duals of these branches will form the branches connecting the independent nodes and
the reference node.
Example 1:
Draw the exact dual of the electrical
circuit shown in the figure.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
reference node.
Join node 1 and reference node through a dotted line passing through 3 ohms resistor.
This element appears as 3mho conductance between node1 and reference node in the
dual.
Join node 2 and reference node through a dotted line passing through the capacitor of
4 Farads. This element will appear as 4 Henry inductor between node 2 and
reference node in the dual
Join node 2 and reference node through a dotted line passing through the resistor of 4
ohms. This element will appear as 4 mho conductance between node 2 and reference
node.
Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to the two loops we get 3i1 + 6 di1 -6di2 =2 Sin6t
dt dt
Applying Kirchoff’s Current Law at nodes 1 and 2 ,we get, 3V1 + 6 dV1 -6dV2 =2 Sin6t
dt dt
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
dt dt 4
By looking at these equations it can be further understood that dual network drawn is the
correct one.
Example 2: Construct the dual electrical network for the network shown
K L1
i1 i2
C1
vs ±
R1
R3 L2 R2 R2
i3
iS
Solution: Mark three independent nodes 1,2and 3 and a reference node 0 as shown in figure.
The dual of the network is then drawn using the dot-method.
L1
1 C1 2
VS ± L2 R2 R3 R
R3
3
iS
0
Finally the dual circuit is redrawn in a more standard form as shown.
C1
L1 L2
1 2 3
iS G1 C1
G3
± VS
±
DUAL GRAPHS
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
For a given graph a dual graph can be constructed by converting each tie-set of the given
graph as
Cut-set in the dual graph. Two network graphs are said to be dual to each other when the
eqations
Written for one on loop current basis and the other on node-pair voltage basis are identical.
# ) Total number of branches in the graph is equal to the number of branches in the dual
graph
# ) The number of independent loops in the graph is equal to the number of node pairs in the
dual graph.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
4
2
8 5
7 R 6
d
a
b c
c
e
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
node ‘a ‘(*) Following the same procedure other branches are drawn and their orientation
is marked
to get the required graph as shown.
8
b c
4 5
a 7 6
d
e
1
2
Example 2 : Determine the dual graph for the graph shown in figure
a
Solution: For the given graph b= 7 2
n =4 l
1
= 7-(4-1) = 4 k
b
(*) Hence there are 4 tie-set schedules and hence four loop currents c d
l= b-(n-1)
( i, j , k, l ) as shown j
e
i
f
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
4
3
g
(*) Mark four nodes i , j , k and l on the sheet and also the reference
node o as shown in figure
i j k
l
d e
b
c g f
a
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Resonant Circuits
In a two terminal electrical network containing at least one inductor and one capacitor, we define resonance as the condition,
which exists when the input impedance of the network is purely resistive. In other words a network is in resonance when the voltage and
current at the network in put terminals are in phase.
Resonance condition is achieved either by keeping inductor and capacitor same and
varying frequency or by keeping the frequency same and varying inductor and capacitor.
Study of resonance is very useful in the area of communication. The ability of a radio
receiver to select the correct frequency transmitted by a broad casting station and to
eliminate frequencies from other stations is based on the principle of resonance.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
We have XL =2πfL XL varies as f
and XC = 1 XC varies inversely as f
2πfC
In other words, by varying the frequency it is possible to reach a point where X L = XC .
In that case Z = R and hence circuit will be under resonance. Hence the series A.C.
circuit is to be under resonance, when inductive reactance of the circuit is equal to the
capacitive reactance. The frequency at which the resonance occurs is called as resonant
frequency ( fr)
At resonance XL = XC
i.e. ω r L = 1
ω rC
ω2 r L C = 1
ω2 r = 1
L C
f2r = 1
4π 2LC
fr = 1
2π √LC
Salient Features of Resonant circuit
(*) At resonance XL = XC
(*) At resonance Z = R i.e. impedance is minimum and hence I = V is maximum
Z
(*) The current at resonance (Ir) is in phase with the voltage
(*) The circuit power factor is unity
(*) Voltage across the capacitor is equal and opposite to the voltage across the
inductor.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Frequency response of a series resonance circuit
For a R-L-C series circuit the current ‘I’ is given by V
I= ____________
R + j ( XL- XC )
At resonance XL = XC and hence the current at resonance (Ir) is given by Ir = V/R
At off resonance frequencies since the impedance of the circuit increases the current
in the circuit will reduce. At frequencies f Where f> f r , the impedance is going to be more
inductive. Similarly at frequencies f < f r the circuit impedance is going to be more
capacitive. Thus the resonance curve will be as shown in figure.
