J. Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 13, No.

6, (2007) 932-938

Effect of Ammonia Concentration on the Utilization of ACFA

(Ammonia Contaminated Fly Ash) as an Additive in Mortar and
Concrete Mixture
Jae Kwan Kim†, Sung Duk Cho*, Hyun Dong Lee, and Sung Chul Kim

Power Generation Laboratory, Korea Electric Power Research Institute, KEPCO, Daejon 305-380, Korea
*National Park Service of Korea, Jeongeup 580-300, Korea

Received March 9, 2007; Accepted August 8, 2007

Abstract: To investigate the effects of ammonia concentration in ACFA (Ammonia Contaminated Fly Ash) on
the mortar and concrete, measurements of several properties for mortar and concrete mixtures where 10∼15 %
of the cement replaced with ACFA containing ammonia of from 0 to 620 ppm were studied. Test results showed
that compressive strength of mortar and concrete decreased, and setting time of mortar delayed with increasing
the replaced amount of ACFA for cement as well as ammonia concentration in ACFA, due to impacts of ag-
gressive ammonium and sulfate ions. Based on XRD, SEM, and TG-DSC analysis of the mortars hydrates phase,
it can be concluded that the main components of the mortar hydrate are C-S-H and CaCO3. In the case of the
presence of ammonia in mortar, C-S-H and ettringite formation was suppressed, and hydration reaction rate was
delayed because free water in mortar was decreased. Relative dynamic elastic modulus of concrete containing 15
% ACFA replaced for cement was lower than that of no-fly ash concrete. As the ammonia concentration in
ACFA, and a replaced amount for cement were increased, the relative dynamic elastic modulus of concrete was
decreased indeed.

Keywords: fly ash, ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate, mortar, concrete mixture

Introduction gases and much of the ammonia is deposited on fly ash

1)
In Korea, the current production of fly ash from coal
fired thermal power plants is about 5.84 million tons per
year and is expected to increase to more than 7.6 million
tons, in 2010 [1]. At present only 66.6 % of fly ash pro-
duced is being used for the production of cement clinker,
and as an additive of mortar and concrete mixtures with
remaining 33.4 % being disposed as a waste. Meanwhile,
as the coal fired power generation industry gears up for
the major round for NOx reductions, it is widely antici-
pated that a significant number of units will be equipped
with either selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) or
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technologies. For
coal-fired power plants, both techniques use either an
ammonia based or urea based reagent. In all cases, some
non-reacted ammonia reaches the stack as a part of flue
†
To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
(e-mail: jkkim@kepri.re.kr)
in the form of ammonium salt formed by reaction occur-
ring in NH3- and SO3- containing flue gases according to
the following equations [2].
2NH3 + SO3 + H2O → (NH4)2SO4 ammonium sulfate
(1)
NH3 + SO3 + H2O → NH4HSO4 ammonium bisulfate
(2)
The ammonium sulfate is dry, powdery material where-
as ammonium bisulfate with being dominant is a sticky,
partially liquid material, which can be adhered to surface
and build up. There is widespread concern that the pres-
ence of ammonia on the fly ash will adversely affect ash
utilization. Honam, and South Cheju coal fired plants in
Korea have installed and was operating the SNCR, and
SCR to reduce NOx, respectively. Most of coal-fired
thermal power plants in Korea have the plans for instal-
 Effect of Ammonia Concentration on the Utilization of ACFA (Ammonia Contaminated Fly Ash) as an Additive in Mortar and Concrete Mixture 933

Table 1. Chemical Composition of Fly Ash, ACFAs, and Cement (unit : wt%)
Samples SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO CaO K2O Na2O TiO2 P2O5 NH3 (ppm)
FA 48.80 6.79 19.02 1.58 16.42 1.80 2.20 0.67 0.32 -
1ACFA 45.00 6.80 20.02 1.60 15.20 1.90 2.28 0.77 0.35 6
2ACFA 45.90 6.81 19.64 1.30 15.10 1.46 1.87 0.85 0.33 56
3ACFA 47.80 7.07 19.54 1.90 14.20 1.43 1.35 0.83 0.31 115
4ACFA 48.40 6.62 18.78 1.70 15.20 1.40 1.04 0.75 0.21 620
Cement 21.40 3.17 4.74 2.30 62.50 1.15 1.06 0.28 0.17 -

