16 DRAWING 79 16 DRAWING 16.1 Fundamentals e most ses and strains produced in the 1 vary from place to place. (See Fig. 1.91.) The same type of stress and strain is produced bet each of a-b, b-c, c-d, d-e, and ef 2 shows the deformation Fig. 91 Drawing deformation of a sheet corresponding to succes- sive stages of the drawing process. Ata-b of the flange part, the material is subjected to direction and to compression in the circumfere ion in the radial ection, As a result, Circurference, 2306 Diameter, re ‘coragation Fig. 190 Examples of bending using a press brake (Cont'd)80 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING the sheet thickness increases as it is being deformed (processed). This isa characteristic of drawing, At boundary point d between the curved edge and the vertical wall of the punch, the tensile stress in the material becomes maximum, and the wall thickness of the material becomes minimum, Conversely, the wall thickness becomes maximum at the outer periphery of the blank (periphery of the flange when drawn with a flange or the edge of the container when drawing without a flange). Fig. 193 shows the change of sheet thickness for a drawn product. The sheet thickness of the peripheral part of the drawn blank can be obtained from the following equation: imate Where : t= Sheet thickness at product edge (mm) Dy=Flange diameter (mm) d,=Product diameter at center of sheet thickness (mm) 1= Sheet thickness of blank Hence, when the drawing rate (dy /D;) is 0.55, the maximum sheet thickness (¢,,) is 35 t. Where a flange is formed, the thickness of the outer part of the flange is expressed approximately by the following equation: =, [Pe tmnt «130 (1.29) Where : f= Sheet thickness at outer edge of flange (mm) d= Flange outside diameter (mm) 1.6.1.2 Drawing rate (K) and drawing ratio (Z) ‘The ratio between the product diameter (d,) (at center of sheet thickness) and the blank diameter (Ds) has great effect on the drawing condition of a blank. Accordingly, this ratio is often used as a standard when performing drawing. The ratio d,/Dy is called the drawing rate, while the inverse ratio Dj/dy is called the drawing ratio. In normal drawing operation, do usually large compared to the sheet thickness, hence d, (punch diameter) may be used in place of do with almost no difference in the final results. 16 DRAWING 81 For convenience, dp is often used in place of d, when expressing the drawing rate (or drawing ratio). These ratios may also be expressed using dg (die hole diameter) as necessity arises. 6.13 Punch-die clearance Asa general rule, this clearance is maintained within a range in which the sheet is not squeezed excessively. It will thus be determined by sheet thickness increase as a result of drawing, as well as by the random vari yn in the sheet thickness. Sheet thickness increase varies according to the drawing rate. General values of clearance are listed in Table 1.24. In practice, the clearance will often be greater or less than the standard value. This is because the clearance is either made small (1.03/~1.100 because random variatidns in sheet thickness are almost always on the minus side of the nominal dimension, and because it is best to apply a certain amount of squeeze to improve surface finish and iron out body wrinkling. Conversely, it is made large (1.5~201) to completely avoid squeezing. Table L24 Clearance used for removing wrinkles when drawing (Clearance value) Material First drawing | Intermediate drawing | Final drawing id steel Brass 12 it Aluminum List 109% 614 Wrinkling During drawing, both the flange part and the die entry part of the workpiece are subjected to pressure in the circumferential direction. Asa ing can be classified as flange wrinkling that occurs on flat flange part of the result, the workpiece buckles, generally causing wrinkling. W article and body wrinkling that occurs on either the outer radial part of the punch (part d in Fig. 1.91) or the inner radial part of the die (part o'in the figure), The former can be prevented by means of a sheet holder, beads, etc., but to prevent the latter, it is also necessary to consider the influence of such factors as the angle radius of the die and punch, die82 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING clearance, ete. bo Vhen the drawing conditions are not particu. Aye = larly stringent, it is possible to perform <1 Liraczor wrinkle-free drawing, even without the use of a t ki blank holder. (See Fig. 194) i A Lafic 204 1.6.15 Corner radii of die and punch Corner‘ T : radius of die (ra) be The larger this radius. the lower the Drawing LE force, which is beneficial. On the other hand, 7 the inactive area of the blank holder will i increase, thus causing flange wrinkling and increasing the likelihood of body wrinkling as Pit 1.84 Drawing conditions when soon as the edge of the blank is released from blank holder is not used the holder at the conclusion of the drawing operation. Converse! causing the sheet to fracture. Generally speaking, it is preferable to use as if 74 is too small, the drawing force will increase, 19 x 8 - % as is 8 2 ei i i 3 Le : By 3 03,2 i a4 2 o7 10 20 30 40 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 ee, Fig. 195. Radius of edge of drawing die (mm) 16 DRAWING 83 large a radius as possible that is outside the wrinkling range. The ry range normally used is between (4~6) f and (10~20) &. It can be obtained from the following equation. rd=08 