Ir
Xc > Xl
Xl > Xc
fr f
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
The voltage across the inductance ‘L’, =V L = I r XL = V ω r L
R
VL = V ω rL
R
V L = QV where Q = ω r L is the Q factor
R
From the above equation it is seen that the voltage across the inductive coil is Q times the applied voltage (V) The response of the series
resonant circuit is largely dependent on Q of the coil.
I2 R = 1 I2 r R = 1 ( Max Power)
2 2
Hence the useful range of frequencies will be frequencies where current will be equal to or
more than Ir = 0.707 Ir
√2
Consider the frequency response characterstic of a series resonant circuit as shown in figure
Ir
0.707 Ir
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
freq
F1 Fr F2
In the figure it is seen that there are two frequencies where the out put power is half of the
maximum power. These frequencies are called as half power points f1 and f2
A frequency f1 which is below fr where power is half of maximum power is called
as lower half power frequency (or lower cut – off frequency). Similarly frequency f2
which is above fr is called upper half power frequency (or upper cut-off frequency)
The band of frequencies between f2 and f1 are said to be useful band of frequencies since during these frequencies of operation the
out put power in the circuit is more than half of the maximum power. Thus their band of frequencies is called as Bandwidth.
Selectivity = f2- f1
fr
It can be seen that selectivity is the reciprocal of Quality factor. Hence larger the value of Q
Smaller will be the selectivity.
The Selectivity of a resonant circuit depends on how sharp the out put is contained
with in limited band of frequencies. The circuit is said to be highly selective if the
resonance curve falls very sharply at off resonant frequencies.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
impedance is same at these points.
At lower cut-off frequency f1
——————— f1 fr f2
2 2
Impedance is given by √ R + XC1 – XL1
At upper cut-off frequency f2 ___________________
Impedance is given by √R2 + ( XL2 – XC2 ) 2
But these impedances are equal
—————————— —————————
Hence √ R2 + ( XC1 – XL1) 2
= √ R2 + ( XL2 – XC2 ) 2
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
2
√ R2 + Xc1 – XL1
f1 fr f2
But I1 = Ir / √ 2 = V/ √ 2 R
Hence V = V
√ 2 R ——————————
√ R2 + Xc1 – XL1 2
√ R2 + Xc1 – XL1 2
= √ 2 R i.e. Xc1 – XL1 = R ………(1)
Similarly at upper cut-off frequency,
I2 = V
—————————— But I2 = Ir / √ 2 = V/ √ 2 R
√ R2 + XL2 – XC2 2
V = V
√ 2 R ——————————
√ R2 + XL2 – XC2 2
——————————
√ R2 + XL2 – XC2 2
= √ 2 R
1/C ω 2 - ω 1 + Lω2-ω1 = 2R
ω2ω1
ω 2 - ω 1 = 2R = 2R/L = R/L
1/ ω 2 ω 1C +L 1/ ω 2 ω 1LC + 1
ω2-ω1 = R
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
ωr ωr L
ω2-ω1 = ωr
ω r L/R
f2 – f1 = f r / Q
Band width = f r / Q
0.707Ir
V, f Hz
At resonance XL =Xc , ω L r = 1/ ωC
L r = 1/ ω2C,where L r = value of inductance at resonance. L1 Lr L2
1 -ωL1 = R L1 = 1 -R
ωC ω 2C ω
At upper – half point
Let L 2 be the value of inductance. Then ω L 2 - 1 = R L2= 1 + R
ωC ω 2C ω
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Resonance by varying capacitance
R L C
V, f Hz C1 Cr C2 C
C1 = 1 Farad
ω 2L + ωR
ωL- 1 -= R 1 = ω L- R.
ω C2 ω C2
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
C2 = 1 Farad
ω 2L - ωR
Expressions for maximum capacitor voltage and maximum inductor voltage
From the figure it is clear that voltage across L and voltage
across C are not maximum at resonant frequency (fr).
Rather voltages VL and VC are equal in magnitude and
opposite in phase at fr. The voltage Vc is maximum at
a frequency fc max which is less than fr and the voltage
VL is maximum at a frequency fL max which is greater than fr
Ir VC VL
To find the frequency at which Vc is maximum we have to differentiate Vc with respect to ω and equate it to zero
V2 .