Table 2. Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Ggregates crete mixture are given in Table 2. The fine aggregate
3
Items Units Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate with specific gravity of 2.59 g/cm and maximum size of
Passing at 0.08mm Sieve % 0.90 0.10 10 mm was a sand for mixing in cement mortar and
3 concrete. Also, specific gravity and maximum size of
Specific gravity g/cm 2.59 2.65
3
coarse aggregate used to prepare only concrete mixtures
Apparent Density g/cm 1.63 1.57 3
were 2.65 g/ cm , and 25 mm, respectively.
Size (mm) Accumulated Mass Percentage
25.00 100 100 Mixture Proportions
The mixture proportions of mortars are given in Table
10.00 100 45
3. The mortars were prepared with a 0.54 water/cement
5.00 97 2 ratio. To prepare mixture of mortars, 10 to15 % of the ce-
Sieve 2.50 wt% 91 1 ment was replaced with ACFA containing ammonia con-
1.20 73 - tent of from 0 to 620 ppm. Mortar prepared without fly
0.60 42 - ash covered Plain-M, and the others had two series with
replaced ratio for cement of 10 (ACFA-M10), and 15 %
0.30 12 -
(ACFA-M15), respectively. The mixture proportions of
0.15 2 - concrete are shown in Table 4. The concrete was mixed
for three minutes in double axis forced mixer of five liter
ling and operating the SCR or SNCR to meet the strin- capacity with the air-entraining agent (AEA) as a chem-
gent regulations for NOx emissions from 2006. There- ical admixtures. Concrete mixtures were produced using
fore, KEPRI (Korea Electric Power Research Institute) the followings; replaced ratio of fly ash : 10 (ACFA-
has started projects for investigating the utilization char- C10), 15 ( ACFA-C15), and 0 % (Plain-C), respectively.
acteristics of ACFA as an additives of mortar and con-
crete mixtures. This study was conducted to keep and Experimental Method
promote the utilization of ACFA as an additive of ce- Mortar and concrete samples used to measure com-
ment mortar and concrete mixtures. pressive strength were cast in 50 × 50 × 50 mm, and 10 ×
20 cm cylinder molds, respectively. On the next day, the
o
specimens were cured in a water tank at 20 ± 1 C to the
Experimental specified age of 28 days. Compressive strength measure-
ments of mortar and concrete were carried according to
Materials KSL 5105, and KSF 2405, respectively. Setting time of
Materials used in this study were five ACFA samples mortar was determined using the testing method for time
collected from the Honam coal fired plant owned by the of setting of hydraulic cement by Gillmore Needles ac-
Korea East-West Electric Power Corporation. Table 1 cording to KSL 5103. Mortar specimens for the quantita-
shows the chemical compositions of fly ash, ACFAs, and tive analysis of hydrated phases were cured in a water
o
cement. In case of chemical composition of fly ash, mass tank at 20 ± 1 C for 1, 3, 7, and 28 days. The extent of
fractions of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 was over 73 %, satisfy- cementious materials hydration was analyzed by means
ing the specifications of fly ash in Korea standard L of TG-DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimeter-Thermo
5405. Samples covered five series of fly ash with ammo- Gravitimeter, Netzsch Co, Model STA-409). Investigated
o
nia concentration of 0 (FA), 6 (1ACFA), 56 (2ACFA), sample were heated to 1,000 C at increasing temperature
o
115 (3ACFA), and 620 ppm (4ACFA), respectively. The of 10 C/min.
physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates sampled Testing for resistance to freezing and thawing of con-
from Kum river in Korea for mixing the mortar and con- crete was also investigated by rapid freezing and thawing
934 Jae Kwan Kim, Sung Duk Cho, Hyun Dong Lee, and Sung Chul Kim

