INTRO

Introduction
• Microwave engineering is an evolving field

• Tremendous sophistication has been achieved. There is always more to come

• Current applications are LTE, 5G, WiFi, LoS microwave, SATCOM, aircraft comm, radar etc

• Bands of communication are P, L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka. 0.1 to 1, to 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 26, 40 GHz
V, W & mm waves are in the 40 to 75 GHz, 75 to 110 GHz and 110 to 300 GHz bands

• Few of the challenges are

• Interface
• Miniaturization
• Signal Manipulation

• P Band – RF; L band to Ka – Microwave; V, W & mm – Millimetric Wave region

• NOTE : Many slides or Diagrams in this presentation are taken from the Internet &
references will be provided.
INTRO

Advantages of Microwave communication

• Higher bandwidths are available with increase in carrier freq (typically 1% of 𝒇𝒄 )

• Cricket stadiums, theatres etc require to support 100s of clients & MW / WiFi helps

• OFC laying in cities prohibitively expensive; MW short haul links helps extend LTE

• Noise at MW is lesser than at RF

• Antenna gain and size of components can be very small giving high directivity,
• High Directivity
• Easy containerisation
• Signal Manipulation

• Properties of materials affect MW

• Concept of dB and dBm

Primer on Txn lines

At higher freqs, length of Txn Line becomes critical

RΔz LΔz A RΔz LΔz B

~
~
~
~

i(z,t) i(z+Δz,t)

v(z,t) GΔz CΔz v(z+Δz,t) CΔz ZL

~

~
~
~
~

• One solution to the Txn Line Equation is 𝑽 𝒛 = 𝑽+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 + 𝑽− 𝒆+𝜸𝒛 indicating waves
travelling in the +ve & –ve z directions

• 𝜸 is the complex propagation constant 𝜸 = 𝛂 + 𝒋𝜷

• 𝛂 is the attenuation of the signal (real part) & 𝜷 is the fraction of the wavelength
traversed in the distance ‘z’

• As can be seen, 𝜷 depends on λ Hence, no communication load can be perfectly matched

• Hence, there will be mismatch between the characteristic impedance & load impedance
Primer on Txn lines

VSWR, Reflection coefficient, return loss etc

• Reflection coefficient due to load mismatch is given by

𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝟎 𝟏+Γ
Γ= 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒐 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒐, 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁𝟎
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝟎 𝟏−Γ

• The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is a very significant parameter given by

𝟏 + Γ
𝝆= 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝟏 − Γ
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Other expressions for the same are

𝑽+ + 𝑽− 𝑽−
𝝆= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 Γ =
𝑽+ − 𝑽− 𝑽+

• Return Loss, defined as, the loss due to returning power is given by
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽−
𝑹. 𝑳. = −𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = − 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = −𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 Γ
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑽+
Problem on Txn lines

Problem Set # 1

• If 85% of the incident power is absorbed by a load and 15 % is reflected. Calculate VSWR
and the reflection coefficient

• If a 1 W amplifier delivers power to a load

through a 6 meter line with 𝜶 = 𝟏 𝒅𝑩/𝒎

• Calculate the radiated power in W & in dBm

Also calculate reflected power that reaches
the signal generator

• Looking at the representative diagram,

What can you comment on 𝒁𝒊𝒏 at two points
that areλΤ𝟒 away from each other
Impedance Matching with Stubs

VSWR, Reflection coefficient, return loss etc

• Average Power delivered to the load is given by

𝟏 𝑽+ 𝟎
𝟐
𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 − Γ𝑳
𝟐 𝒁𝟎

• This shows that the power delivered is the incident power subtracted by the
reflected power

• The power that is reflected from the load was meant to be delivered and not
returned. Hence, it is defined as a loss called the Return Loss given by

𝟐
𝑹𝑳 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 Γ𝑳 = −𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 Γ𝑳
Impedance Matching

Quarter Wave Transformer

λ/4

Z0 Z1 Zℓ
A B

Z1 / Z0 Zℓ / Z1
Consider a lossless line, of ℓ = 𝝀/𝟒 and characteristic impedance of 𝒁𝟏 interfaced to match
a line with characteristic impedance Z0 with a load Zℓ

