Narrative as Construct and Construction word of though-eeling anda sean sates fais Bruner 1986; Carcber 2992; Masog Ba Garo x994; Matngly 2998), Creating anatrativ, fending toon, san active 2nd constructive rocer—one tht dep Stories can provide a power Inga conten at ane ar not peso Dy reading unto hare, lb vice petal ts expose fandig tha daly she onda that Sal Hamlet has “ony one ponsble icterpretation” as “the general plot find moivation of he geste rages would always be cleaver Where— although some d night bare tobe exp ibis i proce ths sorteling ocesion a ber rally ineligible” (29, Ie her teling brn uimerous opportunities fr Thy elders oprten alternative nerpret ths of why the ory unfold asi doc, heey isruting ere Ite meaning fora theyll Bobanon as she2 nda C Gar and Cary Maing story, “itis lee that che elder of you country have neve tol you what he story relly means” [33]: One of many sichineances ctu wen Bohannon explains that Hale seeks oil hi uncle who sao his fathers murderer, and by this acto avenge his fates death, She peace ieee oe then bod Ele Hat ae a Banenge ere pee teteromreta Seer earn ‘al his father’s rote.” wath eae ‘esta lone eel ute thee ny ome Bhanne 1) othe tenes ering th ory 6 ion er for mes ing among posible eating e197) By he end of Bohan a Sel te key evens ne remind these, bc sera erp tom of hese evens have Been pt forwards eceigs cosine sh Tundesanings of heel nd moral ode Acoconsuted at tae mene though he pak and pul ewer Bannon ling ed {str world andthe world whet sry ad pling marae wera consis provides boner co sex forcing wt happened he purr ling hi a ‘Sula coconsuton of Ham. The clam tht arate fd tment mode of tong bas been eogvny put frwan by rome rune He contends that urate ls nye “ndevog npn, of costing realty” 9861) hat dean “neon snd sto fd te vcbudes ad comesuenes hat ask ir ease” 3 Trane flows Inert ei Alga Jen Grima nang tha story cons two landapes, on of acon an aie em ‘cious The lanespe of ato foc on what ctor do pa ‘le stato. The lana of cocoa concern “what se Javed nthe ation Kno thik ore or do aa ohn, oe fc The wo ances arsenal and dint ithe ees be ‘ween Cedi sharng Joc bed befor and ater ie Naren 8 Contr nd Comercon 3 estenger dha he isis motes” (J Bruner 1986214). Comprehending the plot ofa story means "therfore te hae some notion ofthe changes inan inner lndscape of thought in the prtipants swell he oer landscape of evens” (Carters 1992:84) The meaning one rtibutes to emploced events rfc expectasons and understandings gained through parsiatng in speci soil and moval worl, The Tv tes mae sense of the event recounted inthe story of Hamer Sing in what they peeve 8 gap and efeasing wha hemi cers must fave thought and fel in der to act the way they di. Even dough Hlanet estoy from snober cara world, i understood bythe liners wit ference other wn iavliemeats withthe word: And through Bohannon neato wit the eer she comes ober ‘rand dhe emotional, moral and social rounding ofthe Tis hough the version ofthe story they contract. Asa “powefl means of sci ing values and world views to chikdeen andl other intimate” (Capps land Ochs 1995243), azratve dies emergent comsractons of eal iy And aly nacatve open to aleraive readings as can be Seen inthe eer deiberavons qooed eal, ast acs a “human posi bles rather than verted erin” (J Brune 198626, From hir sds of storteling among urban youths in she United Sates, Wil Labov tells us tha the mort mpertan areasve ques ‘ona sorteller moss answer ond awe so well tha the question i ‘ever explily rived x "So wha (Labor 1972, r98tLabov and ale 1967) The interventions by the Ti elders serve to keep Bo anno’ rendition of Hams on eck so that imately is judged "a ‘ery good story” (Bohannon 1966:33) In contest, failed storys one {hat leaves the audience wondering why anyone othered oe A Story my be wel formed from s prey strutoral perspective, andi may hae @ ea “poy” but if the aaiece deste know why the pine mater othe, ifthe events nthe story acer touch he, the thestary dose work. EMERGENCE OF NARRATIVE ‘THEORY IN ANTHROPOLOGY “This implicit “So what?” naeative question can be eed a the een liferation of narative sess adwopology What is suddenly 30 Sppeaing about tore, about narrative? Alter ally hee i nothing t= ent about of tris ncby their ineracators as seandard part oftheir clrlinetptions “They have ied meh, folktales, sod proverb, a clare repertoire of welHknown les. They have long been interested in sori of pe Sonal experince in he fem of ife stoves eg, Rada [1926] 1985 Peacock and Holland 1993: Crapanzano 1977, 19845 Gx Frank 1996, 2500; Langness and Frank 1981) Linguine anthropologist and fol. Tost have also studied naarally occuring personal tori, such at gossip or the “tal al” which emerge a casual pat of everyday 50 ial course (eg, Baumann 1986; Biggs 1996). Ahough social and aural anthropologists have always deal im stores heir own and ‘hose ofthe informant) they have aot always exlciiy heed the fact thar so much of thee data has come in narative for, With the o- table exception of stoi inluenced by linguistics (eg, Hymes 19815 Brennis #984, 1996; C- Goodin 9843 M. H. Goodwin 1990; Hav lend 1997, 1996; Ochs, Sith, and Taylor 1996 Brennei and Les, 1977; Capps and Och £994; Ochs and Capps in pes this eget has bem especially masked when comes to personal tls though which aller might coach an experiene op recount oan sions important vet ithe social world. Even when satcopologes hare been highly ogezan of the aesthec quale of a cltre’s ending mye and folktales, they have not lays been so keenly aware tha the personal stories they were hearing might be mor than tansparent mediums for communicating significant social fats. ately however, hings have changed. Anthropology ae oscing stories everywhere. Furthermore, they ae paying inesesing tention £0 the complex elation between nartatve fem, nara psfoenance, tnd referential conten. Whe ner in acative cannot be decribed Snowy, wha characterizes the recent surge of stenion among 2 wide ange of choas isthe pronounced concern to take stove serious, ‘With egard to the fe history radon for example, cri.es pointing to the nee ofthe life ory