Reservoir Heterogeneity in The Cambrian Sandstones Suez PDF

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Journal of Geosciences, Osaka City University

Vol. 53, Art. 1, p. 1-29, March, 2010
Reservoir heterogeneity in the Cambrian sandstones: A case study

from the Araba Formation, Gulf of Suez Region, Egypt
Hossam A. TAWFIK1, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR2, Wataru MAEJIMA1

and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED3
1
Department of Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku,
Osaka 558-8585, Japan, E-mail: hossam@sci.osaka-cu.ac.jp; maejima@sci.osaka-cu.ac.jp
2
Department of Marine Geology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, King Abdul Aziz University, 80207
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia, E-mail: ighandour@kau.edu.sa
3
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt, E-mail:
hatabdelhameed@yahoo.com
Abstract
The reservoir quality of the Araba sandstones that are exposed west of the Gulf of Suez,
northeastern Egypt, exerts a considerable vertical heterogeneity owing to variations in detrital
composition, depositional facies and post-depositional alterations induced during diagenesis. Meteoric
water played a significant rule in the destruction of unstable detrital grains such as feldspars and other
less-stable rock fragments. Eight facies assemblages are recognized in the Araba Formation, stacked
from base to top: LST braided fluvial stream, TST flood plain, LST upper shoreface-foreshore and
coastal plain, TST tidal flat, HST offshore-lower shoreface, FSST upper shoreface, and HST subtidal-
intertidal sand-flat. Three diagenetic realms are differentiated: 1) eodiagenesis under humid climate,
that resulted in iron-oxide pigmentation, early formed quartz and calcite cementation, and limited grain
dissolution; 2) mesodiagenesis during burial depth less than 3000 m that resulted in mechanical
compaction, intergranular quartz and unstable grain dissolution and secondary porosity creation,
precipitation of quartz, kaolinite, and calcite cements, and clay authigenesis; 3) telodiagenesis during
uplifting, which led to precipitation of iron-oxides, kaolinite, gypsum, halite, and secondary porosity
development. Variations in textural parameters such as grain size, sorting, and grain fabric, as well as
abundance and distribution patterns of diagenetic modifications, had a great impact on the deterioration
of porosity and permeability and thus led to reservoir heterogeneity of these sandstones. Accordingly,
two main types in the Araba sandstones, A and B, are recognized. The first type (A) is the submature
sandstones that are characterized by a lower reservoir quality (av. φ = 21.41 % and K = 26.6 mD).
This type is represented by the upper shoreface-beach LST sandstones that are characterized by a
relatively heterolithic grain size and sorting and strong compactional effect (COPL up to 33.5 %), as
well as the lower shoreface HST sandstones that dominated by extensive iron-oxide and kaolinite
cementation (CEPL up to 39.0 %). In contrast, the second type (B) is the mature to supermature
quartzarenite that shows a reasonable reservoir quality (av. φ = 23.0 % and K = 171.75 mD) owing to
better sorting and fairly quartz and kaolinite cementation as a result of incursion of meteoric water
which also enhanced grain dissolution and porosity evolution. This type includes the uppermost part of
SQ2 and the entire SQ3 of the Araba Formation, and it is represented by the FSST upper shoreface and
subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones.
Key-words : Araba Formation, diagenetic modifications, Porosity, Permeability, Reservoir

heterogeneity
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2 Reservoir heterogeneity in the Cambrian sandstones: A case study from the Araba Formation, Gulf of Suez Region, Egypt
north of Africa and Arabia, extending from Morocco at the

Introduction west to the Persian Gulf at the east (Kolodner et al., 2006).
The sandstones were deposited on the Precambrian
Siliciclastic diagenesis has been a major target of basement and comprise of a sequence of clastic sediments
studies to understand parameters controlling the that represent several cycles of fluvial to nearshore marine
distribution of diagenetic alteration, which affects porosity- environments.
permeability and hence quality and heterogeneity of the oil In the Gulf of Suez region, the Cambrian strata are
reservoir (Tamar-Agha, 2009). In sandstones, those represented by two successive formations, i.e., lower
parameters are determined by initial sediment composition Araba and overlying Naqus Formations (Klitzsch, 1990).