Table 3. Mixture Proportions of Mortar Blended with ACFA and Cement (unit : g)
Mixture No. Replacement ratio (%) Water Cement Fly Ash ACFA Fine Aggregate
FA-M10 10 494.7 918 102 - 2500
FA-M15 15 494.7 867 153 - 2500
1ACFA-M10 494.7 918 - 102 (1ACFA) 2500
2ACFA-M10 494.7 918 - 102 (2ACFA) 2500
10
3ACFA-M10 494.7 918 - 102 (3ACFA) 2500
4ACFA-M10 494.7 918 - 102 (4ACFA) 2500
1ACFA-M15 494.7 867 - 153 (1ACFA) 2500
2ACFA-M15 494.7 867 - 153 (2ACFA) 2500
15
3ACFA-M15 494.7 867 - 153 (3ACFA) 2500
4ACFA-M15 494.7 867 - 153 (4ACFA) 2500
Plain-M 0 494.7 1020 - - 2500

3
Table 4. Mixture Proportions of Concrete Blended with ACFA (unit : Kg/m )
Mixture No. Replacement ratio (%) Water Cement Fly Ash ACFA Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Admixture
FA-C10 10 177 247.5 27.5 - 858 928 0.8
FA-C15 15 177 233.8 41.3 - 858 928 0.8
27.5
1ACFA-C10 177 247.5 - 858 928 0.8
(1ACFA)
27.5
2ACFA-C10 177 247.5 - 858 928 0.8
(2ACFA)
10
27.5
3ACFA-C10 177 247.5 - 858 928 0.8
(3ACFA)
27.5
4ACFA-C10 177 247.5 - 858 928 0.8
(4ACFA)
41.3
1ACFA-C15 177 233.8 - 858 928 0.7
(1ACFA)
41.3
2ACFA-C15 177 233.8 - 858 928 0.7
(2ACFA)
15
41.3
3ACFA-C15 177 233.8 - 858 928 0.7
(3ACFA)
41.3
4ACFA-C15 177 233.8 - 858 928 0.7
(4ACFA)
Plain-C 0 177 275 - - 858 928 0.8

o
test method (5 to -18 C, 6 cycles/day until 300 cycles)
using 410 × 100 × 75 mm prism specimens. Prior to test-
o
ing samples were cured in a water tank at 20 ± 1 C up to
the age of 28 days and then the relative dynamic modulus
of elasticity were measured using a resistance analyzer to
freezing and thawing (Model JS 9601).
To carry the measurements, concrete samples sealed in
plastic bottles were used. The ammonia concentration re-
leased from concrete was measured by GasTec ammonia
sensing tubes inserted through the sealed head hole of the
bottles.
Results and Discussion
Compressive Strength of Cement Mortar and Concrete
In general, mortar and concrete blended with fly ash re-
ported lower early strength than mortar prepared without
fly ash whereas the compressive strength of the fly ash
mixtures increased substantially compared to their st-
rengths at age of more than 28 days [3,4]. Tests to inves-
tigate the addition effect of ACFA on the compressive
strength of mortar and concrete were performed.
Figure 1 shows the 28 days compressive strength for all
mortars tested. The addition of 15 % ACFA by weight of
cement decreased the strength up to 20 % when is com-
 Effect of Ammonia Concentration on the Utilization of ACFA (Ammonia Contaminated Fly Ash) as an Additive in Mortar and Concrete Mixture 935

Table 5. Setting Time of Mortar Blended with ACFA

Series Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
FA-M10 3 h 40 min 6 h 25 min
FA-M15 3 h 45 min 6 h 35 min
1ACFA-M10 3 h 40 min 6 h 30 min
2ACFA-M10 3 h 50 min 6 h 30 min
3ACFA-M10 3 h 55 min 6 h 35 min
4ACFA-M10 3 h 55 min 6 h 30 min
1ACFA-M15 3 h 45 min 6 h 40 min
2ACFA-M15 4 h 0 min 6 h 45 min
3ACFA-M15 4 h 0 min 6 h 50 min
Figure 1. Compressive strength of mortar blended with ACFA.
4ACFA-M15 4 h 5 min 6 h 40 min
Plain-M 3 h 15 min 6 h 5 min

tested at the age of 91 days. The graphical presentation

of the compressive strength-concrete type relationship is
given in Figure 2. It can be seen that the compressive
strength of concrete decreases as the ammonia concen-
tration in ACFA or replaced ACFA amount for cement
increases. This phenomenon is contributed to the ag-
gressive impacts of ammonium ions and sulfate ions dis-
solved from ACFA in concrete mixing.