M(Ds— da) t Fig. 195 is a graphical representation of equa Die radii for square and rectangular dra Because the die radius greatl (31) influ. ences the deformation resistance of the material being processed, when draw- Fig. 1.96 ing a square shell or other axially Rounding off edges of die used for drawing square shell asymmetrical complicated shape, the radius (r4) is usually\varied in places to 123.450 ensure that the drawing process goes smoothly. For example, when drav square sh the value of ra small in the peripheral areas where deformation resistance is low, and made large at the corner section where deformation resistance is high. (See made "Fig. 1.97 196) . Development of punch and die Punch corner radius (rj) radii If ra is made large reduction of sheet thickness at areas corresponding to the outer radius area of the punch becomes small, thus lowering the probability of material fracture, On the debit side, however, the area of those parts of the sheet not constrained by crease as a result of the drawing process, increasing the y of wrinkling, The rp value becomes maximum for hemispheric- al drawing, which accounts for the fact that wrinkling is an ever-present problem in hemispherical drawing. In general, x» is normally made the same as rz, that is, (A~6)t <7p<(10~ 2) In deep drawing requiring several stages, r must be made84 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING progressively smaller (see Fig. 1.97.) to minimize reduction in sheet thickness at areas corresponding to the outside radius of the punch. In such a case, the center of the die radius used in stage 2 (Oz1) is about 3 mm further outward than the outside diameter of the product formed during stage I (dimension A in the figure), the center of the punch radius used in stage 1 (Opi) is slightly inside the outside diameter of the product formed during stage 2, and the center of the punch radius used in the next to last stage (Ops) is either equal to or outside the center of the punch radius used in the last stage (Ops). Relationships between rz, 7p. and the flange radius of product When forming a flange, 71 and rp become the flange radius of the product and when it is necessary to reduce the flange radius below these values, an additional corrective stage must be performed. 16.1.6 Directionality of work material Ifa sheet material has directionality, the edge of the product will not be of uniform height, but will have high ears and low parts. (See Fig. 198.) This will occur even when drawing a cylinder from a cular blank. Since not possible to eliminate earing by improving the processing conditions, ears must be trimmed ata later stage. Thus, when drawing a product into a compli pig. 198 cated shape, it is often necessary to select the Shape of ears formed directionality of the sheet material to match the during drawing shape of the die. 16.17 Forming limit during drawing If the drawing rate is gradually reduced during a single cylindrical drawing operation, a point will be reached where drawing is no longer possible because of fracture, regardless of improved processing conditions. ‘The drawing rate corresponding to this point is called the drawing rate limit. When rg, zp Ds/t, and the frictional conditions between the die and sheet are constant, the value of the drawing rate limit is determined by the 16 DRAWING 85 Table 125 Drawing rate limits for various materials Drawing rate Mater Dravring rate for first | Drawing rate for second drawing stage (KD) drawing stage (K:) 055~060, | 5~085 050~035, | 030~085, Plated steel 058~065, | oss Copper 055~060 085, Brass 050~055, 075~080 065~0.70, 035~0.90 053~060 080 material and by whether the blank needs only the first drawing or subsequent drawing. Drawing rate limit values are listed in Table 1.25. ‘The values corresponding to redrawing are greater than those for the initial drawing because the material undergoes work hardening during the initial drawing stage. If drawing is performed above the drawing rate it. the process must be broken into several stages during which the product diameter is gradually reduced. For a material with a very high rate of work hardening (for example, 188 stainless steel or brass), however, anne‘ necessary between stages. The drawing rate limit is applicable to the first drawing stage after annealing. 16.2 Blank Dimensions and Shape ‘The method of determining the dimensions of a blank for making a particular product is based on the fact that the surface area of a product made by drawing without squeezing is almost identical to the area of the blank. Thus, the dimension (diameter) of a circular blank for making a container having a generating line that takes the relatively simple shape of a rotating body can be easily derived mathematically. Representative examples are listed in Table 126. It is also possible to determine the blank diameter graphically as described below. (See Fig. 1.99) 1, First, draw an accurate cross section of one side of the product (1-2-3CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING 45). . Draw the centerline of the sheet thick- ness and divide it into four parts, with each part bounded by the — folding points (234) .The length of each part is denoted as a 0, w, and x respectively. Draw a perpendicu- Jar line (XY) pa- rallel to the center- line of the cross sectional diagram. Mark off sections 0~r, 1-2. 