PHYS1111 Lab Manual 2018 Jan1018final PDF

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual
Physics
PHYS1111 Fundamentals of Physics
PHYS1149 Physics 1 (Aviation)
Session 1 or Session 2
Name: _______________________
Student Number: ______________

Contents
Introduction and Welcome to First Year Lab iii
1. Safety Induction
2. Computing/IT facilities
3. Overview of the Session’s Labs
4. Working in a Team
5. Laboratory Management: Lab Demonstrators
6. Falling Behind, Missed Labs
7. Laboratory Exemptions
8. Any Questions?
xv
Using The Computers xxv
Experiments
Introductory Experimentation 1
Projectile Motion 13
Collisions and Car Crashing 23
Specific and Latent Heat 39
Standing Waves on a Wire 51
Electrostatic Field Plotting 63

Magnetic Fields and the “Slinky” 75
Coil Electromagnetic Induction 89
The Photoelectric Effect 105
Warning: The order in which you undertake experiments may deviate from the order that
they are presented in the lab manual
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual i

© copyright for this document belongs to the first year physics unit
university of new south wales
ii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

Introduction and Welcome to First Year Lab
We welcome you to the laboratory component of your First Year Physics Course. Please
read through the following introductory pages for important information.
Physics is a science – everything you learn in your lectures is based on, and tested by,
observations and experiment. The aim of the laboratory course is to give you experience
in the experimental side of physics: to develop your skills by collecting, analysing and
interpreting data, and presenting your results in a way that can be understood by others.
These skills are of use to anyone working in a modern, quantitative workplace.
Your laboratory course has a number of experiments. You must complete one per lab
session. Doing so will help you develop your skills as an experimenter, as a professional,
and reinforce lecture material. You will work in teams of two people.
We have installed iMacs in the lab and useful software, including graphics and plotting
packages and other materials supporting your course.
In designing your lab work, we have taken into account the wishes of employers in the
technical and commercial sectors: they often ask for training in quantitative, computing
and communication skills. Your ability to work in teams will also be of use to you in higher
study and in the workplace.
We hope that you find the physics lab a useful and enjoyable resource and experience – we
welcome and encourage you to use the facilities to derive full benefit from them and to give
us feedback on your experiences.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual iii

1. Safety Induction
Anyone who is to work in a laboratory is required to complete an online Safety Induction

(on the Fundamentals of Physics Moodle site) before they are legally allowed to work in that
laboratory. This applies to all students. The Safety Induction is mandatory even if you have
done one before. The online safety induction must be completed before you attend your
first laboratory class.
Below is a summary of the information given in the induction so that you have a hard copy
to refer back to if needed.
1.1 General Comments
First Year Lab (FYL) is already a very safe place as are no exercises involving radioactivity,
high voltage, harmful chemicals, condensed gases, biohazards or lasers. In the FYL
however, we do expect people using the lab to take a good common sense approach to
moving about the lab and using the equipment.
1.2 Emergency Evacuation
The Evacuation Alarm has two distinct tones:
The first tone is called the ALERT tone (Beep-Beep sound and flashing orange lights), which
is used to alert the occupants of the building to prepare for an evacuation and to mobilise
the evacuation personnel in the building. Upon hearing this alarm turn off any equipment,
pack up your personal belongings and wait for the evacuation alarm or further instructions.
The second tone is called the EVACUATION tone (Whoop-Whoop sound, red flashing
lights and a recorded voice asking you to evacuate the building). Upon hearing this alarm
you MUST EVACUATE the building in an orderly fashion and meet at the marshalling point
which is the Village Green (Cricket oval) on the other side of the Newton Building.
iv First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

115
114
112
There are three emergency exits from the laboratory complex, the usual entrance (or front
door), the usual exit (via fire stairs half way down the lab complex) and the emergency
exit at the far end of the lab complex from the entry door. In the case of an emergency
evacuation DO NOT USE THE LIFT. There is a First Aid Kit, a Fire Hose and CO2 Fire
Extinguishers around the lab, ensure you are aware of their locations (refer to the above
map).
1.3 Accident and Injury
We have a very good record of safety in the lab. However, if you are nearby when an
accident should occur:
• Check the area for any obvious hazards:

- if there is no obvious hazard, leave the casualty where they are and get help from
either a Demonstrator or member of lab staff;
- if there is an obvious hazard, warn the students around you that there is a hazard
and then get help from a Demonstrator or member of staff.
• Give the First Aid Officer plenty of space to work - if you crowd around to watch,
you will be asked to assist.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual v

1.4 Hazards
• The main hazard in the laboratory is the electricity supply. The supply used in the
laboratory is the same as you have in the home:
240 volts, alternating current, 50 Hz.
As normal, such a supply is hazardous and can cause death, so take care with mains
supplies and mains powered equipment at all times.
You must not attempt to service any electrical equipment yourself. Ask a demonstrator or
other member of staff for assistance if you suspect a malfunction, or if you observe that
wear-and-tear etc. may be rendering equipment hazardous.
• Another hazard in the lab is a “tripping hazard” – do not leave your bags in the aisles
during lab, please put your bags in the provided spaces under the table and put the seats
under the table when you leave.
• Manual handling is another safety concern – carry equipment with both hands and close
to the body. Keep twisting while carrying equipment to a minimum and reduce the distance
you reach out to collect or place items.
- One example is collecting the retort stands – the bases of the retort stands are not
always secured tightly to the pole, so you will need to make sure to carry the retort
stand in both hands (one on the base and one on the pole).
vi First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

1.5 Laboratory Rules
There are just a few rules which we request you observe. All of these rules are not put in
place randomly but rather form part of the universities Work Health And Safety obligations
to you and your fellow students. As such should be obeyed at all times and will be strictly
enforced by all the FYL staff.
1. Closed , “sensible” shoes to be worn at all times in the lab (your feet must be cov-
ered to the ankle by your shoes - not just the toes), You will not be allowed to enter
the lab without these!! This rule applies regardless of the type of exercise you will be
doing - the room is still a laboratory therefore requires the appropriate safety equip-
ment. The correct footwear is the only personal protective equipment needed, you
do not need a lab coat or safety glasses.
Reason: if you drop a power supply on your big toe it will hurt, and at least spoil your
enjoyment of the exercises.
2. If you spill water etc. on the table or floor, please use paper towel to mop it up im-
mediately. The paper towel is available from the dispenser above the sink at the rear
of the lab.
3. Don’t run in the lab or throw objects about
Reason: any ‘missile’ is potentially hazardous, especially a fast moving human.
4. Eating, drinking and smoking are not allowed in the lab. If anyone has ANY type of
food or drink container in the laboratory, it will be confiscated and disposed of, you
will not get it back, regardless of the type of the container.
5. Put your bags under the lab tables to reduce any tripping hazard and any destruc-
tion of property.
(End of Safety Information)
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual vii

2. Computing/IT facilities
For the computer requirements we have iMacs in the lab. These are used for record keeping
and for information resources and data handling in the exercises (data logging, analysis and
presentation). In the “Using the Computers” section of this lab manual are the details on
how to use the iMacs and programs that will be used in some laboratory experiments.
Online Learning Facilities - TELT Gateway*
UNSW Moodle is the online teaching system used at UNSW. Your pre-laboratory lessons
and quizzes are placed on your course Moodle site together with other course related
resources (lecture notes and problems).
To access UNSW Moodle, go to www.unsw.edu.au, then click on the Moodle link under
the Student list to access the web Single Sign On Login page. Click here and type in your
student number (with a z in front) as your USER ID, and your zpass as your PASSWORD.
After logging in you will see the “Moodle Home” page, which will list sites for all courses,
to which you have access. Click on your Physics course to access the requirements for this
subject.
Like most of UNSW Moodle courses the course home page is arranged into sections, the
general information “Blocks” on the left hand side and course content on the right hand
side.
The course content area has the list of the topics of the course, and each topic has at least
one pre-laboratory lesson which must be completed to obtain access to the pre-laboratory
quiz. The pre-laboratory lesson and quiz must be done before each lab commences.
(* TELT, or Technology Enabled Learning and Teaching, is the suite of technologies and applications that
support learning and teaching at UNSW. Training resources and support information to help users is also
linked to this Gateway. )
viii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

3. Overview of the Session’s Labs
There will be a Laboratory Introduction and Safety Induction on Moodle. Every student
must go through the Safety Induction on Moodle before commencing the laboratory
experiments.
You will be given an experiment schedule (“Laboratory Classes and Moodle Online Pre-
laboratory Quizzes Schedule” available on Moodle) so that you know what you are doing
each week. This is important as all experiments have a preliminary work section that must
be completed on Moodle before you enter the laboratory. This schedule will inform you as
to what you will need to prepare for the next laboratory period.
Laboratory experiments commence week 4 and run for 9 weeks. You can find this
information also on the experiment schedule. Students are required to complete nine
experiments in 9 weeks by finishing the online preparation and the laboratory class. Each
of the nine laboratory experiments are included in your final assessment and in total the
laboratory counts 30% towards your final assess-ment for the course. The online
preparation and the laboratory class are worth 15% each.
3.1 Online Prelaboratory Quizzes for Nine Experiments are worth 15%
Each experiment has online pre-laboratory lesson and quiz which you should complete be-
fore you enter the laboratory class. Those online lessons and quizzes will be available for
the relevant topics on the Fundamentals of Physics Moodle site, according to “Laboratory
Classes and Moodle Online Pre-laboratory Quizzes Schedule” which will also be available
from the course Moodle site. Each online quiz will be marked out of 12 marks, which is the
total score for 7 questions. You might attempt each question two times, but the second at-
tempt will be marked out of 50% of its original value. The total marks for the quizzes makes
15% contribution to the final assessment for the course.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual ix

3.2 Laboratory Classes for Nine Experiments are worth 15%
Each experiment will be marked out of 10 marks in your own laboratory manual, according
to the tables at the end of each experiment. The table must be carefully studied before the
lab class, so you know what is expected of you each week.
The laboratory manual must be properly bound (loose pages or sections of the laboratory
manual are not acceptable!).
There are some things that can result in the loss of marks. You will lose some marks for each
of the following:
• Being late. Please turn up on time, thus showing regard for your colleagues. If you
are more than 15 minutes late you will be asked to leave and return later in the term
to complete the experiment.
• Not finishing the experiment on time. You must be ready to be marked off by your
demonstrator 15 minutes before the end of the laboratory. All our experiments can
be completed in well under two hours, if you complete your pre-work AND read the
experiment before attending the laboratory.
All experiments are included in your final mark. It is not the best five or six - all experi-
ments count. The total mark for all lab classes counts 15% towards the course final assess-
ment.
x First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

3.3 What you are expected to do each week
There are laboratory experiments for you to complete at a rate of one per week for 9 weeks.
You should prepare before each lab period by:

• completing any online pre-laboratory lessons and quiz available on the Fundamen-
tals of Physics UNSW Moodle site,
• review any background and theory associated with the lab experiment for that
week, and
• read the entire lab experiment in this lab manual and consult your textbook to fully
understand the physics concepts involved.
Please turn up for the lab period on time!
In the lab you will perform the exercises working in a team of two students. Your
demonstrator may begin the exercise by reviewing the background and procedure. During
the lab period we expect all students to participate fully, consulting and discussing aspects
of the work with your team member and demonstrator, and asking good questions.
Your overall mark for each week’s lab will be awarded by the demonstrator on the basis
of your punctuality, preparation, participation and performance in the practical. Your
demonstrator will mark your work in the lab manual according to the table at the end of
the experiment. It is up to you to ensure the Demonstrator enters a mark on the iPad next
to your name for each lab - if there isn’t a mark next to your name on the iPad you will not
have a mark recorded for that experiment.
A very important aspect of the lab work is care with numbers: you must always give
the units for any numerical value you write down. You must also take care to provide
reasonable uncertainties when asked to and include the estimated uncertainties in a
discussion of your results. Marks will be deducted whenever this rule is ignored.
We also mark lab work on the basis of clarity of expression. That is to say, you must always
write clear, complete sentences. Tables, graphs and calculations must always be labelled
so that it is obvious what they mean. It is an important part of your general University
education that you learn to record your work and communicate results to others. All this
work must be presented in your own original laboratory manual.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual xi

4. Working in a Team
During the session, you are strongly encouraged to work with another student as a
team. Feel free to organize your own team, but make them of no more than two people
including yourself.
Also, there is a definite distinction between working actively in a team, and simply taking
advantage of other team member to perform all the work. Although you will be sharing
equipment, it is important to record your own results and conclusions in your laboratory
manual. Each exercise will be marked in your own laboratory manual. The laboratory
manual must be properly bound (loose pages or sections of the laboratory manual are not
acceptable!).
Blatant copying of others’ work and presenting it as your own is plagiarism, and is
considered academic misconduct by the University. Such cases are dealt with severely.
5. Laboratory Management: Lab Demonstrators
Each laboratory period is managed by a Demonstrator, who will be a member of

academic staff or an experienced demonstrator. You can also consult this Demonstrator
on matters of your progress etc. If you are having any problems you do not feel
comfortable discussing with this Demonstrator, please contact the Lab Director - the
contact details can be obtained from the laboratory staff.
xii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

6. Falling Behind, Missed Labs

We expect you to attend all scheduled, regular laboratory periods in the course.
Certain circumstances may cause you to unavoidably miss a lab. The chief reason
would be medical, which must be documented. If you have missed a laboratory
session and have a medical certificate, you can apply online on Moodle to have an
‘average’ mark assigned for the missed experiment. At the end of the session we will
calculate your average mark per laboratory, and this is the mark that you will get for
the missed experiment. You can apply for this option only once, if you are sick more
than once you can apply to do a Catch Up Lab.
If you miss a lab for another reason, such as an exam or field trip, having worn the incorrect
shoes or not bringing your lab manual, etc., you will need to request a catch-up laboratory.
The Catch Up Labs are run ONLY in the last week of session (this is the only time you can
“catch up” an experiment that you miss, you cannot attend another lab time in the week
you are absent - you have to wait until week 13). There aren’t any penalties for doing the
experiments in week 13 Catch Up Labs, but you may be doing the experiments alone. You
are allowed to do more than one catch up lab in week 13 but please remember the end of
session is very busy with due assignments and final exams so don’t over extend yourself by
doing too many catch up labs.
The online pre-laboratory quizzes will not be reopened during the catch up lab week. You
must complete it in the week you are scheduled to do the laboratory class.
Around week 12 of the session you will be able to apply online on Moodle for the
specific times for your Catch up Labs.
7. Laboratory Exemptions
If you are repeating your Physics subject due to failing the theory portion of your course
the first time, you may be eligible for a Laboratory Exemption(as long as your lab mark
was 25/30 or above. You need to apply for the lab exemption. There is a link through the
school of physics website to the online form (there is also a link on Moodle):
https://www.physics.unsw.edu.au/content/first-year-teaching-laboratory-exemption-request-form
If you are given a laboratory exemption it is expected that you will use your lab time to
study Physics. It is a requirement that you see the teaching assistant at least three times
during the semester in the study room (room 201A in the old main building). You must
show them that you have tried some of the homework problems and have them record your
name.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual xiii

8. Any Questions?
We are here to help you learn and enjoy the labs!
Do you have a question and are not sure who to ask? Ask the Lab Staff, if they cannot
answer your question they will direct you to someone who can. Alternatively, you can
discuss any lab related issues on the Moodle Discussion Forums.
xiv First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

UNCERTAINTIES AND UNCERTAINTIES ESTIMATION
UNCERTAINTIES AND UNCERTAINTY ESTIMATION
Part A. Uncertainties in Experimental Results

In physics, most of the laws, theories, and formulae were developed based on
experimental results obtained using some intruments. Since no measuring
instruments are perfect and often no matter how hard we try to design our
experiment, all measurements always suffer from some uncertainties, often
incorrectly still referred to as errors.
When we deal with uncertainties it is mainly because we try to minimise them, but
at the same time we have to be honest about them and report them truthfully. You
will never lose marks by quoting a large uncertainty, if your experimental procedure
and method of collecting results are correct and justified, and all possible sources of
uncertainties discussed.
Identifying the uncertainties, dealing with them and reporting your experimental
results with the uncertainties are an important parts of the Fundamentals of Physics
Laboratory. The most common sources of uncertainties to consider in the laboratory
are: experimental (instrumental limitations), systematic and random 'errors'. Only
the brief review of how to identify uncertainties and the examples of how to
estimate and report them are presented in this section.
xv
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL
Introductory ExpErImEntatIon
A1. Sources of Uncertainties

In general all measurements might be more or less precise and/or accurate.
A precise measurement of a quantity is one where independent measurements of this

quantity closely cluster about a single value that may or may not be the correct value
for that quantity.
An accurate measurement is one where independent measurements cluster about the
true value of the measured quantity.
Shown below are examples of precise and/or accurate measurements:
NOT NOT
• ACCURATE ACCURATE ACCURATE ACCURATE
NOT PRECISE NOT PRECISE PRECISE PRECISE
As ilustrated above, precision is really about detailed reading and accuracy is about
giving true reading.
As discussed below, instrumental limitations, random and systematic uncertainties
might affect the precision and/or accuracy of our measurements.
Instrumental limitations result in our measurements to be no better than the instruments
we use to make them. Any measuring device can only be used to measure within a
certain degree of precision and accuracy.
Random uncertainty arise from unnoticed variations in measurement technique, tiny
changes in the experimental environment, etc. A precise measurement has a small
random uncertainty. Repeating measurements and averaging them, can reduce random
uncertainty.
Systematic uncertainty affect the accuracy but not the precision of a measurement.
They do not enter into the uncertainty. The systematic uncertainty might be either,
identified and eliminated, or produce a shift from the 'true' measured value. They can
be caused by, poor technique or poor experiment design, incorrect calibration of
instrument or non zero ‘zero reading’ of instrument.
Important Notes:
Being aware of sources of uncertainties can help us design experiments to eliminate
some and reduce the others to minimise the uncertainty!
Also, it is important to note the term “Human Error” is not an acceptable source of
uncertainty! Instead of using this term, we would need to give a more specific
description!
xvi First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

A2. Reporting Your Result with Uncertainty

Since controlling precision, accuracy, etc. is not trivial task, all experimental results
suffer from uncertainties. Let's say you have collected measurements, identified the
sources of uncertainties and estimated the amount of uncertainty in your experimental
result. You might report the result using either, an absolute or percentage form of
uncertainty. Below is a brief review of basic ideas.
Absolute uncertainty is always expressed in the units of the measured value.
Example: You are using a tape meter which allows to measure a distance x = 2.55m,
either as small as 2.50m or as large as 2.60m. This suggests that the absolute uncertainty
in your measurement is -0.05m or +0.05m. You might report your measured distance
as: x ± ∆x = 2.55m ± 0.05m where ∆x = 0.05m is the absolute uncertainty.
Note that the absolute uncertainty is expressed not only in the same units but with
the same number of decimal places as the measured value.
Percentage uncertainty is expressed as a percentage fraction (∆x/x)%, which is

independent of the units of the measured value. The example below shows how to
convert the absolute uncertainty to the percentage form of uncertanty.
Example: Above becomes, ( ∆xx )% = ( 0.05 m ) · 100 = 1.96% ≈ 2%

2.55 m
Note: Since one percent is already a very small fraction, the percentage uncertainty is
commonly rounded off to the nearest percent.
Using the percentage uncertaity is +2% or - 2% and you might report your measured
distance as: x ± (∆x/x)% = 2.55cm ± 2%.
As demonstrated in the above example it is good practice to leave all final measured
values with an absolute uncertainty to be able to convert the absolute uncertainty to
percentage and back again as required.
Instrumental Uncertainty
If using an instrument, uncertainty in the measured value might be chosen as ½ the
smallest reading of the instrument, and the result might be reported with uncertainty as
in the example below.
Example: The length of a pencil was measured independantly by four students using a
metre ruler, to the nearest millimetre. They reported their results as:
1st student: x ± ∆x = (8.55 ± 0.05)cm or
2nd student: x ± ∆x = (0.0855 ± 0.0005)m or
3rd student: x ± ∆x = (8.55 ± 0.05)·10-2m or
4th student: x ± ∆x = (85.5 ± 0.5)·10-3m
Since there was no specific intruction on how to report the results, each student is correct
because the absolute uncertainty is rounded up, so that it matches the number of decimal
places of the measured value. This will be very important in your lab!
Note that the percentage uncertainty for each reported value is the same, (0.05/8.55)·100
=(0.0005/0.0855)·100=(0.05·10-2/8.55·10-2)·100=(0.5·10-3/85.5·10-3)·100=0.58% ≈1%!
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xvii