and its subsequent modification during burial and The Araba Formation was introduced by Hassan (1967) to
lithification; overburden stress compacts the sand, reducing designate the Cambrian sandstones that overlie the
porosity and constricting pore throats. Mineral basement rocks in Wadi Araba, west Central Sinai. The
precipitation and dissolution also affect porosity and pore formation is well defined by its brick red colour and
structure; e.g., extreme, locally intense cementation leads consists mainly of continental to shallow marine quartz-
to reservoir compartmentalization. rich sandstones that intercalate subordinate mudstone and
The evolutionary pathway of sandstones during conglomerate beds. The sandstones are generally poorly
diagenesis is governed by interrelated parameters such as fossiliferous with no index body fossils except for some
mineral composition, pore-water chemistry, tectonic trace fossils (e.g. Cruziana and Skolithos) (Abdallah et al.,
setting of the basin, and burial-thermal history of the 1992). The Araba Formation varies in thickness from 130
succession (Morad et al., 2000). Mineral and rock m at the type locality, Gebel Araba, SW Sinai, to about 25
compositions of detrital grains and porewater chemistry m in Gebel Somr El-Qaa area, west of the Gulf of Suez.
would be changed in accordance with the relative sea level, The formation is equivalent to the informal Nubian D of
which changed owing to eustatic sea-level changes and/or the petroleum companies in the subsurface (Alsharhan and
the tectonic uplift/subsidence. The diagenetic alteration Salah, 1997).
has been studied in connection to depositional facies and The investigated area, Gebel Somr El-Qaa, is located
sequence stratigraphy (e.g. Morad et al., 2000; Ketzer et in the northern part of the Eastern Desert, about 70 km
al., 2002; Ketzer et al., 2003 a,b; Al-Ramadan et al., 2005; west of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt (Fig. 1). The area
El-ghali et al., 2006; Mansurbeg et al., 2008; Abouessa and represents a well-exposed, siliciclastic succession
Morad, 2009). However, the impact of diagenesis on unconformably overlying the Precambrian basement that
reservoir quality of sandstones has not been studied except shows a wide variation in paleorelief. Gebel Somr El-Qaa
a for few reports (e.g. Luo et al., 2009; Tamar-Agha, is bounded by the Precambrian rocks at the north and east
2009), and reservoir heterogeneity is poorly documented in and by the Cretaceous-Eocene rocks of the Southern Galala
the literature. Plateau at the west.
Depositional facies and sequence stratigraphic
framework have not been studied from the point of view of Lithology and Depositional Facies
diagenetic modifications and their impact on reservoir Four lithostratigraphic sections of the Araba
quality and heterogeneity of the Araba sandstones in Formation were studied here that were composed almost
Egypt, possibly due to the complicated diagenetic entirely of reddish brown to grayish white, sparsely
processes affected by the fluctuations in sea level. In this fossiliferous fine- to coarse-grained sandstones with
work, we elucidate the role of spatial and temporal intercalated few sandy mudstone and pebbly sandstone
distribution of diagenetic alteration in the context of (Fig. 2). Conglomeratic beds appeared only in the lower
sequence stratigraphy of the Araba sandstones and impact part of the succession. The whole succession represented a
of the alteration on the reservoir quality and heterogeneity. complex depositional history changing from fluvial
through transitional to marine environments. Based on
Geological Setting lithology, sedimentary structures and ichnofossil contents,
18 lithofacies and 8 facies associations are categorized, and
General the facies associations were designated A to H (Figs. 3A-F;
In the northern Egypt, a relatively thick succession of 4A) as follows: braided fluvial deposits (FA-A), marine-
lower Paleozoic quartz-rich sandstone is locally exposed influenced flood plain deposits (FA-B), upper shoreface to
on both sides of the Gulf of Suez (Klitzsch, 1990). Those foreshore (FA-C), coastal plain deposits (FA-D), tidal flat
sandstones are parts of a vast sheet that are exposed in the (FA-E), offshore-lower shoreface (FA-F), upper shoreface
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Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 3
Fig. 1 Location map and geological setting of Gebel Somr El-Qaa, west of the Gulf of Suez,
Egypt. Numbers refer to the location of the measured sections.
