Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

The performance of a solar assisted heat pump water heating

system
M.N.A. Hawlader *, S.K. Chou, M.Z. Ullah
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent,
Singapore 119260, Singapore
Received 4 May 2000; accepted 10 October 2000

Abstract
Analytical and experimental studies were performed on a solar assisted heat pump water heating system,
where unglazed, ¯at plate solar collectors acted as an evaporator for the refrigerant R-134a. The system was
designed and fabricated locally, and operated under meteorological conditions of Singapore. The results
obtained from simulation are used for the optimum design of the system and enable determination of
compressor work, solar fraction and auxiliary energy required for a particular application. To ensure
proper matching between the collector/evaporator load and compressor capacity, a variable speed com-
pressor was used. Due to high ambient temperature in Singapore, evaporator can be operated at a higher
temperature, without exceeding the desired design pressure limit of the compressor, resulting in an im-
proved thermal performance of the system. Results show that, when water temperature in the condenser
tank increases with time, the condensing temperature, also, increases, and the corresponding COP and
collector eciency values decline. Average values of COP ranged from about 4 to 9 and solar collector
eciency was found to vary between 40% and 75% for water temperatures in the condenser tank varying
between 30°C and 50°C. A simulation model has been developed to analyse the thermal performance of the
system. A series of numerical experiments have been performed to identify important variables. These
results are compared with experimental values and a good agreement between predicted and experimental
results has been found. Results indicate that the performance of the system is in¯uenced signi®cantly by
collector area, speed of the compressor, and solar irradiation. An economic analysis indicates a minimum
payback period of about two years for the system. Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Heat pump; Optimum design; Meteorological conditions; Performance; Solar fraction

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +65-874-6411; fax: +65-779-1459.
E-mail address: mpehawla@nus.edu.sg (M.N.A. Hawlader).

1359-4311/01/$ - see front matter Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 0 5 - 8
1050 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

Nomenclature

Capital letters T1 refrigerant temperature at compres-

Ac collector area, m2 sor inlet, °C
Ast surface area of condenser tank, m2 Ub back loss coecient, W m 2 K 1
C clearance volumetric ratio Ul overall heat loss coecient of the
COP coecient of performance collector, W m 2 K 1
Cb bond conductance, W m 1 K 1 Ult overall heat loss coecient condenser
Cpv speci®c heat of refrigerant vapour, tank, W m 2 K 1
J kg 1 K 1 Ut top loss coecient of the collector,
Cpw speci®c heat of cooling water, Wm 2K 1
J kg 1 K 1 Vd displacement volume, m3
D outer diameter of tube, m Vw wind velocity, m s 1
Di inner diameter of tube, m W distance between tubes, m
F ®n eciency Wc compressor work, W
0
F collector eciency factor X distance, m
G mass ¯ux, kg m 2 s 1 Z0 length at which refrigerant enters
I instantaneous solar radiation, W m 2 single-phase vapour region in the
J dimensional constant evaporator, m
L length of the tube in the collector, m
M mass of water in condenser tank, kg Lowercase letters
N speed of the compressor, rev/min 1 a0 ®rst constant in Eq. (19)
P pressure in the evaporator, N m 2 a1 second constant in Eq. (19)
P1 evaporation pressure, N m 2 a2 third constant in Eq. (19)
P2 condensing pressure, N m 2 f frictional pressure drop coecient
Qc heat rejected at the condenser, W hc convective heat loss coecient,
Qeva heat gain by the refrigerant in the Wm 2K 1
evaporator, W hfi tube internal heat transfer coecient,
Ql load, W Wm 2K 1
Qu useful heat gain of the collector, W hfg latent heat of vaporization, J kg 1
S absorbed solar radiation, W m 2 hr radiation heat loss coecient,
SF solar fraction Wm 2K 1
Ta ambient temperature, °C Dh change in enthalpy at the collector/
Tc condensing temperature, °C evaporator, J kg 1
Tf refrigerant temperature in the col- k thermal conductivity of the plate,
lector, °C Wm 1K 1
Tp plate temperature, °C m_ mass ¯ow rate of refrigerant, kg s 1
Tsky clear sky temperature, K n polytropic index
Tw temperature of water in the con- q0u heat gain per unit length of collector,
denser tank, °C Wm 1
T10
temperature of refrigerant in the t time, s
collector/evaporator at which single- vf speci®c volume of ¯uid, m3 kg 1
phase vapour region starts, °C vg speci®c volume of gas, m3 kg 1
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1051