Setting Time of Mortar Mixtures

Figure 2. Compressive strength of concrete blended with
ACFA.
pared with the cement mortar mixture of no ACFA. As
ammonia concentration in ACFA replaced with cement
increased, compressive strength of the ACFA mortar is
significantly reduced (see Figure 1). Especially, samples
such as 3ACFA-M15, 4ACFA-M10, and 4ACFA-M15
detected noticeable ammonia odor in process of mortar
mixing. This phenomenon may be probably due to the al-
kali reaction between hydroxide ion and ammonium ion.
As ACFA in aqueous solution immersed, ammonium ion
is primarily dissolved from ammonium salts such as am-
monium bisulfate/ammonium sulfate and then ammonia
gas formed by alkali reaction of hydroxide ion according
to the following equation.
+ 2-
(NH4)2SO4 → 2NH4 + SO4
+ -
NH4 + OH ↔ NH3 + H2O
Also, in order to investigate the effect of ammonia con-
centration in ACFA or ACFA addition amount on the
compressive strength of concrete, strength for eleven
concrete mixtures of Plain-C, FA-C10, FA-C15, 1ACFA-
C10, 1ACFA-C15, 2ACFA-C10, 2ACFA-C15, 3ACFA-
C10, 3ACFA-C15, 4ACFA-C10, and 4ACFA-C15 were
Setting times of mortar mixtures containing fly ash are
generally increased when compared with mortar mixtures
prepared without any fly ash, due to the fact that the hy-
dration of the fly ash appears to be delayed and calcium
hydroxide concentration liberated from hydrating cement
is then decreased. For example, KEPRI reported in-
creases in the initial set and final time of 45 min and 1 h,
respectively. Setting times were increased further when
fly ash containing high LOI (Loss On Ignition) and vana-
dia (V2O5) was used. This is an indication that chemical
composition play a major role, and even within the fly
ashes from the same coal fired plants, setting times can
vary significantly [5,6]. Few data exist on the influence
of addition of ACFA on setting time of mortar.
Meanwhile, to exclude the effect of LOI content in fly
ash on the setting times of mortar, fly ash and ACFA
with the constantly LOI content of 3.1∼3.5 % was used
(3) at this study. Table 5 shows the setting time of mortar
blended with or without ACFA. The setting times of
(4) mortar with ACFA are longer than those of mortar with-
out ACFA. At mortar replaced by ACFA of 15 % for ce-
ment, initial setting times of about 30 min are longer than
those of mortar without ACFA. Test results have shown
that the initial setting time of mortar delayed as the am-
monia concentration in ACFA or replaced ACFA amount
for cement was increased.
Also, final setting time of 35 min for a replacement lev-
936 Jae Kwan Kim, Sung Duk Cho, Hyun Dong Lee, and Sung Chul Kim
(a) 1 day
Figure 3. XRD traces for mortar mixtures blended with ACFA.
(a) 1 day
Figure 4. SEM images of mortar blended with ACFA of 620 ppm NH3 at 1 and 28 days (×100).
el of ACFA of 15 % was delayed. The effect previously
described can be attributed to hydration reaction which
delayed as ammonia concentration dissolved in mortar
increased.
Hydrate Formation of Mortar
The main hydrate phases resulting from cement hydra-
tion are the following ones; CSH (CaO⋅SiO2⋅nH2O)
formed from hydration reaction between C3S (3CaO⋅
SiO2) and H2O, CaCO3 formed from neutralization re-
action between Ca(OH)2 and CO2 in air, Ettringite
(3[CaO⋅Al2O3⋅3CaSO4⋅32H2O]) formed from hy-
dration reaction between gypsum and H2O.
Figure 3 shows XRD analysis results of mortars phase
(FA-M15, 4ACFA-M15) where 15 % of the cement was
replaced with ACFA containing ammonia content of 0
and 620 ppm, respectively. The principal crystalline com-
ponents of most mortars are calcite, ettringite, and cal-
cium hydroxide. CSH (CaO⋅SiO2⋅nH2O) was not de-
tected due to a poorly crystalline property. At age of one
day, calcite peak intensity of mortar (4ACFA-M15)
(b) 28 days
(b) 28 days
blended with ACFA of 620 ppm NH3 is higher than that
of mortar (FA-M15) blended with fly ash of zero ammo-
nia, and peak intensity of ettringite crystalline is higher
than that of calcium hydroxide for all cases. At age of 28
days, for the 4ACFA-M15, the peak intensity of calcium
hydroxide is increased whereas calcite sample show a
considerable decrease in the peak intensity with in-
creased ages. For the FA-M15 sample, peak intensity of
calcite is decreased and has the same trend as that of
4ACFA-M15. On the other hand, the peak intensity of
calcium hydroxide is lower than that of ettringite. It
could be assumed that in case of the presence of ammo-
nia in ACFA, ettringite and calcite formation of mortar is
suppressed, and hydration reaction rate is delayed be-
cause free water required for the cement mortar hydra-
tion is decreased.
SEM images of mortars blended with ACFA of 620
ppm NH3 is given in Figure 4. Formation of the gelati-
nous hydrate is seen in mortar surface morphology. In
the presence of ammonia in ACFA, ettringite formation
was seen leading to needle shaped structures. Gelatinous
 Effect of Ammonia Concentration on the Utilization of ACFA (Ammonia Contaminated Fly Ash) as an Additive in Mortar and Concrete Mixture 937