2'- vw Fig. 1.99 Graphical method of determining blank dimensions 3.and 3’—4'on line X-¥ equal in length to u, v, w, and x respectively. Here the length (w) of the curved section can be obtained mathematically. Obtain the center of gravity of each of section 1-2, 2-3, 3-4,and 4 =5 and drop perpendicular lines A, B, C, and D from the respective points. The center of gravity of the curved section will lie on the line joining the center of the arc and the chord subtended by it, at a point two-thirds distant from the arc. . Draw a straight line (a') running at an angle of 45° to the above perpendicular lines. The point of intersection between this line and line A is defined as 1,. Draw a line (a) parallel toa' passing through point 0 on line X-Y. Mark a point P on this line, roughly midway between points 0 and 4 ~ Join point P and points 1, 2; 3, and 4’ with straight lines 8, c,d, and e respectively. 16 DRAWING 87 8. Draw a segment (b') through point ,, parallel to line 2’~ P(). The point of intersection of this line with line B is defined as 3,. Similarly, draw a line (d’) from point 3, to derive point 4,. Next, draw a segment (e') from point 4, parallel to line 4'~ P (e) and drive the point of intersection 5, of line e' with line a’ 9. Draw a line (5, ~ 6,) from point 5, perpendicul ‘The length of the segment 5,~6, is defined as Z. 10. Draw a circle of diameter Z with 4’ as its center. The points of intersection with line Y-X are defined as M and N respectively. 11, Draw an are of radius (0 -) centered on point 0. If the point of intersection of the line drawn between this are and M, perpendicular to line X~ ¥,is defined as R, then M-R will be the necessary radius of the blank. Blank dimensions and radius for a square shell ‘The dimensions of a blank designed for drawing a square shell consist of straight side and corner sections. As straight line areas are regarded simply as curves, the dimensions of the subtends of the blank can be obtained in the same way as for the dimensions of the curved parts of the to the centerline. blank from the following equations: he L101 Blank dimensions for drawing a square shell90 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING Ly= wrt 2hiyt ary w= ha 2rp hiy= harp y= w2+2hist mrp 12 Ip 2ry ‘The radius of the corner part of a blank used to make a square shell can be considered in the same way as the product corner radius (72) of a cylinder. It can therefore be obtained from the following equation: 2r. hat 2+ LAlrery If the dimensions and shape of the blank are obtained using dimensions L, L2, and Re, steps will appear at the bound- aries between the corner and straight- line parts as shown in Fig.1101 Itis therefore necessary to take correc- tive action to eliminate these steps as shown in Fig. 1102, Making such a blank is time-consuming at the tes stage. For this reason, a straightline x 16 DRAWING 91 Table 1.27 Equations for calculating drawing heights of drawn products approximation consisting of a rectangle with the four corners cut off diagonally is often used. 1.6.3 Determining Drawing Depth It is sometimes necessary to know how deep (or high) a product will become when the blank dimensions are given and the blank is drawn to a certain shape. This can be done in the reverse way for obtaining the blank dimensions given in the preceding subsection. For convenience, calculation examples for Fig. 1.102 representative shapes are given in Table 1.27. The method of calculation Shape of blank corner for drawing a square shell onueen ogee i. TOT ft | au = nase a ro i cane 00 BE fal fey fe) MOSS! : |? | ete ee 0 fa é ag _| ns : [7 | wnczsiaa) oss 05m) i 3 || menos ‘ BP F aaa a 057 +a ae 45 rs 2| a=a=0 r fe az Hq sano af ‘Adi * 0.25(Dsz:- di) © +0 ae oF ‘ds = O.25(DZiZ:- di) 5 Ps Z as =025| v2. i 086+ 086r2 ‘2b = Disk bare damater (mm) anc c= Die clamotas during stand second drawing stages (nm) "anes = Comme oa fe during stand second crowing stages ‘ad an fe = Drang heights during fest and second erwin Siages (rm) ° al tickress of bank (ri) bickness during o ) roning stage (mm)1_PRESSWORKING 92 CHAPI when the drawing process includes squeeze is based on no change in area before and after processing. 1.6.4 Force and Work Energy for Drawing Calculation of the requi somewhat difficult. calculations for basic shapes, e. g. circular and square cylinders, enabling a rough value to be obtained in practice. For complicated shapes other than circular and square shells, the drawing force can be estimated on the basis of the dimensions of the nearest circular or square shell. 164.1 Force for drawing a circular shell (Pa) This is the force required by the punch to push the initially flat circular blank into the circular hole of the die. (See Figs. 1.91 and 192.) The force on the punch is the same in all radial directions from the center of the punch, and its magnitude is the sum of the deformation resistance of the sheet material and the frictional resistance between the sheet and die. Thus, the requisite drawing force is determined by such factors as the sheet material, sheet thickness, punch diameter (d,), drawing ratio (Dy/do). ratio between sheet thickness and blank diameter, clearance between the punch and die, force of blank holder, friction between sheet and blank holder, die face (depending on material, degree of surface finish, lubricant, and lubrication method), and the corner radii of the punch and die respectively. When drawing a flangeless cylinder without squeeze, however, the following empirical equations are generally used practice”. force for drawing complicated shapes is Equations are available, however, for making WD Pom det (- (subscripfy) ~ Yeild point (superseript2) Penal on Pontbas( (coehen Cecatch ori eoine) 5 or ex rong) PoteeadDedrd cone romp d= diameter of die, ry die radius, Dy= blank radius 16 DRAWING 93 % © Leo 20 100 a “00 50 150, 300, 40 20 200 ao. 400. 