v1 speci®c volume at compressor inlet, qf density of ¯uid, m3 kg 1

m3 kg 1 qg density of gas, m3 kg 1
x dryness fraction qm mean density of the ¯uid, m3 kg 1
Greek symbols s transmittance of the collector
a absorptance of the collector
gcoll eciency of the collector
gc compression eciency of the com- d plate thickness, m
r Stephan Boltzman coecient,
pressor 2 4
gv volumetric eciency of the com- Wm K
ep plate emissivity
pressor

1. Introduction

Among the alternative energy sources, solar energy is considered cheap, readily available, and
nonpolluting which can be used in domestic or industrial low temperature thermal applications.
Solar energy systems and heat pumps are, therefore, promising means of reducing the con-
sumption of nonrenewable energy sources. To increase the evaporation temperature, the unglazed
solar collectors can act as an evaporator to increase the thermal performance. Chaturvedi et al.
[1,2] found a variation of the evaporator temperature from 0°C to 10°C above the ambient
temperature under favourable solar conditions. Many authors [3±6] reported that, for the ambient
temperature of above 25°C, the evaporator could be operated at an elevated temperature.
This paper represents an analysis of a solar assisted heat pump water heating system in which
unglazed ¯at plate solar collectors act as an evaporator for the heat pump. Refrigerant 134a is
used as a working ¯uid both in simulation and experiment. The simulation model can predict
thermal performance under various meteorological conditions and these results are compared
with those obtained from experiment. The in¯uence of various operating parameters on the
thermal performance has been examined and the important variables are identi®ed.

2. Design, fabrication and experimental facilities

A solar assisted heat pump water heating system was designed, as shown in Fig. 1, for the
meteorological conditions of Singapore. A photograph of the experimental set-up is shown in Fig.
2. Two serpentine solar collectors, which act as an evaporator, were connected in series. A copper
tube of 9.52 mm diameter was soldered at the back of the absorber plate. Adequate insulations
were provided at the back of the collector but no glass cover was used on the top surface i.e.
unglazed collector. There is a bypass line from the exit of the ®rst collector/evaporator to the exit
of second collector/evaporator, which remains closed or open depending on the solar irradiation
and speed of the compressor. The ambient air also acts as a heat source depending on the op-
erating temperature of the evaporator/collector.
A thermostatic expansion valve is used for the system, which maintains constant superheat at
the inlet of the compressor by regulating the mass ¯ow rate of refrigerant with the help of a feeler
1052 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a solar assisted heat pump water heating system.

Fig. 2. Photograph of the experimental set-up.

bulb. Actually, the feeler bulb is a remote bulb of the thermostatic expansion device that controls
the degree of superheat by controlling the pressure [7,8]. An open type-reciprocating compressor
is used for the system, which is directly coupled to a three-phase induction motor. A frequency
inverter is used to control the speed of the motor. A pressure switch is used to protect the
compressor/motor from overloading. The condenser is installed inside a tank made of ®bre glass
to store water for heating purposes. The tank was insulated to prevent heat loss from the hot
water to the surroundings (Table 1).
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1053