(FA-H) and subtidal-intertidal sand-flat (FA-G). A brief energy marine-influenced flood plain deposits.
description of each facies associations is given in Figure 2; The middle sequence (SQ2) is relatively thick (~10 m)
for detailed facies analysis, depositional environments and and is bounded at the base by a subaerial
sequence stratigraphic interpretations, refer to Ghandour et unconformity/marine flooding surface (SB2) and at the top
al. (in press). by a widely distributed paleosol horizon (~20 cm thick),
indicating subaerial exposure (SB3). This sequence
Sequence Stratigraphy comprises of 4 system tracts: lowstand shallow marine
The Cambrian Araba Formation comprises three (upper shoreface-foreshore) and coastal plain deposits
genetically related, unconformity-bounded depositional (LST2), transgressive tidal flat (TST2), normal regressive
sequences (SQ1, SQ2 and SQ3) in relation to relative sea- offshore-shoreface highstand (HST2), and forced regressive
level changes (Ghandour et al., 2009). The lower sequence upper shoreface deposits (FSST 2 ). The nearshore
(SQ1) varies in thickness from < 1 m to 5 m and is sandstones LST2 are equivalent to the Cruziana bearing
bounded by a basal non-conformity surface with the strata (Fig. 4C; Abdallah et al., 1992). The appearance of
underlying Precambrian basement (SB1) and an upper densely burrowed layer (facies E1) and the common
subaerial unconformity/marine flooding surface (SB2; Fig. occurrence of tidal features such as flaser bedding at the
4B). This sequence consists of two system tracts: base of tidal flat deposits overlying coastal plain sediments
lowstand braided fluvial deposits (LST1) and transgressive suggest an increased rate of relative sea level rise and the
marine-influenced flood plain deposits (TST 1 ). The deposition of TST 2 . This surface is defined as tidal
transition from LST1 to TST1 suggests abrupt shutdown of ravinement surface (TRS) (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003). A
the high energy braided fluvial system and the onset of low composite surface (RV/MFS) marks the transition between
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Fig. 2 Stratigraphic succession of the Cambrian Araba Formation, Gebel Somr El-Qaa, west of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt.
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Fig. 3 Field photographs showing facies characteristics of the Araba Formation. (A) Fluvial channel fill,
coarse- to very coarse-grained sandstones, lithofacies A2, braided stream deposits. (B) Wedge-
shaped, medium-grained sandstones and reddish brown mudstone intercalations, lithofacies B2,
marine influenced flood plain deposits. (C) Foreshore low angle cross-bedded coarse-grained
sandstones, facies C5 overlying pebbly sandstones of lithofacies A3, braided stream deposits. (D)
Alternation of argillaceous, fine-grained sandstones and reddish mudstones, coastal plain deposits.
(E) Climbing ripples, ripple cross-laminations and mud drapes (arrow) indicating tidal action, facies
E2, tidal flat deposits. Note deformational structures. (F) Fine-grained sandstones displaying small-
scale hummocky cross-stratification, lithofacies F2, lower shoreface sandstones.
tidal flat TST2 and the overlying offshore-lower shoreface The upper sequence (SQ3) reaches about 4.5 m thick,
HST2. The densely burrowed layer capping the top of is intensively burrowed by Skolithos sp. trace fossils, and is
facies G is truncated by subaerial unconformity, suggesting mostly equivalent to the Skolithos bearing strata described
deposition during forced regression rather than a normal in Abdallah et al. (1992) (Fig. 4D). It is bounded by a
one (Catuneanu, 2006). Moreover, the basal erosional subaerial unconformity (SB3; Fig. 4E) at the bottom and
surface of these deposits is interpreted as a basal surface of by a surface marking the Araba/Naqus unconformable
forced regression (BSFR). contact at the top. The framework of this sequence
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Fig. 4 Field photographs showing facies characteristics of the Araba Formation. (A) Medium-scale trough
cross-bedding, reactivation surfaces and sand-mud couplets in the forced regressive upper shoreface
which is densely burrowed by Skolithos at the upper part. (B) The sequence boundary (SB2) separating
reddish flood plain deposits (below) from the nearshore sandstones (above). Note the angular
sandstone breccias and thin ferric paleosols indicating subaerial unconformity. (C) Cruziana sp. trace
fossil identified from the base of facies C3, upper shoreface deposits. (D) Cross-bedded sandstones
intensively bioturbated by long Skolithos linearis, lithofacies H2, subtidal-intertidal sand-flat. (E) The
sequence boundary (SB3) separates paleosols and forced regressive sandstones below from the
overlying thin fluvial deposits and multidirectional trough cross-stratified subtidal sandstones.