A3. Uncertainty in Repeated Measurements

Repeating measurements is important not only because allows you to reduce
random 'errors', but also enables you to estimate the average (mean) of all measured
values and the uncertainty in that average. Below is a brief review of basic formulae,
which might be useful in your laboratory experiments.
Let the value obtained from a repeated measurement be x1, x2, ...xN. The measurement
is repeated N times and usually N is very large. In your laboratory N will be no more
than 5 to 10 because of the time limit for your experiment. The important and useful
formulae are:
• Mean (xave) is the average of all values of x
(x1+x2+…+xN)
xave =
N
• Uncertainty (∆x) will tell you that the actual value of x will be somewhere in the
neighbourhood around xave.
In this laboratory the uncertainty ∆x will be ½ of the difference between the
maximum and minimum value among x1, x2, ...xN.
|xmax - xmin|
∆x =
2
For your interest, the above is the simplified version of expression for the uncertainty
in the mean value for the very large number of measurements.
• The final result of your measurements might reported using both, the mean value and
the absolute uncertainty
xave ± ∆x
Or you can always convert the absolute uncertainty to the percentage uncertainty
using (∆x/x)% = (∆x/x)·100 and report your result as
xave ± (∆x/x)%
A4. Combining Uncertainties - Basic Rules

In the Fundamentals of Physics laboratory we often combine multiple measured values,
each of which has an uncertainty, into a single equation. In this section you will learn
how to estimate uncertainty in calculated result.
The example shows how to arrive with the uncertainty in the differnce between two
measured values using the measurement of length of a rod that is attached to a metre rule
graduated in millimetres.
There is no example to show how to arrive with uncertainty in the multiplication/division
etc. of two measured values, as this requires calculus that is beyond the scope of this
course.
xviii
Example:
rod
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm
L1±∆L1=3.05cm±0.05cm L2±∆L2=8.05cm±0.05cm
Using the positions of the ends of the rod, L1 = 3.05 cm & L2 = 8.05 cm, the length of
the rod is: L = L2 – L1 = 8.05cm - 3.05cm = 5.00cm.
If someone asks, what is the uncertainty in the length, you might think that it is the
sum of the uncertainties in L1 and L2 (i.e. ∆L = ∆L1 +∆L2 = 0.1cm).
However, statistics tells us that if the measurements of L1 and L2 are independent
(the readings were taken independently, one after the other) the size of uncertainty
in a difference of L1 and L2, is obtained by quadrature:
∆L = √((∆L2)2+(∆L1)2) = 0.07cm.
This mean that length of the rod fits between 5.00cm - 0.07cm and 5.00cm + 0.07cm
Note that, for any measurements that started from "zero" of the above metre rule,
the uncertainty would still be 0.07cm. And as it will be discussed later, the uncertainty
in the sum will calculate also by quadrature.
In this above example the final length of the rod will be reported as:
L ± ∆L = (5.00 ± 0.07)cm
or L ± (∆L/L)·100 = 5.00 cm ± 1% (Note that (0.07/5.00)·100 = 1.4% ≈ 1%)
In general the way the uncertainties combine depends on how the measured values are
related. In the Fundamentals of Physics laboratory we will assume that all measurements
and associated uncertainties will always be independent of one another.
Table below lists the most useful in your lab rules for how to combine independent
uncertainties in i.e. addition, subtraction, etc. of the measured values, e.g. x ± ∆x and
y ±∆y (note that x and y were measured with their respective uncertainties ∆x and ∆y).
Basic lab rules Absolute uncertainty
(in units of z)
z=x+y ∆z = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2
Addition/Subtraction z=x–y √
z=x·y
Multiplication/Division z = xy
( ) + ( ∆yy )
∆z = |z|√ ∆x
x
2 2
Multiplication by a Constant z = c·x ∆z = |c|·∆x

Always remember to report the final value, for example, z, with its uncertainty as z ± ∆z, where
∆z needs to be rounded up to match the number of decimal places in z.
Alternatively you might report the final value as z ± (∆z/z)%. Remember that this requires the
conversion of absolute uncertainty to the percentage form of uncertainty, using (∆z/z)·100.
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xix

Part B. Graphing Results and Uncertainties

In many Physics experiments, the best way to present and analyse experimental results is
to make a graph. A graph is a visual representation of the results with their uncertainties.
This section gives only a brief review of the concepts, that will be used in the laboratory.
B1. Making Graphs y-axis

velocity
Let's say in your experiment you have arrived to the point
where you have collected, for example, velocity and time
values. To make a graph, you will need to decide which
values to graph on the x and y axes and if the graph will
be drawn by hand on the graph paper using a pencil or
by the computer.
Since in your laboratory experiments you be instructed in
details on how to graph and analyse the results, only a x-axis
Figure 0 time
brief introduction of how to make a graph is presented in
this section.
Figure 0 shows the example of velocity being graphed on the y axis and time on x axis,
and the results are marked using the dots. Consequently, the sets measured values of x
and y, are automatically the coordinates (x, y) of the respective dots.
It is imporatant to note that graphed along the horizontal axis are always independent
values (controlled by you) and along the vertical axis are dependent (on x) values y.
When using computer software, usually you will only need to enter your measured
values and the software will generate the graph.
B2. Uncertainty Bars

+Δy
Let's say that you have collected results with their −Δx
uncertainties and you need to learn how to include the +Δx
uncertaitny to your graph. A nice way to show uncertainty −Δy
in the graphed values is with, what are known
'uncertainty bars'. Figure 1
As an example, Figure 1 shows the uncertainty bars drawn as the 'arms of the cross'
around the experimental result (dot). Shown in the x and y directions are -∆x, +∆x, +∆y
and -∆y 'uncertainty bars' (respective lenghs of the cross's arms). Being drawn around
the experimental point, the 'uncertainty bars' show immediately the size of
uncertainties for that point.
xx
B3. Fitting the Straight Line

Here you will learn how to graph the points with the y
uncertainty bars and fit the straight line to your experimetal

results. With the points and uncertainty bars around each
point already drawn, you need to look at the graph and decide
if y increases in proportion to x. If yes, the graph suggests a
linear relationship between y and x, and the straight line can
be fitted to the your results. Conveniently a line of best fit will
be used to demonstrate graphically the relationship. How to
x
draw the line of best fit is presented next.
The line of best fit should be drawn through as many Figure 2
experimental points as possible. Among those points which
will not fit to the line, approximately the same number of
them should be above the line as below it, as shown in y
figure 3. If it is not possible to draw a line of best fit, then
your experimental values are suspect or you have chosen
the wrong kind of fit!
The line of best fit might be drawn by hand or computer. If
you will be using a computer, the special computer
program will help you to process your results and generate
the line of best fit on your graph.
x
In the Fundamental of Physics laboratory, only straight
lines will be fitted because those are easier to work with Figure 3
without calculus to determine the relationship between the
values being graphed. This requires understanding of a
straight line equation that is presented next.
The most common form of a Straight Line Equation is y = mx + b. In this equation
x is the independent value and y is the dependent value.
Graph of y versus x is a straight line and ‘m’ is the slope of that line and ‘b’ is the line’s
y – intercept. The slope ‘m’ and the y-inercept ‘b’ are constants and they can be used
to calculate some physical quantities that they are related to.
In this lab you will need to decide, which values to graph to fit a straight line to. Often
this will require the algebraic rearrangement of the physics equation, keeping in mind
your constants and your variables. Sometimes to do this and interpret the slope and y-
intercept can really take some thinking! An example is presented next.
Example: A commonly used equation of motion is v = u + at (where v = speed,
u = initial speed, a = acceleration, and t = time) clearly has the form of y = mx + b if
rewritten as v = at + u. This rewritten equation suggests that the graph of measured
values ‘v’ versus ‘t’ should show a linear relationship trend and the best-fit straight
line can be fitted to those values. Then the slope of the line will give the acceleration
‘a’, in units of ms-2 , and the y-intercept will give the initial speed ‘u’ in m/s.
How to obtain the values of y-intercept and slope of straight line is presented next.
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxi

B4. Using Straight Line

In this laboratory you need to know how to obtain the y-
y
intercept and slope of the straight line to estimate some
physical quantities (often aim of your lab experiment). y2
P2(x2,y2)
y-intercept of the straight line

A fitted line can only cross the y axis once. As shown on
the graph (figure 4), the y-intercept of the straight line is
the value of y, where the line crosses the y-axis (at x = 0):
y1
y-intercept = b P1(x1,y1)
The y-intercept has units (y units) and sign, both have x1 x2 x
physical significance. b
slope of the straight line Figure 4

A fitted line has a constant slope, also known as the gradient of the straight line. The
slope is defined as the ratio of ‘rise and run’, or change in ‘y’ over change in ‘x’
direction. To calculate the slope use the coordinates of two distant points on the line,
for example, shown as P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) on the graph (figure 4)
rise of line y2 − y1
slope = m = =
run of line x2 − x1
where (x1,y1) & (x2,y2) are the coordinates of the points, as shown on the figure.
You need to choose those points carefully, making sure that they are distant * and both on
the line. Note that slope also has units (they are the y-units/x-units) and sign, both have
physical significance.
* When calculating the slope, it is convenient and more accurate to use the biggest triangle
you can manage from your graph.
Note that the area under a line might be used to calculate a physical quantity and has units.
In this laboratory you will be using a computer software to obtain this information.
B5. Worst Fit Lines (MAX and MIN Fit Lines)

Often Physics experiments use graphs not only to estimate some values using the y-
intercept and the slope but also to estimate the uncertainties in those values.
Let’s say you have arrived to the point where you have:
- collected results with their uncertainties;
- decided which variables to graph on the x and y axes, and done so with proper
uncertainty bars; and
- graphed the line of best fit and obtain the y-intercept and the slope of this line.
Therefore, you have a value of the y-intercept and slope, which might be used to
calculate some physical quantities. Therefore, you will need to learn how to determine
the uncertainties in the y-intercept and slope of the best fit line, and use them to
estimate the uncertainties in those physical quantities.
xxii First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

In this section you will learn how to graph two aditional lines (worst fit lines) to
determine the uncertainties in the y-intercept and slope of the best fit line (already
discussed in section B3).
1. *With the best fit line already drawn add a lineMAX

straight line with the greatest slope possible, y linebest
shown on the example graph as lineMAX. lineMIN
2. *Then add another straight line this time with the

least slope possible, as shown as on the graph as
lineMIN. bMIN
* For this method, just pick the data pair with the largest b
uncertainty (to be safe) - although hopefully, it won’t x
matter much. By using this technique, most (preferably Figure 5
bMAX
all) error bars (the crosses) should be present between
lineMAX and lineMIN.
3. Now, for those two worst fit lines, lineMAX and lineMIN,
you will determine/calculate:
• y-intercepts
bMAX = y-intercept of lineMAX
bMIN = y-intercept of lineMIN
• slopes
mMAX = slopeMAX = rise of lineMAX
run of lineMAX
rise of lineMIN
mMIN = slopeMIN =
run of lineMIN
Remember that ‘runs’ and ‘rises’ will be calculated using two relevant points on each
line as discussed in section B3.
4. Finally, using the y-intercepts and slopes of the worst fit lines you will be able
to calculate:
• uncertainty in the y-intercept of the best fit line
|bMAX − bMIN|
∆b =
2
• uncertainty in the slope of the best fit line
|mMAX-mMIN|
∆m =
2
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxiii

B6. Reporting the Graph Results

1. Having the best-fit line y-intercept, b, and slope, m, and the uncertainties, the results of
your graphing will be reported as:
• y-intercept with its uncertainty

b ± ∆b
• slope with its uncertainty

m ± ∆m
2. The above information might be used to estimate some physical quantities with
their uncertainties, often the whole point of your experiment.
xxiv First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

Using The Computers
Using The Computers
Introduction
In the First Year Lab there are a number of iMac computers that are to be used in the lab
exercises. These computers will sometimes be used to take measurements and also for
processing results, e.g. graphing.
Whenever an exercise requires the use of the computers you will be told which application
to use and there will be a template preconfigured for the exercise.
The following notes give an introduction into using the computers in the First Year Lab and
also outline the basics of the applications that you will use.
The Computers
Logging In
All the computers should already be switched on. If the computer you want to use is not,
just turn it on. The power button for the iMacs is on the back of the computer on the left
hand side. If the computer is asleep then simply moving the mouse should wake it.
The first thing that you should see on the computer will be a box asking for your Name
and Password. Login to the lab computers with zID and then zPass.
z1234567
Name
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxv

Using The Computers
The Desktop
After you have logged in you will see the typical for MacOX desktop with the Dock at the
bottom and the menu lists at the top of the screen. Additionally, there should be two items
on your desktop, the hard disk and a network disk.
The Screen the first time you log in
The Dock allows easy access to programs. Simply click on any icon in the Dock will launch
the associated program.
The Dock
The menus at the top of the screen will change depending on what program you are in,
although the apple menu, ,will always remain and is used for universal things like
logging out of the computer.
xxvi First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

Using The Computers
Setting Up Your Lab Account
The first time you log in you should drag some files from the network disk called “First Year”
to your desktop. Double click on the First Year disk which is on the desktop.
The network disk
This should open up a window that contains two folders.
One of these folders is named “Drag to desktop and rename as Experiments” and is
highlighted in red. You should do as the name suggests and drag this folder to your desktop.
To rename the folder simply click once on the name and then type in the new name.
The other folder in the network disk is called “Share”. This folder will not be used in your
lab.
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxvii

Using The Computers
Inside the Experiments folder are the templates for all First Year Physics laboratory courses.
Two of them, namely “General Linear Plot” and the “Logger Pro Experiments” folder are
what you will need to use in most of the experiments in the lab. Double click on the Logger
Pro Experiments folder to see the list of Lab exercises involving the Lab Pro apparatus.
Logging Out
When you are finished using the computer you should log out. To do this click on the menu
. Clicking will bring up a box confirming your log out, clicking on “Log Out” will log
you out of the computer. If you have any running programs with unsaved data you will be
asked to save them before the log out completes. If you do not answer the prompts the log
out will cancel.
xxviii First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

Using The Computers
Programs
There are two main programs, namely Microsoft Excel and Logger Pro, that you will use in
the lab. In both cases you will launch the program by double clicking on one of the files in
your “Experiments” folder.
Microsoft Excel
The “General Linear Plot” template will be used to draw and analyse linear plots.
When you open the “General Linear Plot” file, the x-axis and y-axis columns to enter your
data by double clicking on the numbers in the columns and the relevant graph with the
equations of the line of best fit will appear.
LabQuest
The Logger Pro Software is used to collect, display and analyse data collected by the
LabQuest data interface and a sensor. The software will generally already be set up if you
open the file for the corresponding experiment.
When you start the software, the top of the window will be occupied by the row of icons
(buttons) of functions to be performed with the Logger Pro.
Under the function buttons, there will be the graph grid with the columns of results and the
space for the live read out. Occasionally it is a good idea to collect data even when you
could just read the number you want from the live reading.
Here are the most useful functions of the Loger Pro software. To perform each of them you
need to click on the icon.
• The “Collect” button, , is used to start a collection run. When you have
clicked on it the recording will commence.
• If you want to change the setup of a collection run, e.g. how many samples a second,
hitting the “Data Collection” button, , will open a dialogue box where this can be
done.
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxix

Using The Computers
• The “Autoscale” button, , automatically resizes the graph so that it best fits into the
window.
The following buttons work best if you highlight the region of interest on the graph first. To
do this you should click and drag the mouse pointer around the region you are interested
in, then hit the required button. For each function a box with the summary of results will
show up on the screen.
• The “Linear Fit” button, , attempts to fit a straight line to the graph and will be used
very often to analyse experimental results. Make sure that the graph is a straight line
before attempting to do a linear fit, otherwise the results will be meaningless.
• If you want to know the reading on a particular point in the graph then the “Examine”
button, , lets you move the mouse over the graph giving you the value at each
point.
• The “Statistics” button, , can be quite useful. This is good if you want to know a
mean value and standard deviation.
• The “Integral” button, , gives the value of the area under the graph.
Printing
You may NOT print from any computer in the lab. If you are required to print anything you
will be instructed on how to access the printer.
xxx First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

All concepts introduced in this experiment are crucial for other experiments
carried out in the First Year Physics Laboratory, so it is necessary to prepare
and perform this experiment very well!
Preparation before coming to the laboratory This experiment is designed to give you an
understanding of:
1) Go to the Fundamentals of Physics
Moodle site and from the Introductory • Handling Simple Uncertainties Estimates
Concepts topic complete • Processing Uncertainties
• Laboratory Overview and and Safety • Linear Graphing Exercises using the
Lessons and Quizzes; Graph Paper and the Computer.
• the online Introductory Experimentation Laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory Quiz and
Video Demonstration.
2) Familiarise yourself with
• 'Introduction and Welcome to First Year Lab', 'Uncertainities and Uncertainty
stimation, 'Using the Computers' and 'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections, which
start below.
Note: Some calculations and/or graphs in the lab

manual need to be done before the lab class!
Useful Definitions
Absolute uncertainty (∆x) is always expressed in the units of the measured value: x ± ∆x
Percentage uncertainty is a percentage fraction (∆x/x)%, which is independent of the
units of the measured value: x ± (∆x/x)%
Mean (xave) for repeated measurements of x: (x +x +…+xN)
xave = 1 2
N
x
Uncertainty for repeated measurements: ∆x = | max min| - x
2
Lab rules for how to combine independent uncertainties.
Basic lab rules Absolute uncertainty

(in units of z)
z=x+y ∆z = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2
Addition/Subtraction z=x–y √
z=x·y
Multiplication/Division z = xy
( ) + ( ∆yy )
∆z = |z|√ ∆x
x
2 2
Multiplication by a Constant z = c·x ∆z = |c|·∆x
First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL 1

Useful Definitions (cont.)
How to graph the uncertainty in x and y for each data point?

+Δy
−Δx
+Δx
−Δy
Fitting straight line of best fit

y
y2
P2(x2,y2) Linear Equation : y = mx + b
y-intercept = b
rise of line y2 − y1
y1 slope = m = =
P1(x1,y1) run of line x2 − x1
x1 x2 x
b
Fitting and using the straight lines

lineMAX b = y-intercept of linebest
y linebest
bMAX = y-intercept of lineMAX
lineMIN
bMIN = y-intercept of lineMIN
rise of linebest
m=
run of linebest
bMIN rise of lineMAX
mMIN = slopeMIN =
b
run of lineMAX
x
rise of lineMIN
bMAX mMIN = slopeMIN =
run of lineMIN
uncertainty in the y-intercept of the best fit line

|bMAX − bMIN|
∆b =
2
uncertainty in the slope of the best fit line

|mMAX-mMIN|
∆m =
2
y-intercept with its uncertainty: b ± ∆b
slope with its uncertainty: m ± ∆m
2 First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

Introductory Experimentation
Laboratory Work Starts Here!
1) Have you read through this section before your lab class? Yes/No
2) Have you completed the online Pre-lab Quiz on Moodle? Yes/No
If both answers are 'Yes', you are ready to start the lab!
This lab has two parts. In part 1 you will take a measurements, perform calculations and
estimate the uncertainties, while in part 2 you will use a straight line fitting to some quantities.
Equipment to be Used in this Lab:

• a sharp pencil
• a transparent ruler (about 20-30cm long)
• a small metal cylinder (from the laboratory staff)
NOTE: It is your responsibility to bring the pencil and the ruler and collect the metal cylinder
from the lab staff (leave student card with the lab staff).
You will be able to access from the lab a balance for measuring the mass and use laboratory
computer for one of your exercises.
Part 1: Simple Measurements and Uncertainty Estimation

In this part you will perform simple measurements, with the uncertainties, and use them to
calculate the value, and uncertainty, of the density of a metal cylinder.
Experimental Results
In each measurement, for this exercise, use half of the smallest reading of the instrument
as the uncertainty. Remember to match the number of decimal places in the measured
value and uncertainty.
1. Using one of the balances in the lab weigh the small cylinder and record its mass, m,
with the uncertainty, ∆M, with the units in the spaced below
M ± ∆M =
2. Using the ruler measure
a) the diameter, d, of the cylinder base and record the value with the uncertainty, ∆d,
including the units
d ± ∆d =
b) the height of the cylinder, h, and record the value with the uncertainty, ∆h, and units
h ± ∆h =
l 3
Calculations Using Your Results
1. In the spaces provided calculate
a) the volume of the metal cylinder in m3:
d
V=π· 2 ( ) ·h=2
b) the density of the cylinder’s metal in kg/m3.
M
ρ= =
V
2. In the spaces provided, calculate using the hint below
a) the absolute uncertainty in the volume of cylinder in m3
( ) ( )
∆d 2 ∆h 2
∆V = V ∙ 2 · + =
√ d h
b) the absolute uncertainty in the metal density in kg/m3
( ∆M ) + ∆V
(V )
2 2
∆ρ = ρ ∙ =
√ M
[Hints: Use the Multiplication/Division rule from the Useful Definitions table.
In your calculation, it is important to use the measured value and its uncertainty
in the same units, and at this stage, not necessary SI units! And note that:
( ) ( ) ( ) .]
∆d 2
∆d 2 ∆d 2
+ =2∙
d d d

Summary
1. Include the results of your measurements and calculations in the table below.
Remember to match the number of decimal places in the uncertainty and measured/
calculated value).
Values Uncertainties
M(kg) ∆M(kg) ±
d(m) ∆d(m) ±
h(m) ∆h(m) ±
V(m3) ∆V(m3) ±
ρ(kg/m3) ∆ρ(kg/m3) ±
2. In the space below present the final value of the density with its uncertainty and units.
Get
ρ ± ∆ρ = M ed
Nowü
This is the end of Part 1. Return the small metal cylinder to the demonstrator. Then start Part 2.
Part 2: Straight Line Fitting – Graphing Exercises