Table 1
Components speci®cation and characteristics of the system parameters
1. Collectors
a. Area Each collector, 1.5 m2 ; total, 3 m2
b. Absorber plate Material, copper; thickness, 1.0 mm
c. Surface treatment Black paint coating, absorptivity, 90%, emissivity, 0.9
d. Tube Material, copper; outer diameter, 9.52 mm; inner diameter, 8 mm; spacing, 100 mm
e. Insulation Material, polyurethane; thickness, 50 mm
f. Case material Aluminium sheet
2. Compressor Bore, 0.035 mm; stroke, 0.026 mm; number of cylinder, 1
3. Condenser/water tank
a. Size 250 l
b. Insulation Material, polyurethane; thickness, 50 mm

2.1. Instrumentation

The temperature and pressure of the refrigerant were measured at various locations of the
system. The ambient temperatures, incident solar radiation, plate temperature on each solar
collector at several locations were measured. Pressures were measured with pressure transducers.
A pyranometer was mounted near the collector to measure the instantaneous solar radiation. The
¯ow rate of refrigerant was also measured by means of magnetic ¯ow meter. The power con-
sumption of the system was also measured by a Wattmeter. For the acquisition of the data, an
automatic data logging system was used. All quantities were monitored continuously and stored
at 5 min interval in the data logger.

3. Mathematical model

A mathematical model has been developed to predict the thermal performance of the system.
The model for each component has been described brie¯y in this section.

3.1. Collector/evaporator model

For modelling the collector/evaporator, normal ¯at plate collector equation was chosen. The
useful energy gain by the absorber is given by,
 
Qu ˆ Ac F 0 I…sa† Ul …T f Ta † …1†
For an unglazed solar collector, the overall heat loss coecient Ul has a signi®cant importance
on the collector performance. It has two components.
Ul ˆ Ut ‡ Ub …2†
Back loss coecient, Ub is assumed negligible, as it is properly insulated. Top loss coecient, Ut
is a function of radiation and convection heat loss coecient. Convective heat loss coecient is
de®ned by the following equation (Due and Beckman [9]):
1054 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

hc ˆ 2:8 ‡ 3:0Vw …3†

Radiation heat loss coecient can be written as,
 
r Tp4 Tsky
4

hr ˆ ep …4†
Tp Ta
An empirical equation has been developed by Swinbank in Ref. [9], which relates, Tsky to
ambient temperature, Ta , as shown below:
Tsky ˆ 0:0552Ta1:5 …5†
where, Tsky and Ta are both in degree Kelvin. For the evaluation of plate temperature, Tp , the plate
between two tubes can be treated as a ®n. By taking a small element on this ®n and, after energy
balance, it gives,
 
d 2 T p UL S
ˆ Tp T a …6†
dX 2 kd Ul

For the determination of the collector eciency factor, F 0 , the following expression developed
by Hottel±Whilliar Bliss in Ref. [9] is used.
1
0 UL
F ˆ h i …7†
1
W Ul ‰ …W D†F ‡DŠ
‡ pD1i hfi ‡ C1b

The pressure drop inside the collector tube is determined by treating the two-phase mixture as
homogeneous and applying a mass, momentum and energy balance [2,10]. The equation, after
simpli®cation, is expressed in the following form,
2fG2
 
dp vf ‡ xvfg ‡ G2 vfg dZ
dx
ˆn D h io …8†
dZ dv
1 ‡ G2 x dpg ‡ …1 x† dv f
dp

and
dx 1 

m_ ˆ WF 0 I …sa† UL T f Ta …9†
dZ hfg
The length of the collector tube at which single-phase vapour region starts is given by the
following expression,
 
T1 Ta US
ln T 0 Ta S  mC
L
_ pv
1 UL
Z0 ˆ L ‡ …10†
WF 0 UL
Mean density of the two-phase mixture is given by,

1 x 1 x
ˆ ‡ …11†
qm qg qf
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1055