includes tidally influenced thin fluvial deposits LST3/TST3, amalgamated with maximum flooding surface, as the thin
which are sharply and erosively overlain by prograding lag deposits represent the preserved portion of TST 3 ,
subtidal-intertidal sand-flat deposits (HST3). The sharp although no transgressive marine deposits are recognized.
boundary separating these deposits is interpreted as The upper progradational packages were probably
composite surface including TS/MFS, which is defined by developed during a period of relative sea-level fall,
pebble lag and, in many places, coincides with the representing normal regression rather than a forced one.
subaerial unconformity. The transgressive surface is
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Material and Methods RESULTS
The samples of the present study were collected from 4 Mineral Composition
lithostratigraphic sections of the area of Gebel Somr El-
Qaa, west of the Gulf of Suez. A total of 33 representative The Araba sandstones consist of quartz, feldspars,
samples covering the whole succession of the Cambrian rock fragments, and accessory minerals. The sandstones
Araba Formation were selected for petrographic modal range in size from very fine to very coarse and from
analysis (Table 1). Samples were impregnated with blue poorly- to very well-sorted with heterogeneous roundness
epoxy resin in vacuum prior to make thin section for of grains in different grain sizes (Table 1).
facilitating porosity detection. The modal composition of Monocrystalline quartz (Qm) is abundant among the
the sandstones was determined from 500 points counting mineral assemblage, averaging 41.0 % and mostly exhibit
per each thin section. Optical microphotographs were taken straight to slightly undulose extinction. Most grains show
using 2/3 inch high density CCD and Nikon DS-Fi1 digital irregular segmented undulatory, whereas regular extinction
camera attached to Nikon polarized microscope. and "gradational bands" are occasionally observed. Those
Granulometric parameters including grain size, sorting, and are covered partially or totally by quartz overgrowths and
roundness were determined by measuring the maximum frequently host mineral inclusions such as biprymidal to
diameter of 100 random grains per thin section under the round-terminated zircon, prismatic tourmaline, muscovite
microscope. laths, and rutile needles. Polycrystalline quartz grains (Qp)
X-ray diffraction analysis was performed on 26 are less abundant (av. ~10.0 %) but variable. They include
powdered sandstone samples (Table 2), using both smear- grains with two to five subcrystals and straight to slightly
on glass slide and powder press techniques (Hardy and curved intercrystalline boundaries, in addition to those with
Tucker, 1988). The analysis was done by a RIGAKU ten or more crystals, elongated to stretched subcrystals, and
RAD-I X-ray diffractometer (CuKα-radiation with 30 kV, sutured to crenulated sub-crystal boundaries.
10 mA, 2°-70°2-theta). Discrimination between kaolinite The total quartz population is the lowest (37.0 %) in
and chlorite was done after heating the samples to 550℃ the flood plain TST deposits and the highest (av. 53.9 and
for two hours in a muffle furnace (Tucker, 1988). Peak 52.4 %) in the upper shoreface to foreshore LST and
locations and intensities were determined digitally using subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones, respectively. The
Diffrac/AT software (Table 2) and minerals were identified monocrystalline quartz generally increases upward (av.
by their characteristic reflections (Moore and Reynolds, 43.4 %) in subtidal-intertidal HST sand-flat, whereas
1989). Representative diffractograms are given in Figure 5. polycrystalline quartz is relatively enriched (av. 14.7 %) in
Furthermore, twenty samples were coated with thin gold the upper shoreface to foreshore LST sandstones.
film and examined under a scanning electron microscope Feldspars occupy only 1.6 % in average (Table 1) in
(KEYENCE VE-7800), at an accelerating voltage ranging the Araba sandstones. K-feldspars such as microcline and
between 15 and 20 kV for detailed identification of delicate orthoclase are dominated over plagioclase. Kaolinitization
diagenetic features. and illitization are the common types of alteration.