at text or a oral performance (Crapan 2ano 1980; Peacock and Holland 1995; Aga 198; Chambers and ‘Thompson 1998) have contributed to 4 eenewed intrest and an hanced appreciation ofthe compleses involved in epreseting and Anagzng life tries. Overall anheopoogists ae less concer eat ‘Hise the selena fori lich he dats conve—a el ete ‘venta extends to work in medical anthropology. A ene extended sain hire ae edn doing ce prt of thir exploration of marae, anthropologists hve ito «dosed constrcts drawn from range of dacipines—tingitis erry then ito cogs prcholgy,piowty—to invitee toms bernen trate Sr sonar conten, betwen a inde alto personal expec dcr! ole, or marae ‘commune act There has bea cone forthe papa Shctave ow iulcutor ar doing things wih vie" 0d ho thereto ncetes cry sec weight creased aac abot tera form aso pacts has ao aed cl de fremont anropolgsl dicouse Ar thes Sing anthopal [Bos tve bun co wonder wha and what ot wef nthe flo Srcece of mae teobing thar pervades the writing of so many Sutenporry antral. “Tol har en spied bythe pombe nara thai ow nreates om bel sed pts seve lumi pests of pracy ad capercns tat rou ns but might nc there evened tbs slo ee npr bythe postition theoial consist with regard the ection and ana of trates flea esting Wh en be arsed y aig om rai ook arth ange fmt evi a sty of marae “ts ng wed by asbropolgins 0 make ese of tie hoe {pada Do deren rai ona nals frien wrote understand lines and esling? Doe the fc on native de {Tatton or cone oer, ore fl, venues for exploring he es porn esa he practices of aig? The says inthis Ok maken topes, explore ths ind of qusion and Jo Syngas ef ans The ies for is volume developed gradual, Our inal colar sion srapsiun onan’ forthe 1990 Ameccan Anthropologie ‘tc AHH) mins pe hy ot mal Sy thont tbe que dient pret we cach eng our wok ona fain. Whe eeach conider probleme eleva to medial anthropol hy, one fw [Mating pinay concerned with he elation Be ce nareie and Ue expres, drawing exe om tay Shu peso! perspectives the ter (Ga) cond sth arn as away rte the aay of exkute othe tay of ind Many ofthe paper ron his fr syposam ater ape 8 Spel i of Sol Sle nd Modine eed Nerve Repre Temation of nes ae Healing (Gu and Mating 1994) “Our enduring nce in exploring aeouve moder of marave nals ema fo medial atropang et cond AAA AYDO> sium an this boke Chapters by anthro:5 ind C. Gar 4 Chery Mating polos predominate, but there are also contributions fram individ Ale sind in sociology schist, and pychoogy In naretve sti itmakes ile sense to band tether in exclusionary cpiary tbs “Thereistoo much tobe gained rom ros ferliatins ta draw widely ‘upon the socialsciences, ax wl a erate, history, and piovonhy. And, indeed the say inthis book ely upon broad range of anal approaches: phenomenological, teary, eriscal,cogitne, ling, sconsrotvit, hemenetic, and autobiographical. While thee ap. proaches do not represent stable or mutually exclusive systems of thoupht, they have emerged from various home dips that fen en arate in dnc wi, 1 forming tis collecion we ako encouraged consbatons from sebolas with a skepticism about the resent enthsism for aacate Several ofthe chapters raise questions abou prevailing tend in nara tive theory or widespread assumption about nacre, Some dk how adequately narrative mols aptre cual fe, social etion or pet Sonal expvience and wonder what ikl tobe alec bya reliance ‘narrative model of socal life, We believe these cal vl ace sential if nacative analysis io ofr an enderingconebaion to me Calantropology and not merely a fashionable los on interpretations that gin ao arabic depth from being drei up as nacative theory “This inoducrry chaee sere ax. backdrop sisting thee papers within broader tends, ueadscoaSaed richer o medic sthopology oro eatural anthropology more generally, bt extending into diverse Aiscplins The rece emphasis on parative in cll tis of les and healing is puto very deep and broad contemporary cucers, One tay reasonably clin, as Jerome Bruner does in Acs of Manin 199% bo 1996), that there snow a neative arn o the horizon a the ho ‘man sciences. Tis ean has hada powerful nfuenc in crosecularal stoi of ils ad healing. [NARRATIVE IN MEDICINE, The cewaity of nazeatve to ome forms of therapeutic practice dates at east he end ofthe nineteenth entry in the writings of Sigmund Freud. primary assumption of Feud peychosnalytc theory i that “the symptom cares a meaning at is connected with the experince ‘ofthe patent” (Freud 120:222). Freud is porsayed by Donald Spence (98221) asa master” of “tbe narrative tradon” who had the abi ity take “pices of the patents actions, deans and memories” and o weave them into a coherent pater that negates and makes tense of “previouly random happenings” and memories. read made sate fhe pes poet fhe cokrentarve— tlle wa in which an pest ecnsucton an lth {Ever apart ureltd ena in te pos make se ‘tno Poe sen no dvb br that «wells or pose Sloss kind ef urine uh thn la imei nd as 0 ono site oh pre therapt change. (Sens 183181) Contenpray pychotherapet paces cota toss the lea trate a decoding and reaming the pst © make sna of he pre Chr and provide an cretion for th urate. Youg (2995) sta econ mininaton achat acy sein nthe gs od werent of ware portrsma sess soe (PTSD). A Base ssumption ofthe resent ogra that in nde for paint fo rcoen the roomate nemany m be eld sd oldo OBe “The memorinarae ithe Rout stone of bis donde. The pa tes poses hates ae grea stated wih misread a tres A pope decled raumaticmemory gies the cual "Suess" (Young 2995188)" Wain a Maga, Win Shout tht herp work wth Cont Amer figs wo ae Cpanel eee ana; ooh portance pata Sigg cabs nares cea component of he baling proc (Wuckie and Maga 1973833, “iin someat bode wer, Enea some ht th coonsocann os tenable acm between he pase and Reet Snimpostane parti cre so aches racic Fe cin wok nl ntti ee recreation Fcc tol doce toa sconmrc tcers fees sa trricpntc One tap fa par oe eee td mo pt ioc the pate a chet xan STKE nm fue eng thnx sad he Cael he somnolence (hee 9818) “Writing about native pocetes in payhotherapeuseineractiony, CCapprand Ochs (19951176) mains hat “ting ad eteling expe fences” provide