VC2 = _________________________
2 C2[ R2 + ( L – 1/ C )2 ]
V2.
= ______________________________
2 R2 C2 + ( 2 L C – 1 )2
d VC 2 V2 [ 2 R2 C2 + 2 ( 2 L C – 1 ) ( 2 L C ) ]
____ = _____________________________________ =0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
d [ 2 R2 C2 + ( 2 L C – 1 )2 ]2
R2 + ( L – 1/ C)2
= V2 4 L2 C2
______________
2R2C2 + (2LC- 1)2
Differentiating with respect to time and equating it to zero we get
dVL2/ d = 0 which simplifies to
22LC -2 R2C2 – 2 = 0
2 ( 2LC - R2C2) = 2
2 = 2 or fLmax = 1/ 2√ LC - R2C2 /2
2LC - R2C2
Example 1 :
60 0.5H
40F
A series RLC circuit shown in figure is connected
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
across an A.C. variable frequency supply of 200
votes. Calculate the resonant frequency and half –
power frequencies.
Solution: 200V, f
fr= 1 = 1_____ =35.6Hz
2π√LC 2π√0.5x40x10 –6
Q= ωr L = 2πx35.6 x0.5 = 1.86
R 60
B.W = fr = 35.6 = 19
Q 1.86
f2- f1 = 19………………(1)
Also fr 2 = f1f2
(35.6) 2 = f1f2 = 1266…………..(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) we get,
f1 = 27.33 Hz f 2 = 46.33 Hz
Example 2: 20 Inductor
Capacitor
A 20 ohm resistor is connected in series with
an inductor, a capacitor and an Ammeter across
25 volts variable frequency a.c supply .When the I A
frequency is 400 Hz the current is at its maximum 25V
value of 0.5 A and the potential difference across the
capacitor is 150 volts .Calculate
i) The capacitances of the capacitor
ii) The resistance and inductance of the inductor.
Solution : Given Ir = 0.5 A, fr = 400Hz
(1) We have V C =I 0 X C
X C = V C = 150 = 300 ohms
I0 0.5
1 = 300Ω or C= 1 = 3.33 microfarad
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
ω0 C 300 ω0
(ii) At resonance circuit impedance is pure resistance given by Z =R +r =V =25 =50 Ω
Io 0.5
Where r =Internal resistance of the inductor.
R =50 –R =50-20 =30 Ohms
At resonance XL =XC = 300 ohms
L= 300 = 300 = 0.119 henry
ω0 2π x 400
100 0.02H
0.02F
Example 3:
A Series RLC circuit consists of R= 100 ohms
L= 0.02H and C = 0.02 μF. Calculate frequency
of resonance. A variable frequency sinusoidal
voltage of rms value of 50 volts is applied to the
50V
circuit. Find the frequency at which voltage across L and C is maximum
Solution:
Given R=100 ohms,L =0.02H,C=0.02μF
(i) Resonant frequency fo = 1 1
________ = ——————
2π √LC 2π √0.02x0.02x10-6
fo = 7.957 KHz
(ii) The frequency at which voltage across C is maximum is given by
fC = 1 /2π √ 1/ ( LC – R2 / 2 L2 )
= 1 /2π √ (1/ 0.02 X 0.02 X 10-6 ) – ( 1002 ) / 2( 0.002)2
= 7.937 KHz
(iii) The frequency at which voltage across L is maximum is given by
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
fL = 1
2π √ LC – (R2 C2 / 2)
= 1 /2π √ (0.02 X 0.02 X 10-6 ) – ( 1002 ) ( 0.002 x 10-6)2 /2
= 7.977 KHz
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Parallel Resonance
A parallel resonant circuit is one in which a coil and a capacitance are connected in parallel
across a variable frequency A.C. Supply. The response of a parallel resonant circuit is
somewhat different from that of a series resonant circuit.
I .A coil in parallel with a pure capacitor
R L
Consider the parallel circuit shown in the figure.
Let ZL be the impedance of the coil given by ZL =R +j ω L
Then YL=1 = 1 = R-j ω L
ZL R +j ω L R2+ ω2L2
Similarly let ZC = -j / I C
ωC
YC = 1 = jωC
ZC V
Total admittance of the circuit = Y= Y L + YC
Y = R-j ω L + jωC
R2+ ω2L2
R + jωC - ωL
R + ω2L2
2
R + ω2L2
2
ω 0C - ω 0L =0
R2+ ω 02 L 2
ω 0C = ω 0L
R2 + ω 02 L 2
R2 +ω0 2 L 2 = L
C
ω0 2 = L/C - R2 = 1 - R2
L2 LC L2
f0 = 1/ 2 √ (1/LC – R / L2 )
2
Impedance at resonance
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Hence Y0 = R
R2 +ω0 2 L 2
But R2 +ω0 2 L 2 = L/C
So Y0 = RC/L or Zo = L/RC
Where Zo is called the dynamic resistance. when coil resistance R is small, dynamic
resistance of the parallel circuit becomes high. Hence the current at resonance is minimum.