𝒁ℓ + 𝒋𝒁𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷ℓ) 𝒁ℓ + 𝒋𝒁𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷ℓ) 𝒁𝟐𝟏

𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝟏 = lim 𝒁𝟏 =
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒋𝒁ℓ 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷ℓ) 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷ℓ →∞ 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁ℓ 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷ℓ) 𝒁ℓ
Thus
𝒁𝟏 = 𝒁𝟎 𝒁ℓ

Impedance seen at A is (Z1 /Zℓ )Z1 = Z0 . Hence if Z1 can be adjusted for Z1 = (Z0 Zℓ)1/2
impedance matching can be achieved
Primer on Txn lines

How can multiple frequency signal be matched

• QWT works only at a very narrow band of frequencies.

• A special Z1 is required for the QWT which may not be available COTS

• The QWT has to be placed between the line and the load and may be physically
challenging

• If the load is complex, the QWT will become lossy.

• Cascaded QWTs can be used for load matching over a band of frequencies but there will
be standing waves in the QWT itself and significant power can be lost.
Impedance Matching with Stubs

Impedance Matching

ys
~ Z0 l ZL

d
y11
yd

• A stub is a piece of Txn line made to size & attached to the main line at a calculated
distance to achieve impedance matching. It can be short or open circuited

• Normalized impedances & admittances are used (z = Zℓ /Z0 & y = Yℓ /Y0)

• The impedance will be matched seen ahead of the stub (towards generator)
𝒚𝒅 = 𝟏 + 𝒋𝒃 ; 𝒚𝒔 = − 𝒋𝒃 ; 𝒚𝟏𝟏 = 𝒚𝒅 + 𝒚𝒔 = 𝟏 + 𝒋𝒃 − 𝒋𝒃 = 𝟏
Smith Chart

Problem Set # 2

• Load impedance can be normalized & represented as a fraction of the characteristic

impedance. Admittance can also be expressed similarly
𝒁ℓ
𝒛=
𝒁𝟎

Find z for 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 Ω and 𝒁ℓ = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 + 𝒋𝟐𝟓 Ω

Find z for 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 Ω and 𝒁ℓ = 𝟐𝟓 + 𝒋𝟏𝟐𝟓 Ω

Find z for 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 Ω and 𝒁ℓ = +𝒋𝟐𝟐𝟓 Ω

Find z for 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓 Ω and 𝒁ℓ = 𝟕𝟓 Ω

Find z for 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 Ω and 𝒁ℓ = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝒋𝟏𝟓 Ω

Smith Chart

Representing Γ in real and imaginary parts

𝑽(𝒅) 𝒁𝑳 (𝒅) 𝟏+Γ

𝒁 𝒅 = = = =𝒛
𝑰(𝒅) 𝒁𝟎 𝟏−Γ
In terms of Admittance, we have,

𝒁ℓ − 𝒁𝟎 𝟏/𝒀ℓ − 𝟏/𝒀𝟎 𝒀𝟎 − 𝒀ℓ 𝒀ℓ − 𝒀𝟎
Γ= = = =−
𝒁ℓ + 𝒁𝟎 𝟏/𝒀ℓ + 𝟏/𝒀𝟎 𝒀𝟎 + 𝒀ℓ 𝒀ℓ + 𝒀𝟎

Negative sign indicates 180° shift since all are complex quantities

In a general sense, we can derive for z and convert it to y by simply reversing the phase

𝒛 can be expressed as 𝐳 = 𝒓 + 𝒋𝒙 and Γ can be expressed as Γ = 𝒖 + 𝒋𝒗

𝟏 + 𝒖 + 𝒋𝒗 𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐 𝟐𝒗
𝒓 + 𝒋𝒙 = = +𝒋
𝟏 − 𝒖 − 𝒋𝒗 𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐
Smith Chart

Locus of real part of Γ

𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐
𝒓=
𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐

𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒓 𝟏−𝒖 + 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏 + 𝒓𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 + − =𝟎
𝟏+𝒓 𝟏+𝒓

𝟏 𝟏
𝒖𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒓 − 𝟐𝒖𝒓 + 𝟐
+𝒓−𝟏+ 𝒓+𝟏 𝒗 =
𝟏+𝒓 𝟏+𝒓

𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝟏
𝟏+𝒓 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒖𝒓 + 𝟐
+ 𝒗 =
𝟏+𝒓 𝟏+𝒓 𝟏+𝒓

𝟐 𝟐
𝒓 𝟏
𝒖 − + 𝒗𝟐 =
𝒓+𝟏 𝟏+𝒓

𝒓 𝟏
The Locus turns out to be a set of Circles with Center@ , 𝟎 and a radius of 𝒓+𝟏
𝒓+𝟏
Smith Chart

Locus of real part of Γ - putting values of r

𝟐 𝟐
𝒓 𝟏
𝒖 − + 𝒗𝟐 =
𝒓+𝟏 𝟏+𝒓
r = 0; radius = 1; center (0,0)
jv
r = 1; radius = 1/2; center (1/2,0)

r = 2; radius = 1/3; center (2/3,0)

r = 3; radius = 1/4; center (3/4,0)

u

r = ∞; radius = 0; center (1,0)

Smith Chart

Locus of imaginary part of Γ

𝟐𝒗 𝟐𝒙𝒗
𝒙= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙𝟐 =
𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐

𝒙𝟐 𝟏 − 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝒗 + 𝟏 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝒙𝟐 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒖𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝒗 = 𝟏

𝟐𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒖 + 𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 − + 𝟐= 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒖 −𝟏 + 𝒗− =
𝒙 𝒙

The Locus turns out to be a set of Circles with Center @ 𝟏 , 𝟏Τ𝒙 and a radius of 𝟏Τ𝒙
Smith Chart

Locus of imaginary part of Γ - putting values of x

jv
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒖 −𝟏 + 𝒗− =
𝒙 𝒙

𝒙 = ±𝟏; 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝟏; 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 ≡ 𝟏, 𝟏

u
𝒙 = ±𝟐; 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝟏ൗ𝟐 ; 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 ≡ 𝟏, 𝟐

𝒙 = 𝟎; 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = ∞; 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 ≡ 𝟏, ∞
Straight line; Γ is real

𝒙 = ±∞; 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝟎; 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 ≡ 𝟏, 𝟎

Smith Chart

The Plot Thickens

Short Circuit Impedance; r=0; x=0
Open Circuit Admittance; g=0; b=0
jv +ve susceptance
capacitive;
+ve reactance;
Inductive

Impedance matching problem

boils down to bringing the
normalized impedance to
(r=1;x=0) point

Open Circuit Impedance; r= x = ∞

-ve susceptance Short Circuit Admittance; g= b= ∞
inductive;
-ve reactance;
Capacitive
Smith Chart

UNABRIDGED, UNCENSORED VERSION OF SMITH CHART

Smith Chart

Rules for the Smith Chart

Constant Reflection
Toward Coefficient Circle
Generator

VSWR & VSWR & RMAX

RMIN

Away Scale in
From Wavelengths
Generator

Full Circle is One Half Wavelength

Since Everything Repeats
Smith’s Chart

Features of the Smith Chart

It is a polar plot of reflection coefficient (Γ )

Implicitly SWR (ρ) is also plotted

Plots of Resistance (Admittance) and Reactance (Susceptance)

Intersection of the two can uniquely locate z = Zℓ / Z0.