the oppornity for collaborations berween therapist‘ nda C. Grr and Chey aig 9943 Schafer 198, 1993; Spence 1982. For example, concer with how a therapist “fancoons more ata pattern maker shan a pater fer” (Spence 1982293) has led to esearch illuminating how the therapist works to shape an emerging aratve with the patient fo he ‘compatible with the native expectations of presiing theories or coogi. Ssatons in which patents and therspats converge o8 co oorructed account, at well those in which chey donot, shed light on the interactie dynamics and structural lationship in clinical encom ‘ets (eg, Kitmayer this volume; Witekin and Bit 1993; Young 1995) Despite this ecogiion ofthe ole of maretive sn he cine p= inky of pyehiaty a pein that “egarded ae aia y the ree. ff bomedcie” (Klima 199523), much of Westen medicine canbe Adsctited as tradtonally hostile to connottve dicoore. Bor this legacy is ring. As Good (1994) points ut, ers of eepreenaton| ‘sfondi way nto the word ofthe clinic. Naeative has conseted palerntive mode of representation thas somehow more appropriate to cereain aspects of clinical experience (M. Good 1995: M. Good et 1992; Huneer 19915 Matingly1998b; Brody 1987). Clinicians the selves bave alo ecogized the narrative quale oftheir work (ee Coles 2989; Esenberg 198%; Sacks 1987, 1995; Luria 1968, 1972) Zimerman and Dickerson 1994. ‘What has den th clinical community to marae? One reas thar norcatveforeproveds the human dramas surrounding les. Tht is wonderfully expend hy the neurolgit Olver Sacks, Speaking cit cally of authorized medical discourse, he distinguishes the tradtonal edi history from narrative proper in which the "human mubjee™ father than the pathology the ceneal characte. “Sach fede] roces” he wee, re fr fmatralhiary—ut hy el noting ot tenia Seals sorte coavey noting the persona experience fe enon ar he ce ad gst sie his esse, Thee so Fina marr cory mode ct ire slot the let in "eanoy pe (atrson albino ee of 1°) which oul a wel pihtos rasa banat being (19876) Sack advocates narrative discourse asa way to being persons, with thei parce experiences of ils, ino foes: ‘oer the human bjt the eerie sig fice, ing, noma betwee see ry «nae o ae oo al then do wehate a he" eh el person pent nr Ino wo dsese—in lin woe py 9879). Nase at Const nd Cntracon a “Though his writings and his therapeutic paces, Sacks ke Lia be {ore him envisions the posite fa “romantic sence” that eats alse siene and syne biogzaphy of he individual cas as esses Tilly complementary” (Cole 1996:346) and canbe posted a “he team of novelist and sini combinal!” (Sacks 1987223? ‘Much recent work gues theneod to et allpess experience through itnssnaratives (eg Kleinman 1988, 19955 Broyard 1992; Frank 1995) Physicians have peblshed acount oftheir own afcons and tcouaters withthe meds pofersion, ep conveying thee ha ‘won reazation that shee is more to the story of bing patent than Son becaprre bya medical symopis ocated medial story. Sach Stounded beakers” have writen about how the experiences have signifcanty affected or tansformed the way they thik about thee ‘wonder lives aswell heir understanding of the medical profession and its practices (Han 29951254 fo a sight review of 2 munber of scouts written by physicians, see Han 19952, 9; fora cae example tia swounded hele” ee Klinman 1988-21113) An portant thvead in thelist which has emerged ro or directed toward theclnia community and aries to reorient medical practices in soci isthe aed dings disease, as phenomena seen fom the pes isomer’ pespstive om the outside, rom las as phenomena seen From the propose ofthe sulferer. Writing as both physician and a= thropologs, Kleinman (29885) tars to illoes narratives to impart ‘the inatelybustan experene of symptoms and sein.” WHAT IS A STORY? efor ooking more closely at he implications of his narative shi i medal anthropology, we ate to come fo gip with Wha is meant Iya toy and then o expe some of he diferent st ofthe narrative foe. In ordinary speech and in mack scholarly wen, tere ae tain tendenay to teat ory as 2 "aarurl” objet thi needs no ex ‘lining, which one can somehow jst pine to. Ye itis plagued by a Kin of pervasiveness an unbounded Irs a common ait. When fave we nor lingo hearing sores? Mor dfs i identity sl i ‘etal a nartive mae, a4 many have sugested (4 ‘ott Polkinghorne 19935 Gergen and Gergen 1997) is hee {im buman life thats nora story? Are we always ig ov stories? Some would ange self isesenialy a storteling enters (anda as these claims arte far= nds C. Garo and Chery aig seach of naccatve tant that rater than ving xy sable mewn, ‘his term sng far and wide. ‘Withowattempting to fer anything co presse, we propose afew remarks shout the nate of tres hat hold generally tue sos hl ture and analy radia ac tara out 0 be eget wea we to undesand Why narrative nays has become so power i ead of les and healing I we begin ery simply, by noting that stories teem tn ofr some Rndamental way to male ese of expereney his sled suggests the there ome base form which we cll" 01 thac underneath the exteeme varsity of kinds of soe, factions of stories, and situations of teling, there exists a shared ore, 2 fndamen- ta “storys” belonging oll parole stories. French status, following se Russian formalise (notably Propp 1968) who sdied fair tls, have Been energetic alvocates and explorer the serch foe fandamental narrative fom. This exploration has come under Serious stack, even by so carly enthusiasts, Roland Barthes, one of those tan marratlogts, ter fered one ofthe most sence ia Tierary theory ofthe whole eaerpese, He opens S/2 wah his “Tc i tobe eran Bodie whee toc pace ble hem 2 Socal lisa ma ban. Peinly wha thet nae a are ‘ore ate os lth els te thre ave er er = nya sgl we sly ey ough rode hn oof thse mel we al le st are scr, ‘which we shal wept fr veto wo ey obese: a tak ee oetng rie te sent perpiton a te sig grea sacl andnrblfr th tea reyes rene (9743) othe formal mode of story nay actualy exis, og ft can be con: secede may tum ato bea foolishly emp category, «wees ab. action, ar Barthes suggests. Although there may well be no funds renal marae seractare fo uncover, nor any simple