Hence this type of circuit is called rejector circuit.
2Ir
Ir
Frequency
f1 fr f2
= V / ( 1/ 0C ) V / Z0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
= Z00C = (L / RC) 0C
= 0L / R
Hence the expression for the Q- factor for both series and parallel resonant circuit are the
same
Also Band width= f0 / Q
Rc2 +1/2C2
Therefore total admittance = Y=YL+YC
=( RL – j L / RL2 +2L2)+ RC + j / C
Rc2 +1/2C2
At resonance the susceptance part of the total admittance is zero, which gives
1/0C 0L
=
RC2 + 1/20C2 RL2 +20L2
( RC2 – L/C)
f0 = 1 ( RL2 – L/C)
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
2 √ LC ( RC2 – L/C)
Y0 = RL RC
+
RL2 +20L2 RC2 + 1/20C2
YC = 1 = RC – j 2
RC – j 2 RC 2 + 4
RC2 = 36 25 25
mH
RC = 6 ohms Answer
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Current under these conditions 90
Volts,400Hz
ω0 2 = 1 - R2
LC L2
6.316 x 106 = 1 - R2
LC L2
1 = ω0 2 + R2
LC L2
= 6.316 x 106 + 252 / (25 x 10-3)2
= 7.316 x 106
C= 5.467 F
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Q= 7
But Q= 0L / R
7= 105 x L / 10
L= 0.67 Henry
0= 1/√ LC
105= 1 / √ 0.67 x C
Rg
L
Ig
V C Rg
ZL
R
RgL
= = L / C( R+ L/ CRg)-----------(1)
RgCR+L
From equation (1) it is clear that driving a parallel resonant circuit with a
Generator having internal Rg is nothing but to increase a resistance in series
With an inductor by value L /RgC
Hence Quality factor of parallel circuit driven by generator with internal
Resistance Rg is given by
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Q’ = rL
R+ L / RgC
= ( rL / R)
( 1+ L/CR)
Rg
Q’ = Q0
( 1 + Zr / Rg)
Bandwidth = B.W= fr / Q’ = fr ( 1+ Zr / Rg )
Q
’
B.W = B.W ( 1+ Zr / Rg) 100 k
Solution: fr = 1/ 2p √ (1/LC – R2 / L2 )
= 1/ 2p√( 1 / 10 x 100 x 10-12 )– (102 / 102)
= 5.032 khZ
Q=wrL / R
= 2p x 5.032 x 103 x10 = 31617
10
100 k
100 V Zr
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(i)Voltage across parallel circuit at Resonance = 100 x 1010
1010 + 100 x103
= 100 volts
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
TRANSIENT RESPONSE
Electrical circuits are connected to supply by closing the switch and disconnected
from the supply by opening the switch. This switching operation will change the
current and voltage in the device.
A purely resistive device will allow instantaneous change in current and voltage.
An inductive device will not allow sudden change in current or delay the change in
current.
A capacitive device will not allow sudden change in voltage or delay the change in
voltage.
Hence when switching operation is performed in inductive or capacitive device the current
and voltage in the device will take a certain time to change from preswitching value to steady
value after switching. This study of switching condition in network is called transient
analysis. The state (or condition) of the current from the instant of switching to attainment of
steady state is called transient state or transient. The current and voltage of circuit elements
The transient may also occur due to variation in circuit elements. Transient analysis is an
useful tool in electrical engineering for analysis of switching conditions in Circuit
breakers, Relays, Generators etc.
It is also useful for the analysis of faulty conditions in electrical devices. Transient analysis is
also useful for analyzing switching Conditions in analog and digital Electronic devices.
R L
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
V s V s
1
I s
S R SL L R
S S
L
A B
I s
S S R
L
R V s
A S BS
L L
R V s
Put s=0 A
L L
V s
A
R
R R V s
put S B
L L L
V s
B
R
V s 1 1
Therefore I s
R
R
S S
L
Taking inverse Laplace we get
V t
R
i t 1 e L
R
The equation clearly indicates transient nature of current, which is also shown in
figure.