Petrophysical parameters such as porosity and Replacement commonly occurs along weak lines such as
permeability were determined for 48 core samples fractures and cleavages (Savage et al., 1988). Fine-sand
(approximately 3.5 cm length x 2.5 cm diameter; Table 3) sized feldspar grains are relatively fresh in appearance
cutting both vertical and normal to bedding planes. compared to coarser size ones that are normally reduced by
Porosity was estimated by helium gas under a hydrostatic fracturing along cleavage and twinning places, making
confining pressure equal to the net effective stress, whereas them more susceptible to chemical weathering (Salem et
permeability was measured by nitrogen gas under an al., 1998). The average feldspar content reaches up to
overburden pressure of 300 psi, and corrections were made 20.7, 5.3 and 1.8 % for flood plain TST, lower shoreface
for Klinkenberg effect in each sample. Prior to the HST, and upper shoreface-beach LST sandstones,
measurements, the plug were cleaned by toluene vapour, respectively. In contrast, other facies such as upper
then dried at 200℃ for 24 hours in a vacuum oven and shoreface FSST and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones are
finally weighted. Petrophysical analyses were carried out at characterized by the general absence of feldspars.
INPEX Corporation, Tokyo, whereas the other analyses Rock fragments range from traces to 22.2 %; av. 6.0
were undertaken by the corresponding author at the % (Table 1), and are essentially of metamorphic origin
Department of Geosciences, Osaka City University. such as quartzite, foliated schist and phyllite, and ductile
sepentinites. Igneous varieties, including granitic and
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Table 1 Textural parameters and modal composition of the studied Araba sandstones.
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Table 2 X-ray diffraction data of the Araba sandstones.
Fig. 5 X-ray diffractograms showing mineral constituents of bulk sandstone samples. Q, quartz; F, feldspar;
C, calcite; K, kaolinite; I, illite; G, Gypsum; H, halite; He, hematite and Go, Goethite.
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Table 3 Petrophysical parameters of the Araba sandstones correlated with thin section porosity.
acidic- to intermediate-volcanoclastics are the next in

abundance. Rounded chert grains significantly occur in Diagenetic Modifications
coarse pebbly sandstones. Most unstable volcanic
lithoclasts were suffered from extensive dissolution, Compaction
creating abundant intra- and microporosities. The amount The Araba sandstones were suffered from mechanical
of rock fragments remarkably increases in coarse-grained rearrangement of grains as well as chemical compaction.
upper shoreface-foreshore LST sandstones (av. 14.6 %). They underwent variation in the intergranular volume
Muscovite is by far the most abundant accessory (IGV), reflecting differences in the degree of mechanical
mineral (0 to 7.9 %; av. ~ 2.0 %; Table 1), varying from compaction (Table 1). IGV is affected by depositional
fresh grains to partially or completely altered ones, being texture, burial depth and early-formed cementing materials.
concentrated in the fine sandstones and appearing oriented Compaction appears as the following phenomena: (1) grain
parallel to bedding planes. A marked enrichment of mica boundaries with three to four adjacent grain per each grain,
was noted in the lower shoreface HST sandstones (av. 5.9 (2) numerous squeezed and deformed volcanic and
%) compared to the other facies. Zircon, tourmaline, and metamorphic lithoclasts (Fig. 6A) and bending of
rutile (ZTR) dominate as the heavy mineral suite in the muscovite (Fig. 6B), (3) fractured rigid grains such as
Araba sandstones. The Heavy minerals, especially zircon quartz and rock fragments (Fig. 6C), and (4) low values
and tourmaline, are enriched upward in subtidal-intertidal (17.4 %; Table 1) of intergranular volume (intergranular
HST sandflat. porosity plus pore-filling cement). Multi-grain fractures are
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Fig. 6 (A) Optical photograph of bended metamorphic rock fragment, crossed polars, AR 8. (B) SEM image
showing squeezed ductile muscovite flake (arrows) between rigid detrital grains, AR 12. (C)
Photomicrograph of fractured chert grain, crossed polars, AR 7. (D) Optical photomicrograph showing
concavo convex grain- to grain-contact as a result of chemical compaction, crossed polars, AR 27.