Γ & VSWR remain constant over the circle drawn through z centered at (0,0)

IΓI & ρ may be read from scale at the bottom of the chart read right to left

ρ may be read from +ve real axis on impedance chart

Return loss and transmission loss also on the same scale read left to right
Smith Chart

Problem Set #3 - Plotting on the Smith Chart

IMPEDANCE NORMALIZED No Given To find

𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 𝜴 IMPEDANCE Zd @ 0.1, ℓ & d @ 0.1 ,
1 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 𝜴 and
Zℓ = 5 +j25 VSWR
Z1 = 100 + j50 z1 = 2 + j
Z2 = 75 -j100 z2 = 1.5 -j2 2 Z0 = 1 Ω ; Zℓ = 0.2 How far are 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 & 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 from
– j 0.2 ; the load. Find VSWR
Z3 = j200 z3 = j4
Z4 = 150 3 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zin = - j Find the Impedance at an
z4 = 3
125 electrical distance of 𝟑𝝀Τ𝟒
Z5 = infinity (an z5 = infinity
open circuit) 4 Z0 = 50 Ω; f = Find Zℓ if the minima shifts by
3GHz; 0.1λ when the load is shorted
Z6 = 0 (a short z6 = 0 VSWR = 3.3
circuit)
5 Z0 = 50 Ω; f = Find Zℓ if the minima shifts by
Z7 = 50 z7 = 1 1GHz ; VSWR = 3cm when the load is shorted
1.6
z8 = 184 – j900 z8 = 3.68 -j18S
6 Z0 = 50 Ω; Find Zℓ
Successive Vmin
@ 12.4 & 9.2 cm;
VSWR 5.1;
Smith’s Chart

Single Stub Matching

ys
~ Z0 l ZL

d
y11
yd

a) Normalize zℓ = Zℓ / Z0 ONLY NORMALIZED VALUES ARE USED

b) Mark it on the chart READ ON RESISTANCE & REACTANCE CIRCLES
c) Mark yℓ diametrically opposite y IS RECIPROCAL OF r
d) Draw constant VSWR circle through yℓ ALL POINTS WILL HAVE SAME Γ and VSWR
e) Intersection with r=1 / g=1 circle is y11 CREATING g = 1.0 CONDITION
f) y11 = 1.0 + jb = yd + ys ADMITTANCES IN PARALLEL ARE ADDED
g) Extend y11 to ext circle for d STUB POSITION TOWARDS LOAD
ADMITTANCE
h) Plot ys = -jb & Extend to ext circle for l STUB LENGTH FROM ∞ ADMITTANCE POINT
Smith Chart

Problem Set # 4 – Single Stub Matching

No Given To find
1 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (20 – j 20) Ω Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the transmission
line. How will the design change if you were to design an open
circuit stub ?

2 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (15 + j 25) Ω Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the transmission
line. Can we design a stub in series rather than a stub in parallel
Smith Chart

Double Stub Matching

y22 y11
Ptr

l2 l1 ZL
~ ys2 ys1

d2 d1
yd2 yd1

First stub positioned arbitrarily say 0.4λ from the load towards generator.
Second stub positioned λ/8, 3λ/8 or some such distance away from the first stub.
Second stub length provides tuning capability to match varying loads
Smith’s Chart

Features of the Smith Chart

a) Normalize zℓ = Zℓ / Z0 & mark zℓ & yℓ ONLY NORMALIZED VALUES ARE USED

b) Rotate g=1 circle by 2β ℓ counterclockwise TO ENSURE STUB 1 ADMITTANCE ON g=k
CIRCLE
c) Move yℓ by d1 ARBITRARY POSITIONING OF FIRST STUB
d) Intersect g=k circle with yℓ circle IDENTIFY VALUES y11 = x11 + jb = yd1 + ys1
e) Calculate ys1 AND ℓ1 FIRST STUB LENGTH FIXED
f) Rotate g=k circle by 2β ℓ clockwise CREATING r = 1.0 CONDITION FOR SECOND
STUB
g) Locate x11 on g = 1.0 circle & identify yd2 LOCATE NEW POINTS FOR yd2
h) y22 = 1.0 + jb = yd2 + ys2 ; Calculate ys2 ADMITTANCES IN PARALLEL ARE ADDED
i) Extend ys2 to ext circle for ℓ2 SECOND STUB LENGTH FIXED

No Given To find
1 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (100 – j 50) Ω Design a double short Circuit stub to match the load to the
Two stubs are separated by transmission line.
λ/8

2 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = 25 Ω. Two Design a double short Circuit stub to match the load to the
stubs are separated by 3λ/8 transmission line.