L
Where Tune constant of the circuit, which is denoted by Z given in seconds.
R
V Z
Hence i t 1 e t
R
V V
Putting t=z we get i(z) = 0.632 Where = steady state current. Hence Time
R R
constant for an R-L series current circuit is defined as the time taken by the circuit to
reach 63.2% of its final steady value.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
R-C series circuit Transient
1
The sketch of transient current is shown in figure Where the time constant of
RC
1
the circuit. Putting in the current equation we get
RC
V
i(z) = 0.367
R
Hence time constant of RC series current can be defined as the time taken by
current transient to fall to 36.7% of its initial value.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Example 1:
In the circuit shown in figure the switch ‘K’ is moved from position 1 to position 2 at
time t = 0. The steady state current having been previously established in R-L circuit.
Find the current i(t) after switching.
Solution:
From the given data the circuit is under steady state when switch K is in position 1
10
under steady state condition inductance is a short and hence i(0) = = 1 Amp.
10
When the circuit is switched to position 2, this 1 Amp current constituted the stored
energy in the coil.
di
Writing the balance equation for position 2 we get 20i 4 0
dt
Taking Laplace transformation
20I s 4 s I s i 0 0
20I s 4 s I s 1
4 1
I s
4 s 5 s 5
taking inverse Laplace we get
i t e5 t
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Example 2:
A series R-C circuit is shown in figure. The capacitor has an initial charge of
800µCoulombs on its plates, at the time the switch is closed. Find the resulting
current transient.
Solution: From the data given q(0) = 800 10 6 C
Writing the balance equation we get
1
100 10i t i( t )dt
4 10 6
Taking Laplace transformation
100 1
10I(s) I(s) Q(0)
S 4 10 6 S
106 100 800 10 6
I(s)10
4S S 4 10 6 S
100 200
5
40S 10 6 30
I( s)
4S S
1200 1200
I(s)
40S 10 6 106
40 S
40
30
I( s)
S 25000
Taking Inverse Laplace we get
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
i( t ) 30e 25000 t
Example3:
For the circuit shown in figure the relay coil is adjusted to operate at a current of 5
Amps. Switch K is closed at t = 0 and the relay is found to operate at t = 0.347
seconds. Find the value of inductance ‘L’ of the relay.
Soln: Writing the balance equation for the relay circuit
di
V( t ) Ri( t ) L
dt
Applying Laplace transformation
V( s )
RI(S) LSI(S) i(0 )
S
Since there is no mention of initial current in the coil i(0) =0
10
Hence I( s) I(s)LS
S
10
I(S) SL 1
S
10
10 L A B
I(s)
S1 SL 1 S 1
S S S
L L
10 1
A S BS
L L
A=10 B= -10
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
10
I(S) 10
1
S
L
Taking Inverse Laplace we get
t
i( t ) 10 10e L
The relay operates at t = 0.347 seconds when the current value reaches 5A. Hence
0.347
5 10 10e L
0.347
10e L 10 5 5
0.347
5
e L
Solving the equation we get L=0.5H
Example 4:
In figure the switch ‘K’ is closed. Find the time when the current in the circuitry
reaches to 500 mA
I1 (t)×50 = 10
1
I2 ( t ) 70 10
100 10 6 i2dt
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
1 I2 ( s) 10
I2 (S) 70
c S 5
I2 (S) 10
70I2 (s) 6
100 10 s 5
10 1 1 1
I2 (S) ' ( 2)
70S 10 4
7s 10 3
7 S 142.86
Taking inverse Laplace for equation (1) and (2)
I1 (t) =0.2 A
1 142.86 t
I2 ( t ) e
7
Total current from the battery i(t) =I1 + I2
1 142.86 t
i( t ) 0.2 e
7
when this current reaches 500 mA
1 142.86 t
500 10 3 0.2 e
7
Solving we get t = 5.19 × 10-3 Seconds.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
R-L-C Series Transient circuit:
Assuming zero initial conditions when switch K is closed the balanced equation is
di 1
given by V iR L idt
dt C
Taking Laplace transformation we get
V ( s) I( s)
1( s)R LSI(s)
s CS
1
I(s)R SL
CS
V ( s)
V ( s) L
I(s)
1 R 1
S(R SL ) S2 S
CS L LC
The time response of the circuit depends on the poles or roots of the characteristic
equation
R 1
S2 S 0
L LC
2
R R 1
4
L L LC
S1, S 2
2
2
R R 1
S1, S2
2L 2L LC
2
R 1
Case1: If the roots S1 and S2 are real positive and unequal.