In this part you will use the graph paper and the computer software to analyse the
experimental results graphically.
2.1 Best Fit Line and two Worst Fit Lines using the graph paper, pencil and rule
In this exercise you will learn what to graph to give you a straight line for the rearranged
form of previously used equation M = ρ V
where M = mass of the metal cylider (m is dependent variable, like y),
V = volume of the metal sphere (V is independent variable, like x),
ρ = density of the metal (ρ is constant).
The equation introduced above is already in the form of straight line, as shown below;
y = m∙x + b
M = ρ∙V
This means that the graph of M versus V should produce the straight line and the slope ‘m’
would give the density of the metal 'ρ’ in kg/m3, and the y-intercept ‘b’ is expected to be zero
(non-zero value can result from the inacurate measurements of M & V).
Results
Table below shows the values of mass, M, and volume, V, with the relevant uncertainties.
M (g) 32.5±0.5 37.5±0.5 48.5±0.5 53.0±0.5 62.0±0.5 68.5.0±0.5

V (mm3) 3600±180 3900±195 5500±275 6000±300 6500±325 7500±375

Results analysis - Graph of mass, M, versus volume, V

a) With a pencil, complete the partially done graph provided by adding the points
(dots or little crosses) for the remaining values from the table. At this stage do not
join the points.
b) Add ‘uncertainty bars' for your points and include the graph’s title.
c) Look carefully at the arrangement of all points. Are they showing any trend?
Does this surprise you? Comment.
d) Draw the best fit straight line for all points (refer to section B3 of 'Uncertainties and
Uncertainty Estimation' document for how to draw this line).
• Choose and clearly mark two distant points on the line and obtain their coordinates
Point P1: x1 = y1 =
Point P2: x2 = y2 =
• Using the above (x1, y1) & (x2,y2) calculate the slope of the best-fit line and record it
below with the units
rise y −y
m= = x2 − x1 =
run 2 1
e) Add the MAX and MIN fit lines to your ‘Mass versus Volume’ graph from d) and
use those lines to calculate slopes with the units
rise of lineMIN
mMIN = =
run of lineMIN
Get
rise of lineMAX
mMAX = run of line
MAX
= ü
M ed
Now

8000
Volume (mm3)
7000
6000
5000
Title:
4000
3000
M (g)
70
60
30
50
40

INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTATION
f) Using your results from step e) calculate and record below the uncertainty in
the slope of the best fit line
|mMAX - mMIN|
∆m = =
2
g) Using the results from step d) and f) report your final value for the slope with
uncertainties and units in the space below (don't forget to match the number of
decimal places in the uncertainty and calculated value)
m ± ∆m =
h) Recall that y = m∙x + b and M = ρ∙ V, and using the numerical values from g)
obtain the density of the metal with its uncertainty, both in kg/m3
ρ ± ∆ρ =
i) Finally anwer the following:
• Does the value you calculated in part 1 lie within the uncertainty of step h)?
• What does this say about the accuracy and reliability of the two methods
for finding ρ?
Get
ü
M ed
Now
The fitting of lines by hand is the foundation for frequently used Excel or LabPro
software, where the final results are obtained relatively fast especially for the large
number of experimental results. In the next section you will use an Excel template
to analyse the experimental results on a computer.

2.2 Best Fit Line using the Computer Software
In this exercise you will use the expression T = 2π√ M to obtain value of the spring
k
constant 'k' (in kg/s2) using the period of oscillations of the spring 'T' (in seconds, s) and a
mass 'M' (in kilograms, kg) that is suspended from that spring.
Note that ‘2π’ is the constant (2 times contant π which is approximately 3.14) with no units.
Before using a computer, as with the graph paper, you will need to decide what to graph
that will give you a straight line.
Results
In the table below are the results of the period of oscillations, T, measured for different
masses, M. Uncertainties are not included in the table only to simplify this exercise.
T (s) 1.41 1.97 2.45 2.85 3.16 3.44 3.71 4.01 4.18
M(kg) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
1. Refer to the expression T = 2π√ M

k and answer the following:
(a) What type of graph (a curve or straight line) would you expect to be produced by
plotting T versus M? Explain.
(b) Which values do you need to plot to give rise to a straight line graph?
on y-axis:
on x-axis:
(c) The expression T = 2π Mk can be transformed to the straight-line equation y = mx + b

where the slope ‘m’ will give 'k'. Keeping in mind all constants and variables rearrange
the exprssion fo T to complete the following
T2 =
(d) Table below shows two values of T2 which were calculated for given M. Calculate
all missing values T2 to complete the table
T2 (s2) 1.99 9.99

M(kg) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual 9

Results Analysis - Graph of T2 versus M

Since the uncertainties in the measured values are not included, only the computer
generated best fit line will be used.
1. Log on to the lab computer with zID and then zPass.

(a) Double click on the First Year icon and drag the folder “Drag to desktop and
rename as experiments” to the desktop and rename it by simply clicking once on the
name and typing in the new name.
(b) Double click the mouse cursor on the renamed folder and then click on the
'Fundamentals Experiments' and select the “General Linear Plot” file.
(c) Type in all 'M' values to the x-axis column and corresponding 'T2' values to the y-
axis column on the computer screen. As soon as you have entered all values, your
best fit line and its equation appear on the computer screen.
(d) Record the best fit line equation in the space below and leave your graph on the
screen until seen by your Demonstrator.
y=
(e) From the above equation (d), obtain the numerical value of the slope and y-intercept
with the units and record them in the space below
slope, m =
y-intercept, b =
(f) Using the value of the slope (e) calculate the spring constant ‘k’ with the units
k = 4π =
2
(g) In the space below comment on the possible reason(s) for the non zero y-intercept.
Note: Although the computer best line fit method is relatively quick
Get
ü
especially for the large number of experimental results, the best fit
M ed
line by hand using the graph paper might often be the better option! Now
This is the end of your laboratory exercises

- Return equipment if required.
- Logout from the computer.
- Clean your work place.

INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENTATION
Concluding steps
1. Fill in the information below.

1. Have your demonstrator check, mark and sign your work.
Student Section:
Student Name: ……………………………… Student Number: ………………………………
Date: ………………………………
Demonstrator Only Section:
Tasks to complete in the laboratory Mark Out Of

Lab preparation - both questions Yes 0.5
2
Calculated ρ & Δρ correctly 1
1
Calculated y-intercept and slope with uncertainty correctly 1
Calculated slope with uncertainty correctly 1
Density with uncertainties correctly obtained 1
Part 2.2: Graph correctly obtained 1
Calculated constants k correctly 1
Start and finish (including the equipment packed/returned) on time 0.5
Total : 10
Demonstrator’s Signature:…………………………...
Demonstrator’s Name: ………………………………

Introductory ExpErImEtatIon

Projectile Motion
Projectile Motion
Preparation before coming to the laboratory

This experiment is designed to give you an
1) Go to Fundamentals of Physics Moodle understanding of:
site and from the Kinematics and • Fundamentals of projectile motion
Mechanics topic complete • Horizontal and vertical components of
• the online Projectile Motion Pre- the projectile motion
• Energy consideration in the projectile
laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory
motion
Quiz and Video Demonstration.

• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and 'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections,
which start below.

Useful Definitions and Constants
A projectile (an object) is moving due to the force of gravity that causes a vertical
acceleration. Due to the absence of horizontal forces, a projectile remains in motion with
a constant horizontal velocity.
The projectile launched at θ with V0
The vertical velocity is equal to
the initial vertical velocity minus
gravitational acceleration times time:
Vy = V0y - gt
The vertical distance, h or y, is equal
to the initial vertical velocity times
time, minus one half gravitational
acceleration times the time squared:
1 2
height = V0yt – gt
2
The horizontal velocity is always equal to the initial horizontal velocity:
Vx = V0x
The horizontal distance, R or xmax, is equal to the horizontal velocity times time:
range = Vx t

Projectile Motion
Useful Definitions and Constants (cont.)
The projectile launched at θ = 0 degrees with V 0 = Vx
Height, h or y, of the projectile motion with zero initial vertical velocity (V0y = 0)
h = 12 gt2

R = Vxt
side of the
hill vx
Other useful expressions: 2h

Vx = √2gh t=
√ g
Gravitational (vertical) acceleration: g = 9.8 ms-2.
The units for velocity and acceleration are m.s-1 and m.s-2 respectively.
Height, h, and range, R, are both measured in meters, m and time, t, in seconds, s.
Gravitational potential energy (PE) of object of mass m at H: PE = mgH
1
Kinetic energy (KE) of object of mass m at h, using vx = Vo: KE = mVo2
2
1
Conservation of Energy: mgH = mVo2 → Vo = √2gH
2
14 First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

Projectile Motion
Laboratory Work Starts Here
Equipment to be Used in this Lab:

• projectile launcher
• masking tape
• a metre ruler
• a ball
• graph paper
• carbon paper (recyclable - please don’t crease or throw out)
Your demonstrator will provide a cup for the final stage of part 2 of the experiment.
Part 1: The Launch Speed of a ball on the Projectile Launcher
The aim of this exercise is to calculate the initial velocity of the projectile motion of a ball
on the projectile launcher shown in Figure 1. Note that the ball is released at a position H
measured from the launcher level, and the ball launches from the end of the launcher at the
height h measured from the table top.
launcher
V0
level
h
hand to catch
x=0 ball
table top
R
Figure 1: The experimental apparatus for Part 1 (schematic and photograph).
1. Set up the projectile launcher on the table as shown in Figure 1 and release the ball a few
times from different heights on the launcher to observe where the ball lands on the table.
Then choose the most convenient position of the launcher and the height H from which
the ball lands comfortably on the table. Measure and record H with its uncertainty, both
in metres.
Important: Since you need to remember the position of the launcher and the chosen
height H, secure the launcher on the table using masking tape and mark the height using
also using masking tape (don't make any marks on the table and on the launcher!)
H ± ∆H =
Remember to round up ∆H to match the number of decimal places in H.

Projectile Motion
2. Now place the graph paper on the table, so the ball lands consistently, preferably at the
centre of the paper (see figure 2a) and attach the position of the paper on the table
using masking tape.
launcher V0
level
h
graph paper
x=0
carbon paper
table top
R
(a) Figure 2 (b)
3. Measure the height of the launcher level from the table top, h, as shown in Figure 2a.
Record both, h and its uncertainties ∆h, in metres in the space below. (Round up ∆h to
match the number of decimal places in h.)
h ± ∆h =
4. Place the carbon paper, black side down (figure 2b), on the top of the graph paper, so the
ball will fall on it, making permanent marks where it lands. Do not change the position of
the projectile launcher or graph paper until you have completed this exercise. (Note that
carbon paper can stain clothing.)
5. Fianally, release the ball at the chosen in step 1 height, H, and repeat it at least 10 times.
After the last release of the ball remove the carbon paper and examine the points marked on
the graph paper. They should spread around the imaginary projectile launcher line, as shown
on figure 3.
Rmean
end of launcher
launcher line
x=0
Figure 3: Top view

metre ruler
of the arrangement R1

Projectile Motion
6. With the graph paper and the launcher still attached to the table, using the metre rule,
gently draw the launcher line from the mid point of the end of launcher. Then measure
the positions of marked points along the launcher line from the end of the launched, x
= 0, as shown in figure 3. Record the results in metres in the table provided.
R1(m) R2 (m) R3 (m) R4 (m) R5 (m) R6 (m) R7 (m) R8 (m) R9 (m) R10 (m)
[Hint: You might measure the distance from x = 0 to the edge of the paper, and then continue
your measurements on the paper].
7. Using all results from the table, calculate the mean value, Rmean, of all marked points
with its uncertainty, ∆R and record them with the units below.
Hint: ∆R calculates as half of the difference between maximum and minimum value.
Round ∆R up to match the number of decimal places in Rmean.
Rmean ± ∆R =
8. Mark the position of Rmean on the launcher line of the graph paper and note that the
points are also spread along the direction perpendicular (lateral) to the launcher line .
Referring to figure 4, sketch the limit lines and using trygonometry estimate the size of
that angular spread (θ) in radians. See the hint below the figure for details.
x=0
reference line
limit line
mid point
y1
Rmean
end of launcher θ1
launcher line
θ2
y2
Figure 4
limit line
metre ruler
R1
θ1 + θ2
θ= =
2
[Hint: Note that the ‘limit lines’ originate from the mid point of the end of the launcher and the lines
enclose most of your experimental points. The angle limits (θ1 above and θ2 below the launcher
y1 y2
line) can be calculated using trigonometry. Since tan θ1 = and tan θ2 = , therefore
y1 y2 Rmean Rmean
θ1 = tan-1 and θ2 = tan-1 .]
Rmean Rmean
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Projectile Motion
9. Using the equations for the height and range of the projectile motion:
h = 12 gt2 and R = V0t
derive (in the space below) an expression for the launch speed (Vo), in symbols (function
of R, h and g). [Hint: Rearrange the first equation for t, and substitute into the second equation.]
10. Using the expression derived in step 9 above, and the numerical values for h (from step
3) and R = Rmean (from step 7) in the space below calculate the numerical value for the
launch speed of the ball, V0, with the uncertainty and units (round off ∆V0 to match V0).
V0 ± ∆V0 =
g
[Hint for the uncertainty calculation: In V0 = R · , assume that g is constant and R and h
√ 2h
are independently measured. Refer to the Introductory Experimentation exercise to see that
√( ) ( )
2 2
∆R 1 ∆h
∆V0 = V0 · + ·
R 2 h
Note that the uncertainties are assumed to be independent and that ½ under square root results
from h under squared root (!) in your derived expression.
11. Finally, using the energy conservation law for the ball release on the launcher the
total initial energy, PE = mgH, is equal to the total final energy, KE = ½mV0’2, in the
space below calculate the theoretical numerical value of the velocity, that the ball
would have reached if there was no energy lost between the initial and final (launching)
position of the ball. (Note that the mass will cancel out.)
12. How does the theoretical launch velocity, V0’ predicted in step 11, compare with the
calculated in step 10 value? Does the difference surprise you? Why? Comment.
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This is the end of Part 1. Use the same projectile launcher, and move to part 2.

Projectile Motion
Part 2a: Calculation the position for the cup on the floor
The aim of this exercise is to predict the position for the cup to be placed on the floor
to observe the ball released on the launcher landing in the cup.
To be able to complete this exercise within the lab time, you will release the ball from
the height, H, chosen in Part 1 to ensure that the ball will launch with velocity, V0,
which has already been calculated in Part 1.
1. Place the projectile launcher on the table so that its end is flush with the edge of
the table as shown in Figure 5.
B V
launcher 0
level
x=0
table top
htotal
(a)
R ball lands in (b)
d the cup
Figure 5 (a) & (b). The launcher set up for Part 2
2. Measure and record in the space below, the launcher level from the floor, htotal, shown
in Figure 5. Express you answer in meters with the uncertainty. Do not experiment at this
stage!
htotal ± ∆htotal =
Note: Round off ∆htotal to match the number of decimal placed in htotal.

Projectile Motion
3. A cup to be used in this exercise,

schematically shown here, has a diameter 2r
= 0.071m and a height d = 0.098m measured 2r
with the uncertainty ∆d = 0.001m.
d
Using the height d, calculate and record in
the space below the actual (different than in
Part 1) height of the launcher level from the
floor h' = htotal – d with the uncertainty
∆h' (refer to the hint below to calculate ∆h'
and round it off to match h').
h' ± ∆h' =
[Hint: For independent uncertainties ∆h'= √(∆htotal)2 + (∆d)2 ]
2h'
4. Using R = Vo ·
√ g
and the launch speed (calculated in step 10 from Part 1) calculate, in the space below,
the range R which will be the position of the cup on the floor for the ball to land in it.
Also calculate uncertainty ∆R in the range (refer to the hint below for calculation ∆R
and round it off to match R)
R ± ∆R =
√( ∆V0
) ( 1 ∆h
)
2 2
[Hint for uncertainty calculation: ∆R = R · + · , assume that ∆V0 and
V0 2 h
∆h are independent uncertainties.]
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Projectile Motion
5. Now using the angular spread, θ, from step 8 of part 1 and the value of R (step 4
above), calculate the lateral uncertainty for the cup's position on the floor using, for
example,
∆y = R∙tan θ =
6. Considering the uncertainties (both ∆R and ∆y, from step 4 and 5) and the diameter of
the cup, is the ball likely to land inside? Explain.
Part 2b: The ball lands in the cup – experimental confirmation of your prediction
Do not experiment at this stage! You will be marked on whether the ball lands in the
cup, based on your calculation alone, with no rehearsals!
1. Complete the table below and ask your Demonstrator for the cup and place it exactly at
the position presented in your table. Remember to round up uncertainties to match the
number of decimal places in the cup position.
Cup position, R (step 4, Part 2a)
Uncertainty in the range, ∆R (step 4, Part 2a) ±
Lateral uncertainty, ∆y (step 5, Part 2a) ±
2. Now call the demonstrator to observe while you conduct the experiment.
Does the ball land in the cup?
2 Yes Congratulations! You will receive two marks for your efforts!
This is the end of your experiment.
1 No Sorry! Explain below where you went wrong and how you
would improve your prediction.
0*
*If you missed the cup and haven’t adequately explained, you will score zero for
this part.
Get
This is the end of your laboratory exercise
- Pack your equipment and return if required.
- Clean your work place!
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Projectile Motion
Concluding Steps

Student Section:
Date: ………………………………

Part 1: Obtained results correctly 1
Calculated R and ∆R correctly 1
Calculated the launch velocity correctly 2
Comparison of the theoretical launch velocity with the calculated 1
Part 2a: Calculated R, ∆R & y correctly 2
Part 2b: The ball lands in the cup 2
Total : 10

Collisions and Car Crashing
1) Go to Fundamentals of Physics Moodle site

and from the Kinematics and Mechanics
topic complete
• The online Collisions and Car
Crashing Pre-laboratory Lesson, This experiment is designed to give you
Pre-laboratory Quiz and Video an understanding of:
Demonstration.
• Background theory of collision
2) Familiarise yourself with • Types of Collision
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and • The Coefficient of Restitution
• Collision, Impulse and Impact
'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections
which start below.


Momentum is the product of the mass, m, and velocity, for example, V
p = mV
m
The unit of momentum is kg .
s
For any collision the total momentum is conserved pi = pf, which means that it has
the same value before collision (initial state, i) and after the collision (final state, f).
Kinetic Energy, KE, of a body of mass m, moving with V, is defined as

1
KE = mV2
2
The unit of energy is the Joule (J).
Coefficient of restitution, e, for one dimension collision of body A and B

VB - VA
e=−
uB - uA
uB – uA and VB – VA are the velocities of body B relative to body A before and after the
collision respectively.

Coefficient of restitution for a collision of an object, A, with the stationary boundary, B,

(uB = 0 & VB = 0).
VA
VB = 0 e = −
uA
where uA is the velocity of object A before the collision and VA is the velocity of object A
after the collision.
Collision type Total momentum Total kinetic energy Coefficient of

restitution
Perfectly conserved conserved e=1
elastic pi = pf → Δp = 0 KEi = KEf → ΔKE = 0
Perfectly conserved not conserved e=0
inelastic pi = pf → Δp = 0 KEI ≠ KEf → ΔKE ≠ 0
Partly inelastic/ conserved not conserved 0 < e <1
partly elastic pi = pf → Δp = 0 KEI ≠ KEf → ΔKE ≠ 0
∆p
Force on the object to change its momentum, F = (2nd Newton’s Law)
∆t
Change in the object’s momentum is the impulse experienced by the object J = ∆p
Impulse and impact force J = F∆t. Force is measured in Newtons (N).

m
Impulse has the same units and dimensions as momentum ( kg = N · s ).
s
Equipment to be Used in this Experiment

• a dynamics 1.2m car track
• a cart
• a motion detector and cable
• a clamp
• a LabQuest with the USB cable
• a green holding block (small piece of wood)
• a bubble wrap buffer
You will also need to use one of the laboratory computers.