200 2 30( 300 150, 20 = 200 ico wo £5 sso 3 5 so 70 Ets om «ES kor 0 i | Sse fos 0 eo bas im t x” © oa » ow: 20 aad 40 is 30 0 2 2 , § 2 ‘0 : erdannte dy (nm) oan 08 sexinun Peeranmec dyno) earriek” Snopnnenss Bea Taca Calculation: eases) oe Pelkn) then Grenog 2 200 ram came fetal sre, 200 Ni) on Scoot SEOUN wtb obtned on 7 onthe seal, Renta mera cing Bylolnng 40 an the Goseaie min G28 on me Fig. 1103 Calculation chart for obtaining force for cylindrical drawing Par ndytoshe sayy Where : Py= Drawing foree (kN) d)=Punch diameter (mm) t= Sheet thickness (mm) (1.35)APTER 1 PRESSWORKING ou= Work material tensile strength (N/mm) a= Coefficient from Table 1.28 When drawing in the vicinity of the drawing limit, the drawing force can be obtained from equation (1.35) by making kg=1. Fig 1.103 is ing Py on the assumption that ky =I. Calculation This calculates the requisite blanking forces to form cylindrical containers of 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, and 160 mm inside diameters respectively. from a 125 mm thick (0) blank of mild steel (tensile strength: 400 N/mm’) having a Insert the values ¢ = 1.25 mm; o»=400N/mm*: dy=100~160 mm: and a= 1.10 ~ 0.33 (obtained from Table 1.28) in equation (1.35). The results obtained are listed in Table 1.29. Energy for drawing cylinder (Ea) The drawing energy can be obtained from the following empirical sed for obtail iameter (Dz) of 200 mm. Table 128 Equations for calculating drawing heights of drawing products 015 oxo 090 73 | [ase 2 | 12s 75 B a | wing force Ps (SN) or reference. 16 DRAWING 95 Table 1.30 Coefficient work energy for drawing (C.) Ginacal [Drawing ate Do | 035 | | 7s diawing | Drawing ratio ya) | 182 us |133 Scuare ne 055 [oss |o70| “07s 080 ont | ez [sr Note ed from Figure equation: Eq=Pahacas E4= Work energy for cylindrical drawing (J) hig= Drawing depth (mm) can be obtained from equation (1.37) below Ca= Coefficient from Table 1.30 (1.36) «37 Equation (1.36) does not include the work energy expended by the blank holder. The work energy of the blank holder will vary greatly depending on whether drawing is performed with a double-action press or a cushion- type blank holder. In the former case, because the blank holder remains virtually motionless under pressure, the work energy can be considered zero (there will be a slight expenditure of energy due to elastic deformation of the press, heading, etc). In the latter case. much energy will be expended due to the fact that the blank holder moves during processing. The total energy therefore obtained from the following equation, Em=(Pat Pas) ha Ca aa ~ = (138) Where : Pa»= Blank holder force (average value is used when the necessary for a drawing operation is cushion force fluctuates during processing) (See 16.5 lank Holder Force.") Calculation 13 This calculates the requi of 150, 180, and 210 mm inside diameters from a 3 mm thick mild steel (tensile strength: 400 N/mm) blank having a diameter of 300 mm. the drawing force from equation (1.35). Because the drawing e work energy to draw cylindrical cont ers.CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING Table 1.31 Results of calculations 13 and 17 Internal radius of product Drawing rate dy/Ds q Caleulai Drawingenergy FE eatin) ‘Area of blank holder (ex) teal/exn) a 3 24 04 én) 2200 Caleulation 17 ratios are respectively (150/300) =035. (180/300) =06, and (210/300) =0.7. the corresponding values of kd obtained from Table 1.28 are approximately 105, 071, and 048, If these values are inserted in equation (135), the resulting values of Py will be 595, 482, and 380 KN. Next, if the drawing depth (i,) is obtained from equation (1.37), the values ly 112,81, and 55 mm respectively. The requisite work energy can then be calculated by inserting the above Py and jy values in equation (1.36). The I be approximate- Fig. L104 Product shape corresponding to square cylindrical drawing calculation example 16 DRAWING 97 Cy values, obtained from Table | 27, are 088, 077, and 0.70. The calculated results are listed collectively in Table 131. 1643 Force for drawing a square cylinder When drawing a square cylinder the deformation resistance of the sheet material is extremely high at both the straight edges (@6,¢d, 2, and gh, in 1.104) and corner sections (6 ¢, de, fg, and Tra in Fig. 1.104). Thi because unlike straight sections where only simple bending takes place, the sheet is stretched in the radial direction and compressed in the peripheral direction at the corner sections. The following empirical equation, based on the above study, s generally used to calculate drawing force: Pup oy (2nr-e1 > bes) oy so (139)! 1000 Where : Py,= Force for square cylindrical drawing (kN) re= Radius of corner sections (mm) J.