2L LC
The response of such a case is called is known as over damped.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
2
R 1
Case 2 : If the root S1 and S2 are complex conjugate the response of
2L LC
such a case is called as undamped.
2
R 1
Case 3 : If then the roots S1 and S2 are complex conjugate. The
2L LC
response of such a case is called as under damped.
Example 5 :
Soln : At t = 0 switch ‘K’ is closed. There is no initial inductor current and capacitor
voltage.
di( t ) 1
i t R L i t dt 100
dt c
Taking Laplace transformation we get
10 6 100
I( s)2000 10SI(s)
15.625 s
31240 s 156.25 2 10 6 100
I(s)
15.625 s
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
1562 10
I(s) 2
2
156 .2 s 200 s 6402
S 200s 6402
S2+ 200s +6402=0 is the characteristic equation
di
dt dt
d
0.0833 e 40 t e 160 t
di
for i(t) to be maximum 0
dt
0.0833 [ 40e 40 t 160e 160 t ] 0
e40 t 4e160 t 0
e40 t
4 e120 t 4
e160 t
Solving we get t = 0.0166 seconds
Substituting this value of ' t ' in the current equation we get
imax 0.0833 [e 400.0166 e 1600.0166 ]
imax = 0.04A
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(*) In the R-L-C circuit the capacitor has an initial voltage of 40 Volts when the switch
is closed at t=0 find an expression for the current.
60
S 6
I(s)
1 2
S 0.25 0.025
2 10S
4S
Hence the characteristic equation is
S2+0.25+0.025=0
0. 2 0.22 4 0.025
S 0.1 j0.1225
2
Since the roots are complex conjugate the current i(t) will be damped sinusoid.
6
I(s)
S 2 0.15 0.12 0.025 0.12
2
6 6
S 0.1 2
0.015 S 0.1 2
0.015 2
6 6 0.1225
S 0.1 2
0.1225
2
0.1225 S 0.1 0.12252
0.1225
48.96
S 0.1 2 0.1225 2
Initial conditions
The reason for studying initial and final conditions in a network is to evaluate the arbitrary constants that appear in the general solution of
the differential equations written for the network.
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
In this chapter we concentrate on finding the change in selected variables in a circuit when a switch is thrown from open to
closed or vice versa position. Please note that t = 0 indicates the time of throwing the switch
t = 0- indicates time immediately before throwing the switch and
t =0+ indicates time immediately after throwing the switch.
We are very much interested in the change in currents and voltages of energy storage elements (inductor and capacitor) after the
switch is thrown since these variables along with the sources will dictate the circuit behavior for t > 0.
Initial conditions in a network depend on the past history of the circuit (before t= 0 -)
and structure of the network at t = 0+.Past history will show up in the form of capacitor
voltages and inductor currents.
V
Initial condition
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
0+
i (0+) = i (0-) + 1/L ∫ vdz
0-
i (0+) = i (0-)
The above equation indicates that the current in an inductor can not change
instantaneously. Hence if i (0 -) =0, then i(0+) = 0. This means that at t = 0 + inductor
will act as an open circuit, independent of voltage across the terminals.