Fig. 7 (A) Plot of lithic fragments versus intergranular volume (IGV). (B) Relationship between rock
fragments and compactional porosity loss (COPL).
commonly subparallel and as much as 0.2 mm width. The at grain boundaries (Fisher et al., 2000).
fractures are open or more commonly filled with a certain The upper shoreface to beach LST sandstones are
authigenic mineral. generally characterized by lower IGV values (av. 22.6 %)
In the Araba sandstones, chemical compaction has than the flood plain TST, subtidal-intertidal HST, lower
resulted in the development of long and concavo-convex shoreface HST, and upper shoreface FSST sandstones
grain boundaries (Fig. 6D) and less commonly sutured (30.2, 34.4, 36.6 and 37.1 % on average, respectively).
contact due to the absence of illitic coatings and rare micas Intergranular volume and percentage of rock fragments are
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Fig.8 (A) SEM image of pore-filling kaolinite showing pseudohexagonal platelets that completely occlude
pore spaces, AR 17. (B) SEM photograph of pore-bridging fibrous illite and micro-rosette of hematite,
AR 33. (C) SEM image of quartz overgrowth with well-developed euhedral faces, AR 33. (D) SEM
photograph of pore-filling microcrystalline quartz cement, AR 1. (E) SEM image of crystalline calcite
cement with minor kaolinite platelets partially filling open pore, sample AR 27. (F) Optical
microphotograph showing pore-filling gypsum cement, crossed polars, AR 17. (G) SEM image of
halite cubes completely covering pre-existing minerals, sample AR 11.
negatively correlated, whereas porosity loss by compaction (av. 24.4 %; Table 1).
(COPL) and lithic grains have a positive relationship (Figs.
7A, B). A. Clay minerals
Kaolinite is the most abundant clay mineral (2.4 - 18.6
Cementation %; av. 10.8 %), found in all facies, followed by minor
Clay minerals, iron-oxides, quartz, and calcite are the amount of fibrous illite. Kaolinite commonly occurs as
most common diagenetic cements found in the studied pore-filling, pore-bridging, fracture-filling textures and
sandstones, together with minor amounts of gypsum and replacive for other minerals. Among those pore-filling is
halite. Those relative abundances vary from 9.2 to 40.7 % the most common occurrence of kaolinite (Fig. 8A), which
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shows no apparent preferred orientation. Kaolinite occurs microcrystals, growing as a multitude of crystals, 20-10
in different forms such as: face-to-face stacking of length, and often associated with authigenic kaolinite
microporous pseudohexagonal book-shaped platelets; booklets (Fig. 8D). Well-developed multiple overgrowths,
vermicular shaped; and less commonly grape-shaped which in turn cover the earlier-formed overgrowths,
concretions, whereas authigenic illite occurs as fibrous indicate at least two stages of the cement generations.
crystals and delicate pore-bridges extending across the The types of quartz cementation in the Araba
throat passage (Fig. 8B). sandstones varies in extent from incipient to pervasive type
Kaolinite is volumetrically important in the studied that fully covers the detrital quartz grains and block pore
depositional facies: flood plain TST sandstone (15.2 %), throat. Quartz cement is more abundant in the subtidal-
upper shoreface to foreshore LST sandstones (6.7 - 18.6 %; intertidal HST sandstones (0.4 - 17.7 %; av. 6.4 %),
av. 12.9 %), lower shoreface HST sandstones (7.9 - 18.2 %; followed by the upper shoreface FSST sandstones (2.2 - 8.2
av. 12.3 %), upper shoreface FSST sandstones (8.8 - 18.5 %; av. 6.0 %), flood plain TST sandstone (3.0 %), and
%; av. 12.1 %), and the subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones upper shoreface-foreshore LST sandstones (trace - 4.1 %;
(2.4 - 16.3 %; av. 9.1%), implying that kaolinite generally av. 1.8 %). It is less common or nearly absent in the lower
decreases upward. However, a relative increase of kaolinite shoreface HST sandstones (trace - 1.4 %; av. 0.5 %).
content is noted towards the SB3 surface in the FSST
sandstones (e.g. sample AR 15). D. Calcite
Calcite is the only carbonate cement observed in the
B. Iron oxides Araba sandstones (0 to 5.9 %; av. 1.8 %; Table 1) occurring
Iron-oxides are the second abundant cementing as pore-filling, pore-lining, fracture-filling textures and less
minerals in the Araba sandstones (0 to 32.7 %; av. 7.1 %; commonly as replacive texture. Based on the observation
Table 1). Hematite and goethite are the only pigment of thin sections, the calcite has a patchy and irregular
minerals detected by XRD analysis (Fig. 5) and optical distribution. Under the SEM, calcite cement occurs as
microscopy. Iron-oxide cements occur as dark reddish- elongated rhombs (20-25 length and 3-4 width; Fig.