= Length of straight edges (mm) c1= Coefficient. (cy = 05 for extremely shallow drawing and ¢)=2 when the drawing depth is 5~6 r.) ¢2= Coefficient. (c= 0.2 when the clearance between the punch and die is suitable and there is no wrinkling prevention force; cz=0.3 when the wrinkling preven- tion force is about one-third of Py ; c2= 1 when drawing is extremely difficult) Calculation 14 This calculates the requisite force for drawing the products having the shapes shown in Fig. 1.104 (two types) using a L5 mm thick aluminum sheet (tensile strength: 10 kgf/mm’), The radii of the corner sections are 60 and 20 mm (two types). First, consider the case where 7. =60 mm. 1,=2 (250-60 2) +2 (200 - 60x 2)=420 mm. 1) Die Design Handbook98 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING er= land e205 Pair = 15 * 100 X (2% 3.14 x 60x 1 +420 05) aC = 88kN Next, take the case where 7-=20 mm. 1,=2 (250-20 x 2) +2 (200-202) =740 mm, cy =2, and c= 1 o-Pap= 15% 100 * (2X 3.14 X 20% 2+ 740 X 1) aa = M8.7kN 1.6.44 Work energy for drawing a square cylinder (Eur) This can be obtained from work energy equation (1.36) for a circular shel In other words, it can be calculated from the following equation: Bur= Parka Ca Where : Ev = Work energy for drawing square shell (J) ha= Drawing depth (mm) Cy= Coefficient from Table 130 Par= Drawing force (kN) Calculation 15 This calculates the requisite work energy for drawing the product do) described in calculation 14, Ly ly +2hy =200+ 2% 100=400 Hence, /y/L1= 200/400= 05 From Table 1.27, Cr 083 When r,=60 mm, the work energy for Py-=88 kN is Ey, (60) =88 x 100% 083 = 7300 J When r,=20 mm, the work energy for Pa 1487 kN is Eu (20) = 1487 x 100 0.83 = 12340 J 165 Blank Holder Force (Pas) To prevent wrinkling, it is preferable that the blank holder force be no more than absolutely necessary. If excessively Large, fracture will occur, making drawing impossible. Even if fracture does not occur, die life will be shortened, press capacity will be reduced, energy will be wasted, and 16 DRAWING 99 processing will become unstable. For general drawing work, it is extremely difficult to determine the appropriate value for the blank holder force. The following empirical equation, however, can be used to obtain a rough value of the requisite blank holder force for cylindrical drawing: 1 Pas=An bo TG a4), \ere : Puy = Blank holder force for cylindrical drawing (kN) Aj = Area of blank holder (cm’) Ana LDP= (dat ra") (142) When the value of dp/t is large, the relationship dy + 2rg dy can be assumed. As a result, =P DP de) (143) Where : P)= Blank holder pressure per unit area (N/cm*) 2 wv=025 [( 26-1) +0005 4] on + (14d) i, t Values of Py are Calculation 16 This calculates a suitable blank holder force corresponding to calculation 12. The values of A, and P, from equations (143) and (44) are inserted in equation (L41) to calculate Py. Equation (142) is not used to obtain A, in this example because dy /t has a value of 100 or more. The calculation results are listed in Table 1.30. Calculation 17 This calculates the total work energy for calculation 13, assuming the use of a cushion-type blank holder, First, obtain the values of A, and P, for equation (1.41) from equations (142) and (1.44). In this case, the value of d,/t is 150/3=50, hence equation fed in Table 132 Table 132 Values of Pb for drawing Py Nem) 180=220 ‘300~ 400 w= 120 10~160 0=70 Material Ordinary steel SUS 304 Copper, Aluminum100 SSWORKING (1.43) is not used. The corner radius (7,) of the die is 18 mm, that is, 6 times the sheet thickness. Next, calculate the value of Pys by and Ps values into equation (141), then use equation (1.38) to calculate the total required energy. The calculation results are listed in Table L31. nserting the A, 1.6.6 Number of Drawing Operations for Deep Drawing 6.6.1 Cylindrical drawing When performing deep drawing exceeding the drawing rate Limit, the overall process is divided into stages in accordance with the drawing rate limit. (See Table 125, In other words, if the drawing rate limit for the first drawing stage is Ky, and Kz for the second drawing stage, the product jameter obtained by drawing a blank having a diameter of Ds, by m times is obtained from the following v= Do Ki Ke"! By using the chart in Fig. 1.105. it is po: and number of drawing stages as well as the diameter and height of the product at each drawing stage without mathematical calculations. This chart has been made on the basis of a drawing rate limit of 06 for the first drawing stage and 08 for the second drawing stage, therefore, it must be modified when using other drawing rate limits. The method of using this chart is as follows, using a 0.5 mm thick, 45 mm uation: + (1.45) le to obtain the blank diameter meter blank which is to be drawn to a height (depth) of 90 mm as an example. 1 commencing at the 45 mm point on the horizontal axis representing the diameter of the container. e running diagon: First, select a vertical ly down toward the left from the Then, select a fine Table 1.33 Calculation 16 Results 16 DRAWING 101 0 3 38 3 33 3 3 3) =F orn amare 3 ee 33 3 3 0 3 3 eee x ae Fes crewing sce fan ameter 2 (rm) eight ol eyindical container on) 10-20-30 40 30 Gd 0 BH 90-10 Diameter of 1.105. Chart used t container and. obtain diameter and height of cylindrical ameter of blank ‘mm point on the right side vertical axis representing the drawing depth (height of cylindrical container), and find the point of intersection between this line and the previously selected vertical line running through the 45 mm diameter point. Draw a horizon these two lines. The point of intersection between this horizontal line and ine from the point of intersection of102 CHAPTER | PRESSWORKING ‘Table 134 Number of drawing stages required to draw 45mm dia x 