O.C
L
If i (0-) = I0 (i. e. if a residual current is present) then i (0 +) = I0 , meaning that an
inductor at t = 0+ can be thought of as a current source of I0 which is as shown
I0 II
I0
L
Final (or steady state) condition
The final –condition equivalent circuit of an inductor is derived from the basic relation
ship V = L di/ dt
Under steady state condition di = 0 which means v = o and hence L acts as a short
dt
S.C
at t = ∞ ( final or steady state)
I0
I0
L S.C
At t= ∞
iii) The capacitor
The switch is closed at t = 0 . The expression At t=0
For voltage across the capacitor is given by
t i(t) v C
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
v = 1/ C ∫ i dt
-∞
0- t
v(t) = 1/ C ∫ i dt + 1/ C ∫ i dt
-∞ 0-
Putting t= 0+
0+
v(0+ ) = v(0-) + 1/C ∫ i dt
0-
V(0+) = V (0-) which means that the voltage across the capacitor can not change
instantaneously. If V(o-) = o then V (o+) = o indicating that the Capacitor acts as a
short at t=0+
C S.C at t=0+
V0= Q0 / C -+
V0
V0 -
- + V0 - -
-+
O.C
±
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Closed at t=0 with zero current in the inductor R=8
12V L= 0.2H
Find the values of i , di/dt ,d2i / dt2 at t=0+
Solution : The symbol for the switch implies that it is open at t = 0- and then closes at
t = 0+.From thedata given it is also clear that i (0-) = 0. Hence from the circuit i(0+) = i(0-) = 0
O.C
+
Applying KVL to the circuit we get i(0 )
±
R i (t) + L di (t) = 12
dt
8 i (t) + 0.2 di (t) = 12 ……….(1)
dt
K R
+
At t = 0
i(t)
+ +
8 i (0 ) + 0.2 di (0 ) = 12 ± 12V L
dt
8 x 0 + 0.2 di (0+) = 12
dt
di (0+) = 12 = 60 A/sec
dt 0.2
8 di + 0.2 d2i = 0
dt dt2
8x 60 + 0.2 d2 i(0+) = 0
d t2
Hence d2 i (0+) = - 2400 A / Sec2
dt2
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Example 2: K
t =0 R =10
In the network shown in figure the switch is L =1H
closed at t = 0 determine i, di and d2 i at t =0+ ± 10V
dt dt2
C=1F
At t = 0+ The circuit appears as shown in figure. From the circuit i (0+) = 0 = i (0-)
O.C
10
± 10V
S.C
Writing KVL clock wise for the circuit when the switch is closed, we get
t
Ri + Ldi +1 ∫ i(t) dt =10 …………..(1)
dt C
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
dt2
Hence d2i (0+) = -10 x10 = -100A/Sec2
dt2 1
10
Example :3
1 K
Refer the circuit shown in figure . The switch K is 20V 2
changed from portion 1 to position 2 at t = 0 1 F 1H
±
steady – state condition having been reached in position 1.
Find the values of i, di and d2i at t = 0+
dt dt2
i (0-) = 20 = 2A
10
i (0+) = i (0-) = 2A
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
1F i(t) 1H
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Ri(0+) +Ldi(0+) +VC(0+) = 0
dt R
Solution: Initial condition for Inductor is open circuit and hence the
Circuit at t = 0+ reduces to the form shown in figure.
dv( 0+ )= 0
dt
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Differentiating equation(1) we get,1 dv +L d2v = 0
R dt dt2
At t = 0+ , 1 x 0 +L d2v(0+) = 0
R dt2
Hence d2v(0+) = 0
dt2
Example 6 :In the network shown the switch ‘K’ is I C
opened at t =0.At t= 0+,solve for the values of V, K R
dv and d2v if I =10A,R =100 ohms and C= 1μF.
dt dt2
V(0+)
Solution: S.C
At t =0+,switch K is opened.Equivalent circuit at
t = 0+ is as shown.Since capacitor is a short at
t =0+we get V(0+) =0
Consider the given network.Let’ V’ be the node
voltage.
Applying KCL we get, V +C dv = I ……..(1) V
R dt
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
****************************************
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
Laplace transform is a very useful and powerful tool in circuit analysis.Integro-differential equations
Can be transformed in to algebraic equations using the technique of Laplace transformation and
complete solution involviong both natural response and forced response is obtained in one step
Let f(t) be a function of time.Assuming the value of function to be zero for t<0,the
Laplactransform of f(t) is given as
∞
L [ f(t) ] = F(S) = ∫ f(t) e-St dt
0
f(t) is a function in time-domain and F(S) is a function in complex frequency domain. Complex
frequency ‘S’ is given by S= ¬ +j
From the above it is obvious that Laplace transformation changes a function in time domain into
a function in frequency domain.
Important properties of Laplace transform
1) Linearity Property:
If L { f1(t) }= F1(S)
= a1 F1(S) + a2 F2 (S)
t = to time
∞
Proof: Let L{ x(t-to) u(t- to) } = ∫ x(t- t0) u(t- t0)}e-St dt
0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Since u(t- to)= 1 }t>t0
0 }t<t0
∞
We get L [ x(t-t0) u(t-to)] = ∫ x(t- t0)e-St dt
to
Let t=t0 + τ dt = dτ
As t t0 τ 0
As t ∞ τ ∞
∞
Hence we get L { x(t-t0) u(t-to)}= ∫ x(τ) e-S (τ + t0) dτ
0 ∞
= e-Sto ∫ x(τ) e-S τ dτ
0
= X( S) e-Sto
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
5. Time-Differentiation Property
If L[ x(t) ] = X(S)
L[dx/dt] = S X(S) – x(0)
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
7. Time-Periodicity Property
x(t)
time
T 2T 3T 4T
x1(t)
0 T
x2(t)
T 2T
x3(t)
2T 3T
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
Hence x(t) = x1(t) + x1(t- T) u(t-T)+ x1(t- 2T) u(t-2T) + ………………..
