Mathematical Foundations: Module-2

Mathematical Foundations
Module-2
Topics to be discussed
 Number Theory and Finite Fields
 Principles of Pseudorandom Number Generation
 Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems,
 The Chinese Remainder Theorem,
 Discrete Logarithms,
 Elliptic Curve Arithmetic
2 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Number Theory and Finite Fields
 Divisibility and The Division Algorithm
 The Euclidean Algorithm
 Modular Arithmetic
 Groups, Rings, and Fields
 Finite Fields of the Form GF(p)
 Polynomial Arithmetic
 Finite Fields of the Form GF(2n)

INTEGER ARITHMETIC
 In integer arithmetic, we use a set and a few operations.
 You are familiar with this set and the corresponding operations,
but they are reviewed here to create a background for modular
arithmetic.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Set of Integers
 Binary Operations
 Integer Division
 Divisibility
 Euclidean Algorithm

Set of Integers
 The set of integers, denoted by Z, contains all integral numbers

(with no fraction) from negative infinity to positive infinity.

Binary Operations
 In cryptography, we are interested in three binary operations applied
to the set of integers.
 A binary operation takes two inputs and creates one output.
Three binary operations for the set of integers

Binary Operations
 The following shows the results of the three binary operations
on two integers.
 Because each input can be either positive or negative, we can

have four cases for each operation.

Integer Division
 In integer arithmetic, if we divide a by n, we can get q and r.
 The relationship between these four integers can be shown as
a=q×n+r

Integer Division
 Assume that a = 255 and n = 11.
 We can find q = 23 and r = 2 using the division algorithm.

Integer Division
 Division algorithm for integers

Integer Division
 When we use a computer or a calculator, r and q are negative
when a is negative.
 How can we apply the restriction that r needs to be positive?
 The solution is simple, we decrement the value of q by 1 and we add

the value of n to r to make it positive.

Integer Division
 Graph of division algorithm

Divisibility
 If a is not zero and we let r = 0 in the division relation, we get
a=q×n
 If the remainder is zero,

 If the remainder is not zero,

Divisibility
 The integer 4 divides the integer 32 because 32 = 8 × 4.
 We show this as
 The number 8 does not divide the number 42 because

42 = 5 × 8 + 2.
 There is a remainder, the number 2, in the equation.
 We show this as

Divisibility
 Properties
Property 1: if a|1, then a = ±1.
Property 2: if a|b and b|a, then a = ±b.
Property 3: if a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Property 4: if a|b and a|c, then

a|(m × b + n × c), where m
and n are arbitrary integers

Divisibility

Divisibility
Fact 1: The integer 1 has only one divisor, itself.
Fact 2: Any positive integer has at least two divisors, 1

and itself (but it can have more).

Common divisors of two integers
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

Common divisors of two integers
 The greatest common divisor of two positive integers is the
largest integer that can divide both integers.
 GCD (a,b) of a and b is the largest integer that divides evenly into
both a and b
eg GCD(60,24) = 12
 Define gcd(0, 0) = 0
 often want no common factors (except 1) define such numbers as
relatively prime
 eg GCD(8,15) = 1
 hence 8 & 15 are relatively prime

 Euclidean Algorithm
Fact 1: gcd (a, 0) = a

Fact 2: gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r), where r is
the remainder of dividing a by b

Euclidean Algorithm
When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are

relatively prime.
Euclidean Algorithm: (GCD)
 Find the greatest common divisor of 25 and 60.
 Solution:We have gcd (25, 60) = 5.

 Find the greatest common divisor of 2740 and 1760.
 Solution:We have gcd (2740, 1760) = 20.