Table 6. Effect of Ammonia Concentration in ACFA on the

Hydrates Formation of Mortar Blended with ACFA (unit :
wt%)
Hydration time
Mixture No. C-S-H Ca(OH)2 CaCO3
(days)
FA-M15 1.26 0.95 3.45
1ACFA-M15 1.74 0.78 3.95
1 day 2ACFA-M15 2.59 1.03 3.75
3ACFA-M15 1.66 0.66 3.14
4ACFA-M15 1.85 0.53 4.91
FA-M15 2.06 1.32 8.14
1ACFA-M15 2.80 1.32 7.66
3 days 2ACFA-M15 2.20 1.03 6.98
3ACFA-M15 3.09 2.34 6.32
4ACFA-M15 2.62 2.22 6.91 Figure 5. Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete
FA-M15 3.64 2.92 2.45 mixtures blended with ACFA.
1ACFA-M15 3.72 3.08 2.41
3 days was decreased with increased ammonia concen-
7 days 2ACFA-M15 4.57 3.62 2.43
tration in ACFA for cement such as the following results;
3ACFA-M15 3.08 2.92 2.89
4.69 (FA-M15), 3.71 (1ACFA-M15), 3.23 (2ACFA-
4ACFA-M15 4.39 3.45 1.52
M15), 3.18 (3ACFA-M15), and 2.00 % (4ACFA-M15).
FA-M15 6.71 3.37 3.00 It could be concluded that the main components of ce-
1ACFA-M15 5.95 3.41 1.32 ment mortar hydrate are C-S-H and CaCO3. In case of
28 days 2ACFA-M15 5.81 2.47 2.00 the presence of ammonia in ACFA, C-S-H and ettringite
3ACFA-M15 4.37 2.96 1.05 formation in cement mortar is suppressed, and hydration
4ACFA-M15 4.60 3.82 2.27 reaction rate is delayed because free water in cement
mortar is decreased.
fluffy shaped CSH that is not detect at XRD analysis re-
sults was developed along with other hydrates. The re- Resistance to the Freezing and Thawing Cycle of
sults clearly show that a large quantity of CSH is just Concretes
detectable. At the age of 1 day, crystal shape was irregu- The modulus of elasticity of concrete blended with fly
lar and has the valley shape because large voids exist ash, as well as its compressive strength, is somewhat
with not fully packed by hydrate crystals. On the other lower at early ages and a little higher at later ages than
hand, tissue of crystalline was developed uniformly over similar concrete without fly ash [7]. The increase in mod-
the age of 28 days, leading to dense morphology with ulus of elasticity of concrete with fly ash is small at early
fine pores due to the filling of large voids by hydrate cycles [8] whereas that of fly ash concrete became higher
crystals. Quantitative analysis results of hydration prod- than the conventional concrete without fly ash after 300
ucts for mortar at the ages of 1, 3, 7, and 28 days using cycles [9]. These studies concluded that cement and ag-
TG-DSC are given in Table 6. In general, amount of gregate characteristics will have a greater effects on
CSH and calcium hydroxide for all cases increased with modulus of elasticity and fly ash concrete have good
increased the aging. However, for the mortar (2ACFA- freezing and thawing resistance.
M15) blended with ACFA of 56 ppm NH3, CSH hydrate Figure 5 shows the results of the freezing and thawing
at the age of 3 days decreased about 0.39 % than that at test. Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete
the age of 1 day. Also, for the mortar (3ACFA-M15) containing 15 % ACFA for cement is nearly equal to that
blended with ACFA of 115 ppm NH3, CSH hydrate at of no-ACFA concrete at early 30 cycles, and that of con-
the age of 7 days decreased about 0.01 % than it at the crete for all cases decreased with increasing the freezing
