GROUPS

Groups

1. A binary operation ∗ on nonempty set S is a function ∗ : S × S → S. Notation: ∗(a, b) = a ∗ b

2. A group is a nonempty set G together with a binary operation ∗ on G such that:
G1: (associative) (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for any a, b, c ∈ G
G2: (identity) ∃ e ∈ G s.t. a ∗ e = a and e ∗ a = a for any a ∈ G the identity e of G is unique
G3: (inverse) For any a ∈ G, ∃ a−1 s.t. a ∗ a−1 = e and a−1 ∗ a = e the inverse of a is unique
3. The order of a group G is |G| = the number of elements of G.
4. A group G is abelian if ∗ is commutative. ex. Z, Q, R, C under +; Q∗ , R∗ , C∗ under ·
5. A set G that satisfies G1 is a semigroup. ex. N under +

6. A set G that satisfies G1 and G2 is a monoid. ex. Z∗ under ·

7. Let hG, ∗i be a group and a, b, c ∈ G.

(a) Cancellation laws (b) Inverse formulas (c) Unique solution

−1 −1
i.) a ∗ c = b ∗ c ⇒ a = b i.) (a ) = a i.) a ∗ x = b ⇒ x = a−1 ∗ b
ii.) c ∗ a = c ∗ b ⇒ a = b ii.) (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 ii.) y ∗ a = b ⇒ y = b ∗ a−1

Examples of Groups
a+b
1. hZn , +n i where Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} and a +n b = remainder in n finite abelian

2. hZ∗n , ·n i where Z∗n = {x ∈ Z : x is relatively prime to n} and a ·n b = remainder in a·b

n finite abelian
3. dihedral group: Dn under composition of functions finite non-abelian (n ≥ 3)

• Dn = {e, a, a2 . . . , an−1 , b, ab, a2 , . . . , an−1 b} and a ◦ b = ab

• Dn = group of symmetries of a regular n-gon with order 2n
360 ◦
• a= n rotation about the center and b = reflection s.t. ba = a−1 b
4. symmetric group of n letters: Sn under composition of functions finite non-abelian (n ≥ 3)

• Sn = group of permutations of {1, 2, . . . , n} with order n!

• cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) is a permutation of Sn that maps a1 to a2 , ..., ak−1 to ak , ak to a1 , and fixes the rest
• ex. S3 = {(1), (123), (132), (23), (13), (12)}.
• every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles ex. ( 13 27 34 41 55 62 76 ) = (134)(276)
• disjoint cycles commute
• (a1 a2 . . . ak )−1 = (ak . . . a2 a1 )
• if σ, τ ∈ Sn with τ = (a1 a2 . . . ak ) then στ σ −1 = (σ(a1 ) σ(a2 ) . . . σ(ak ))
– proof: equivalently, show στ = (σ(a1 ) . . . σ(ak ))σ
– case 1: x = ai , ∃ i ∈ {1, . . . , k} ⇒ (στ )(x) = σ(τ (ai )) = σ(ai+1 ) where (στ )(ak ) = σ(a1 )
6 ai , ∀ i ∈ {1, . . . , k} ⇒ (στ )(x) = σ(τ (x)) = σ(x)
– case 2: x =
5. general linear group of degree n: GL(n, F ) under matrix multiplication non-abelian group
• GL(n, F ) = {A : A is an n × n matrix with entries from the field F with det A 6= 0}
6. (external) direct product G1 × G2 where G1 and G2 are groups

• G1 × G2 = {(a, b) : a ∈ G1 and b ∈ G2 }
• (a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 a2 , b1 b2 )