GCD(1160718174, 316258250)
 Dividend Divisor Quotient Remainder
 a = 1160718174 b = 316258250 q1 = 3 r1 = 211943424
 b = 316258250 r1 = 211943424 q2 = 1 r2 = 104314826
 r1 = 211943424 r2 = 104314826 q3 = 2 r3 = 3313772
 r2 = 104314826 r3 = 3313772 q4 = 31 r4 = 1587894
 r3 = 3313772 r4 = 1587894 q5 = 2 r5 = 137984
 r4 = 1587894 r5 = 137984 q6 = 11 r6 = 70070
 r5 = 137984 r6 = 70070 q7 = 1 r7 = 67914
 r6 = 70070 r7 = 67914 q8 = 1 r8 = 2156
 r7 = 67914 r8 = 2156 q9 = 31 r9 = 1078
 r8 = 2156 r9 = 1078 q10 = 2 r10 = 0

Example GCD(1970,1066)
 1970 = 1 x 1066 + 904 gcd(1066, 904)
 1066 = 1 x 904 + 162 gcd(904, 162)
 904 = 5 x 162 + 94 gcd(162, 94)
 162 = 1 x 94 + 68 gcd(94, 68)
 94 = 1 x 68 + 26 gcd(68, 26)
 68 = 2 x 26 + 16 gcd(26, 16)
 26 = 1 x 16 + 10 gcd(16, 10)
 16 = 1 x 10 + 6 gcd(10, 6)
 10 = 1 x 6 + 4 gcd(6, 4)
6=1x4+2 gcd(4, 2)
4=2x2+0 gcd(2, 0)

Extended Euclidean Algorithm
 Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other two

integers, s and t, such that
 The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate the gcd (a, b)

and at the same time calculate the value of s and t.



 Given a = 161 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and t.
 Solution:We get gcd (161, 28) = 7, s = −1 and t = 6.

 Given a = 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.
 Solution: We get gcd (17, 0) = 17, s = 1, and t = 0.

 Given a = 0 and b = 45, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.
 Solution: We get gcd (0, 45) = 45, s = 0, and t = 1.

MODULAR ARITHMETIC
 The division relationship (a = q × n + r) discussed in the previous
section has two inputs (a and n) and two outputs (q and r).
 In modular arithmetic, we are interested in only one of the outputs,
the remainder r.
 Modular Operator
 Set of Residues
 Congruence
 Operations in Zn
 Addition and Multiplication Tables
 Different Sets

Modulo Operator
 The modulo operator is shown as mod.
 The second input (n) is called the modulus.
 The output r is called the residue.
Division algorithm and modulo operator

Modulo Operator
Find the result of the following operations:
a. 27 mod 5 b. 36 mod 12
c. −18 mod 14 d. −7 mod 10
Solution
a. Dividing 27 by 5 results in r = 2
b. Dividing 36 by 12 results in r = 0.
c. Dividing −18 by 14 results in r = −4. After adding the
modulus r = 10
d. Dividing −7 by 10 results in r = −7. After adding the modulus
to −7, r = 3.

Set of Residues
 The modulo operation creates a set, which in modular
arithmetic is referred to as the set of least residues modulo n,
or Zn.
Some Zn sets

Congruence
 To show that two integers are congruent, we use the
congruence operator ( ≡ ).
 For example, we write:

Congruence

Operation in Zn
 The three binary operations that we discussed for the set Z
can also be defined for the set Zn.
 The result may need to be mapped to Zn using the mod
operator.

Operation in Zn
Perform the following operations (the inputs come from Zn):
 Add 7 to 14 in Z15
 Subtract 11 from 7 in Z13
 Multiply 11 by 7 in Z20
 Solution:

Operation in Zn
 Properties
1. [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n = (a + b) mod n
2. [(a mod n) – (b mod n)] mod n = (a – b) mod n
3. [(a mod n) x (b mod n)] mod n = (a x b) mod n
Example
[(11 mod 8) + (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 10 mod 8 = 2 ; (11 + 15) mod 8 = 26 mod 8 = 2
[(11 mod 8) – (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = –4 mod 8 = 4 ; (11 – 15) mod 8 = –4 mod 8 = 4
[(11 mod 8) x (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 21 mod 8 = 5 ; (11 x 15) mod 8 = 165 mod 8 = 5

Operation in Zn

Operation in Zn
 The following shows the application of the above properties:
 (1,723,345 + 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 + 9) mod 11 = 6
 (1,723,345 − 2,124,945) mod 16 = (8 − 9) mod 11 = 10
 (1,723,345 × 2,124,945) mod 16 = (8 × 9) mod 11 = 6

Operation in Zn
 In arithmetic, we often need to find the remainder of powers
of 10 when divided by an integer.