Part 1: LabQuest and Motion Detector Set-up

In your experiment you will collect measurements using the computer operating motion
sensor that requires the LabQuest and the Logger Pro software.
1. Plug the USB cable into the USB port of one of the Mac
computers.
2. Plug the motion detector into the “DIG 1” socket on

the side of the LabQuest as shown in figure 1.
The motion detector (figure 2) is a sensor that sends out

ultrasonic pulses and measures the time it takes for the Figure 1. The LabQuest
pulses to be reflected off an object. It then calculates the
position, velocity, and acceleration of the object.
CAUTION: The motion detector is very sensitive to the

sound signals reflected off nearby objects. Try to ensure
that there are no other sound sources near to the track as
thery may interfere with your cart collision signal. Also
ensure that your detector is not pointing towards any
other group’s detector.
Figure 2. Motion Detector
Part 2: Equipment Set-Up

1. Having the LabQuest and motion detector already set up, start up the Logger Pro
software on the computer by double clicking the “Fundamentals Experiments” folder
on the computer desktop or from the “First Year” folder.
2. Then double click the mouse cursor on the “ Car Crash Experiment part 1.xmbl” to
open the template file. You should see the Car Crash Experiment part1.xmbl window
with the navigation bar above the three blank graph grids, for the Position (m),
Velocity (m/s) and Acceleration (m/s2) versus time (s), as shown next. Note that the
mouse cursor movement on the grids is shown by two values of relevant coordinates.
3. If the “Car Crash Experiment

part1.xmbl” navigation bar shows
only the icons, go to the main
navigation bar, select the Logger
Customize Toolbar and request to
show the “Icon and Text”.

4. Set up the dynamic track on your working bench-top and tilt the track so that the end with
the bumper is at the bottom of the slope. Make sure that the slope is sufficient for the cart to
move freely towards the bumper. The upper end of the track needs to be elevated to no
more than the 'support screw' length. Set the magnetic side of the bumper and the magnetic
side of the cart to face each other, as shown also in Figure 3.
cart sensor face

bumper
screw
magnetic sides dynamics track cm scale motion detector
clamp
bumper
clamp
cart sensor face
holding Figure 3: side and top view diagrams and

block photographic representation.
cart
a buffer Note: If the bumper is not attached, then
attach it to the lower end of the track by
clamp fitting it into the slot on the side of the track.
Make sure that the magnetic side of the
bumper faces up the track. It is also a good
bumper idea to butt up the lower end of the track
against a stationary solid object, for example
the clamp as shown.
5. Open the motion detector up so the sensor face is at 90 degrees to the track and
points down the track, as shown in figure 3. Alternatively, you can place the detector on
its side at the upper end of the track.
6. Set the cart at any position on the track and let it slide down the track, with it's magnetic
side facing the magnetic side of the bumper. Observe how the cart ‘bounces’ off the bumper
and if there is no ‘magnetic push‘ of the cart by the bumper, check that the colliding sides are
magnetic, and replace them if required.

7. Click the mouse cursor on the Data Collection button on the navigation bar at
the top of the window to confirm (and change if required) that the software is set to
collect 30 samples per second for at least 15 seconds as shown.
Part 3: Results and Analysis

In this experiment you will collect and examine the Position, Velocity and Acceleration
graphs using the computer operating motion sensor for different types of collisions.
3.1 Magnetic Cart /Magnetic Bumper Collision - magnetic side of the cart hits the magnetic
side of the bumper
Results – Run 1
1. With the bumper already attached to the track, place the cart approximately 80 cm from the
bumper. You can place the small piece of wood on the track in front of the cart, to prevent
unplanned movement of the cart. Measure the position of the cart from the bumper and
record below
Cart position =
2. Click the mouse cursor on the “Collect” button to start the recording and immediately
release the cart by gently removing the holding piece of wood. Let the cart move down
the track and ‘bounce’ off the bumper, to observe graphs of collisions. (Note that the data
collecting stops automatically after 15 seconds.)
Figure 4: Typical example of the graphs

(1) (2) (3) for Position, Velocity and Acceleration
versus Time for three consecutive
collisions, marked as (1),
(2) and (3).
Note that for each graph time is
measured from the moment the
collection of the results starts!

3. Repeat step 2 (above) by releasing the cart until you see very consistent similar to figure 4
graphs from exactly the same posion. Carefully look at your final 'Position', 'Velocity' and
'Acceleration' graphs. Graphs for the first collision will be analysed in the next section of
this exercise.
Note:
• Before collecting the final graphs, you might need to close your trial graphs using
"Clear Data" function from the computer navigation bar.
• To resize the final graphs, click the mouse cursor on the “Autoscale” function button
or alternatively resize only part of your graph by highlighting that part before clicking on the
"Autoscale" button.
Analysis of the First Collision for Run 1
In this section you will use the graphs to estimate

• the moment and position of the collision,
• the velocity before and after the collision,
• the acceleration at the moment of collision, and
• the collision length.
1. Time and Position of the Collision
You will use the first collision on the Position graph. Note that the graph turns (almost at
the point) from going ‘up’ to ‘down’ at the moment of collision. This turning point will be
used to estimate the time and the distance travelled by the cart to the moment of collision
with the bumper.
1(a) Click the mouse cursor on the ‘Examine’ function
button and move (without clicking) the ‘Examine’

cursor (little circle) to the point of the collision, as
shown in Figure 5a.
The result box will appear on the graph. Figure 5a - Position graph for the
first collision
1(b) Transfer the values from the result box to the first two rows of the Run 1 Results
column in Table 1.

2. Velocity Before and After the First Collision
Now you will use the Velocity graph for the first collision shown as an example in
figure 5b and 5c. Note that before collision the velocity is positive and slowly
increasing, then at the moment of collision drops through the zero value to become
negative after the collision.
2(a) Move the cursor to the Velocity graph and use the 'Examine' function again.
This time bring the mouse cursor to the point where the positive part of the graph
turns (‘up and sharply ‘down’), shown as (1) on figure 5b. Transfer the velocity just
before the first collision with the units from the result box to the relevant row of the
Run 1 Results column in Table 1.
(1)
(2)
Figure 5b
2(b) Repeat step 2(a) for the lower section of the Velocity graph where the graph
turns ‘down’ and ‘up’, shown as (2) on the Figure 5c. Now transfer the velocity
just after the collision with the units to the relevant row of the Run 1 Results
column in Table 1.
(1)
(2)
Figure 5c

3. Length of the Collision and the Acceleration at the Moment of Collision
Finally you will use the Acceleration graph. Note that at the moment of collision the
graph falls to its lowest point. Two stages, (1) → lowest point, & lowest point → (2) in
Figures 5d & 5e, show respectively the velocity change before collision (initial velocity →
zero velocity) and after the collision (zero velocity → final velocity). Using this graph you
will estimate the length (time) of the collision and the maximum acceleration at the
moment of collision.
3(a) Move the mouse cursor to the Accelaration graph (1) (2)
Use the ‘Examine’ function and move the cursor to
the point where the graph turns ‘down’, shown as
(1) on Figure 5d, before falling to its ‘lowest point’, lowest point
also shown in Figure 5d. From the results box
transfer the time when the collision starts, t1, with the Figure 5d
units to the relevant row of the Run 1 Results column
in Table 1.
3(b) Repeat step 3a) for the part of thes graph where the (1) (2)
graph is turning ‘up’ after rising from the ‘lowest point’,
shown as (2) on Figure 5e. Record the time when the
lowest point
collision ends, t2, with the units in the relevant part of Table 1.
Figure 5e
3(c) Using step 3(a) and 3(b) results calculate the collision length t = t2 – t1, with the units,
and record the value in the relevant part of Table 1 which is provided on the next page.
3(d) Using the 'Examine' function move the cursor to the

‘lowest point’ where the acceleration reaches its largest
value, as shown in Figure 5f. Now from the results box
transfer the absolute value of the acceleration of the cart
at the moment of collision, |a|, with the units, to the
relevant row of the Run 1 Results column in Table 1. Figure 5f
Results and Analysis for Run 2 and 3
To obtain the uncertainties in your results you need to repeat each of your runs at least
two more times.
With the magnetic side of the cart still facing the magnetic side of the bumper, repeat
sections 1, 2 and 3 from Analysis of the First Collision Results for Run 1, for two additional
runs of the cart. Record the results in Table 1, in the columns under Run 2 Results & Run 3
Results.

Table 1. Magnetic Cart/Magnetic Bumper Collision - Summary of Results for Runs 1, 2 & 3
If the measured values differ significantly between the runs, it is very important to repeat the
runs from the same position of the cart on the track, until clear reproducibility is observed.
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average Uncertainty Units

Results Results Results Results in Average
Results*
Collision ± s
Position
Moment
graph
Collision ± m
Position
Velocity ±
Velocity graph
before
collision, u
Velocity ±
after
collision, V
Collision start, ±
t1
Acceleration Graph
Collision end, ±
t2
Collision ±
Length,
t = t2 - t1
Maximum ±
acceleration, + + + +
|a|
Hints: Examples how to calculate the average values and the uncertainties:
Average Result = (Result 1 + Result 2 + Result 3)

3
Uncertainty = | Result
max
− Resultmin
2 |.
Note: If a series of measurements are the same, use 2% for the uncertainty in your average
results. Remember to round up uncertainties to match the number of decimal places in the
measured/average values.
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This is the end of section 3.1 of Part 3! Use the same detector and equipment set up and
move to section 3.2 to investigate another type of collision. You might need to clear Data
and disable the ‘Examine’ function before proceeding to section 3.2!

3.2 NON Magnetic Cart/Magnetic Bumper Collision - non-magnetic side of the cart hits
the magnetic side of the bumper
1. Turn the cart around, so that the other (NON magnetic) side of the cart faces the
magnetic side of the bumper, to make the cart to smack hard into it.
2. Perform three runs of the cart from the position used in section 3.1, and for each run
measure the velocities before and after the collision and record them in Table 2 below.
3. Calculate the average velocities and the uncertainties with the units, and complete the
table below. For how to calculate uncertainty in the velocities refer to Table 1. Table 2
summarises your results collected in this section.
Table 2. NON Magnetic Cart/Magnetic Bumper Collision - Results for Runs 1, 2 & 3
If the measured values differ significantly between the runs, it is very important to repeat the
runs from the same position of the cart on the track, until clear reproducibility is observed.
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average Uncertainty

Results Results Results Results in Average
Results*
Units
Velocity before ±
collision, u
Velocity
graph
Velocity ±
after
collision, V
* As before, if the measurements are very close, use 2% for the uncertainty and the
number of decimal places in the uncertainties and measured values should match.
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This is the end of Part 3. It is important to leave your equipment set-up with your
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last graphs on the screen to be able to continue in part 5. In the meantime move Now
to part 4 to analyse your collisions using the coefficient of restitution.
Part 4: Coefficient of Restitution - Calculation and Discussion
The coefficient of restitution is commonly used to determine the type of the collision
(almost elastic or almost inelastic). In this part you will use some of the results of Part 3 to
calculate the coefficients of restitution and comment on the type of your collisions.
1. Transfer to the Table 3, the average velocities before and after collision with the
uncertainties from Table 1 & Table 2.

Table 3
Velocity Coefficient of
before Uncertainty Velocity after Uncertainty Uncertainty
restitution
Collision/ collision collision
∆uave ∆Vave V ∆e*
objects uave Vave e=- ave
u
ave
Units
Magnetic
side of cart
/ Magnetic ± ± ±
side of
bumper
NON
Magnetic
side of cart
± ± ±
/ Magnetic
side of
bumper
( ) +(
[*Hint to calculate the uncertainty: ∆e = e· √
∆u
u
2
∆V
V
) 2
assuming that ∆u and ∆V are
independent.]
2. Using the results from Table 3 and the hint below the table, calculate in the space
provided the coefficient of restitution and the uncertainty for each collision. (The number of
decimal places in the uncertainty and measured/calculated value should match.)
a) Magnetic side of the cart collides with Magnetic side of the Bumper
e ± ∆e =
b) NON Magnetic side of the cart collides with Magnetic side of the Bumper
e ± ∆e =
3. Record the above values for the coefficient of restitution, e, with the uncertainties, in
Table 3.
4. Referring to your results in Table 3, in the space below comment on the difference
between the coefficients and type of collisions.
This is the end of Part 4. Use the same detector and equipment set up Get
and move to Part 5.
First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

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33
Part 5: Car Crashes and Impulse
Here you will take a look at the amount of impact force acting on the cart's passenger
during different type of collisions. You will set up a simple 'crash test' and examine the
acceleration of the cart at the moment of collision. Then you will be able to comment on
how to modify the collision to reduce the acceleration and the impact force on a
'passenger' in the car to make the trip safer. To obtain the most reliable and conclusive
results, ensure that the 'passenger' experiences the same impulse in every run.
5.1 NON Magnetic Cart/Magnetic Bumper Collision - non-magnetic side of the cart hits
the magnetic side of the bumper
5.1(a) With the graphs from section 3.2 (Part 3) still on the computer screen, use the
‘Examine’ cursor for the acceleration graph to obtain the length of the collision, t2 – t1, and
the maximum acceleration, |a|, using method used in section 3.1(c).* Record both values
with the units in the relevant section of Table 4.
* If the graphs are not on the computer screen, set the NON magnetic side of the cart to face the magnetic side of the
bumper (refer to 3.2 Part 3) and release the cart from the previously used position and obtain the graphs, and measure
t2 – t1 and the maximum acceleration |a|.
5.1(b) Now click and drag the mouse cursor between points at t1 and t2 to highlight this region.
Then click on the ‘Integral Fit’ unction button to obtain the area outlined only by the
acceleration curve, as shown in Figure 5g. The result box with the Integral value, will appear on
the graph. Transfer the value with the units from the result box to the Graph Area column in
Table 4 on the next page. Note: You might need to clear Data and disable the Examine’ and
‘Integrate’ functions before proceeding to the next step!
Figure 5g
5.1(c) Perform two additional runs of the cart, steps 5.1(a) & 5.1(b), and for each run record
the results under Run 2 & Run 3 Results columns of the relevant section of Table 4.

5.2 NON Magnetic Cart/Buffer/Magnetic Bumper Collision - non-magnetic side of the

cart hits the magnetic side of the bumper through the bubble wrap buffer.
5.2(a) With the NON magnetic side of the cart still facing the magnetic side of the
bumper, lay down the bubble wrap buffer in contact with the bumper to imitate a real car
bumper bar, and repeat steps 5.1(a), 5.1(b), & 5.1(c).
5.2(b) With the results of all runs recorded in Table 4, calculate the required values, with
uncertainties and units to complete Table 4. For uncertainty calculations refer to the hints
under the table and remember about matching the number of decimal places in the
uncertainty and measured/calculated value. (Remember to round up uncertainties to match
the number of decimal places in the measured values.)
Table 4
If the Collision Length and Maximum Acceleration differ significantly between the runs,
repeat the runs from the same position of the cart on the track until agreement is observed.
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average Uncertainty Units
Results in Average
Results
NON
Magnetic Collision Length,
±
side of t2 – t1
cart/
Maximum + + +
magnetic ±
Acceleration, |a|
side
of the Graph Area, |A| + + + ±
bumper Mass of cart, M 0.5 negligible kg
Impulse*,
±
J= M·|A|
Impact force
J
F= ±
t2 – t1
NON Collision Length,

Magnetic ±
t2 – t1
side of
cart / Maximum + + +
±
buffer/ Acceleration, |a|
magnetic Graph Area, |A| + + + ±
side Mass of cart, M 0.5 negligible kg
of the Impulse*,
bumper ±
J= M·|A|
Impact force
J
F= ±
t2 – t1
Hints for Uncertainties calculation:
|
For collision length, maximum acceleration & graph area: |max values| − |min value|
2 |
For impulse: ∆J = J∙
∆A
A
( )
and for impact force: ∆F = F ∙ √
∆J 2
J
+ ( ) (
∆(t2 − t1) 2
t2 − t1 )
5.2(c) Carefully look at your results in the Table 4 and in the space below discuss how the
collision length & maximum acceleration have been changed (increased/decreased) with
the buffer. Did you expect this change? Explain.
5.2(d) Has the presence of buffer changed the impact force on the ‘passenger’ travelling in
the cart? In the space below, explain referring to Table 4.
Get
- Unplug the motion detector and the LabQuest. ü
M ed
Now
- Quit the Logger Pro without saving the file.
- Clean your work place

Concluding steps

Student Section
Date: ………………………………......
Demonstrator Only Section

Tasks to complete in the laboratory: Mark Out of
Part 1, 2 & 3: Collision Graphs 3
Part 4: Coefficient of Restitution Calculations and Discussion 2
Part 5: Car Crashes and Impulse Table 2
Comparison and Discussion 2
Total : 10


Specific and Latent Heat

Preparation before coming to the laboratory class

Moodle site and from the Thermal Physics
and Fluids topic complete This experiment is designed to give
• the online Specific and Latent Heat Pre- you an understanding of:
laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory Quiz • Conservation of Energy in Heating Process
and Video Demonstration. • Specific Heat of a Substance
• Change of State of a Substance
• Latent Heat
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and
'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections,
which start below.


Conservation of Energy states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system re-
mains constant.
Heat is a form of energy related to the motion and atoms of the substance. The unit of
heat energy is one Joule (J).
Temperature is a measure of the heat energy. The unit of temperature is one kelvin (K)
or Celsius (°C).
Specific Heat of a substance, also known as the Specific Heat Capacity, is the measure
of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity (kilogram, kg)
of a substance by a unit of temperature (Kelvin, K or Celsius, °C ).
The unit of the specific heat is one J.kg-1K-1 or J.kg-1.°C -1
The equation for the amount of heat, Q, required to raise the temperature of a body from
the initial Ti to the final temperature Tf
Q = m cbody (Tf – Ti)
where m is the mass (kg) of the body and cbody is the specific heat of the substance the
body is made from.

Useful definitions and constants (cont.)
The heat involved in the change of the phase (freezing/melting or vaporizing/condensing)

depends on the latent heat and the mass of the substance: Q = mL
Latent Heat is the amount of heat energy released or absorbed by a unit (kilogram, kg) of
a substance during a change of state. Typical latent heats are: latent heat of fusion (melt-
ing) and latent heat of vaporization (boiling).
The unit of the latent heat is one J.kg-1
Specific Heats
Water: cw = 4.186 kJ.kg-1K-1
Aluminium can and stirrer: cc= 900 J.kg-1K-1
Latent Heats of Fusion
Ice: L = 333.3 kJ.kg-1
1) Have you read through this section before this lab class? Yes/No

• 2 calorimeters (consisting of two aluminium cans (outer and inner) with an insulating
jacket in between, 1 lid with a heating element and a aluminium stirrer, 1 lid with a blue
cap and a stirrer)
• a Switching Mode Power Supply with cable
• two digital multimeters
• one pole one position (1P1P) switch
• a LabQuest interface, temperature probe and USB cable
• orange block with 10 coloured banana plug wires
• a balance for measuring mass
• ice
• tap water
• paper towel
• beakers
You will also need to use one of the computers.

LabQuest and Temperature Probe Set-up
In all experiments about the Specific and Latent Heat you will collect measurements us-
ing the computer operating sensor that requires the LabQuest interface and the Logger Pro
software.
1. Using the USB cable connect the LabQuest, shown in Figure 1, into one of the USB ports
on the computer. The USB port is on the rear right hand side of the computer, right near
where the keyboard plugs in.
Figure 1
3. Plug in the temperature probe, shown in figure 2, into the “CH1” socket of the LabQuest.
Figure 2 Stainless Steel Temperature Probe uses a variable

resistor whose resistance changes with temperature. This
allows the study of temperature changes using the graph of
temperature in °C versus time without calibrating the probe.
4. With the LabQuest connected to the computer, start up the LoggerPro software on the
computer by double clicking the mouse cursor on the “Fundamentals Experiments” on
the computer desktop or from the “First Year” folder.
5. Then open the “Specific and Latent Heat” (Specific and Latent Heat.xmbl) template file.
You should see an empty temperature versus time graph, and a live temperature readout
section as shown below.
Figure 3a

6.The software should record the temperature every two seconds and the data recording
stop automatically after 5 minutes (300 seconds).
Click the mouse cursor on the ‘data collection’ button at the top of the window to
confirm the setup shown in figure 3b and change if required.
Change to 300 seconds
Figure 3b
Make sure you keep the equipment as far from the computers as the cables will allow!
This prevents damage to the computers from accidental spills of water etc.
Part 1: Specific Heat

In this part you will examine the water temperature behaviour, using the calorimeter
equipped with the electrical heating element (a little coil) stirrer and the temperature probe.
Equipment Set-up and Collecting the Results

In all measurements and calculations round up the uncertainties to match the number of
decimal places with measured or calculated values.
1. Lift the calorimeter’s lid, unscrew the blue knob on the aluminium stirrer to separate it
from the lid and remove the inner aluminium can and make sure that the can is empty and
dry. Using one of the balances in the lab weigh and record below the mass of the empty
can and the stirrer with the uncertainty (both in kg).
mc ± ∆mc =
2. Fill the inner aluminium can with cold water until about three-quarters full and weigh and
record below the total mass of the can, stirrer and water with the uncertainty (both in kg).
mtotal ± ∆mtotal =
3. In the space below calculate the mass of the water with the uncertainty (both in kg).
mw ± ∆mw =
[Hint for uncertainty in the mass of the water: ∆mw = √(∆mc2 + ∆mtotal2) assuming that
∆mc & ∆mtotal are independent uncertainties related to, for example, the limit and
accuracy of readings. Remember about matching the number of decimal places in the
uncertainty and measured/calculated value.