and content notion of tor,” this does aoe mesa tha ss ambitious strata en dears are fraess or that creating language in aid of such a en teres is foolish. And; 5c happens, ew things about the nature of stories can reliably he noted. Mot hai, orien concer action, more ‘pecially hums or hamanike sean, even mare specially, sil interaction. They offer ur “dea” forays ito socal ie Barke +545), explorng she meaning of evens by inking orig, at and sequence Some wou een claim tht inthis chaning they ole a __explanaions of events (Fisher 1997; Mating 19912, 1998), aim Naive 8 Contr nd Conran ” ‘made compelingy by Arsode (2970), or whom narrative plo was Foun of moral angen. ‘Store albo concen eens at experienced and sled through by _guite specific actors, They allow we (he audience) 10 sfer something rout what elie to he inte ory word thats, they gv form to fing (Langer 1953). Teling.a tory ia “elaional at” that nes sarily implister the audience (Linde 19932112~15). Stores are i fended a be evocative and provocative, Story language i very fen Image dense, connoitive rather than denote (Jakosoa 1960), Fut thermore, following a story, expel one ch i metaphor and est ing highly charged uaa dramas, provokes an experience inthe aul tc. Pat another way, ellwing «cmpeling sory i 0 mere absent ‘mater it invlves an imaginative oarney int story world. “Astor an fective one es, not oly is bur soething but als docs somthing, This i what John Avan (1963) designates the pet lecitonry and iocetonary functions of language. Austin speaks of two ways tn which words do things. One, mach moze thoroughly die ‘ome by aathepologints, he labels the “iloetonary Kanto.” Th involves yng someting in conventional situation (a, ill in sihich he saying va perormance fa ual cor instance bap Inga cid or marrying «couple Tneiacyof an ilocasonary at public matte, a mater finfaction of ome socially agreed upon cone ‘etn Bucs prleaonay act mach ess cleat o eee ins ‘outcome, Becaseefcacy depends upon the thetorcal power of words to persuade and infuence the listene, the audience plays an ative oe ine creation of meaning Ir works, ar an action, can engender ee tai flecs in thee In ling ores narrators moralz th eves they recount and sect coviace thers se some pare of reality ina Particular way. But whether this occurs depends upon what oe 00> trate tener wllig to make, Stones ate ery ef cso his par tically vlaerable kind Ifthe have powers eos ths onl ome through descloping. a pacicalar Kind of elaoashipberween elle or text) and sence, ene ia which the Istener comes to cae aboot the ent recut “Telling stores allows marion to communica wha i sigicant in theives how tinge matter so them Roxldo #98698)-Nacatives oe {era powerful way to shape conduc because sey have something bout whats fe meaning wha isinspicng. out ves, wa a> ‘eos and oes move uso se iea Linda ©. Gar and Chay Margy {and ac ut if) in one way ater than another. Interestingly hie rot becabe tories ell vs abou the usa round of alts, A Rosa (1986298) pois out: “Narratives offen reveal more aboot what can make life worth ving than about ow is routinely Ue” This ery {ous on the sigue can ceveal what i woth cand srople what situations matter enough that ators ae “in suspense about what wil happen net THE NARRATIVE CONSTRUCT: TERMINOLOGICAL MATTERS (AND MUDDLES) Some, ke Wikan in thi volume, question whether anything a ll i seed by the consuce of narrative that ot already contained in “sor.” Ad indeed, when onebepas examine narrative di, the wl of confining categories can prove daunting and even obascting. For something that starts ott be chan intiey obvious ac el Inga stor) the specialized vocabar hat as grown wp aroun tea sppear to mask more than illuminates. In th chaps and throughout this volume, nareatve and story ae often sed nerchangeabl In some Schools of marca anal however, the terms have comet sense fo quite distinct phenomens though what these ents ar depends ‘upon which school of anasis one wens to. As well, other era ave been advanced ether tobe consistent with preexisting potions or 10 stake out new train, Despite such seman confusion, there ae se tral specie theoretical grounds for elaborating terminology hich take posible to datingush diferent sors of narrative phenome Tn mich of erry theory, maintaining a nacratve construc he is separate fom story serves to mark the atc ofthe ex where nar tive or discourse eer tthe dscarive rendering 80 sory” or bul fist wo the underlying event tha the nretve recounts Scholars deaw upon this distinction to portay the sextet reworkings| ff sequential ime, which are an integral prt of creating a compel plot The tray eric Caller noes the importance and prevalence of this coavention within structural era theory seating that “if these theorists agree on anything iti ths: thatthe theory fare egies a nnction beeen what sal ell stoey'—a sequence of cts oF ‘rents, concived as independent of ther manifestation in discourse ‘nd what I shal eal course the cursive presentation of vets” {ag81:169-7o). This conveton underscores that any nara tha 8 ‘old for writen) necessary change the seucute ofthe eign events, Nei 8 Coote and Contraction 6 which erry cts fen take to be simple chronology Bal 1985-18 Terry cites, this iereniation expresses view not ony thar there isa gap between narrative course and feat hve but alu hat ay trative tex (whether prporedly trae ono ea “distortion” ofthe tents recounted (Gennete 19 Forster 1927; White 1980) Ths the onsen belong to a heary movement associated with Both mod tenis and postmodernism in which representation ielf becomes an ‘bjs of sty and one ie never allowed to Forget tht any represent ‘an colors out view of the world porsaped. ‘Orers, working within linge eradions, may follow Roman Jikoboon's (2978) ork and distinguish “narated evens” fom "nar tative events" The olde Ricied Buran argues that bo aerated ‘rents and marie evnts emerge in he proces of perfomance sel "The naraed event, ae one dimension of dhe stony’ meaning, evoked by formal verbal mean he naraive tea in this eect emergent in performance, whatever she external stat ofthe narrated event my tr whats iin some