brown crypto- to microcrystalline particles intergrown with 8E) or as mosaic rhombohedral crystal masses attaching
clays coating (~ 5 thick) on detrital grains and/or as detrital grains, and filling the pore spaces. The texture of
interstitial pore-filling cements, which normally reduce calcite suggests two stages of cementation; 1) eogenetic
primary and secondary porosities. Under SEM, hematite calcite, characterized by fine microspar and fringe crystals
occurs as micro-rosettes about 3 in diameter (Fig. 8B), scattered in the void spaces, and 2) poikilotopic coarser
whereas goethite is tiny acicular crystals usually associating calcite fabric. The latter fills fractures within quartz grains
with the hematite rosettes. or commonly replaces partially detrital quartz, feldspars,
Iron-oxide cements are most abundant in the lower and micas. Poikilotopic calcite mostly fills large
shoreface HST sandstones (5.1 - 32.7 %; av. 17.5 %), intergranular pores of loosely packed sandstones.
followed by both the subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones Calcite cement is fairly low in abundance compared
(0.6 - 31.9 %; av. 8.0 %) and upper shoreface FSST (1.3 - with other cements described above; constituting 0.0 - 5.9
17.1 %; av. 7.6 %) compared to the flood plain TST % (av. 2.4 %) in the subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones, 1.0
sandstone (2.6 %) and upper shoreface-foreshore LST - 2.3 % (av. 1.8 %) in the upper shoreface FSST, trace - 1.8
sandstones (0 - 3.7 %; av. 1.3 %). % (av. 0.9 %) in the upper shoreface-foreshore LST, trace -
1.6 % (av. 0.6 %) in the lower shoreface HST, and is
C. Quartz completely absent in the flood plain TST sandstone.
Quartz overgrowth is one of the most important
diagenetic cement in the Araba sandstones (trace to 17.7 %; E. Other minerals
av. 4.6 %; Table 1) and is easily discriminated from the host Gypsum and halite cements are solely detected in two
grains due to the presence of trapped oxides, clays, and samples by XRD (Fig. 5) and SEM examinations. Gypsum
fluid inclusions. The overgrowth covers the detrital quartz occurs as a trace of pore-filling cement (Fig. 8F) whereas
grains and fills the surrounding intergranular pores either halite (av. 0.2 %; Table 1) is present mainly as pore-filling,
partially or completely. SEM examination revealed its pore-lining, and filling oversized pores, fractures and
presence as euhedral crystals that are less than 20 embayments in quartz grains. Under the SEM, halite occurs
across, which have coalesced to ultimately form well- as cubes coating other detrital grains and cementing
developed syntaxial overgrowths (~ 100 thick) (Fig. minerals (Fig. 8G).
8C). Less commonly quartz cementation may occur as
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 14
Fig. 9 (A) Photomicrograph of advanced stage of detrital feldspar dissolution giving rise to moldic
macroporosity, plane light, AR 1. (B) SEM image of partially dissolved K-feldspar grain. Note
dissolution occurs along twin-planes and cleavage, AR 10. (C) Photomicrograph of coarse residual
calcite lining moldic pore (P). Arrow refers to floating quartz grain, crossed polars, AR 18. (D) SEM
photograph showing triangular etch pits resulting from calcite corrosion of incomplete quartz
overgrowth (Qz), AR 27. (E) Optical photograph of advanced stage of kaolinized mica flakes, crossed
polars, AR 33. (F) SEM image showing vermicular kaolinite formed from feldspar precursor, AR 10.
Dissolution pyroxene and amphibole were also suffered from

Dissolution plays an important role in the Araba dissolution. Complete dissolution of grains is generally
sandstones by creation of secondary pores, because indicated by the presence of iron oxide film or clay rim
complete dissolution of detrital grains leads to the surrounding the oversized pores.
formation of moldic macropores (Schmidt and McDonald, In the studied sandstones, dissolution of detrital grains,
1979b; Fig. 9A). Most of the dissolved detrital minerals which include feldspars and rock fragments particularly
were probably plagioclases and K-feldspar (Fig. 9B; volcanic varieties, leads to porosity enhancement.