4. Replace the can, reattach the stirrer to the lid and close the lid with the stirrer and
the heating element. Insert the temperature probe into the water in the calorimeter (take
care that the probe and the stirrer do not rest against the heating element). Watch the live
temperature read out on the screen and wait until the temperature becomes steady. (This
might take a while, unless the water is exactly at room temperature!).
NOTE: For this section it is not necessary
to understand the electricity concepts.
Power Supply 6V
Switching Mode
black
switch 1P1P
They will be introduced when needed.
5. Using the coloured wires connect the VΩmA COM
COM
red V A
circuit with 6V DC power supply (check temperature
probe 10A
that the Switching Mode Power Supply
stirrer
is set on 6V), the calorimeter, ammeter,
switch and voltmeter following the lid of calorimeter
circuit diagram shown schematically in Lab
figure 4a and the photograph figure 4b. Quest
inner calorimeter can
Hint: Firstly connect the red side of the heating element
insulating jacket
power supply with one side of the outer calorimeter can
calorimeter and then connect another side of
calorimeter with '10A' terminal of ammeter. Figure 4a
Then connect the 'COM' terminal of
ammeter with the switch and finally connect
the switch with the black terminal of power
supply. Finally attach the voltmeter.
voltmeter ammeter
LabQuest
To use the multimeter as the To use the multimeter as the

voltmeter, turn the knob’s ammeter, turn the knob’s sharper
sharper end to point V (on end to point A (on the right
the left side of the scale) and side of the scale) and connect
connect COM and VΩmA COM and 10A sockets between
sockets with the calorimeter as the calorimeter and the switch as
shown. Then your voltmeter shown. Then your ammeter
displays a voltage in volts (V). displays a current in amps (A)
measured up to 10A.
Note: Both multimeters will adjust their ranges automatically and will turn themselves into the ‘sleeping
mode’, if not used for longer than 5 minutes. To reactivate the multimeters you need to press * button.

6. Close the circuit by turning the switch to the “closed” position to start the current and
immediately click the collect button at the top of the computer window
to start recording the temperature versus time graph.
Note: Make sure you stir the woater in up and down motion gently and regularly otherwise your
results will be distorted.
7. While waiting for the graph to be completed, record in the table below the amount
of current, I, in amps (A) and voltage in volts (V) at least at three different moments of
your experiment (recording the graph) and calculated mean values and uncertainties.
8. Now calculate the average amount of electrical power, Pave, used by the heating
element in watts (W) and its uncertainty to complete the table. [Refer to hint below table
and note that 1 watt (W) = 1 volt (V) ∙ 1 amp (A).]
I Iave ∆Iave V Vave ∆Vave Pave= Vave. Iave ∆Pave

(A) (A) (A) (V) (V) (V) (W) (W)
Initial state of the
graph
Half way through
± ± ±
the graph
Final state of the
graph
[Hint to calculate the uncertainty in the average power: ∆Pave=Pave√ ( ∆II ) + ( ∆VV )
ave
ave
2
ave
ave
2
where for example ∆Iave and ∆Vave calculate as ½ of the difference between the respective
max and min values of I and V.]
9. When the recording stops and you finish your measurements, turn the switch to
the “open” position to stop the current. Carefully examine the graph on the computer
screen. Does your graph show a straight line trend? Do you expect it? Explain.
10. Leave the graph on the ccomputer sreen but disconnect the electric circuit, dry the
calorimeter with the heating element and pack them. At this stage do not unplug the Get
temperture probe and the LabQuest because you will need them in Part 2. Move to
the "Results Analysis" section.
M ed
Now ü
Results Analysis – Specific Heat of Water Calculation
1. Drag while pressing on the mouse to highlight the longest and the most linear
part ofyour graph and select the “Linear fit” button at the top of the screen.
A best fit line and a box with the Linear Fit results will appear on the graph as
shown in the example below.
Figure 5
2. In the space below copy all values with units from the Linear Fit box and list other
values as indicated (also with units). Leave your graph on the screen until seen by
your Demonstrator.
slope , ‘m’ =
y-intercept, ‘b’ =
Pave ± ∆Pave (from the table) =

mc ± ∆mc (from step 1 of Equipment Setup and Collecting the Results section) =
mw± ∆mw (from step 3 of Equipment Setup and Collecting the Results section) =
cc (from Useful Definitions and Constants at the start of this experiment) =
3. As discussed in one of your online pre-laboratory exercises, within a certain

temperature range, the temperature of heated water changes according to
Pave
T= t + Ti
(mccc + mwcw)
Note that the above expression has the form of straight line y = mx + b where
temperature T represents y, time t represents x.
3a) Write down the expression for the straight line slope in terms of Pave, mc, cc, mw & cw
m=
3b) Evaluate also in symbols the y-intercept of the line and explain its meaning
b=

4. Algebraically rearrange the expression for the slope to obtain the expression for the
specific heat of the water cw (in terms of slope m, Pave, mc, cc and mw). Show all
working steps in the space below.
5. Plug in all numerical values listed in step 2 (above) into the expression for the specific
heat of water, cw, from step 3 and calculate the value in the space below
cw =
6. Write your value for the specific heat of the water, cw, with units, in the table below and on
one of the whiteboards that the demonstrator sets aside.
7. Also in the table below record as many as possible values of cw obtained by other groups in
the room.
Group Specific heat of water, cw Units Group Specific heat of water, cw Units
8. Using all results from the above table calculate in the space below, the average specific
heat of the water, including the units and the uncertainty (using ½ of the difference
between max and min values). Remember that the number of decimal places in the
uncertainty and measured/calculated value should match.
cw ± Δcw =
9. Referring to your results, in the space below discuss the possible reasons for the discrepancy
between the experimental specific heat (step 8) of water and published value of 4186 J.kg-1K-1.
Why is experimental cw expected to be greater than the published value? Explain. (Human
error is not an acceptable answer.)
HINT: Is there any means for the water to lose heat, during the heating process?
This is the end of Part 1. Do not unplug the temperature probe or the LabQuest, you’ll Get
need it for Part 2. Disconnect the electric circuit, dry the calorimeter with the heating M ed
element, and pack up this equipment. Close your graph using "Clear Data" function from
the computer navigation bar and move to Part 2.
Now ü
Part 2: Latent Heat of Fusion

In this part you will study the melting process of ice, using the calorimeter that has the plain
blue cap on the lid with the stirrer, the temperature probe, water and the cubes of ice.
Use the table provided on the next page to record all your measurements for Set 1, Set 2
and Set 3 Results (in kg, °C and J).
Set 1 Results
1. Weigh the inner can and stirrer, mc, as in step 1 of Part 1.
2. Fill the can around ¾ full of water, weigh it and obtain the mass of the water, mw.
3. Replace the can, close the lid with the stirrer and insert the temperature probe and click
the ‘Collect’ button to start temperature recording. Gently stir the water in the calorimeter
and observe the temperature. Wait until the temperature stabilises at and you see the first flat
part of the graph shown in figure 6.
4. In the meantime collect a few ice cubes in a beaker from the ice machine (or box). Open
the blue cap of the can, quickly dry two cubes of your ice on the paper towel and drop them
to the water. Remember to close the blue lid while stirring.
5. Continue to stir the water until all ice is melted. Note that the temperature drops to its
lowest value at which remains constant as shown in figure 6. Stop your recording at the
lowest temperature before the temperature starts to rise up.
Figure 6
(a) (b)
6. On the temperature-time graph click the mouse cursor on the “Examine” button and drag
the examine cursor to obtain the initial and final temperatures of the water, Ti and Tf
respectively, using the examples in figures 6a and 6b.
7. Now open the calorimeter, weigh the total mass of the can (can+stirrer+water+melted ice)
and obtain the mass of the ice, mi.

Set 2 Results
8. Repeat steps 1-7 (above), using approximately the same amount of water as in Set 1 but
a different amount of ice (i.e. 1 cube).
Set 3 Results
9. Finally, repeat steps 1-7 using the same amount of ice as in Set 1 (i.e. 2 cubes) but
significantly more water than in either Set 1 or 2.
Measurements Set 1 Results Set 2 Results Set 3 Results Units
Mass of can + stirrer, mc
Mass of can + stirrer + water
Mass of water, mw
Initial temperature, Ti
Final temperature, Tf
Mass of can + stirrer + water +

melted ice
Mass of ice, mi
Latent heat, L*
* For the latent heat calculation use the standard (from the book) value for the specific heat of water
cw = 4186 J.kg-1K-1 and of the can cc = 900J.kg-1K-1.
Results Analysis - Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice Calculation
1. Using the values from the table above calculate three values for the latent heat of fusion of ice,
L1, L2 & L3 using the following equation (from one of the online exercises):
(mwcw+ mccc)(Ti-Tf) - micw(Tf - 0°C)

L= mi
Show all working steps for at least one set of results in the space provided.
Using Set 1 Results: L1 =

2. Using the above results calculate the average value for the latent heat of fusion of ice
with its uncertainties (using ½ of the difference between max and min values) and units
and record below. Remember that the number of decimal places in the uncertainty and
measured/calculated value should match.
Lave ± ∆Lave =
3. In the space below discuss the possible reasons for the discrepancy between your value
of latent heat of fusion of ice (step 2 above) and published value of 3.35x105J.kg-1. Explain
why is experimental L expected to be lesser than the published value?
(HINT: What would be the effect of heat loss/gain on your measurement of L? Human
error is not an acceptable answer.)

- Unplug the temperature probe and the LabQuest. Get
ü
M ed
Now


Concluding steps

Student Section:
Date: ………………………………

Part 1: Obtained results to calculate cw 2
Calculated cw correctly 2
Discussion 1
Part 2: Collected results to calculate L 2
Calculated L correctly 1
Discussion 1
Total : 10

Standing Waves on a Wire
1) Go to the Fundamentals of Physics Moodle

site and from the Waves and Light topic
complete This experiment is designed to give
• the online Standing Waves on a Wire you an understanding of:
Pre-laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory
laboratory Quiz and Video • Mechanical waves
Demonstration. · Amplitude, wavelength, frequency and
wave speed
• The superposition principle
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and · Standing waves
'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections
which start below.

A wave is a disturbance (i.e. oscillation of a particle) that travels through a medium (i.e.
a wire, air) as a result of energy transfer from one point of the medium to the other.
The most primitive from the mathematical point of view is the sinusoidal wave (described
by the sine function).
Two common forms of waves

• Transverse - particles of medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave
• Longitudinal - particles of medium move parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
The sinusoidal wave shown below is the simplest form of a travelling wave.

Standing WaveS on a Wire

Wave Characteristics
• Amplitude, A, is a measure of the maximum disturbance in the medium. The amplitude is
measured in metres, m.
• Wavelength denoted as λ, is the distance between two sequential highest or lowest points
of the wave. The wavelength is measured in metres, m.
• Period, T, is the time for one complete wave to pass a particular point. The period is
measured in seconds, s.
• Frequency, f, is how many periods per unit time (for example one second) and is
1
measured in hertz, Hz. The unit for the frequency is one hertz, Hz. Since f = ,
T
1Hz = 1s-1.
• Wave Speed, v, says how fast the wave is travelling, v = fλ. The wave speed is metres per
second, m.s-1.
Speed of wave travelling in stretched wire depends on the tension in the wire, FT, and the
FT
linear density of wire, μ. The wave velocity is given by v = .
√ μ
Linear density of wire, µ, is the mass per unit (i.e. one meter) length of the wire,
mass
μ= . The linear density of the wire is measured in kg.m-1.
length
Standing Wave is the result of two waves (of equal amplitude and frequency) travelling
in opposite directions, as shown below.
Antinode
Incident Wave
λ
λ
Reflected Wave 2 Nodes
Length of string L



• a mounted magnet, lamp and wire guide setup
• a pulley with clamp attachment
• a mass holder with 9 masses
• 2 white leads (wires)
• a movable contact bridge
• a red 12V 50 Hz AC source and power cord
• a metre rule/rules
Part 1: Preliminary measurements

This part is a practice only and although very important for Part 2, it should be performed
in no more than 30 minutes.
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagrams, using the whole length of the table, with
the wooden base and the pulley fixed respectively to the opposite ends of the table.
Tension, FT, in the wire will be maintained using the masses attached to the end of the wire
that is passed over the pulley.
}
Magnet AC Source white lead
12 V 50 Hz
Overhead
wooden base view
fixed boundary
(hook)
Lamp and wire Wire Movable contact bridge Pulley
}
fixed boundary
(hook)
Side view
Table
wooden base Mass holder
with masses

pulley
2. Stretch the wire along the table, over the pulley
and attach the mass holder (mholder = 0.05 kg) with
AC supply bridge
one mass
(m = 0.05kg) to the end of wire.
3. In the space below, record the total attached

mass in kilograms (including the holder).
mtotal =
4. In the space below, calculate the tension on the

wire, FT (in N), produced by the attached masses
(mtotal ) .
FT = mtotalg = wooden base at magnets

hook vibrating wire
the end of the
Important: Before moving on, check your
equipment setup with the Demonstrator.
5. Turn the 12V, 50Hz AC source ON. The alternating electric current flows in the
wire between the hook (on the wooden base) and the contact bridge slit (in a vertical
metal plate) and through the lamp. (A light produced by the lamp indicates the presence
of the current.) The magnet that is mounted on the wooden base near the lamp provides
magnetic field on the current. This field exerts a force on the current causing the wire to
vibrate up and down at the frequency of f = 50Hz. These vibrations propagate back-
and-forth between the hook and bridge along the wire and produce the standing wave.
6. To observe a standing wave, start at the wooden base and carefully move the bridge
along the wire. As you move the bridge further away from the wooden base, you will
see the vibrations which will alternate between: almost 'no vibrations' a moment before
the standing wave appears, 'very strong vibrations' when the standing wave is formed and
again 'no vibrations' when the standing wave dissappears.
Theoretically the nodes of any standing waves should occur at specific points and the
antinode half way between them. Since the observed standing waves are not stable due
to the equipment limitations, the nodes occur at a range of positions, instead of the
points. This range will be used to estimate the uncertainty in the measurements of your
standing wave.
'One loop’ Standing Wave (Fundamental Frequency)
7. Start from the wooden base again, carefully move the bridge to the position where the
‘one loop’ standing wave pattern, similar to the one schematically shown in stage 1 of the
diagram, appears. Carefully adjust the position of the bridge until you see the biggest ‘one
loop’ pattern. Using a metre rule measure the distance between the hook (one end node)
and the bridge (another end node) and record the value (1) length of 1 loop value (1) in
the L1(m) column of Table 1 on page 56.

loop (1)
Node
Node
wire pulley
Stage 1
contact bridge
Length of 1 loop (1)

masses and mass
(1)
carrier
~25% loop Node
Node
wire pulley
Stage 2
contact bridge

masses and mass
(1)
carrier
~25% loop Node
Node
wire pulley
Stage 3
contact bridge

masses and mass
carrier
8. Now, slowly and carefully, move the bridge to the left of the position in step 7 until the
pattern drops vertically to ~25%, as shown in stage 2 of the diagram. Measure the distance
between the hook and the bridge and record the value (2) under L1(m) in Table 1.
9. Finally move the bridge to the right of the position in step 8, past the biggest 'one loop'
pattern in step 7, until the pattern drops vertically to ~25%, as shown in stage 3 of the
diagram. Measure the distance between the hook and the bridge and record the value (3)
under L1(m) in Table 1.
Now you will collect your measurements for the 'two' and 'three loops' standing wave.
‘Two loops’ Standing Wave

10. Bring the bridge back to the wooden base. Carefully move the bridge along the
wire, to the right of 'one loop' pattern (beyond one loop), until you see the biggest ‘two
loop' standing wave similar to the diagram below. Measure the distance between the
hook and the bridge and record the value (1) in L2(m) column of Table 1.
contact bridge
Length of 2 loops
11. Repeat steps 8 & 9, this time for ‘two loops’, and measure the relevant distances the
between hook and the bridge and record the values (2) & (3) under L2(m) in Table 1.

‘Three loops’ Standing Wave

12. Finally, starting from the wooden base position again, carefully move the bridge along the wire,
to the right of 'two loop' standing wave, and keep moving the bridge until you see the biggest
‘three loops’ pattern, similar to the diagram below. Measure the distance between the hook
and the bridge and record the value (1) under L3(m) in Table 1.
hook
contact bridge
Length of 3 loops
13. Repeat steps 8 & 9 for the ‘three loops' pattern, measure the relevant distances between the hook
and the bridge and record the values (2) & (3) under L3(m) in Table 1.
14. Although you will use the same setup in part 2, at this moment you might turn the 12V, 50Hz AC
source OFF to save the electricity. Using the hints from under the table and referring to suggestions
listed below, calculate the required values and complete Table 1.
- the average of the three measurements as L1ave, L2ave & L3ave,
- the uncertainties in the average lengths ∆L1ave, ∆L2ave & ∆L3ave (use half of the difference
between the smallest and highest value),
- the average wavelength, λ,
- the absolute uncertainty, ∆λ, and
- the percentage uncertainty, ∆λ %
λ
Table 1
1 Loop 2 Loops 3 Loops * **
∆λ
L1(m) L1ave(m) ∆L1ave(m) L2(m) L2ave(m) ∆L2ave(m) L3(m) L3ave(m) ∆L3ave(m) λ(m) ∆λ(m) %
λ
(1)
(2) ± ± ± ± ±
(3)
L1ave + L2ave + L3ave
[Hints: Independent uncertainties * Note that λ = because
3 3
L1ave+ L2ave+ L3ave = 1 λ + λ + λ=3λ
2 2
√(∆L1ave)2 + (∆L2ave)2+ (∆L3ave)2 ∆λ ∆λ
**For independent uncertainties ∆λ = and %= · 100 ]
√ 3.5 λ λ
Note: (∆L1)2 +(∆L2)2 + (∆L3)2 = (1/4)∆λ2 + ∆λ2 + (9/4)∆λ2 = 3.5∆λ2
Note: If a series of your measurements are the same, use 2% as your final percentage uncertainty.
Get
ü
This is the end of Part 1. Use the same set up and move to part 2.
M ed
Now

Part 2: Determination of the “Linear Density” of Wire
The aim of this part is to estimate the linear density of the wire, μ (in kgm-1) using the
properties of standing waves on the wire.
You will change tension, FT , on the wire to produce distinctive standing wave patterns at a
constant frequency, f. For each tension you will measure the wavelength, λ, of the standing
wave, which will change with FT . Then using the expression for the wavelength in terms of
1 F 1
tension of the wire λ = f μ T in a more convenient form for this exercise of λ2 = 2 FT ,
√ f μ
you will determine the average of μ.
Collecting the Results
You will use the techniques of Part 1 to measure the length of the standing wave patterns
being set up at different tensions in the wire, by changing the masses attached at the end
of the wire.
Since the lab time is insufficient to repeat the measurements to obtain the uncertainties,
Part 1 results will be used as the alternative approximation for the relevant uncertainties.
1. With the mass holder with one mass still attached to the wire, and the wire stretched
along the table, add a second mass to the holder (total should be of 0.150 kg) and turn
the 12V, 50Hz AC source ON. Adjust the position of the bridge along the wire to see
the biggest ‘one loop’ standing wave pattern and carefully and as accurately as you can,
measure the length of ‘one loop’ and record the value in the first row in the L1(m)
column in Table 2 on page 64.
2. Repeat step 1 for the biggest ‘two loops’ standing wave pattern and for the biggest
‘three loops’, measure and record the lengths of ‘two loops’ and ‘three loops’
respectively under L2(m) and L3(m) in Table 2, also in the first row.
3. For every extra mass added to the holder in accordance to the table, repeat steps 1 & 2
and record the lengths of the biggest ‘one loop’, ‘two loops’ and ‘three loops’ respectively
under the L1(m), L2(m) & L3(m) columns of Table 2.
4. Refer to the hints under the table and calculate the values required to complete the
table.