The properties of the refrigerant vf , vfg , hg , hfg can be expressed as a function of saturation
temperature in the collector, i.e.
vf ; vfg ; hg ; hfg ˆ f …Tsat † …12†
Heat received by the refrigerant in the evaporator is given by,
_
Qeva ˆ mDh …13†

3.2. Compressor model

Mass ¯ow rate through the compressor given by,

Vd N gv
m_ ˆ …14†
v1  60
The speci®c volume at the inlet of the compressor is calculated by using the correlation de-
veloped by Cleland [11]. Volumetric eciency of the compressor is expressed as,
 1=n
P2
gv ˆ 1 ‡ C C …15†
P1

and the compressor work is obtained from,

"  n 1 #
P1 v1 n P2 n
Wc ˆ m_ 1 …16†
gc n 1 P1

3.3. Condenser model

Heat dissipated to the cooling medium at the condenser includes energy gain at the evaporator
and the energy consumed by the compressor, as shown by the following equation:
Q c ˆ Q u ‡ Wc …17†

For modelling the condenser, it is assumed that the temperature of water within the tank is
uniform at any instance of time, a mix tank model. From this tank, hot water is supplied to the
load when it is necessary. The mixed tank model, which represents temperature variation within
the tank, is given by,
dTw
MCpw ˆ Qc Ult Ast …Tw Ta † Ql …18†
dt
Condensing temperature, Tc is calculated by a empirical equation obtained from manufacturer
of condenser, as shown
h i
2
Qc ˆ a0 ‡ a1 …Tc Tw † ‡ a2 …Tc Tw †  1000 …19†
1056 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

3.4. System model

The COP of heat pump is expressed by the following equation,

Thermal energy rejected by the condenser; Qc
COP ˆ …20†
Electrical energy input to the compressor; Wc
The instantaneous eciency of the collector/evaporator is de®ned as follows:
Useful energy gain by the collector; Qu
gcoll ˆ …21†
Solar energy available on collector plate; Ac I
The performance of the system may be described in terms of solar fraction, SF obtained by the
following equation:
R
Qu dt
SF ˆ R …22†
Ql dt

4. Flow chart of simulation program

To determine the thermal performance of the system, a simulation program has been devel-
oped. This program is run with the meteorological data of Singapore [12] for a given load. Fig. 3
shows the ¯ow chart of the simulation program.

5. Results and discussion

A series of experiments were conducted under the meteorological conditions of Singapore and
these results are presented in this section. The simulation model enabled parametric study and
identi®cation of important variables. For the purpose of validation of the simulation model, a
comparison between experimental and simulated results was made. It is important to note that,
due to climatic constraints, few experiments were performed for 4 h in July and comparison or
analysis has been shown below.

5.1. Comparison between experimental and simulated results

In Fig. 4, predicted collector eciency and COP for the month of July were plotted against
time. It shows that predicted COP is always close to experimental COP and predicted collector
eciency has a reasonably good agreement with experimental values. As seen from Fig. 4, COP
shows a declining trend with time, as condensing temperature increases, resulting in an increase of
the compressor work.
In Fig. 5, the predicted and experimental values of water temperature were plotted as a function
of time. Here, compressor was operated at 1080 rpm and the ambient temperature varied between
28°C and 36°C. The predicted water temperature deviates no more than 0.9°C from the experi-
mental values of water temperature during the course of the experiment.
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1057

Fig. 3. Flow diagram of simulation model.

5.2. In¯uence of di€erent operating parameters on simulated results

Fig. 6 shows collector eciency as a function of time for di€erent speeds of the compressor
considering solar radiation 800 W m 2 . If the speed of the compressor increases, the eciency
of the collector/evaporator increases. It can be attributed to the fact that, if the speed of the
1058 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

Fig. 4. Comparison between predicted and experimental COP and collector eciency.

Fig. 5. Comparison between predicted and experimental temperature of water.

Fig. 6. E€ect of speed of the compressor on collector eciency with time.

 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1059

Fig. 7. E€ect of solar radiation on COP.