Where x1(t) is the waveform described over the first period of x(t).
Taking Laplace transformation on both sides of the above equation we get
The Initial -value theorem allows us to find the initial value x(0) directly from the Laplace
Transform X(S).If x (t) is a casual signal, then x(0) = Lim S X(S)
S ∞
Proof: WE have L dx(t) = S X(S) –x(0)
dt
∞
∫ (dx/dt) e-St dt = S X(S) –x(0)
0
The final value theorem allows us to find the value of x(∞) directly from its Laplace
Transformation X(S)
Proof:
We have L dx(t) = S X(S) –x(0)
dt
∞
∫ (dx/dt) e-St dt = S X(S) –x(0)
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
0
Taking the limits S 0 on both sides we get,
∞
Lim [ S X(S) -x(t)] = Lim ∫ (dx/dt) e-St dt
S 0 S 0
∞
∫ (dx/dt) Lim e-St dt = S X(S) –x(0)
0 S 0
∞ ∞
= ∫ (dx/dt) dt = x(t)
0 0
The inverse Laplace Transform of X(S) is defined by an integral operation with respect to
Variable ‘S’ as follows
¬+∞
x (t) = 1/ 2 ∫ X(S) eSt ds ……………(1)
¬-∞
Since ‘S’ is a complex quantity the solution requires a knowledge of complex variables.In
Other words the evaluation of integral in equation (1) requires the use of contour integration
In the complex plane, which is very difficult.Hence we will avoid using equation(1) to compute
Inverse Laplace transform.We go for indirect methods to get the inverse Laplace transform of
The given function,which are
i) Partial – Fraction method
ii) Convolution integral method
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
A partial fraction expansion allows a strictly proper rational function P(S) to be expressed
Q(S)
As a factor of terms whose numerators are constants and whose denominator corresponds to
Linear or a combination of linear and repeated factors.This in turn allows us to relate such terms
To their corresponding inverse Laplace transform.
For performing partial fraction technique on X(S) the function X(S) has to meet
the following conditions.
i) X(S) must be a proper fraction i.e. m< n . When X(S) is improper we can use long division
to reduce it to proper fraction.
ii) Q(S) should be in the factored form.
Convolution-integral method:
If L { x(t) } = X(S)
L { h(t) } = H(S)
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
(ii) the delta function (t)
(iii) the ramp function r(t)
They are called Singularity functions because they are either not finite or they do not
posess finite derivative everywhere.
u (t)
Unit step function:
We use step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current , like the changes that
Occur in the circuit of control engineering and digital systems. ∞
Laplace transformation of unit step function is given by L { u( t) } = ∫ e-St dt
0
= - 1/ S [ e-∞ - e0 ]
= 1
S
∞
Similarly L{ u (t-a) } = ∫ u ( t-a) e-St dt
a
∞
-St
=-1 e = 1 e- a S
S a S
Impulse function:
The derivative of the unit step function is the unit impulse function (t)
i.e. d(t) = d/dt { u(t) } = 0 t< 0 d(t)
=1 t=0
=0 t>0
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
The unit impulse may be visualized as very short duration pulse of unit area
This may be expressed mathematically as 0+
∫ d(t) dt = 1
0-
Where t= 0- indicates the time just before t=0 and t=0+ denotes the time
Just after t=0. Since the area under the unit impulse is unity, it is practice to
write
‘1’ beside the arrow. When the impulse has a strength other than unity the area
of the impulse function is equal to its strength.
Since d(t) = d/dt { u(t) }
Ramp function:
Integrating the unit step function results in the unit ramp function r(t)
t
r (t) = ∫ u (τ ) dτ = t u ( t) r(t)
-∞
= 0 t<0
= t t>0
r(t-t0 ) = 0 t< 0
r (t- t0 )
= t – t0 t > 0
= 1 / S X 1 / S = 1 / S2
L { r ( t – t 0 ) } = 1 / S X 1 / S e-t0S
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore
= 1 e- toS
S2
Prof.R.V. Srinivasa Murthy, Assistant Professor, Dept. of E & C, A.P.S. College of Engineering
Bangalore