Table 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
∆λ
mass (kg) FT (N) L1 (m) L2 (m) L3 (m) λ (m) λ2(m2) % ∆(λ2)
λ
1 0.150 ±
2 0.200 ±
3 0.250 ± ±
4 0.300 ±
5 0.350 ±
[Hints for calculating the values in the following columns:
(a) FT = mass · g, where g = 9.8 ms-2.
L + L2 + L3
(e) λ = 1
3
∆λ
(g) for λ % in all results in 1-5 (table 2), use the percentage uncertainty from table 1 in part 1
( ∆λ
λ % 2)
(h) the final absolute uncertainty ∆(λ2) = 2 · · λ (note that the numerical factor 2 results
from squaring the value of λ)] 100
Remember that the number of decimal places in the uncertainties and measured/calculated
values should match.
Results analysis
1
Note that the expression λ2 = 2 FT easily transforms into the straight line equation
f μ
y = mx + b. This maeans that if your results are consistent with this expression, the graph
1
of λ2 (for y) versus FT (for x) should become a straight line with the slope m = 2 and
y-intercept at b =0. f μ
1. Use the vertical axis for λ2 and the horizontal axis for F , to enter all values from the table with (with
T
dots or little crosses), on as much space as you can of the graph grid provided. Include the title and at
this stage do not join your marked values.
2. Look carefully at the arrangement of your dots or crosses. Is there a linear relationship
between λ2 and the tension in the wire, FT ? Comment in the space provided.
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Title:
2.5
λ (m2)
2
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
FT (N)

3. Using uncertainty values of ∆(λ2) from your table draw uncertainty bars for each value on
your graph. Assume that uncertainty in FT is negligibly small.
Note: Refer to section B5 of Uncertainties and Uncertainty Estimation document in this lab manual to recall
how to draw uncertainty bars.
4. Draw the best fit line for all values on your graph. It is important for each student to
draw his/her own line!
5. Choose and clearly mark two distant points on your line and using their coordinates
calculate the numerical value of the slope, including units.
rise
slope, m = =
run
6. Now add the MAX and MIN fit lines to your λ2 versus FT graph. Using those lines and method
from step 5 (above) calculate the slopes and the uncertainty in the slope of the best fit line.
Note: Refer to section B5 of Uncertainties and Uncertainty Estimation document to recall how to draw the lines.
slope, mMAX =
slope, mMIN =
|mMAX − mMIN |
uncertainty, ∆m = =
2
7. Finally, use the numerical value for the slope m (from step 5) and the uncertainty ∆m
(from step 6) to calculate the linear density of the wire μ with the uncertainty ∆μ and the
1 ∆m
units. [Hint how to calculate µ and ∆µ: μ = 2 where f = 50 Hz, and ∆μ = ·μ ]
f m m
μ ± ∆μ =
Note: Remember about number of decimal places rule.
8. The linear density of the wire used in this exercise is expected to be:
(0.85 ± 0.15) · 10-3 kg/m.
Explain whether the expected value lies within the uncertainty range of your experimental
value (from step 7).
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This is the end of your exercise, pack your equipment (return if required), and clean
your work place!

Concluding steps
1. Fill in the details below.

2. Have your demonstrator check, mark and sign your
work.
Student Section
Date: ………………………………

Results analysis
Graph and comment 1
Slope correctly calculated 1
Calculated linear density μ correctly 2
Discussion 1
Total : 10


Electrostatic Field Plotting

Moodle site and from Electrostatics and
Electricity topic complete This experiment is designed to give
• the online Electrostatic Field Plotting Pre- you an understanding of:
laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory Quiz
and Video Demonstration. • Electric field
• Electric potential, electric potential
difference and equipotentials;
2) Familiarise yourself with • The measurement of the potentials
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and · Parallel plate electrodes
'Laboratory Work Starts Here' sections, · Parallel cylindrical conductors
which start below.


Charge (Q or q) is measured in Coulombs (C).
The electric field strength (or electric field intensity), E, at a point in space is the force per
unit charge that a small positive test charge would experience when placed at that point.
The unit of field strength is Newtons (N) per Coulomb (C).
The electric potential, V, at a point in space is the electric potential energy per unit charge
at that point.
The unit of potential is the Volt (V) which equals one Joule (J) per Coulomb (C).
1J
1V =
1C

Electric Potential Difference or the voltage between two points for example B and A
calculates as ΔVBA = (VB - VA) or ΔVAB = − ΔVBA (respectively for B with respect to point A or
A with respect to point B).
The unit of Potential Difference ΔV is also the volt (V).
If the potential at point A is zero, ΔVBA= VB which is the potential at point B.

∆V
Electric Field between two parallel plates calculates as E = in volts (V) per metre (m).
N V d
[Note that 1 =1 ].
C m
If one of the plates is at 0V, ∆V at the position, d, is the potential at d.
An equipotential surface in an electric field is a surface consisting of points at the same

potentials which means no work is required to be done in moving a charge from any point
on the surface to any other point.
A field line or a line of force in an electric field is defined as a line that a small positive
charge, placed in this field, would move along, if it were free to move.
Lines of force are always at right angles (or orthogonal) to equipotential surfaces.


• a large cork board
• a 12 V D.C.* regulated power supply and a power cord
• pins to fix the conducting paper and to attach the spade connectors to the electrodes
• two sheets of black conducting paper which have the electrode patterns printed on
them
• three leads (wires) with spade connectors on one end
• a digital multimeter with one red probe
• one sheet of tracing paper
• silver pen
* D.C. – means Direct Current that is constant in size and direction (will be covered in the
lectures at the appropriate time).

Part 1: Electrostatic Field Plotting - Two Parallel Plate Electrodes

In this part you will learn how to produce an image of a three dimensional electric field
in two dimensions. You will sketch the equipotential contours & electric field lines and
use them, to predict the electric field strength.
Part 1a: Equipment Set-up

Note: do not scratch the conducting paper as its conductivity will be affected.
1. Fix the sheet of black conducting paper, with two parallel dark black rectangles
for the parallel plate electrodes marked on it, to the cork board using tacks to the corners.
2. Connect the 12 V DC supply to the external power using the cord and turn the 12 V DC
supply on, by changing both the MAINS and OUTPUT switches to the ON position.
Confirm that the 12V potential difference is supplied using the voltmeter and if required
adjust it using a special white knob on the 12V supply.
3. Carefully connect the electrodes with the 12 V power supply with two spade wires using
pins as shown on the schematic and photographic diagrams.
spade connecting wire

pin
+ +
12V DC supply
(VΩmA) (red)
probe
12V
multimeter
electrodes
− −
COM) (black)
0V
pin
mounting board

4. Connect the COM socket of the voltmeter with the electrode, which is already connected
to the black side of the power supply.
5. Connect the 'probe' wire to the other VΩmA socket of the voltmeter. Using this
voltmeter you will measure the electric potentials between the electrodes.
6. Set the multimeter to the DC voltmeter by turning the knob’s sharper end to V (the
upper left side of the scale).
Note: The voltmeter will adjust its range automatically and will turn itself into the
‘sleeping mode’, if not used for longer than 5 minutes. To reactivate the multimeter you
need to press the * button.
7. Now, use the 'probe' wire to measure the potential on the electrode which is connected
to the black (negative) terminal of the power supply. To do this hold the 'probe' vertically and
gently touch the conducting paper in the area of the electrode. Using a soft pencil, mark the
probe position on the conducting paper in the region of electrode, and record below the
reading of the voltmeter, with the units:
Potential on electrode(connected to black terminal) =
Note: If the reading is not close to the 12 V, adjust it using the lowest right hand knob on the
power supply.
8. Repeat steps 7 (above) for the electrode connected to the red (positive) terminal of the
power supply. Record the reading with the units in the space below:
Potential on electrode(connected to red terminal) =
Part 1b: Collecting the Results

1. Using the “probe”, find and gently mark (still with the soft pencil)
the positions of the points at the potentials 2V, 4V, 6V, 8V and 10V
between the electrodes and beyond the ends of the electrodes. The
diagram to the right shows an example of how to make the 2V and 4V
marks. 4V
1 0 1 2
It is convenient to start with the central mark, shown as '0' for the potential of 3 2 3 2V
0V plate
2V and then add three points to the left ('1','2','3') and to the right ('1','2','3')
of that central point. Note that points ahown as '3' should be marked outside
of the plates. For each of the remaining potentials 4V, 6V, 8V & 10V you
need to mark the set of '3', '2', '1', '0', '1', '2' &'3'.
Note: You will lose marks for an “artificial” text book like arrangement of your points!
2. Colour over your points, on the black conducting paper, using the silver pen, so
that the points will be visible through the tracing paper to be used in in Step 3.
Return the silver pen to your demonstrator!
3. Disconnect the circuit and carefully copy the arrangement of the electrodes and
marked potentials on the provided tracing paper. Make sure that all points are shown very
clearly, as they will be very important in the next section of this exercise.

Part 1c: Result Analysis
1. On the tracing paper arrangement of electrodes and potentials (from previous step),
sketch five (2V, 4V, 6V, 8V & 10V) equipotential contours.
2. Complete your drawing from step 1 (above) by sketching at least five field lines,
including their directions. [Hint: The field lines are always perpendicular to the
equipotential contours.]
3. Look at your tracing paper drawing and in the space below comment on the reasons for
any discrepancy between the shape of your field lines and equipotential contours and
contours from your textbook. (Refer to all possible sources of uncertainty including the
non-uniform conductivity of the paper.)
Electric Field Strength between the Electrodes
1. Look carefully at your tracing paper sketches. In the most uniform electric field region,
where theoretically the field lines should be almost parallel (most likely the central
section), measure the position of your equipotential contours from the 0V electrode (any
point is ok as long as you will not change it) . Record your results in the table below
Potential V (Volts) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Position (m)
2. Recall that the potential between the parallel plate electrodes calculates as V = E·d and
the straight line equation is y = mx + b. Which values from the table do you need to
plot to give rise to a straight line graph? Explain. [Hint: Slope of the best fit line should
give you the average electric field strength, E, between the electrodes.]
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ElEctrostatic FiEld Plotting
3. Attach (you can staple it) your tracing paper drawing into your Lab Manual, on this page.

eLectrostatic FieLd PLotting
Title:
V (Volts)
d(m)

4. On the graph grid provided on page 75 use the vertical axis for V and the horizontal axis for d, to
enter all values from the table with dots or little crosses (points), on as much as you can space of
the graph grid. Include the title and at this stage do not join your points.
5. Look carefully at the arrangement of your points on your graph. Is there a linear relationship
between V and d? Comment in the space provided.
6. Draw the 'best fit' line close to as many of dots as possible, with half the dots on each
side of the of the line.
7. Choose and clearly mark two distant points, for example P1 and P2, on your line and in
the space below record their coordinates
Point P1: d1 = V1 =
Point P2: d2 = V2 =
8. Using the above coordinates, calculate the numerical value of the slope. Show your
working in the space provided, including the sign and units. The line might intersect the y-
axis at different than zero points as a result of some uncertainty
rise V −V1
slope, ‘m’ = = 2 =
run d2 −d1
9. Since the lab time is insufficient to repeat the measurements and to calculate the un-
certainties, assume that 5% is the percentage uncertainty in the slope. In the space below
calculate the value of the absolute uncertainty in the slope.
5
∆m = ·m=
100
10. Use the numerical value for the slope and it’s uncertainty from the previous steps to
obtain the electric field strength between two electrodes with the uncertainty and units.
Remember to match the number of decimal places in the uncertainties and measured/
calculated value.
E ± ∆E =
11. Having more time for this experiment, how would you perform it to obtain the real
uncertainty in your final results? Answer in the space below.
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This is the end of part 1, disconnect the ciruit, remove the used conducting paper
and move to part 2.

Part 2. Potentials between two Parallel Cylindrical Conductors

In this part you will compare the measured and calculated values of the potentials between
the cylindrical conductors.
Part 2a: Measuring the potentials

1. Fix the conducting paper with two black circles (cross-sections of cylindrical wires) for
the electrodes, to the cork board, as shown in the diagram below.
Connect the electrodes with the 12 V power supply with two spade wires using pins pins,
as shown on the schematic and photographic diagrams.

+
(VΩmA) +
(mains operated)
multimeter
probe (red)
pin
12V DC
pin
supply
V
−
− electrodes (black)
(com) spade connecting wire
mounting board
2. As in part 1a, start with measuring the potentials on the electrodes and if required, adjust
the potential on the electrode connected to the positive 'red' output of the power suply to the
12V using the white knob on the power supply box.
3. Using the “probe” attached to the voltmeter, measure the potentials at the positions, x,
between the electrodes, as listed in table 1. Note that x is measured from the centre of the
electrode, which is connected to the negative 'black' output of the power supply box, along
the line, which joins the centres of the electrodes. DO NOT USE A METAL RULER!
140mm
10mm 10mm
x/mm 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

measured
Vp/volts
Table 1

4. Using the provided graph grid on a next page, enter all values (dots) of the measured
potentials (Vp) and positions (x) from table 1, do not join the dots.
Part 2b: Calculation of Potentials - can be done at home
1. Using the following expression, which you should be familiar with from the online exercise
V ℓn
Vp = – ·
( )
d–x
x +V
2
ℓn ( )
d–a
a
2
calculate Vp using
V = 12 Volts
a = 10 mm
d = 140 mm
and x equals the values listed in table 2 and complete the table.
x/mm 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

calculated
0.00 3.86 6.00 8.14 12.00
Vp/volts
Table 2
2. On the same grid as you used for the measured potentials (Part 2a), enter the calculated
potentials and positions (x) from table 2. Use a different colour to distinguish the calculated
values (dots) from the measured values and do not join the dots.
Summary
3. Carefully examine the graph for measured and calculated values, and in the space
below, compare two graphs and discuss the reasons for any discrepancies between the
measured and calculated potentials between two cylindrical electrodes. Remember to
include the title and a legend on your graph!

Title:
Vp(V)
x (mm)
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This is the end of your exercise

- Turn the power supply off.
- Switch the multimeter off.
- Disconnect the ciruit.
- Remove the used conducting paper.
- Clean your work place!
Concluding steps
1. Fill in the details below.

Student Section:
Date: ………………………………

Part 1a and 1b: Equipment set-up and obtained results correctly 1
Part 1c: Results Analysis
Equipotentials and field lines correct and comment 1
Electric Field correctly calculated 2
Part 2a: Obtained results correctly 2
Part 2b: Calculation of potentials 1
Graph correct 1
Summary 1
Total : 10

Magnetic Fields and the “Slinky” Coil

Moodle site and from Magnetism and This exercise is designed to give you an
Electromagnetism topic complete understanding of:
• the online Magnetic Fields and the
“Slinky” Coil Pre-laboratory Lesson, • Magnetic field produced by the earth
Pre-laboratory Quiz and Video • Magnetic field produced by electric
Demonstration. current, ie. solenoids
• Magnetic field strength
2) Familiarise yourself with • Concept and magnitude of permeability of
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' free space
and 'Laboratory Work Strts Here'
sections, which start below.

Magnetic field strength, B, is measured in Tesla (T).
Earth magnetic field value (in Sydney) is around 0.05x10-3 T =0.05 mT (it varies not only
with your position on the globe).
The angle of the geomagnetic field from the direction horizontal to the Earth is called the
inclination of the geomagnetic field. For Sydney this angle is around 64° (it varies not only
with your position on the globe)

For an ideal solenoid (long, ‘slim’ & tightly wrapped around the core coil) the magnetic
field strength is given by: B=μ0nI
The total magnetic field strength inside a solenoid depends on:

N
• n= , the number of turns N in the coil, per unit length L
L
• I, the current flowing in the coil
• μ0, the permeability of the material inside the solenoid
The permeability μ0 quantifies the effect of the material introduced inside the solenoid. The
effect of air is quite similar to free space, or vacuum, in which case we use the permeability
symbol reserved for this, the permeability of free space:
T·m
μo = 4π×10-7 (units tesla·metres per ampere)
A


• A slinky
• A Switching Mode Power Supply (9V OUTPUT) and cable
• A LabQuest and a multimeter
• A USB cable
• A magnetic field sensor
• A push-button switch
• A heavy weight
• 1 orange block with 10 coloured banana plug wires
• 2 alligator clips
• A rheostat (variable resistor)
You will also need to use one of the computers.

Part 1: The Magnetic Field of the Earth

The aim of this exercise is to measure the magnetic field of the Earth and the inclination
angle.
Part 1a: LabQuest and Magnetic Field Sensor Set-up

All measurements using the magnetic field sensor require the LabQuest and the Logger Pro
software.
1. Using the USB cable connect the LabQuest, shown

in Figure 1, into one of the USB ports on the computer.
The USB port is on the rear right hand side of the
computer, right near where the keyboard plugs in.
2. Plug the magnetic field sensor shown into the “CH1”

socket on the top of the LabQuest. Make sure that the
sensor’s tip (with white dot) is bent at 90° to the Figure 1
sensor's handle as shown in Figure 1.1.
sensor's tip
3. With the magnetic field sensor already plugged in,

and the LabQuest connected to the computer, start up
the LoggerPro software on the computer by double
clicking the mouse cursor on the “Fundamentals
Experiments” folder on the computer desktop or from
the “First Year” folder. Figure 1.1
4. Then double click on the “Slinky.xmbl" to open the template file. You should see the
column of data, the space for the graph and the live read-out window at the lower left
hand side of the screen, as shown below.
Live read-out
window
Since the magnetic field will be measured at the instant, there is no need to accumulate the
readings and the live read-out section of the LoggerPro computer window reading might
be sufficient.

Part 1b: Preliminary Measurement of The Magnetic Field of the Earth
In this part you will learn how to use the computer operating magnetic field sensor to obtain
the results.
The magnetic field sensor uses a Hall-effect transducer, which produces the voltage caused
by the magnetic field. The sensor detects the amount of the magnetic field by measuring the
voltage, which is proportional to that field. Only the magnetic field (or it’s component) that
is perpendicular to the white dot on the circular end of the sensor tip might be detected by
the sensor and recorded on the computer. The sensor is designed to record the positive value,
when the white dot points toward a south magnetic pole. In case of the Earth’s magnetic field
the south magnetic pole is located near the geographic north pole.
Vector B in the figures below shows schematically the direction of the Earth magnetic field
which surrounds us in the lab.
B
1. Hold the sensor vertically on the bench top, with the tip
facing any direction (as shown in figure 1b.1), and then slowly
rotate the sensor until the maximum reading in live read-out 1b.1
window on the computer screen is found. (This might be, for
example, at the position shown in figure 1b.2). Remember the rotate
B
sensor position and tip's direction and record the computer bench top
reading at (1b.2) with sign and units below.
Note that at this position only a component of the magnetic
field vector that is parallel to the bench top is expected to be 1b.2
perpendicular to the white spot of sensor's tip.
Maximum Reading 1 (at 1b.2) = bench top

B
2. From the position (1b.2), tilt the sensor carefully along

tip's direction, with white spot facing upwards, as suggested tilt 1b.3
in figure (1b.3), until you find another, higher than at (1b.2)
maximum reading in live read-out window on the computer.
Remember the sensor position and tip's direction and record bench top
the computer reading at (1b.3) with sign and units below.
Note that at this position the magnetic field is expected to
be perpendicular to the white spot of sensor’s tip.
Maximum Reading 1 (at 1b.3) =
3. See Useful Definitions and Constants table and note that both recorded readings (at
1b.2and 1b.3) are very different than the published Earth magnetic field strength for Sydney
location. Why? Refer, for example, to the 'zero reading' which is the sensor's offset
resulted from the lack of calibration of the sensor and answer in the space below.

Part 1c: Improved Measurement of The Magnetic Field of the Earth
As you have probably noticed, the sensor measured in the magnetic field’s units of mT
(milli tesla), but the recorded readings are not close to the size of the Earth’s magnetic
field for Sydney (~0.05mT)! This is because your sensor is not calibrated and records the
magnetic field from a positive or negative reference level, which is a kind of ‘zero
reading’ or 'offset' of the sensor.
Since the calibration of the sensor is not an easy task, instead, the sensor reading might
be corrected for the ’zero reading’ of the sensor. To perform this correction, as practiced
in the pre-laboratory exercises, two measurements are required for the appropriately
positioned sensor, namely ’with' the magnetic field, Bwith and ‘against' the magnetic field,
Bagainst. Then, the absolute (corrected for the ‘zero reading’) value of the magnetic field B
and additionally the size of the ‘zero reading’ of your sensor can be calculated.
B
Note the measurement ‘with' the magnetic field should be the
greatest reading - due to the ‘zero reading’ this could be negative. 1c.1
Here is how to do this:

bench top
B
1. If you remember (otherwise repeat steps from part 1b),
place the sensor at the tilted position (1b.3) and record 1c.2
below, with the sign and units, the maximum reading for
field measured along or 'with' the field direction as shown
in figure 1c.1 on the right bench top
B
Bwith =
1c.3
2. Rotate the sensor precisely by 180° as shown in 1c.2 &

1c.3 and record below with the sign and units the reading bench top
for the field measured 'against' the field direction Figure 1c.1 shows the example
of measurement “with field”
Bagainst = and figure 1c.3 measurement
“against field”. Additionally,
figure 1c.2 shows how to rotate
3. Using the above values, calculate the absolute value of the sensor in the same field to
B, which is corrected for the “zero reading” of the sensor, obtain “with field” reading.
using the expression you should be familiar with from the
online exercises
Bwith − Bagainst
B= =
2
4. How does your calculated value of B compare with the value of 0.05 mT, which is
the published Earth’s magnetic field strength for Sydney? Comment in the space provided.