Table 2
Useful parameters for the system
Latitude 1°220 N
Collector azimuth 0°
Collector tilt angle 10°
Ambient temperature 32°C
Initial water temperature in the tank 30°C
Speci®c heat of water 4130 J kg 1 K 1
Wind speed 3 ms 1
Time step 5, 60 min
Heat loss coecient of the tank 0.36 W m 2 K 1
Coecients a0 ˆ 0:2225, a1 ˆ 0:4838, a2 ˆ 0:024

compressor increases, there is a reduction in evaporation temperature in the collector/evaporator,

which results in a reduction of heat loss from the collector to the surroundings.
Fig. 7 shows the variation of COP with the speed of the compressor, where solar radiation is
used as a parameter. In this case, collector area, wind speed (Table 2) and ambient temperature
were chosen to be 3 m2 , 3 m s 1 and 30°C, respectively. The COP has been evaluated from
simulation and considered prediction after 2 h of operation from the beginning of the experiment.
As solar radiation increases, COP increases. Due to high solar radiation, evaporation temperature
increases, which results in a lower temperature lift across the compressor.
If the speed of the compressor is higher, mass ¯ow rate of refrigerant through the collector/
evaporator is higher, which results in higher compressor work and lower COP, as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of COP as a function of speed of the compressor with collector area as a
parameter. For a particular speed of the compressor, if the collector area is smaller, refrigerant
evaporates in the collector/evaporator at a lower temperature resulting in an increase in com-
pressor work leading to a lower COP.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of collector eciency and evaporation temperature as a function of
compressor speed for a particular set of solar irradiation, collector area, wind speed, and ambient
1060 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

Fig. 8. Variation of COP with time for di€erent speed of the compressor (solar radiation 600 W m 2 ).

Fig. 9. E€ect of compressor speed on COP with collector area as a parameter.

Fig. 10. Variation of collector eciency and collector ¯uid temperature with compressor speed.
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1061

temperature. For a particular size of the collector/evaporator, an increase in speed of the com-
pressor causes a higher mass ¯ow rate through the collector/evaporator resulting in a lower
temperature of the collector ¯uid, leading to a lower heat loss from the collector and increase in
collector eciency. But for a particular speed of the compressor, higher collector area increases
the ¯uid temperature in the collector and lowers the collector eciency. This mismatch has been
overcome by using a variable speed compressor for a range of climatic conditions.
Fig. 11 shows the variation of energy output, condensing and evaporating temperature of the
refrigerant, water temperature at the condenser/storage tank as a function of storage volume. As
seen from this ®gure, if storage size increases condensing temperature decreases leading to a slight
decrease in evaporating temperature causing an increased energy gain by the collector. A decrease
in condensing temperature, but relatively smaller decrease in evaporating temperature causes a
reduction in compression work leading to a higher performance of the system.
Fig. 12 shows the thermal performance of the system with solar irradiation for di€erent col-
lector area. As seen from ®gure, for a particular collector area, if solar radiation increases, COP

Fig. 11. E€ect of storage volume on thermal energy output by the collector and condenser.

Fig. 12. Variation of COP with solar radiation for di€erent collector area.
1062 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

increases. It may happen as ¯uid temperature in the collector increases due to high solar radiation
and reduces the compressor work. Again, for the same reason, for a particular size of the com-
pressor and speci®c solar radiation, COP of the system increases with increasing collector area.
Figs. 13 and 14 show the variation of collector eciency and COP with time for di€erent sizes
of the storage volume. In cases, collector area, solar irradiation, wind speed, ambient temperature
were chosen 3 m2 , 800 W m 2 , 3 m s 1 and 26°C, respectively, and the compressor was operated at
a speed of 900 rpm. It is important to note that, here, condenser tank itself acts as a storage tank
for the hot water. If the size of the storage volume increases, both collector eciency and COP
increases. It can be attributed to the fact that, for a particular size of the collector/evaporator and
compressor, if storage size increases condensing temperature decreases with corresponding de-
crease in ¯uid temperature in the collector causing a lower heat loss from the absorber and higher
collector eciency and COP. But increase in size after a certain range of storage volume (ap-

Fig. 13. Variation of collector eciency with time for di€erent storage volume.