sense ‘sctaly occured ors naraively co structed by partipans ou fcalarl knowledge of how event are— fore noe oe may be-eonsitted in social ie" (19866 In thd Keeniation, here i no poe chronology of events that exist some ‘way outside the ory performance, There x nothing “ou thee” wat ing co be natzated. ‘Along quite diferent ney, scholars have dfereaaed beeen n> vidal sons and thes uadtying hypothe oganiational pis ‘ply sorts or ates Forinstane, a prevailing consti coe tive tories across ariogs diene tha ofa schema (D"Andrade ‘99, Schemas are interpret process, neva othe conserve tare of cognition, which mediate our understanding ofthe worl Foe both eller and audience, schemas organive the heating, eng and smembering of stories, Schemas ae invalved convey the pectic of {gen story buts supply the marae suuctres thar characte "ries more general: Generale tory schemas or story Grammars have heen proposed by cognitive psychologists (eg Johnson and Man Ale 1986, Mander 1984, Mancuso 1986; for an anthropological ap lation, see Mathews 1993). From such a perspective thus becomes posible ro explore how any given ofl story or esti “shaped by in| ‘hi theore of naretve and naeation (Nese 1994:9)¢ “Tha thse mit mateatve theories are eluraly consid i ex ply acknowl ine and Feldman note tear the | "do net eopply she passerxo and Chet Mainly ingor schematic acre of arated report" They muita that sch seated reports “mast be comtreted of calural materi.” To shape fone’ past expenences, for example, “meaningfaly ito puble and ommunicable form,” its necesary to raw upon “areatve properties, like gee and plo ype ha are wily shared within a clare, shared in aay that pers other fo contre mening the wey the nara has” (1996293) ‘Within a culture, histwodevel distinction —with particular instances of tortelingdierentiated from bt alo inked with more general cl ‘rally based narrative pattems or poperes—provides a Way t theo ‘izeabout whats shared across store without dacepading the nique: reso incvidual accounts, Holland and Kins (1994) in thei analy fstores of embacraesment in American cule fund that ver 90 es cent of the sta theycllected were consent with a fourstep “peo {oxic eve sequence” for embarassment. ‘Along somewhat similar lines, Arthur Frank, 3 medial secolgi, ss sory when “refering ote acta ales people tel” and ware ‘when caning he general structural type tha compris atone ties” (A. Fank1999°188 a. 3) Acording to Franks "A nerve pe isthe most general sgn that canbe recognized underlying the plot and tensions of particular sores, People thee own unique soi, bur they compose thee stores by adapting end combining mative typestha clare make salable" (A. Frank 19951754, shank 19903, ‘Bruner and Feldman 1996). Drawing oa sori fines in pial North American seings, Frank points co che underling thematic ‘ypes—"resintion,” “chaos,” and “quest” nacaives—and expaios ‘hae decent narra type can be pen inthe same ry. ‘A fina ilusaion of the vale of diferetating beeen undecyng naraive strata and the parila of a inal tory comes from reach cari ot by Allan Young ata US, Veterans Admin tention peychitric ei peilizng inthe erentment of servic lated PTSD, Young (1993) examine how trentent tal cere to as "Dre senters) relate cae histories a diagnosti esons for dacasion with er af members In analyzing the presenter opeing acount about ‘nial patient nd he appiabiy ofthe PTSD cignose, Young found hat whi he content ofthe narrated accounts canes om case ro ase, the srt remains constant. He notes {ening preetr oping scout, ieay othe peso dae "erate eae inthe deta rode yet ed ‘ht tbe ute of «presente arate als he sac hs ite Nutra at Conc and Connection sieves’ le Inpho ee artes exes ero hi ‘Sven Eves lore a evewe as ep colt psec he ‘Seu oh ssn aes py embeded i he composton Sd ergo the qurstons making up his pron ren oe ‘Eee as td lhe ve hy Eo eel nyt cong estan bom al topes be scree sso resigned [lek knowdge fh cman ef FSD prone inthe Ameria ech de Asociions Dugnsic and Stott! Mant of Mowal Discos {Dswein: Doan 9987269-70) ‘Yung’ sogges that tending to undedyngnacatie struct may alow a researcher to ee mor lay he imprint of isin fred practi and ideoouy. "Yer another slant and terminology ave been developed by cholate wishing to describe narrative patening acs stories tol by the same individual at temporal discontinuous ocasions or within extended di uta, fr example in search interviews, where what comes to bese fered ko a dhe ididals ory i not nectar Bounded a @ unit The hetergencousteraure on selé-aratie lle history, ore story {ae dicosion in Peacock and Holland 1993 and Miler 1995:95-96) bing together groupings of tries od by the same pron, sual | Sam2 nds C. Gar and Chon Maigy school of symbolic anthropology, and ethnossiense—Shore noes that they teed ews debe ems, ress or rerame—tnowedge ‘iho oy paar twa od and rare of agi tel Sy flan lod thinkers Real people were rps by push ‘este sage min he type eater fa come iy epl appeared ne the psi sts of earl programming ‘purpofl aget rang dmesg hes Wecane tka ‘ore aoa call nin genera than welsh people pec In cones, during the lst eo decades, “the agents of clear ae 20 longer hypothe or average nates took ie real individ with specie histories, partic interes and concrete satis. Rater than as memes of homogenous clare, we now are more key £0 “oneiv fou natives as enmesed in complex power ration” (Shore =996:55) and draw areon tothe contested and emergent qualities of Caure As the receding section artes, naraive meses aly with thi expansion ofthe anthropological gaze and has casted the sen tion of those wishing for an anopolgy tha allows the individ to «erg inl her particulary while exploring the elaonsipbeeween the personal andthe clr’ Te as alsa heen taken p by those wh Wish co explore how Ife (bok seca and indvidal) ols through tne and by those who wish nor only to speak of emotion but alo fo retort rom a place where the reader can alo feel somerhing ‘When we want ro wre an anthropology that "breaks your hese” 3b Behar (2996) putt we tl ori Along with a narrative tar, anthropology ha alo taken 2 relesve turn. tension to anthropological pacties—incuding