5. Calculate the size of the “zero reading”, including sign, for your sensor using
Bwith + Bagainst
ΔB = =
2
Note: ∆B is not uncertainty!
6. Using the calculated ∆B try to explain in the space below, the difference between the
results in step 3 (above) and step 2 of Part 1b.
Part 1d: Measurement of the Magnetic Field of the Earth with the Inclination Angle
We now wish to take not only a more accurate measurement of the magnitude of the
Earth’s magnetic field in Sydney but also its direction from the surface of the Earth.
We will measure the horizontal, Bhorizontal, and vertical, Bvertical, components of the
Earth’s magnetic field, B, separately and combine them to obtain the value and direction
for B. Note that the arrangement in figure below is only the example of how to measure
the horizontal and vertical components 'with' the field and as before to obtain the
measurements 'against' the field we will need to rotate the sensor by 180°.
Bvertical B
[Hint: Visualise a vector B and its components,
for example, Bhorizontal , along the bench top, and
sensor
the Bvertical perpendicular to the bench top and
y place the sensor in the positions at which the
respective components of B will be
Bhorizontal perpendicular to the white spot face.]
x
sensor
bench top
1. Record the with and against measurements of the horizontal components of the magnetic
field and record the measurements below:
against
with
Bhorizontal = Bhorizontal =
2. In the space below calculate the absolute value of the horizontal component of the
magnetic field
Bhorizontal =

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the vertical component of the magnetic field
Bwith
vertical = Bagainst
vertical =
Bvertical =
4. Using your results for Bhorizontal and Bvertical , calculate in the space below:
a) the total Earth’s magnetic field strength, B, (use, for example, the Pythagoras’ Theorem)
B = √ (Bhorizontal)2 + (Bvertical)2 =
b) the angle of inclination, θ, measured from the bench top (use, for example, definition of
trigonometric function tangent, tanθ)
θ = tan-1 ( BB
vertical
horizontal
)=
5. Write your values for the magnetic field of the Earth and angle of inclination, θ, with
units for Sydney, in the table below and on one of the whiteboards that the demonstrator
sets aside.
6. Record as many values as possible for B and θ obtained by other groups, including the
units, in the table below.
Group BEarth Units θ Units
7. From these data, make a final estimate of the Earth’s magnetic field, B, and angle of
inclination, θ, including the units and uncertainties. [Hint: For the uncertainties use ½ of
the difference of maximum and minimum values and match the number of decimal
places in the uncertainties and measured/calculated value.]
B ± ΔB =
θ ± Δθ =
8. Compare your results with the published values (0.05mT and 64° listed in Useful
Definitions and Constants) and comment.
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Part 2: The Magnetic Field of the Slinky

The aim of this experiment is to investigate the magnetic field produced inside a solenoid
by an electric current flowing through it. The solenoid is represented by a “slinky” as shown
in the circuit diagram below.
1. Construct the circuit shown below, with 9V DC power supply, push button switch, rheostat,
ammeter and at least 100 turns of your slinky using the alligator clips and wires. (Check that
the Switching Mode ower Supply is set on 9V.) Slinky needs to be stretched over the top of the
bench. To do this fold the 3-4 loops (turns) at each end of the slinky under the opposite edges
of the bench or secure them with the heavy weight included in the kit. Try not to stretch the
slinky too much - just enough so that you can comfortably fit the magnetic field sensor
between the loops of the slinky, for example, loops should be separated by about 1-2 cm.
black red
Switch
Switching Mode Rheostat (variable resistor)
Power Supply 9V
10A
Ammeter A
COM
Slinky - connected to circuit

~1cm
with two alligator clips
.
movable arm
Power Supply 2
1
Rheostat
Switch
Sensor
Rheostat connected between
Multimeter 1 & 2, the resistance varies
by sliding the movable arm.
Slinky LabQuest
Multimeter
used as
the ammeter

2. Press down on the push-button switch (only while measuring) to let the current to
flow through the circuit. If your circuit is correctly connected, the ammeter will detect a
current.
CAUTION: Take care not to hold the push button switch down for long periods of time,
otherwise the slinky could heat up resulting in uncontrolled changes in current. A few
seconds at a time should be fine for taking a measurement.
3. Now slide the movable arm of the rheostat to adjust the current, so that about 2A, as
indicated by the ammeter, will flow through the circuit, including the slinky between the
alligator clips. Note: If you cannot adjust the current have your circuit checked by your
Demonstrator!
4. Place the magnetic field sensor inside the slinky and orient it so as to
measure magnetic field along the axis of the coil as shown to the right.
Then take a measurement “with” and “against” the magnetic field at the
3 positions shown on the figure below and record your measurements in
the boxes provided directly under the figure.
axis
Bwith = Bwith = Bwith =

* *
Bagainst = Bagainst = Bagainst =
*
The most left and right hand side readings are required from the regions just under the alligator clips.
5. Using the “with” and “against” field measurements calculate the corrected for the zero
reading magnetic field inside the coil, at the 3 positions (step 4) and list them below with the
units.
B= B= B=
6. Theoretically, the strongest and most uniform field is expected to be at the centre of the
slinky coil. Do your results confirm this? Explain why, and list the factors which might
account for the observed results. (Human error is not an acceptable answer.)
Get
ü
This is the end of part 2. Use the same set up for part 3.
M ed
Now
Part 3: The Permeability of Free Space
We shall now use our setup to determine the permeability of air (free space) constant, μo, as
discussed in the online preliminary exercises. (Refer to the Useful Definitions box to refresh
your memory if necessary.)
We will use the straight line fitting method to obtain μo using the expression for magnetic field
strength, B, inside an ideal solenoid (represented by “slinky”) with the current, I.
N
B = μ0 I
L
where L is the length of the section of slinky that consists of N turns and μo is the proportionality
constant in T·m/A.
Collecting the results
1. Measure the length of the slinky, L, between the alligator clips connected to the circuit
(refer to the diagram in part 2) and count the number of turns, N, used. Record both values
in the space below.
L=
N=
Important Note: In this part you are aiming to determine µ0 using the slope of the straight
line and it is not important to adjust your measured B for “zero reading”. The reading on the
computer screen will be satisfactory, for all measurements (preferably positive and
increasing with the current) taken by the probe facing the same direction, either the left or
right end of the slinky.
2. You will adjust the current using the rheostat, and for 6-8 different values of the current
(between 0.5 and 2.0A) collect measurements of the magnetic field inside, in the centre of
the “slinky” (positive and increasing with the current as explained above. Record your
results in the table.
Current,I (A) B (mT)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Calculation of the The Permeability of Air (Free Space) Constant, μ0
N
In this exercise, it is convenient to correlate the expression B = μ0 I with the straight
L
line equation y = mx + b. If your results are consistant with the expression, the graph of B (for
N
y) versus I (for x) should become a straight line with a slope m = μ0 and y-intercept at
L
b = 0.
You will perform the straight line fit to your results, using the LabQuest software and transform
the slope of the straight line to the permeability constant μ0, using the following steps.
1. Disconnect the probe from the Lab Pro. Go to the “File” menu and select “New” window.
Click twice to rename X and Y columns as I(A) and B(mT) respectively and transfer all values
for I and B from the table in step 2. The graph of B versus I will appear. For your convenience
adjust the scale of this graph and select “Linear Fit” function, to obtain the best fit straight line
with the linear Fit results box. Copy the Fit results in the space below. [Note, that alternatively
the “General Linear Plot” Microsoft Excel template can be used.]
m (slope) =
b (y-intercept) =
correlation =
(Note: that the y-intercept might be different than zero may be as a result of some experimental
uncertainties.)
N
μ
2. In the space below rearrange m = 0 to obtain the expression (in symbols) for the
L
permeability of air constant.
μ0 =
3. Use the numerical values for N, L (step 1) and the slope m (Fit results box) to calculate
the permeability of air (free space), µ0, with the relevant units (i.e Telsa·meters per ampere =
T·m/A). Show all working steps in the space below.
μ0 =

4. Write your value for the permeability of air constant, µ0 , with units, in the tableand on
one of the whiteboards that the demonstrator sets aside.
Group Permeability of air, μ0 Units
5. Complete the table by adding as many values as possible, obtained by other groups in the room.
6. From the table, make a final estimate (average) of the the permeability of air constant, µ0, including
uncertainties (using ½ of the difference between maximum and minimum values), with units, in the
space below. Remember to match the number of decimal places in the uncertainties and measured/
calculated value.
μ0 ± ∆μ0 =
7. How does the final value of μ0 compare with the theoretical value? (See Useful Definitions
and Constants Table.) List the major sources of uncertainties and explain their contribution to
the observed difference. (Human error is not an acceptable answer.)
Get

ü
M ed
Now
- Unplug the magnetic field sensor and the LabQuest.

- Pack your equipment.

Concluding steps

Student Section
Date: ………………………………

Part 1: Obtained the magnetic field of the Earth correctly 2
Part 2: Obtained the “Slinky” Coil magnetic field correctly 2
Obtained the permeability of Free Space correctly 3
Total : 10


Electromagnetic Induction
Preparation before coming to the laboratory:

1) Go to the Fundamentals of Physics The aim of this exercise is to explore the
Moodle site and from the Magnetism following specific topic:
and Electromagnetism topic,
complete • Faraday’s Law
· The relationship between the
• the online Electromagnetic Induction magnetic flux, induced voltage (emf),
Pre-laboratory Lesson, Pre-laboratory time and number of turns in the coil
Quiz and Video Demonstration. of wire
• Faraday’s Law application
2) Familiarise yourself with · Transformer
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and · How a transformer increases or
'Laboratory Work Starts Here' decreases an AC voltage?
sections. which start below


Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux (Φ), is the dot product of the magnetic field and an area vector:
Φ = B · A = BA cosθ
B = magnetic field strength, in Teslas
A = surface area through which B passes, in square meters
θ = angle between the field and area vectors
The area vector’s magnitude, A, equals the amount of a surface. Its direction is perpendicu-
lar to the surface. The angle θ is the angle between field and area vectors.
Faraday’s law
The induced emf (voltage) is:
Ɛ = -NΔΦ/Δt
Ɛ = induced emf
ΔΦ = change in magnetic flux
Δt = change in time
N = number of turns in a coil

Transformer Expression
Vp Np
= Seconday voltage
Vs Ns
Primary Voltage
Vp = voltage, primary coil Efficiency% = · 100
Vs = voltage, secondary coil Nsecondary
Np = number of turns in primary coil Nprimary
Ns = number of turns in secondary coil
Permeability
The permeability μ0 quantifies the effect of a magnetic field inside a material. Examples of
pearmeabilities;
T·m
Air (vacuum): μo = 4π×10-7
A
Iron: μIron ≈ 400×μo
Note: Magnetic field, B, in iron, is around 400 times stronger than in air.

This lab has two parts. In part 1 you will examine Faraday’s Law using two different coils
and magnets while in part 2 you will study one of the applications of Faraday’s Law, a
transformer operation.

• A LabQuest with USB cable and voltage probe,
• 1 x 400 turn coil,
• 1 x 800 turn coil,
• 1 x transformer frame (blue iron square frame),
• 1 x orange block with 10 multi-coloured banana-plug wires,
• 2 magnets (marked #1 and #2),
• one cork board,
• one of the computers,
• two multimeters,
• a power supply, and
• a retort stand with boss head and clamp.

Part 1: LabQuest and Voltage sensor Set-up
In this section you will collect the results, using the computer operating Differential Voltage
Sensor, or simply the voltage sensor, that requires the LabQuest and the LoggerPro software.
To start the experiments with LabQuest, connect up your LabQuest following the steps be-
low:
1. Plug the USB cable into the USB port of one of

the Mac computers. The USB port is on the right
hand side of the computer, right near where the
keyboard plugs in, or on the side of the keyboard.
2. Plug the voltage sensor into the “CH1” socket on

the top of the LabQuest, as shown. Figure 1.
3. With the voltage sensor already plugged in, and

the LabQuest connected to the computer, start up CH1
the Logger Pro software on the computer by double
clicking the “Fundamentals Experiments” folder on
the computer desktop or from the “First Year” folder.
Then double click on the “Faraday.xmbl” to open
the template file.
You should see the navigation bar above a live
voltage readout section and the blank graph grid for Figure 2
the Voltage (V) versus Time (s), and as shown below.
Figure 3

4. Click the mouse cursor on the “Data Collection” button on the navigation bar
at the top of the window to confirm (and change, if required) that the software is set to col-
lect 200 samples per second for 3 seconds, as shown.
Figure 4
Part 1a: Collecting the Results
In this part you will measure and analyse the induced voltage and the magnetic field flux
change in the 400-turn and 800-turn coil, by dropping magnet #1 or #2 through each coil.
The average of three sets of measurement (Set 1, Set 2 & Set 3) will be used to study the
relationship between the induced voltage and the flux change.
A. Magnet #1 through the 400 Turn Coil
In this section you will measure the magnetic field flux and the voltage induced in the 400
turn coil by dropping magnet #1 through it.
1. Clamp the 400-turn coil to the stand provided and connect the voltage sensor to the coil
as shown in the photo and schematically in Figure 5. The coil should be clamped approxi-
mately 20-cm above the table-top.
coil USB
red wire
black wire Differential
LabQuest Voltage
differential Coil Sensor
magnets voltage
LabQuest
sensor Figure 5

2. Click the mouse cursor on the Zero button in the navigation bar, on the computer
screen.
3. Place the cork board underneath the coil.
4. Hold magnet #1 bar with its south end (marked in black) just inside the top of the coil,
as shown. Make sure that when the magnet falls through the coil, it lands on the cork board
(to avoid damage to the magnet).
Figure 6
5. Click the mouse cursor on the “Collect” button on the navigation bar on the com-
puter screen to start collecting the results, wait about a second and then let magnet #1 drop
through the 400-turn coil. The data recording stops automatically after 3 seconds and the
graph of Voltage versus Time, similar to the one, that has already been re-sized, shown in
figure 7.
Magnet
drop
Start
Figure 7: Image of a typical graph for Voltage versus Time recorded by the voltage sensor
and re-sized using the “Autoscale” function button. Start and magnet drop moments are
marked.

Induced Voltage Measurement
6. Bring the mouse cursor on the ‘Examine’ function Figure 8

icon , click on it and hold the mouse button down,
and then move the ‘Examine’ cursor (little circle) to the
highest point of the graph (first peak) as shown in the
figure. The result box with the voltage and time values
will also appear as shown in figure 8.
7. Record (with a sign) the value of the highest point

of the graph in volts from the result box under Set
1 Results of the Voltage-Peak 1, in Table A.
Figure 9
8. Repeat the ‘Examine’ function for the lowest

(negative) point of the graph, as shown in Figure 9 and
record the value from the result box, under Set 1 of the
Voltage-Peak 2, in Table A, including the sign.
Note 1: You might need to disable the “Examine” function by closing the results boxes and/or
close the graph by using “Clear Data” function from the computer navigation bar before
proceeding to the next section.
Note 2: Alternatively you can use "Statistics" function to obtain the values of the voltages.

The Magnetic Field Flux Change Measurement
9. On the Voltage versus Time graph, use the mouse cur-

sor to select the region around the first (positive) peak of
the graph, and then click the cursor on the “Integral Fit”
function button to obtain the area outlined by the
first peak. The outline area corresponds to the magnetic
field flux change within the first half of the coil. A typical
measurement with the result box, are shown in Figure Figure 10
10
10. Record the value of the Integral (area under peak 1)

from the result box, under Set 1 Results of Flux Change
1 column, in Table A (include the sign).
11. Now select the region around the second (negative)

peak, as shown in Figure 11, and perform the ‘Integral
Fit’ function again and record the value of the integral
(area for peak 2) from the result box, under Set 1 Results
of the Flux Change 2 column of Table A, including the Figure 11
sign.
Note: You might need to disable the ‘Integral Fit’ function

by closing the results boxes before proceeding to the next
section.
12. With the 400-turn coil still clamped and connected to the voltage sensor,
repeat steps 2 – 11 (above), at least two times and record the relevant Voltage-Peak
and Flux Change under Step 2 and Step 3 Result columns of Table A.
13. Finally, calculate and record in Table A, to at least three significant figures,
the average for three sets of results, with the uncertainties and units.

Table A: Magnet #1 through the 400 Turn Coil

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Average Uncertainty in Units
Results Results Results Results Average Results*
Voltage-Peak 1 ±
Voltage-Peak 2 ±
Flux Change 1 ±
Flux Change 2 ±
*[Hint: Uncertainty calculates as |max value|-|min value|

2
Note: If your measurements are almost the same, use 2% uncertainty) and convert it to the absolute
uncertainty. Remember to match the number of decimal places in uncertainties and the average results.
B. Magnet #2 through the 400 Turn Coil

In this section you will measure the inducted voltage and the magnetic flux change in the
400 turn coil by dropping magnet #2 through it.
1. With the 400 turn coil still clamped and connected to the voltage sensor, as in part A
(steps 1-4), click ‘Collect’, wait a second and then drop magnet #2 through the 400 turn
coil, using the Voltage versus Time computer graph.
2. As in part A (steps 4-6), use the ‘Examine’ function to measure the induced voltages. Re-
cord the relevant value of the voltages from the result boxes, under Set 1 column of Table B,
including the signs.
3. As in part A (steps 7-9), perform the ‘Integral Fit’ function to obtain the values of the
relevant integrals. Record them from the result box, under Set 1 of Flux Changes column of
Table B, including the signs.
4. Now repeat steps 1 – 3 (above) at least two times and record the results of each repeat as
the relevant Voltage Peaks and Flux Changes under Step 2 and Step 3 columns of Table B,
including the signs.
5. Finally, calculate and record in Table B, the average results for the Flux Change 1 & 2,
and Voltage-Peak 1 & 2, with uncertainties and units.
Table B: Magnet #2 through the 400 Turn Coil

Results Average Results*
Voltage-Peak 1 ±
Voltage-Peak 2 ±
Flux Change 1 ±
Flux Change 2 ±
*Refer to the Hint and Note under Table A.

C. Magnet #1 through the 800 Turn Coil
1. Replace the 400 turn coil with the 800 turn coil.
2. As in part A & B, start ‘Collect’, wait a second and drop magnet #1 through the 800 turn
coil to obtain the graph.
3. Use the ‘Examine’ function to measure the induced voltages. Record the relevant value
of the voltages from the result boxes, under Set 1 column of Table C, including the signs.
4. Perform the ‘Integral Fit’ function to obtain the values of the relevant integrals. Record
them from the result box, under Set 1 of Flux Changes column of Table C, including the
signs.
5. Now repeat steps 2 – 4 (above) at least two times and record the results of each repeat as
the relevant Voltage Peaks and Flux Changes, under Step 2 and Step 3 columns of Table C,
including the sign.
6. Calculate and record in Table C, the average values for the and Voltage-Peak 1 & 2 and
the Flux Change 1 & 2, with uncertainties and units.
Table C: Magnet #1 through the 800 Turn Coil

Voltage-Peak 1 ±
Voltage-Peak 2 ±
Flux Change 1 ±
Flux Change 2 ±
*Refer to the Hint and Note under Table A.

D. Magnet #2 through the 800 Turn Coil
1. With the 800 turn coil, click ‘Collect’, wait a second and drop magnet #2 through the
coil to obtain the graph.
2. Perform the ‘Integral Fit’ function to obtain the values of the relevant integrals. Record
them from the result box, under Set 1 of Flux Changes column, of Table D, including the
signs.
3. Use the ‘Examine’ function to measure the induced voltages. Record the relevant value
of the voltages from the result boxes, under Set 1 column of Table D, including the signs.
4. Now repeat steps 1 – 3 (above) two times and record the results of each repeat as the rel-
evant Flux Changes and Voltage Peaks, under Step 2 and Step 3 columns of Table D includ-
ing the signs.
5. Calculate and record in Table D, the average values for the Flux Change 1 & 2, and
Voltage-Peak 1 & 2, with uncertainties and units.
Table D: Magnet #2 through the 800 Turn Coil

Voltage-Peak 1 ±
Voltage-Peak 2 ±
Flux Change 1 ±
Flux Change 2 ±
*Refer to Hint and Note under Table A.
Part 1b: Results Analysis
1. Transfer the average results, with the uncertainties and units, from Tables A, B, C & D
tables, to the relevant rows/columns of the Results Analysis Table (below) and calculate the
total Flux Change with the uncertainty and units.