Fig. 14. Variation of COP with time for di€erent storage volume.
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1063

proximately 100 l m 2 ) both collector eciency and COP do not change so rapidly, although, it
lowers the water temperature in the storage, which is shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 15 shows variation of the SF as a function of storage volume for di€erent collector area. In
this case, load is considered continuous for 24 h a day at a temperature of 60°C, but system is
operated 6 h a day and condenser tank is considered as a storage sub-system for hot water. For a
particular value of the collector area, if the size of the storage tank increases, SF increases rapidly
at the beginning and slowly after certain range of the storage volume. But, for a ®xed size of the
storage volume, if the collector area increases, the SF increases due to collection of more energy at
the absorber plate. As seen from Figs. 13 and 14, it can be concluded that, for a storage volume
greater than 100 l m 2 , there is no signi®cant change of the thermal performance of the system.
For a particular value of solar irradiation, Fig. 16 shows the e€ect of the di€erence between
¯uid temperature in the collector/evaporator and ambient temperature on the eciency of the

Fig. 15. E€ect of collector area on the performance of the system.

Fig. 16. E€ect of collector ¯uid temperature on the performance of the system.
1064 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065

collector. If di€erence between the ¯uid temperature and ambient temperature increases collector
eciency decreases due to large amount of heat loss from the collector/evaporator. For a par-
ticular range of operating condition, an increase in ambient temperature makes a small di€erence
between ¯uid and ambient temperature causing a lower heat loss and higher collector eciency.
This is advantageous for the meteorological condition of Singapore, as ambient tempera-
ture during the day in Singapore is always higher and more than 23°C, which lowers this dif-
ference.

5.3. Economical studies

Table 3 shows the economical parameters for the present system.

Fig. 17 shows the variation of payback period with collector area. From the ®gure, it can be
shown that, with the increase of collector area, payback period fall sharply. This phenomenon
may be explained by the fact that, with the increase in collector area, the increase of auxiliary fuel
savings increases more rapidly compare to the cost of the system. Again, payback period reaches a
minimum value and then rises with increase in collector area, due to collector area dependent cost
increase. In this analysis, minimum payback period of about two years is obtained corresponding
to a collector area of about 4 m2 .

Table 3
Economical parameters
Fuel escalation rate 3%
Discount rate 7%
General in¯ation rate 2.5%
Fuel cost $0:03711/MJ
Life cycle 20 years

Fig. 17. Variation of payback period as a function of collector area for di€erent in¯ation rate (fuel price escalation
rate ˆ 0:03).
 M.N.A. Hawlader et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 1049±1065 1065

6. Conclusions

A simulation model has been developed to study the thermal performance of a solar assisted
heat pump water heating system. To validate the model, experiments were conducted under the
meteorological conditions of Singapore. It is found that the thermal performance of the system is
a€ected signi®cantly by speed of the compressor, solar irradiation, collector area and storage
volume. It is also important to ensure proper matching between the collector/evaporator load and
speed of the compressor. For a particular solar irradiation, if compressor speed is higher, it leads
to a lower temperature of the refrigerant in the collector/evaporator resulting in lower COP and
higher collector eciency. To minimize this con¯icting trend, the system was designed in such a
way that, for a particular range of solar radiation, the compressor would run at a particular speed
and improved thermal performance could be found. The values of COP as high as about 9 and
average collector eciency of 75% was obtained. It is also found that storage volume of 100 l m 2
gives an optimum performance for such a system and, for the meteorological condition of Singa-
pore. From the economical analysis, a minimum payback period of about two years was found.

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