Inverses
 When we are working in modular arithmetic, we often need to

find the inverse of a number relative to an operation.
We are normally looking for

 An additive inverse (relative to an addition operation) or
 A multiplicative inverse (relative to a multiplication operation).

Inverses: Additive
 In Zn, two numbers a and b are additive inverses of each other
if
In modular arithmetic, each integer has an additive

inverse.
The sum of an integer and its additive inverse is
congruent to 0 modulo n.

Inverses: Additive
 Find all additive inverse pairs in Z10.
Solution:
 The six pairs of additive inverses are
(0, 0), (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), and (5, 5).

Inverses: Multiplicative
 In Zn, two numbers a and b are the multiplicative inverse of
each other if
In modular arithmetic, an integer may or may

not have a multiplicative inverse.
When it does, the product of the integer and
its multiplicative inverse is congruent to
1 modulo n.

 Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10.
Solution
 There is no multiplicative inverse because gcd (10, 8) = 2 ≠ 1.
 In other words, we cannot find any number between 0 and 9 such
that when multiplied by 8, the result is congruent to 1.
 Find all multiplicative inverses in Z10.

Solution
 There are only three pairs: (1, 1), (3, 7) and (9, 9).
 The numbers 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 do not have a multiplicative inverse.

The extended Euclidean algorithm finds the

multiplicative inverses of b in Zn when n and b
are given and
gcd (n, b) = 1.
The multiplicative inverse of b is the value of t
after being mapped to Zn.

 Using extended Euclidean algorithm to find multiplicative
inverse

 Solution
 The gcd (26, 11) is 1; the inverse of 11 is -7 or 19

 Solution
 The gcd (100, 23) is 1; the inverse of 23 is -13 or 87.

 Find the inverse of 12 in Z26.
 Solution
 The gcd (26, 12) is 2; the inverse does not exist.

Addition and Multiplication Tables

Different Sets
We need to use Zn when additive inverses are

needed;
we need to use Zn* when multiplicative inverses
are needed.

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
 Cryptography requires sets of integers and specific operations
that are defined for those sets.
 The combination of the set and the operations that are applied
to the elements of the set is called an algebraic structure.
 In this section, we will define three common algebraic
structures:
 Groups,
 Rings,
 Fields.

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

Groups
 A group (G) is a set of elements with a binary operation (•)
that satisfies four properties (or axioms).
1. Closure : if a,b are in G, then a•b in G
2. Associativity : if a,b,c are in G, then (a•b) •c = a• (b•c)
3. Commutativity : For all a and b in G, a•b = b•a (Abelian G)
4. Existence of identity: For all a in G, there is an identity element
(e), such that e•a = a•e = a
5. Existence of inverse: For each a in G, there is an element a’
called inverse of a, such that a•a’= a’•a = e
 A commutative group (Abelian Group) satisfies an extra property,
commutativity.

Groups

Groups: Application
 Although a group involves a single operation, the properties
imposed on the operation allow the use of a pair of operations
as long as they are inverses of each other.
Example:1
 The set of residue integers with the addition operator,
G = < Zn , +>
 is a commutative group.
 We can perform addition and subtraction on the elements of
this set without moving out of the set.

Groups: Application
Example:2
 The set Zn* with the multiplication operator, G = <Zn*, ×>, is
also an abelian group.
 Let us define a set G = < {a, b, c, d}, •> and the operation as
shown in Table below.

Groups: Sub Group
 Is the group H = <Z10, +> a subgroup of the group G = <Z12,
+>?
Solution:
 The answer is no.
 Although H is a subset of G, the operations defined for these
two groups are different.
 The operation in H is addition modulo 10; the operation in G
is addition modulo 12.

Groups: Cyclic Subgroups
 If a subgroup of a group can be generated using the power of

an element, the subgroup is called the cyclic subgroup.

 Four cyclic subgroups can be made from the group G = <Z6, +>.
 They are H1 = <{0}, +>, H2 = <{0, 2, 4}, +>, H3 = <{0, 3}, +>, and H4 =
G.