the practice of telling own and other people stories—has engendered a ens interest the cole of mrctve within anthropology For some thi shi ing of tention to marae liked to 3 perceived “ri” in ead tional modes of ecnograpic repesctation (Ficher 3986) Ince ingly, anthropoogins ell not only the storie of others but penal Stories a8 well Eshnograpies bi aroand personal ore mphsie the “de-centeced” character uf anthropological reeatch snd inode the antropologis voice in no uncertain terms. Viewed in this wap sutbiography may serve a. "handmaien of ehnogeaphy” (Behar 4096218). Tradonal fe hisories are being reinvented a ple ia which persona stories and trie fone nerlocator coming Fak 2000) As Behar writes in ee eloquent collection of ea, The Ver Naan ot Conse and Coston " ble Observe, “The gers oie istory an estore mesg wis ‘mony cha ha ning ie frm of approaching ond ranting eat” (996: tig of pond lc, ener with chcraons of oe cdmegpe ben ig the place fh anopeog pee ‘Stulbamem A powel eample i Renato Roni (29) coum Chisago undead he gore ce anger en moar Sheath lene nes Unesu ning comes ol belo of is cee Sipe oneotela hi, ln coy be terns pon Traine with dacoion of longer ead, eogiig at {hr prota soning ena ei alco. Ashe eae The peemount dim ne econ the wasn Wich Crain tnd snegect elect on lngo brent STE eathantag ec melbdolopesl bose rca creer in ae ‘Bepolgy" ist: 26) ln histone, Wikn wes saieto sate 1 publ ls 2 totter and eer er ring an oun Siew les epee aan a ackrop af ores of ting ‘he tas teat and wien shot The penonl sor ae more than hte pls tht ere to daw he rer aon hey 7a fe tho They ae produced to undcmine ay prem to oje ‘The funter te tee stance fathropologypecb by PNB {even our ic th open wheres toy ay be ear ela Baan evo “Te comenpoary ect in mesg led expec ake tur peromensogy" [Cirdae 14h 196) enbodieat Coos voaes) und snore fel peormans har a iE Tae cating imps witinantropaoey stingy 19984 is ‘Slum Rather han deen alah guage pr pot Temcrc” sd he “pial ven aciopologi te foeromning inde perfomance andthe ue pre ations, Cough, ad flag fartelar ocr head be none bowere th eh ae thrpelogaunhowteelhe=pevornansftealig” cosas Stneopelog ison as abe ort an namie he oie sic tpn of cll if) ven whe ling compaling ale, wat {dance hemes om he eopolgeal uno az and ‘language or "ston set” metaphors more brody alle 19895 ‘opr Ladran nd Ronn 196 Hagher rca 198) Nase teva one ene fo, omeine come under aack a pat ol of language a heae eer eae ae naib ielslecke, ‘ing nearer tothe body, othe clrral meaning filles and experience, itisargued hat arativesedoce meaning to "ece™ et ae Mating this volume and 1998s, fran extended dacoson of such objections ‘Withia anthropology he growing ox of nartive his oe ain hand with heightened acknowledgment hat the notion of mare “representation” ir anything but lear, Some would contend that the we the erm “repreentasion x misleading and otbers hat repent tion ents constuction, Whatever ne semanti ance and conse tent with he preceding discussion) a story neve merely represen tation if this aken fo be a pasive portico some por events oF fxprinces. A star i ot metal Nora hiddn ext which the a thropolgist somehow unearths like buried treasure, Nasties never simply mito ied expeience oan deatonal omnes, nor a fry 4 ‘csr window through which the world some chunk of nay be Seen Tiling aster, enacting one or listening to one is constractine proces, grounded in «specif cltarl etn, interaction, and bison Tent context, and meaning ar inetined. “The reflexive rr has also ele in fundamental eniqe of eth rnogeaphicrepeenation tha places nacaive at cet tage (Fischer tnd Marcus 1986; Cliford and Marcus 1986; Marcus 1998; Rabiaow 1997), Sometines in his critical and slFconsious movement nae is temted in grand and absceact tens inspied in par by Lyotard {ag84) dacuesion ofthe postmodern demise of maser narratives. But Sch xtgus have also generated quite specifi examinations ofthe a raving states within ehnogeaphic wring. Reminisen, ba with 1 fen wit, of the potential oe fe sory natin be shaped by {he ethnogeapher’ preconceptions both i the Bed and when ane fonmed int test, Edward Bruner infletal essay “Ethnography a [Naratie” asserts that “ethnographis ae guided by an impli narea- five structure, bya story we tl about he peoples we dy” (29868 139). The pivotal claim that Brner makes hat these unde na. fates precede and give structure to anthropological esearch. Anthro pologss do not bull ores ot of dats, bt diacover data ests Stones har shape their pecesions athe lds “The narra trois swe consrct ae not secondary nates abou data bu primary nat ives that etblah whats counts data (E,Bruner 198637043 43)! Naeatves provide, as Marcin puts i, “Betions ofthe whole fa ‘which ro round [ee aces” 199823) Literary theory has offered thropolgists a potent skepial gaze, which har erened a burgeoning nurs inthe anehropologie as soy, The anthroplogul sory “tock” a8 Crapanzano says. Through marae it sage, ei tures an es are provided «Aina eberence which thy lack nae tual Bruner 1984, 39863; Crapanzano 1984, 1986; Hoskins 1998; Kondo rg See Mattingly 1998 and chs volume for an extended die ‘sion of his argument If pior nares, and often implicit nes, te the anthopolops’s search for data, the naetve aspects of he ‘Shnograpi enterprise are aoe a matter of choosing particular kind tf das to colt or dcusive sexe for preseating the findings. Rather, the ask a ellenve anthropology has ben an unmasking of those undergining marae aoc. From tis perspective, expo tatons of marae are prompred not ony by esis ofthe inade- (tac) ofthe radisonal ehnoprapbic model but ao by « more radical ‘Sige concerning the validity, he blebs, of any representation Stall Whe many anthopologis soney protest the notion thatthe tthoographc text i acer ctv, cher spo doubt that debates Shout the epistemologial sats of anchropologial knowledge have teansformed nares ra specie ines (especialy among in fuss and Florist) to «ental construct within the discipline tis marta co ste hat an intesied peeoeupaton wth mie tivein the social scenes need aor be connected fo a posimdern see tion of alist representation