age of 3 day. It can be seen that in the presence of ammo- and thawing cycles. However, relative dynamic modulus
nia during the hydration, hydration reaction to form CSH of elasticity of concrete containing ACFA is further de-
was delayed and suppressed due to decrease of free water creased with increasing ammonia concentration in ACFA
in cement mortar. compared with that of concretes (Plain-C, FA-C15) with
Calcite (CaCO3) hydrate was increased with increased fly ash of no ammonia content. It is considered that the
the aging until the age of 3 days whereas after the age of resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete containing
7 days it has the decreased trend. Increase interval of ACFA with more than 115 ppm NH3 is further deterio-
CaCO3 hydrate of mortar at the age of between 1 day and rated.
938 Jae Kwan Kim, Sung Duk Cho, Hyun Dong Lee, and Sung Chul Kim
Figure 6. Ammonia concentration released from concrete mix-
tures blended with ACFA during the curing.
Ammonia Released from Concretes
In previous phrase, it has been noted that the ammonia
odor was detected during the mixing the mortar contain-
ing ACFA. Therefore, tests to measure ammonia concen-
tration released from concrete blended with ACFA were
performed at the ages of 1, 3, 7, and 28 days. At age of 1
day, ammonia concentration released from concrete is in-
creased with increased ammonia concentration in ACFA
for cement whereas at age of 3 and 7 days, concrete
(4ACFA-C15) containing with ACFA of 620 ppm NH3
has the lowest ammonia releasing concentration. After
age of 28 days, ammonia concentration released from
concrete for all cases has low values with less than 4.7
ppm. But, most people working in the concrete field will
feel ammonia odor because ammonia concentration at
age of 1day was about more than 5 ppm for all cases.
A various and full measurement of ammonia effects on
several properties of mortar and concrete containing
ACFA would need further study but the information ob-
tained in this study is used as a reference for a ACFA uti-
lization at mortar and concrete field.
Conclusion
The evaluation for utilization of ACFA as an additive of
mortar and concrete mixtures was conducted for five dif-
ferent ACFAs containing ammonia concentration of from
0 to 620 ppm.
It was found that compressive strengths of mortar and
concrete decreased, and setting time of mortar was de-
layed with increasing the replaced amount of ACFA for
the cement as well as ammonia concentration in ACFA,
due to impacts of aggressive ammonium and sulfate ions.
Setting times of mortar with ACFA are longer than
those of mortar without ACFA. For mortar with ACFA
of 15 % replaced by cement, initial setting time was
about 30 min longer than that of mortar without ACFA.
It could be concluded that the main components of mor-
tar hydrate are C-S-H and CaCO3. In the case of the pres-
ence of ammonia in ACFA, most hydrates formation is
suppressed, and hydration reaction rate was delayed be-
cause free water and CO2 in cement mortar was de-
creased.
Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete con-
taining ACFA was further decreased with increased am-
monia concentration in ACFA compared with that of
concretes (Plain-C, FA-C15) without ammonia.
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