 Three cyclic subgroups can be made from the group
G = <Z*10, X>.
 G has only four elements: 1, 3, 7, and 9.
 The cyclic subgroups are H1 = <{1}, ×>, H2 = <{1, 9}, ×>, and H3 = G.

Ring
 A set of “numbers” with two operations (addition and
multiplication) which form:
 An abelian group with addition operation and multiplication:
 has closure
 is associative
 distributive over addition: a(b+c) = ab + ac
 If multiplication operation is commutative, it forms a
commutative ring
 If multiplication operation has an identity and no zero divisors,
it forms an integral domain

Ring
 The set Z with two operations, addition and multiplication, is a
commutative ring.
 We show it by R = <Z, +, ×>.
 Addition satisfies all of the five properties
 Multiplication satisfies only three properties.

Ring
 A ring, R = <{…}, •, >, is an algebraic structure with two
operations.

Field
 A set of numbers
 with two operations which form:
 abelian group for addition
 abelian group for multiplication (ignoring 0)
 ring
 have hierarchy with more axioms/laws
 Group -> Ring -> Field

Field
 A field, denoted by F = <{…}, •, > is a commutative ring in
which the second operation satisfies all five properties defined
for the first operation except that the identity of the first
operation has no inverse.

Group, Ring, Field

Finite (Galois) Fields
 Galois showed that for a field to be finite, the number of
elements should be pn, where p is a prime and n is a positive
integer.
 Denoted as GF(pn)
 In particular often use the fields:
 GF(p)
 GF(2n)
A Galois field, GF(pn), is a finite field with

pn elements.
Finite (Galois) Fields
 GF(p) is the set of integers {0,1, … , p-1} with arithmetic
operations modulo prime p
 These form a finite field

 Since they have multiplicative inverses
 Inverse can be found with Extended Euclidean algorithm
 Hence arithmetic is “well-behaved” and can do addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division without leaving the field
GF(p)

Finite (Galois) Fields: GF(p) Fields
 When n = 1, we have GF(p) field.
 This field can be the set Zp, {0, 1, …, p − 1}, with two arithmetic
operations.
Example:
 A very common field in this category is GF(2) with the set {0, 1} and
two operations, addition and multiplication.

Example:
 We can define GF(5) on the set Z5 (5 is a prime) with addition and
multiplication operators

Summary

GF(2n) FIELDS
 In cryptography, we often need to use four operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).
 In other words, we need to use fields.
 We can work in GF(2n) and uses a set of 2n elements.
 The elements in this set are n-bit words.

 Polynomials (Polynomial Arithmetic)
 Using a Generator

GF(2n) FIELDS : Polynomial Arithmetic
 Let us define a GF(22) field in which the set has four 2-bit
words: {00, 01, 10, 11}.
 We can redefine addition and multiplication for this field in
such a way that all properties of these operations are satisfied

 It can be computed using polynomials
 A polynomial of degree n − 1 is an expression of the form
 where xi is called the ith term and ai is called coefficient of the

ith term.
Several alternatives available:
 ordinary polynomial arithmetic
 poly arithmetic with coefs mod p
 poly arithmetic with coefs mod p and polynomials mod m(x)

 we can represent the 8-bit word (10011001) using a
polynomials.

 To find the 8-bit word related to the polynomial x5 + x2 + x, we

first supply the omitted terms.
 Since n = 8, it means the polynomial is of degree 7.
 The expanded polynomial is
 This is related to the 8-bit word 00100110.