nor fstrerefleve assessment of them thor vis the rsa eerie. While noae ofthe essays adopts nha could be lle posrmodern postion in any song sens, several {ake up questions leo posed by postmodernist, These questions, fn- ‘hme lilosophicl i ature, concen soc hings a the tats of trative as «mode orion for chal ction ox petsonal experience fn they adem the elton between areative and some exteral ‘world of eves TELLING STORIES AND MAKING SENSE MEDIATING THE PERSONAL AND THE CULTURAL, ‘Whether from the poston of obser, iteners oles, the sys inthis volume highlight nacrative aa mode of inking, a way of mak ing sense of experience. number of choles have posted othe “vital human capaci Shore 1996:379) confer meaning and crest sense cout of expentnce (eg, Barer 9325 Brunet 1986, 1996; Gofman ‘74 shoee 1996) Ax noted exer, frome Bruner (1986:11) has pot trayed noratve aa fandaneneal moe of hough tha ofers way of4 nds ©. Gero and hey Maing “ondsing experience of constructing elicy”7 Buta lo highlghed ine introdctoy section, tia mode of thinking hat manic singulae| ‘Gecumstanes ith shared expectations and understandings aoqied ‘Hrough paricipason inspec culture Narative inked to man Social and the human abit to make “cular ease” of aetions.Car- rhers (7992) examines narrative thinking tom an antheopologcl Point of iw, sting that aie hot consis not ery in tling soi ..fer bama Ines pri anycnet con thins eer enone, and wh Aatendope thy pete ay hen acon, nota expos he me Alte cumstances o ure ml ate oa rose of nse, Bas pe ofan fling sto. 8) In addition, naretive as mode of thinking cin be Hake tothe _roing ines inthe stated nature of earing. Lave and Wenger [iggrss3~54) explain hat “even scaled general knowledge ony as power speci crcuatance," being “thoroughly situated, nthe es ‘of persons and inthe cure that males it posse": ‘Tecan gc to prelim hn Pevlged with rept oer “kind ef owe An toot be ug it play pci ccm The realy of ay fom Knowl nays win the power fo renege he nang he pat tlre cing tc ming of pe ican Within aethcpslgy hongh thi tnt eae to snhropaloy Cree meee Se eee oso he sing oh pia nd eal Thy conn for arate refers an ners a epee chet sarhopologi sta, not ja x eres carl gronp bo individual with hie own personal histori, Narative bene hile forthe problemas of eresentg expen and event 5 see fon he perpen of para actos nar ment fc tural anor the ea ll sameting abet neal wee roe toa hat word athe caso lee loge lies, ee to eins and ah cae intone ay fran npr pte OF the socal world, The teling of pesos exprece with croc Conon may be “derlyenbalde within te vatiou inttonal Svctrs that inne proucon aa sary (Sar 995¢39=40h ‘acre porta ar abo shaped by cult uadesandngs bout appropri havin nd eighty sci a Nae Conia no Consercinn as counts of ils econ in Ecuador by Pie (1987) marae often impli, but alinstabvayserphatiall, conveyed “dd che ight thing" This eccured not only through what was sid but also through tvhat ws ef ans For example it ws expected that mothers, in par ruler would make heculean effort eke eat of thi il hen tito complaint of rekenment. These fos are peal rake for ante and ae nt highlighed through narracve In contas, nar fie, cld from an obserer viewpoint and put forward as counter “examples, portayng motets whose response toa. cles isfound ‘waning, wereso emotionally charged "thaitcan besa tha clara novel of scl roles drive she azaties, emotional popostions ae ‘he fl tha empower tem” (Pie 19872519) "untbermoreynsratve provides a way to appccach se relationship ‘between individual andcolture by atendingt the "oe oealural forms inthe eatin of ieaning” (Shore 1996516), Learning how to el Story isa eatal mae, pide bya cular notions of what coms fetes proper story, who ea tl what kinds of stories in what kinds of SGreumstanees, andthe ike, Creating and conveying meaning through tae fa constrctive proces anda eared sil Bruner and Fel tnan 1996; cf Frank 199515) Based ona series of developmental su ies Fiuth Haden, and Reese (1996: 344) claim tha through elling sto tes with others about the past "Chen are learning the sills of Femembering and remiicng, ot the content of parteular expt nces” Ths cen ae not arsing cha eal bo eather ow to fecal thecularally appeopeat arative forms for ecounting the pat Feldworkers and oher newcomer to ural seings come tobe rade sand perhap tellers of stories consonant wth shose stings through Teaming constructive naretve paces ar of eldork in an Anish abe commurity (see Gare in pes) involved eaching an understand ing the calturlly appropiate aeraive Frm that onne:smisfortane svt culturly dened ats of wansgresion. From an aheopogical perspectives posible to ask how inde vidal acquire such marae sl and he ways inwhich they are cl {rally embedded, In ths volume, the chapter by Good and Good tes ow medical tant arto consti dase hugh a distinctive st ti nareative practices, prates which eft he fundamental nara ity of clinical reasoning and are eared though pact engagements in lnc stingy, To tr to peat, they imply, involves luring how to tell and storie, Anober example comes rom Cain 1997] search on how individuals comeind Ga so Chery Mati to refeame dee ives ap expressed in personal stories tld according 10 the principle of Alcolics Anonymous (AA) She provides insight ano thelaming proces ands consequences through + compelng sali of individual nreatvs a feren ois ia this process. Through pae tsipation in AA meecngs and assimilating the messages ache saris of ‘sealished AA members,» elurlly specie naraie frm oc gene learned one thc provides the schematic bass or the reflexive constr tion and communication ofan dividual’ pat “The AA member leans the AA story mode, andleamstoplce he evens and experiences is ‘own life ac the model, be learn ote and eo undesstad his own ile asanAA life, andhimselfssan AA alcoholic” (Can ropraxs) Trough this proces on ndvidualiifestor coma to more cowl resemble the protuypical AA sory! The stories of those who Bt the AA model of What ean to be an alcoholic come ro be rsoutes that may help suid how oes cometo reconstruc thi past A numb of ote et ‘ings ncloding therapeu interactions (at discussed in