Results Analysis Table

Average Uncer- Average Uncer- Average Uncer- Aver- Uncer- Total Flux Uncer-
Voltage tainty Voltage tainty Flux tainty age Flux tainty Change * tainty
Peak 1 Average Peak 2 Average Change 1 Ave Flux Change 2 Ave Flux Flux
Peak 1 Peak 2 Change 1 Change 2 Change**
Units
A. Magnet #1 ± ± ± ± ±
through the
400 Turn Coil
B. Magnet #2 ± ± ± ± ±
through the
400 Turn Coil
C. Magnet #1 ± ± ± ± ±
through the
800 Turn Coil
D. Magnet #2 ± ± ± ± ±
through the
800 Turn Coil
[Hints for calculations and uncertainties:

* If Flux Change 1 = +1Wb and Flux Change 2 = - 1Wb, the Total Flux Change = +1Wb +(-1Wb) =
0Wb. The changes add linearly!
** Uncertainty in the average Flux Change is the addition of independent uncertainties in Average
Flux Change 1 & 2! The uncertainties add in quadrature √(Uncertainty 1)2 + Uncertainty 2)2 .]
Remember to match the number of decimal places in the uncertainties and measured/calculated values!
2. Carefully study the results in the table and in the space provided, answer and explain
the following:
(a) Why Voltage-Peak 2 is larger than Voltage-Peak 1? Do your magnets travel at constant
speed through the coil? Explain.
(b) What is the effect of increasing the number of turns? Is this consistent with Faraday’s
Law? Explain.
(c) Which magnet, #1 or #2, produces the stronger magnetic field? What evidence do you
have?
(d) According to Faraday’s Law, the areas of the two peaks of the voltage-time curve
should be zero when added together. Do your results support this (within the uncertainty
range)? Explain.
This is the end of Part 1. Unplug the voltage sensor and the
Get
ü
LabQuest, disconnect the equipment, quit the Logger Pro without
saving the file and logout from the computer. Move to Part 2. M ed
Now
Part 2: Transformer Basics

The electromagnetic transfer of electrical power between the coils is called transformer ac-
tion. When AC power is applied to one coil (primary coil), a magnetic field flux builds up
and then collapses around this coils. When another coil (secondary coil) is physically
placed within the primary coil magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the secondary coil.
Experiments prove that the magnetic field flux passes through air with more difficulty than
through for example, iron. When an iron piece is placed inside a coil, the magnetic field
flux through the iron core will pass about 400 times more easily than through air because
iron's permeability is about 400 times higher.
In this part you will study one of the applications of Faraday’s Laws, by exploring the
relationship between the induced emf (voltage) and the number of turns and permeability of
the coils core.
Part 2a: The Step-Down Transformer
A step-down transformer has more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil.
The induced voltage in the secondary coil is less than the voltage applied to the primary
coil, or in other words the voltage is stepped-down.
In this part you will experiment with the 800 turn coil as the primary coil (transformer input)
while the 400 turn coil acts as the secondary coil of the transformer (output).
Coil-coil with Air Core
1. Connect the 6V AC voltage power supply with the 800 turn coil and place it as close as
possible next to the 400 turn coil as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
AC voltage
power
supply 6V
800 turn
coil no bar
400 turn
coil

2. Connect the COM and VΩmA sockets of one multimeter to measure the primary coil
(800 turns) voltage and the sockets of the other multimeter to measure the secondary coil
(400 turns) voltage as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2
no bar
3. Select the AC voltmeter range by turning the knob’s sharper

end to point ~V (on the left side of the scale) on both multim-
eters as shown in figure 3. Then your voltmeters will display a
voltage in volts (V).
4. Turn the power supply ON (both MAINS and OUTPUT) and

record the voltmeter readings in the Transformer Table for the
Step-Down Transformer row, ‘Air Core’ as the ‘Primary Voltage’
and the ‘Secondary Voltage’ respectively. Note that the voltme-
ters will measure respectively, the AC primary voltage, and the
AC secondary voltage, which is just the induced voltage (emf).
Figure 3
Coil-coil with Iron Bar
5. Remove the Iron Bar from the top of the transformer frame (blue iron square frame) by
unscrewing the central bolt, open the frame and lift the Iron Bar free. With the power sup-
ply and the voltmeters still connected, and the coils next to each other, join them by insert-
ing the Iron Bar, as shown in Figure 4.
iron bar
Figure 4

6. Record the voltmeter readings for the Step-Down Transformer in the Ìron Bar’ row under
the respective columns (do not disconnect the voltmeters or the power supply).
Full Transformer
7. Place the 800 turn coil on one side of the open transformer frame - this will be the pri-
mary coil - and the 400 turn coil on the opposite side of the open frame - this will be the
secondary coil.
8. Fix the Iron Bar on the top of the frame, replacing the central bolt. Thus closing the trans-
former frame, as shown in Figure 5. Record the voltmeter readings for ‘Step-Down Trans-
former’ row in the Full Transformer under the respective columns.
Figure 5
9. Turn OFF the power supply, the voltmeters, disconnect the transformer, open the Trans-
former Frame and remove the coils before proceeding to the next section.
Part 2b: The Step-Up Transformer
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.
The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across the
primary coil, or in other words the voltage has been stepped-up.
In this part the 400 turn coil will be the primary coil while the 800 turn coil will be the
secondary coil.
Coil- coil with Air Core
1. As in part 2a, connect the 6 volts output of the AC supply but this time, with the 400 turn
coil as the primary coil and place it next to the 800 turn coil and then, connect the voltme-
ters with the coils.
2. As before, select the AC voltmeter ranges and turn the power supply ON (both MAINS
and OUTPUT) to measure and record the voltmeter readings in the ‘Step Up Transformer’
section of the table, as the ‘Air Core’ the ‘Primary Voltage’ and the ‘Secondary Voltage’ re-
spectively, including the units.

Coil- coil with Iron Bar
3. Now, insert the Iron Bar, from the top of the transformer core, and record the voltmeter
readings in the respective columns of ‘Iron Bar’ row in the ‘Step Up Transformer’ section of
the Transformer Table.
Full Transformer
4. Setup the Full Transformer as in Step 7 and 8 from Part 2a, but this time with the 400 turn
coil as the primary coil.
Finally fix the iron bar to the top of the transformer core and measure and record in the
respective columns of ‘Full Transformer’ row in the ‘Step –Up Transformer’ section of the
table.
Transformer Table
Setup Primary Secondary Efficiency
Voltage Voltage
Units
Step Down Transformer Air Core
Nprimary = Iron Bar
Nsecondary = Full Transformer
Step Up Transformer Air Core
Nprimary = Iron Bar
Nsecondary = Full Transformer
Part 2c: Results Analysis

Seconday voltage
Primary Voltage
1. Using the expression Efficiency % = · 100 , applied in one
Nsecondary
Nprimary
of the online Pre-laboratory Exercise, calculate the efficiency for the 6 arrangements and
complete the Transformer Table (above).
2. Compare the efficiencies of the three setups (Air Core, Iron Bar and Full Transformer)
for the Step Down Transformer. Is this trend similar for the Step Up Transformer
3. Using the concept of permeability (see the introduction to Part 2), comment on the
possible reasons for why the efficiencies might be different between the cores.
Get
ü
M ed
Now


- Turn the power supply off.
- Switch multimiters off.
- Disconnect the circuit.
- Pack your equipment
Concluding steps

Student Section
Date: ………………………………

Part 1a: Section A - One Bar Magnet through 400 turn coil (Table A) 1
Section B - Two Bar Magnet through 400 turn coil (Table B) 1
Section C - One Bar Magnet through 800 turn coil (Table C) 1
Section D - Two Bar Magnet through 800 turn coil (Table D) 1
Part 1b: Results Analysis 2
Part 2a: Step-Down Transformer 1
Part 2b: Step-Up Transformer 1
Part 2c: Results Analysis and discussion (Transformer Table) 1
Start and finish on time 0.5
Total : 10

The Photoelectric Effect
1) Go to the Fundamentals of Physics This exercise is designed to give you an

Moodle site and from Atomic and understanding of:
Nuclear Physics topic, complete
• Einstein’s model of the photoelectric
• the online Photoelectric Effect Pre-
effect
laboratory Lesson, Prelaboratory
• Effect of light colour on the
Quiz and Video Demonstration.
photoelectric effect
2) Familiarise yourself with • Effect of intensity of light on the
• 'Useful Definitions and Constants' and photoelectric effect
'Laboratory Work Start Here' sections,
which start below.


Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation hf = W + KEmax
Kinetic energy of photoelectrons (in joules, J) KEmax = e∙Vstopping

Where e and Vstopping are respectively the charge of electron (in Coulombs, C) and the
stopping voltage (in volts, V).
Work Function W = hfcut-off = hc/λcut-off
c
Frequency of light is inversely proportional to the wavelength f=
λ
Planck’s constant h = 6.63x10-34J.s
Speed of light in a vacuum c = 3.0 x 108 ms-1
Electron charge e = -1.6 x 10-19C
1 electron-volt 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J



• a PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box (#1in figure 1a)
• a 5 LED light source fitted into the slit at the back of the instrument (#2 in figure 1a)
• a low voltage POWER SUPPLY (#3 in figure 1a)
• a power cord (#4 in figure 1a)
• banana plug leads (#5 in figure 1a)
#4
#2
#3
#1
#5
Figure 1a
(Usually LED’s run on a DC current, but in this case the LED pack is able to take AC power,
so it doesn’t matter which output on the power supply you use! )
The Photoelectric Effect - Overview of the equipment

In this experiment you will study the photoelectric effect. You will use the equipment
presented photographically in figure 1a, and schematically in figure 1b. Figure 1b shows
only the major parts of the equipment, namely the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument
box and the 5 LED light source, that has already been attached at the back of the
instrument.

Figure 1b Shield on the glass to Cathode coated with cesium

shade the anode & antimony on silver oxide
Backing Volts
Lightbeam
fine &
coarse
switches
LED light Metal anode
source
LED light Nanoamps

source cable meter
Phototube glass
envelope
Volt meter
List of LED
wavelengths Wavelength
switch
Power Input Intensity
sockets switch
Banana Plug Photoelectric Effect

Leads Instrument
Volts switch
A.C. & D.C.

Power Outputs
Power cord
Power switch Diagram not to scale
Low Voltage Power Supply
The current and voltage are measured inside the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument
box, and displayed on the instrument read-out.
The phototube is also inside the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box and is only
shown schematically in Figure 1b for your information. One of the two electrodes, the
anode, is the metal rod located near the curved surface of the second electrode, the
cathode, which is made of a metal coated with cesium and antimony on silver oxide.

When a certain light illuminates the surface of the cathode, the electrons (electric current)
will travel between the cathode and the anode as shown in figure 1c. The voltage which is
supplied between the electrodes by a battery, causes the electrons to flow as the electric
current.
Light beam After the Photons have

bombarded the metallic
surface of the cathode,
electrons are driven off and
+ − pass from the surface of
the negative cathode to the
Shield on the glass to positive anode
shade the anode Figure 1c
In the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box the light from the 5 LEDs is set to a
certain wavelength, which produces the current. When the ammeter detects the current,
the voltage will be adjusted to stop this current. This voltage will be used to calculate
the amount of energy of the most energetic electrons within the current. (Note that the
amount of energy required to stop the electrons must be the same as the energy of the
moving electrons.)
Part 1. The energy of the electrons versus the colour of light
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using the assumption that the sufficient energy
of light is absorbed by electrons within the metal surface and these electrons are emitted
from the surface of the metal. In this part you will study the Einstein equation by testing
the specific relationships between the energy of electrons and the energy of light.
In this part you will use the 5 LEDs to produce different colours to change the energy of
light that causes the current in the photoelectric effect. Once the current flows, you will
adjust the voltage until the current just stops. Using the values of this stopping voltage and
the wavelength of light, you will calculate the Work Function of the metal with which the
cathode is coated and the Planck’s constant.

Part 1a. Collecting the Results

Note that the energy of light produced by the 5 LEDs is sufficient (more than the cut-off) to
emit the electrons from the surface of the cathode.
1. Attach the 5 LED light source to the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box by sliding
it into the back slit. (May have already been done.)
2. Use the banana plug leads to connect the POWER SUPPLY to the back of the PHOTO
ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box (as shown in Figure 1b).
3. Use the power cable to connect up the POWER SUPPLY, then select 12V on the VOLTS
knob and switch the OUTPUT (red button) ON.
4. Turn the ILLUMINATION knob on the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box to RED,
and turn the INTENSITY knob on the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box to 100.
5. For the coarse adjustment of the CURRENT, carefully rotate the COARSE knob on the
BACKING VOLTS until the CURRENT display shows close to 0.00nA and do not change it.
6. To improve the CURRENT adjustment, carefully rotate the FINE knob on the BACKING
VOLTS until the CURRENT display shows 0.00nA (or as close as possible to 0.00nA).
7. Read off the BACKING VOLTS that was used to stop the current. Record the value of the
voltage, including the sign, as the stopping voltage, Vstopping in the table provided.
1 Stopping Energy
LED Colour λ (m) Vstopping (V)
λ (m )
-1
(J)
Red 660 × 10-9 × 106 × 10-19
Orange 613 × 10-9 × 106 × 10-19
Yellow 583 × 10-9 × 106 × 10-19
Green 522 × 10-9 × 106 × 10-19
Blue 480 × 10-9 × 106 × 10-19
8. Turn the ILLUMINATION knob to each of the colours (one at a time) listed in the table,
and repeat 5, 6 & 7 (above).
9. When you have collected all measurements switch the OUTPUT on the POWER SUPPLY
off.
10. Calculate 1/λ (in 106 m-1) and the Stopping Energy (in 10-19 J) for every wavelength to
complete the table. Note that the Stopping Energy calculates as e · Vstopping (reads as the
product of e and Vstopping) where e = -1.6 x 10-19C is the electron charge.

Part 1b. Results Analysis
The aim of this part is to understand how your results can be used to estimate the Work
Function of the cathode’s metal, W, and the value of Planck's Constant, h. These tasks
require using the Einstein equation in the form presented in the online Preliminary Exercises
and reviewed below:
KEmax = hc (1/λ) – W
e ∙ Vstopping = hc (1/λ) – W
Where:
KEmax represents the energy of the fastest electrons,
e ∙ Vstopping represents the electrical energy used to stop the electrons within the current,
hc (1/λ) is the energy of light, and
W is the Work Function of the cathode coating metal.
In this exercise, it is convenient to transform the equation e ∙ Vstopping = h c (1/ λ) – W into

the straight line equation y = mx + b by plotting the Stopping Energy e · Vstopping (for y),
versus 1/λ (for x).
1. Using the graph grid provided, transfer from your table all values of the Stopping Energy
e · Vstopping (along the vertical axis) versus 1/λ (along the horizontal axis). Clearly mark all
experimental points and include a title the graph. Do your results prove that the energy of
the electrons changes with the frequency of the light? In the space provided explain
referring to the straight line trend and the relationship between e.Vstopping and f, or 1 ,
c λ
because f = .
λ
2. For all experimental points draw a line of best fit (place it as close to as many of the
points as possible, with approximately half points on each side of the line).
3. Extend the line to cross the vertical axis and obtain the numerical value of the
y-intercept. In the space below, record the value with it’s units.
y-intercept = b =
4. On your line clearly mark two distant points, and use them to calculate the numerical
value of the slope. Show your working in the space provided (include the units).
rise
slope = m = =
run

Title:
Stopping Energy (× 10-19J)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 1
×106m-1
λ
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0

Estimation of Work Function, W, for the cathode surface
Recall that e ∙ Vstopping = hc (1/λ) – W and y = mx +b.
5. Use the numerical value for the y-intercept from step 3 to obtain the amount of the
Work Function, W, in electron-volts (eV)
W=
6. Write your value for the Work Function, W, in the table below and on one of the
whiteboards that the demonstrator sets aside.
Calculation of Planck's Constant, h
Recall that e ∙ Vstopping = hc (1/λ) – W and y = mx +b.
7. Use the numerical value for the slope from step 4 to calculate the value of Planck's
constant, h, in Joule-seconds (J∙s):
h=
8. Write your value for the Planck's constant, h, in the table below and on one of the
whiteboards that the demonstrator sets aside.
9. Collect as many values as possible of the Work Function and Planck's Constant from other
groups, and record them in the table below.
(You might proceed to Part 2, and come back to this task when the other groups complete
this exercise.)
Group Work Function, W ( ) Planck's constant, h ( )
10. From this data, make a final estimate (average) value of the Work Function, including
the units and uncertainty in the space below. (Hint: For uncertainty, ∆W, use the range/2)
W ± ∆W =

11. Make a final estimate (average) value of the Planck's constant, including the units and
uncertainty in the space below. (Hint: For uncertainty, ∆h, use the range/2)
h ± ∆h =
12. How does the above value of h, within the uncertainty limit, compare with the
theoretical value? (See Useful Definitions and Contants section.) In the space below
discuss the reasons for the discrepancy referring for example to the accuracy of the
measurements.
Get
ü
M ed
Now
This is the end of Part 1, use the same setup and continue to Part 2.

Part 2. Energy of the electrons and the intensity of light

In this part you will use only one colour to examine how the energy of the electrons
changes with intensity of light in the photoelectric effect. The intensity of light will be
changed by using the INTENSITY knob on the PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT instrument box.
You will monitor the current and measure the voltage that will stop the current using the
method from part 1.
1. With the light source still attached to the instrument, turn the ILLUMINATION knob on
the left side of the instrument to the BLUE position, and switch the OUTPUT of the POWER
SUPPLY to the on position.
2. Turn the INTENSITY knob to 20 (i.e. 20% of maximum).
3. As in Steps 5 and 6 from Part 1, obtain the value of the BACKING VOLTS required to stop
the current. Record it, including the sign, as the Stopping Voltage, Vstopping.
4. Turn the INTENSITY knob to each of the values (one at a time) listed in the table, and
repeat step 3 (above).
**
Relative Intensity *
Vstopping (V) Uncertainty ∆KEmax
(%) KEmax (eV)
(eV)
1 20 ± 3 ± 10% ±
2 40 ± 3 ± 10% ±
3 60 ± 3 ± 10% ±
4 80 ± 3 ± 10% ±
5 100 ± 3 ± 10% ±
[Hints:
* Recall that electron charge is e = -1.6 ∙ 10-19C and the kinetic energy of the fastest electron
e ·Vstopping
that calculates as KEmax = , is expressed in electron-volt (eV)
1.6 ∙ 10-19J/eV
10
** The absolute uncertainty (size of error bar) in KEmax calculates as ∆KEmax = ∙ KEmax
100
assuming that uncertainty in Vstopping is 10% (shown in the table).]
Note: Remember to match the number of decimal places in ∆KEmax and KEmax.

100
80
Relative Intensity (%)
60
Title:
40
20
KEmax(eV)
1.5
1.0
0.5

5. Calculate and record in the table the amount of kinetic energy of the electrons, KEmax in
eV (electron-volts) and the relevant uncertainties. Show an example of your calculation in
the space below.
6. Transfer from the table all values of KEmax (along the vertical axis) versus the Relative
Intensity (along the horizontal axis) to the graph grid provided. Clearly mark all points,
including the 'error bars' for the uncertainties, ∆KEmax and for the relative intensity. Fully
label the graph and do not sketch a line. Referring to your graph and the hint below
explain if and how your results verify (within the uncertainty range) Einstein’s explanation.
[Hint: According to Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect, caused by the

sufficient wavelength of light, the energy of the electrons does not change with the
intensity of the light. This is because the light intensity changes in proportion with the
number of photons and since one photon ejects one electron, only the number of
electrons will change, but their energy will remain unchanged.]

- Turn the power supply off. Get
- Disconnect your equipment.
- Pack and return equipment if required.
ü
M ed
Now

Concluding Steps

Student Section
Date: ………………………………

Lab preparation: both questions answered Yes 0.5
Part 1a: Obtain results and present them in the table 1
Part 1b:
Graph correct 1
Slope and y-intercept correct 1
Work Function correctly calculated and discussed 1
Planck's Constant correctly calculated 1
Discussion of results 2
Part 2:
Obtained and presented in the table results 1
Discussion of results and plot 1
Total : 10
Demonstrator’s Signature: ………………………………


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First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

Student Number: ______________

Using The Computers xxv

Electrostatic Field Plotting 63

Coil Electromagnetic Induction 89

The Photoelectric Effect 105

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual i

ii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

Introduction and Welcome to First Year Lab

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual iii

Anyone who is to work in a laboratory is required to complete an online Safety Induction

1.1 General Comments

1.2 Emergency Evacuation

The Evacuation Alarm has two distinct tones:

iv First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

1.3 Accident and Injury

• Check the area for any obvious hazards:

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual v

240 volts, alternating current, 50 Hz.

vi First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

1.5 Laboratory Rules

3. Don’t run in the lab or throw objects about

Reason: any ‘missile’ is potentially hazardous, especially a fast moving human.

(End of Safety Information)

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual vii

Online Learning Facilities - TELT Gateway*

viii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

3. Overview of the Session’s Labs

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual ix

3.2 Laboratory Classes for Nine Experiments are worth 15%

x First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

3.3 What you are expected to do each week

You should prepare before each lab period by:

Please turn up for the lab period on time!

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual xi

5. Laboratory Management: Lab Demonstrators

Each laboratory period is managed by a Demonstrator, who will be a member of

xii First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

6. Falling Behind, Missed Labs

First Year Physics Laboratory Manual xiii

We are here to help you learn and enjoy the labs!

xiv First Year Physics Laboratory Manual

UNCERTAINTIES AND UNCERTAINTY ESTIMATION

Part A. Uncertainties in Experimental Results

A1. Sources of Uncertainties

A precise measurement of a quantity is one where independent measurements of this

NOT PRECISE NOT PRECISE PRECISE PRECISE

xvi First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL

A2. Reporting Your Result with Uncertainty

Percentage uncertainty is expressed as a percentage fraction (∆x/x)%, which is

Example: Above becomes, ( ∆xx )% = ( 0.05 m ) · 100 = 1.96% ≈ 2%

First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xvii

A3. Uncertainty in Repeated Measurements

A4. Combining Uncertainties - Basic Rules

Multiplication by a Constant z = c·x ∆z = |c|·∆x

First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xix

Part B. Graphing Results and Uncertainties

B1. Making Graphs y-axis

B2. Uncertainty Bars

B3. Fitting the Straight Line

uncertainty bars and fit the straight line to your experimetal

First Year PhYsics LaboratorY ManuaL xxi

B4. Using Straight Line