Polynomial Arithmetic Operations
 It involves two operations:
 Operation on Coefficients
 Operation on two Polynomials
 I.e we have to define two Fields, one for coefficients and one
for the polynomial
 Since Coefficients are made of 0 or 1 we use GF(2) field
 For the Polynomials we use GF(2n) field
Polynomials representing n-bit words use two

fields: GF(2) and GF(2n).
Ordinary Polynomial Arithmetic
 Add or subtract corresponding coefficients
 multiply all terms by each other
 Example:
 let f(x) = x3 + x2 + 2 and g(x) = x2 – x + 1
 f(x) + g(x) = x3 + 2x2 – x + 3
 f(x) – g(x) = x3 + x + 1
 f(x) x g(x) = x5 + 3x2 – 2x + 2

Polynomial Arithmetic : Modulus
 Addition of two polynomials doesn’t create a polynomial out of a

set.
 But, in multiplication of two polynomials it may create a polynomial
out of a set with degree more than n-1.
 For the sets of polynomials in GF(2n), a group of polynomials of
degree n is defined as the modulus.
 The modulus in this case act as a prime polynomial
 Such polynomials are referred to as irreducible polynomials.

Polynomial Arithmetic : Modulus
 List of irreducible polynomials:

Polynomial Arithmetic : Addition
Addition and subtraction operations on

polynomials are the same operation.

 Let us do (x5 + x2 + x)  (x3 + x2 + 1) in GF(28).
 We use the symbol  to show that we mean polynomial
addition.
 The following shows the procedure:

 There is also another short cut. Because the addition in GF(2)
means the exclusive-or (XOR) operation.
 So we can exclusive-or the two words, bits by bits, to get the
result.
 In the previous example,
 x5 + x2 + x is 00100110
 x3 + x2 + 1 is 00001101.
 The result is 00101011 or
 in polynomial notation x5 + x3 + x + 1.

Polynomial Arithmetic : Multiplication
1. The coefficient multiplication is done in GF(2).
2. Multiplying xi by xj results in xi+j.
3. The multiplication may create terms with degree more than

n − 1, which means the result needs to be reduced using a
modulus polynomial.

 Find the result of (x5 + x2 + x) ⊗ (x7 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x) in GF(28)
with irreducible polynomial (x8 + x4 + x3 + x + 1).
 Note that we use the symbol ⊗ to show the multiplication of two
polynomials.
 Solution:
 To find the final result, divide the polynomial of degree 12 by the

polynomial of degree 8 (the modulus) and keep only the remainder.

 Polynomial division with coefficients in GF(2)

 Example:
 In GF (24), find the inverse of (x2 + 1) modulo (x4 + x + 1).
Solution
 The answer is (x3 + x + 1) as shown in
Euclidean algorithm
[(x2 + 1) ⊗ (x3 + x + 1)] mod (x4 + x + 1)=1

 Example:
 In GF(28), find the inverse of (x5) modulo (x8 + x4 + x3 + x + 1).
Solution
 The answer is (x5 + x4 + x3 + x) as shown in
Euclidean algorithm
[(x5) ⊗ (x5 + x4 + x3 + x)] mod (x8 + x4 + x3 + x + 1)=1

Summary
 The finite field GF(2n) can be used to define four operations of

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division over n-bit
words.
 The only restriction is that division by zero is not defined.

Mathematical Foundations: Module-2

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Mathematical Foundations

 Principles of Pseudorandom Number Generation

 Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems,

 The Chinese Remainder Theorem,

 Elliptic Curve Arithmetic

2 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

3 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

4 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 The set of integers, denoted by Z, contains all integral numbers

5 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Three binary operations for the set of integers

 Because each input can be either positive or negative, we can

7 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

8 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

9 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

10 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 The solution is simple, we decrement the value of q by 1 and we add

11 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

12 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 If the remainder is zero,

13 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 The number 8 does not divide the number 42 because

14 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Property 1: if a|1, then a = ±1.

Property 2: if a|b and b|a, then a = ±b.

Property 3: if a|b and b|c, then a|c.

Property 4: if a|b and a|c, then

15 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

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Fact 1: The integer 1 has only one divisor, itself.

Fact 2: Any positive integer has at least two divisors, 1

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Fact 1: gcd (a, 0) = a

20 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are

22 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

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24 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

25 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other two

 The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate the gcd (a, b)

26 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

27 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

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Division algorithm and modulo operator

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 For example, we write:

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38 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

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40 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

41 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 (1,723,345 + 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 + 9) mod 11 = 6

 (1,723,345 − 2,124,945) mod 16 = (8 − 9) mod 11 = 10