an elie sc tion, eeate opportunities for learning new narrative frameworks for Constesting an interpreting eaperinss "Ata peat lel, hearing narrative accounts piaipl means ‘rough which cltral underandngs aboot illness —ncading pos sible causes, appropiate social responses, healing srtegies, and char steric f therapeutic alternatives are acquired, conimed ene, ‘or modifed eg. Early 1982, 1988; Poce 1987) A tory about an ws ‘sual or novel ines augments helene “fund of clr knowl fede” with which co mee the fue (Pose #987515), Stor help 10 ‘matin narrate femewors a curl resource fr understanding iis experience (Gao in pest ad this volume) lathe Haitian ie lage sti by Farmer (2994) tore toldaboutknown individuals with 1 then unfamia illes, AIDS, served asthe madam through which road shared understandings gradually became established Ae these examples ilastate ctrl knowledge informs tories while tris lp to link personal expecience and caltral meaning, modaing between Paiclares and generalities, ILLNESS, HEALING, AND THE NARRATIVE CONSTRUCTION OF SELF “The concerto mediate beeween the personal andthe socal is pari lary evident ne that address the meaning of ns for a persons seme fen. The search Foran expeience-car way to explore and represent the les of exer (or occasional, evn one ow fe) has but his chapter provides an rigning contrast Ketayes's cae he ‘brings very diferent analytic frame co het. Drawing from his bac round incrcalpoycholoy and practice theory he uss the const ‘€ “social practices” and socal contexts” 0 ange and arratine+Contrst and Consracton ca thee every contents ane th herpetic oe alk not ness SSuiy the pinay medion hong which fly members res 2nd Iminain hci rtoneip He Sapte th cetay of marine 34 Tod forsvial bien genera pot ou tha rough emphasing {he temporal neni f human experienc, arate models down play ah comple spatalenbededoem of wyy sci ie In a Tinos tempor dinenson,nesinulanoulyahabitandmove sos nan dene conte an strats focal pact, which ave hee tren dic sil een, expettons, andthe He. Desc cams pyc sone cone (anda temporary one inte many contents of fly menber’ everyday ves He foes on “Show cons ef on the meaning festa pat oftheir omens Tie dean open iris wih ary members about hy andy cle aay He cago wy hei stumpions abou wy therapy eles change. Frm i dats Be enclude that therapy dow ot each family members tale os problems ogee na parilar way 30 mach mt peoide peal {Sng dl difce om ny pater lea th cus tinoly among family members fis this nding if[tence, and he Steg se my embers make ha rete posses fr Change in aly scans. Howes the aes and messin Sidel mentee ake of sions ate nether tour nor congren He rps tue tach on therapy ies becuse the dominant {rion of rvch aajr Ceapy ved win fhe conte of Sos” but aly waders the lt of therapy important tran cena “xpeencng gent. In abd nt the vain con fens of thievery es” "We coun our diction of thi colton in the final chapter through some extended esos on how ile an besing ae com frac hough sai, We examin points of bo convergence aod Gierasch ro of ey. Sra may be god things thnk wih, bits imporet vo be le conscios abou wha oe of things thy ae whet hy bp hik abou, at when hey Bi or Few sh epoge, we propos to do some of the NOTES qT os om desi oh si ote” Und C Gre red Cay Magy 2 Avot inovatiespeach examines how arate nok er ler ‘ae mys to nest nal rol ais ak Ahi Una ‘Combat Dana a th Undoing of Char hn 994) cas pals teccn the ry runing th def lth here Aci Hoe ad edhe acouof soba ta d ontear expences ty ita ‘ewan: Mier (994r98 abs peo Says bok, xe sn nc een moe ii ‘Soil nt operat doe ay supine cao ‘Stata andr cern = steed tn 3, Ofcom, srt fennel natal cra al scx euro raf mp a cry cosy fc el “Atha bad he sp thr apr oda dea eae of eat atte cage ploy combed wi he pres ‘hme bused conse vw aman cousin leds quis ee ‘hector bere aguage mse expres ia utara appa naa aon soe erpsnbaron of epee ad iw the co aan af ey fr hat cmp an har sonia the eptce tcb Snk Fay He sul bene that Shore, among thers dso view tse dee pment at holy tay hey come asco on “Aste So ‘Sec penta en geo tito ee comer thar ns ben at he ee of he ipo harted ew s al Isto (cages and Quin) Raber han cane fe Siegel geet ston ts i th ad por lar ence Shorea nhoplagi oe lane ee “focaron prt onan wing cs enon ox drape State Gey aconpasing sursche ss ye ofc mod Sere “any ps i nel si ain he Ia atc sid cg cal er pop soe i ca ‘Soiled ses hts ena kar el lw Strate than nl eet rh cage pra Cngepy Tae hc hale Cas ons) seme a To ronde pyr fo his coco posto, ard rer ‘ket ome ry barges hha toaon and cones eh he ge Giese wos i ipo ing hog be tpt "bt cen atoll ean ‘Narain at Contr! ed Comeracion » hans the sae aie thy th pt of he sme ar soi ‘Terme the stn tme tame Mino ject objeto diol Suit tncone dict ieee the oe ew an tend iew Ae ‘Kopel nee coca cnet hk eco hen pa bcae hy shah sepa acts” 1969 vee cet eB Donald (99 ps tthe enegese eda dking oy tte ren nt ed he lnedeendnce fue td opin. From a ee popes Spt {ibn sng ha rine ay roi cll neering aba ton og ais Seti wh he been ht oie edo eae Intend Ser ks afte eal pope of ch pn tion tn hc ts elo proper and thar make tem more ‘ocepablet ecoming lal esr (ey wily Sie, Tr eaner mainte bosom te asetiogapies nacates by ich veal abut ore (ess thats ot how ea Ba om ‘iciecrond ond eine ol nde” (3) Who rong any Shiver fore se Bre oto de a he proce fm eons she re omembering ef ese eve 1. Ochs aed Cap apes) dene atv onal experience qe Irony inlet, rai diem fuming af or tal or pou leven to. iin rte neces boy execs, omens an pose it chaenge th flloing uae woman who alr rm pa aks uapuaphls nes" sor fang ig sour he tha 9 iow Teun tok eau» het cten bn op Ro wor fe people you kaw pope we dn expeenced anc toms Be (Gtetheescts creer ou want eal hem were ange" (CAD Selo ges Ree “Mie (599) dees “he ep probe of are seucher panei textacts nacre fom a etch fds Call ine fora more ecve anc among tare be py noes we 6 nt fatooren wemate ce si7h me as REFERENCES Agar, M.x98o. Sores, background knowledge and themes: Problems inthe ali i tory nce Ameren ol 7235-39 A 7 Pte Traited by . Ee An Aor Unite Me ln 96, Ha do hing word Cami, ae aa ny Pre mH