90mm. product and dimensions of intermediate product at each stage Corrected values obta values obtained from Fig. areragiag df Nunberof | Diameter | Depth drawing stages | (mm) | (am) Blank 135, 3 6 52 © the left side vertical axis will be the diameter of the blank, which in this case, is 135 mm, ‘Next, find the point of intersection between the above horizontal line and the thick diagonal line labeled "First blanking stage,” and, from it, drop a vertical line and project a diagonal line running upward toward the right. ‘This will give a product (punch) diameter of 81 mm and a product height of 36 mm for the first drawing stage. In a similar manner, find the points of, intersection of the above horizontal line with the thick diagonal lines labeled “Second drawing stage” and “Third drawing stage” respective! and obtain the corresponding product diameters and heights from these points. These results are outlined in Table 1.31. In the above example, because the intersection of the 45 mm punch diameter line and the 90 mm drawing depth line lies between the thick lines corresponding to the third and fourth drawing stages it is clear that the product can be drawn in four stages. Similarly, if it lies between the fourth and fifth drawing stage lines, the product can be drawn in five stages. Ifit lies to k the left of the fifth drawing stage line, it means that at least six drawing stages are necessary to form the product. In this example, the fourth and last drawing rates are slightly greater than the drawing rates of the other stages. The degree of difference in the table is no problem: however, depending on its value, it is sometimes better to distribute the additional drawing rate throughout the other drawing 16 DRAWING 103 stages. 16.6.2 Drawing a square shell The forming limit for a square shell (per- missible drawing rate per stage) is influ- enced by the kind of material, sheet thick- ness, shape (ratio between width and length), corner radius, and corner radius of the punch. Because their forming limit is compli- Container cated, there are various ways of expressing it One way, when drawing an oval shaped container (see Fig, 1.106). is to say that if the Fig, 1.106 blank area is no more than four times the Blank used for forming an oval container punch cross-sectional aréa it can be drawn in a single oper: ‘When drawing a rectangular shell with a width-o-length ratio between one n. and nine, the ratio of the blank area to the punch cross-sectional area is somewhat more beneficial than square drawing. When the ratio of the width to the length is three, the area ratio (blank/punch) will be maximum at4.5, As the ratio of width to length becomes greater than three, the area ratio will gradually fall off. When performing square drawing of a product having a relatively small corner radius, it is possible to use a single drawing operation up toa depth of 80% of the distance between opposite faces of the product. For a rectangular product, it is generally possible to draw to a greater depth, with the actual extent being related to the ratio between the width and the length. This is expressed as follows: hig a sosceeeeneetsiesees incencceencnsesnesin (AB)D Where : C,= Coefficient (08 for mild steel, copper, and brass or 0.70 ~075 for malleable aluminum alloy). Other symbols 1) Die Design Handbook104 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING ‘Table 1.35 Number of drawing stages necessary to form an aluminum, square (or noncircular) shell Number of drawing operations L 16 DRAWING 105 Table 136 Pressworking properties of tapered containers Shave Out [___Pressworking properties Extremely shallow products iy 3025~03) de drawing based on average diameter Tree eameg stage ans Fig.1.107 Stages in drawing a wide-flanged shell are given in Fig. L101. The above equation shows that as the ratio between the width and length increases, the possible drawing depth becomes greater. The limit is about 135%of the width. The ratio between the corner radius (7,) and the depth (ha) is related to the forming limit. The limit value of ha is about 4~6 times ro Table 1.35 indicates the number of stages required to draw an aluminum square (or noncircular)product where the corner radius and depth ratio are given. 1.6.6.3 Drawing a wide-flanged shell When drawing a container with a wide flange, the drawing rate becomes rather severe, often making it impossible to perform even shallow drawing ina single operation, The two methods normally used are shown in Fig. 1.107. 16.64 Drawing a conical shell When drawing a conical shell, there is a large area over which wrinkling is likely to occur between the punch and die during processing. In addition, because the end diameter of the punch is small, the cross-sectional area of Impossible to completely draw in a single operation. Marks due wo diferent drawing stages tend to be lofton side faces. Deep conical produet hav Extremely difficult 10 quires very hi pointed end part the material subjected to the drawing force will be small compared to the drawing force, leading to possible fracture. For these reasons. the drawing rate limit for a single drawing process is considerably smaller than for cylindrical drawing. Table 136 gives the standard forming limits for conical drawing. 166.5 Stages involved in drawing processes In practice, there are many kinds or intricate drawing shapes apart from circular and square drawing. The methods of drawing such shapes, however, are determined on the basis of data related to circular or square drawing, in addition to actual experience. Several examples are shown in Fig. 1.105 for reference. 167 Iro i Ironing is carried out to make the side walls of a container thinner than its bottom part, to improve the cylindricality and roundness of the container, to improve its surface finish, ete. It is performed on a product which has been drawn once, by forcing it108 CHAPTER | PRESSWORKING eas, J)mz || Koos ued) ASS Example : Example of 2stage daw rcossiatod by severe (0) 6ytngca caning (aluminum) ing rate o poe 29 Staiess soo! ese o1l4: a Scampi necessitated by tow Db (@}Bample in Sozond erawing stage $01 avl_3t See Ting soe 1.108 Reference examples of drawing processes (1/2) Tez oranig ate = 0.285 16 DRAWING 107 aE 4 lef ® { 26 #4 g Z| $53, . iat oiza Fourth drawing 090 ‘Seventh crawing sage 737] rs & Es J2~4 SP trae 37, am] ‘Sich crewing sage | (©) Conical product, co 1 F381 Fas drawing age Fong ss 22, 6171 17s RIS, B35 1 SRT a F305 or eng Setond trawing sage Fish ‘aholes (6) Produc equrng high blank neter pressure 1.108 Reference examples of drawing processes (2/2)108 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING through a die having a clearance less than the wall thickness of the product. (See Fig. 1.109) Light ironing is normally carried out simultaneously with drawing by reducing the die clearance slightly. ‘The wall thickness reduction which can be obtained in one ironing operation is 45~50% for a perfectly annealed deep drawing steel sheet. When intermediate annealing is not carried out during the subsequent stages, however, this figure will drop to 35~40 %, For annealed 7:3 brass it is about 60%; for annealed copper, about 55%; and for soft aluminum, about 40%. 1.6.7.1 Blank dimensions Because the total area of the blank is considered to remain constant throughout the drawing process, the dimensions of the blank (see Fig1110) can be obtained from the following equation: Description of symbols used for calculating the dimensions of blanks designed for ironing If the relationship d,,=da~ ty is assumed, this equation can be rewritten as oh det Adm I (1.48) This equation is convenient to use when the container wall is not of uniform thickness. Calculation 18 This calculates the dimension of a blank necessary to form a product having parameters given by d;=30 mm, t)=3 mm, (=6 mm, and 4;= 60 mm, _16 DRAWING 109 To use equation (1.47). find the values of dy and hr: These are dy= dy 2t)= 24 and {y= hy t= 54. If these values are inserted in equation (147)we obtain 308+ (302 24% SE 821 mm 167.2 Requisite ironing force (P) This force is influenced by various factors such as the average deformation resistance of the material, the amount of reduction in cross-sectional wall area resulting from ironing, the frictional resistance of the die, the shape of the die ‘mouth (angle of the taper which is often used), ete. The die angle generally used Wat hicknessredutin ios. x 100 102030 40 $0 60% se strat Ae wok W114 181820222426 koe c is between 10° and 45. The smaller this angle, the larger the area of contact between the die and the sheet. This will cause increased friction, necessitating a Wallciness aerroneg ty LAM Value of coefficient C; higher ironing force. The increase in ironing force is particularly pronounced for angles below 15°, hence an angle within a range of 20~30" is normally used. If other conditions are considered to be constant, it is possible to assume that the ironing force w cross-sectional area, On this be proportional only to the reduction basis, the following relationship holds: Dac. A oe 1b Pie GA 0 Where : P;= Requisite ironing force (kN) A= Cross-sectional wall area after ironing (mm') 1 =Work efficiency (05~08) a5=Sheet tensile strength (N/mm) 4g)” D Ochler110 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING Ci= Coe! Calculation 19 This calculates the requisite ironing force for forming the product shown in Fig. 1.109(b) from that shown in Fig. 1.109%, ‘The material used is deep drawing steel sheet hay (0) of 320 N/mm', jent from Fig. L111 ga tensile strength A= 7p (8? 14%) 100 mm Because t/t) = 3/2=1.5, the value of C; from rris taken as 06, If these values are inserted in equation (149) we obtain the following result. 30 1 5 P,= 045% 100% 3 x Toy 24 KN 16.73 Requisite work energy for ironing (E) The work energy is obtained from the following equation: E;= Pi hyh; " es (1.50) Where : £;= Work energy for ironing (J) hy=Stroke length for ironing = product length (mm) = Coefficient (08-10) P;=Troning force (KN) Calculation 20 This calculates the requisite work energy to perform the process on calculation 19, Here P;=24 kN and k; =295 mm, If the value of hy is taken as LO, we obtain the following: Ej;=24*295 x 10=708 J LAL is 0.45; the value of 1.6.8 Drawing Precautions 16.8.1 Drawing failure causes and remedies ‘There are many ways in which drawing failures can occur from a correspondingly large number of causes. Thus, it is difficult to establish correct countermeasures. A number of representative types of failures and their causes, together with suitable remedies, however, are given in 16 DRAWING 111 Table 1.37 for reference. 1682. Friction between work material and 206 die jo} During the drawing process, the blank slips while being firmly pressed against the die and Sal blank holder, so it is important to reduce the ; frictional resistance between the blank and die —_@) beter rong and blank holder to ensure that drawing proceeds successfully. To this end, it is | 7 necessary that the die face be sufficiently hard and smooth and that a suitable lubricant be 4 used. (See Table 138) 1683 Blank holder construction 7 When drawing with a singleaction press, a @)Aterironing spring or piece of rubber is sometimes used t0 Fig. 112 give pressure to the blank holder. When sucha Product dimen-sions of blank holder is used, however, it is necessary calculation example 19 before and after ironing 295 to carefully select the dimensions of the spring or piece of rubber to counter the large increase in the blank holder pressure accompanying the progress of the drawing operation. In deep drawing, it is not possible to use a spring or rubber blank holder; a pneumatic or hydraulic cushion is necessary. 1684 Drawing irregular shapes When drawing large and complicated products, there is a high risk of wrinkling, sagging, and rupture, making the drawing process difficult. It is thus necessary to heed the following points: 1. Select a drawing die surface that will evenly distribute the drawing depths of the vai ns of the product. 2, Ensure that the initial contact area of the punch with the blank is as large as possible. 3. Determine a die surface that will prevent the blank from sagging or being bent excessively when it is initially subjected to the pressure of112 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING 16 DRAWING 113 ‘Table 1.37 Drawing defects and remedies (1/2) Table 1.37 Drawing defects and remedies (2/2 ] Exer or dra Springback Remedy Increase blank older Cracking from edge in pressure fireetion. perpendicular to minor axfe (ee crack: replace the dies draw Ing in Example 8) i ng coer, b.# Shaped wria Use correcly |(See Example 7) Shin, sing press marks —— comer pa | When drawing peo- let high-grade deep arawing material, », lacking perpen side of | cg Example 8 |¢. Horizontal cracking at bottom comers fd sratel marks on drawn corner surface One sie of drawn prodact [sige corresponding t die high 2) 3 opp lew (ox die ‘ways nin * lean’ and. well bri fated, In the case of thange dimensions of Bunk at corners Punch askew with respect & Insulifent clearance tod Example 3 Drsuing die b acting Table 138 Lubricants for drawing (1/2) ze Possible reasons: Macenat | Working eis Applicable lubricant Remarks ten of product is ao completely torn avy Example Clearance too wide, radius ordraw insufficient blank bolder ed Oy pressure removing the dite Li cars appear pone ly perpendicular ff Mieetions (See Example 5) Exampl i. Appearance of ears hav ing sbnormal dimensions Blank thickness : then apply emuision Incuffcient sir escape or Heavy cies tl beet excessive Wear on dic Example 6 | sf botns oad got sulfur Sulfide emasion contsiing an ative|APTER 1 PRESSWORKING 16_ DRAWING Table 138 Lubricants for drawing (2/2) yy Fig, L113 Rison le of bead ataickinisut: Fig. LIM Various kinds of beads a REA 9, Stepped crowing process ©, Stepped draing wih application ofhigh tension Fig. LMS. Examples of stepped drawing Medium Heavy Light Medium 3.0mm Aluminum — [yp Heavy Table 1.39 Example of drawing bead” dimensions (mm) pilE|F M6 | 284 | 190 as | 351 | 254 the blank holder. 4. Formulate the shape of the blank carefully. 5. Give careful consideration to each corner radius of the Punch and die and use beading and stepped drawing. 1) Die Design Handbook116 CHAPTER 1 PRESSWORKING 1.6.8.5 Beading and stepped drawing Beading is a method of locally controlling blank slipping (vis-a-vis the die and blank holder) during the drawing process. Control involves imparting resistance to the blank motion. Beads are attached to straight or near- straight (large radius curves) parts of the die edge where the deformation resistance of the blank is relatively small. (See Fig. 1.113) This serves to evenly distribute the flow of metal (deformation) from the blank into the dic. Various bead shapes are used (see Fig. L114); however, the semicircular bead is most commonly used. Standard dimensions of semicircular beads are listed in Table 1.39, The edge of the bead must be tapered gradually to prevent excessive deformation in those parts of the blank that come into contact with it. Stepped drawing is a process in which the blank is locally stretched towards the final drawing stage. This helps eliminate sagging and body wrinkling in the vicinity of the product edge during previous drawing stages. The stretch effect of stepped drawing also reduces springback and increases stiffness, making a better product. The arrangement of stepped drawing is shown in Fig. 1.115, Pt ESSWORK FATLURES AND REMEDIBS 117 17 PRESSWORK FAILURES AND Basically, presswork failures must be preventen working conditions by carefully considering the various forming limits and selecting working conditions that are within these limits. Failures that actually occur during forming must be eliminated after analyzing the various forming limits. Table 140 lists various forming failures with appropriate remedies, when pressing large complicated parts such as automobile body panel Table 1.40 Presswork failures and remedies [Bane eenston Tproven Beeson Cause TO Sheet olied tue Grease [When sheet is held by a Tres ated do Winkle Tinea Wirkies Crease TB Commencement of sheet Haplacement (ram sate ta yam) Shick Fine (Consider shape of Wank [Een between comer part find. surface of die or ed sheet rigid bends,