Milliken et al., 1989). In addition, many volcanic rock Dissolution is more common in the upper shoreface FSST
fragments and other unstable minerals such as biotite, and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones.
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 15
Dissolution of carbonate cement is a common feature sandstones. Muscovite pseudomorphs replaced by kaolinite
in the studied sandstones as evidenced by the preservation are commonly observed. Additional kaolinite precipitation
of small calcite patches filling or sometimes lining is observed between the cleavages, resulting in a
oversized pores, and the presence of floating quartz grains characteristic "fanning" along edges of the muscovite
with corroded outlines that left after the dissolution of flakes. Replacement of muscovite by kaolinite begins at the
carbonate cement (Fig. 9C). end of muscovite crystal layer and proceeds leaving
hairlets-like relics of mica swam within kaolinite booklets
Corrosion and replacement (Fig. 9E). Kaolinite replaces K-feldspars partially to
Based on thin-section observation, calcite and kaolinite completely either irregularly along cleavage or peripherally
were highly corrosive to detrital grains as indicated by the under acidic conditions (BjØrlykke, 1983). Kaolinitized
presence of several projections of calcite and kaolinite feldspars occur as patches having the same sizes of feldspar
cements into quartz grain margins. Under the SEM many grains with euhedral outlines, whereas under the SEM, they
grains exhibit notched embayments probably due to grain occur as tightly packed booklets or vermicules of platy
corrosion. Quartz overgrowths with rough surface have crystals (Fig. 9F). In the Araba sandstones, both detrital
minor triangular etch pits formed due to calcite corrosion and authigenic quartz are severely invaded by kaolinite.
(Fig. 9D; Krinsley and Doornkamp, 1973), whereas well
crystallized overgrowth having smooth surfaces are free of Porosity Loss
etch pits. Few detrital feldspars and muscovite grains are
also invaded by calcite cement (av. <0.1%). Visible pore spaces in the thin-sections of the Araba
Kaolinite replaces detrital muscovite and feldspars (0.0 sandstones are categorized as intergranular, intragranular,
- 6.2 %; av. 1.2 %). Kaolinization of muscovite is widely and moldic macropores as well as fractures. Intergranular
observed, particularly in the medium- and fine-grained macropores are the most abundant and commonly bounded
Fig. 10 (A) SEM image of macro-intergranular porosity bounded by euhedral quartz overgrowth, AR 24. (B)
SEM image of intragranular porosity (arrows) within chemically unstable feldspar grain, AR 1. (C)
SEM image of oversized pores (OSP) formed as a result of complete dissolution of calcite cement
(Cl). Note fractured quartz grain on top of right pore (arrow), AR 33. (D) SEM photograph of fracture
porosity cutting across detrital quartz grain, AR 33.
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 16
Fig. 11 Plot of pore-filling cement versus intergranular volume (IGV).

Asteroid refers to average value (modified after Houseknecht,
1987).
by detrital grains and quartz overgrowths (Fig. 10A). Plots of sandstone intergranular volume vs. cement volume
Intragranular pores are mostly associating with partially (Houseknecht, 1987) indicate that cementation is more
dissolved feldspars (Fig. 10B), polycrystalline quartz pronounced than compaction in reduction of primary
grains, and labile rock fragments. Moldic pores mainly porosity (Fig. 11). The same result was obtained by
occur due to feldspar dissolution and occasionally unstable applying equations of Ehrenberg (1995) assuming that the
rock fragments (Milliken, 2001) and also develop due to original porosity of sandstones was 45 % (Atkins and
dissolution of calcite cement (Fig. 10C). Fractures resulted McBride, 1992). However, the total amount of porosity
from mechanical compaction during progressive burial reduced by compaction (COPL) is the greatest for upper
and/or dissolution of calcite cement are usually restricted shoreface to foreshore LST sandstones (23.3 - 33.5 %; av.
inside rigid grains such as detrital quartz (Fig. 10D), chert 28.9 %), followed by flood plain TST sandstone (av. 21.2
and volcanic fragments. %), subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones (4.1 - 24.3 %; av.
In the Araba sandstones, the intergranular and moldic 15.7 %), and lower shoreface HST and upper shoreface
pores are volumetrically important compared to the FSST sandstones (4.4 - 25.3 and 8.8 - 18.8 %, respectively;
intragranular pores and fractures. The average porosities of av. 12.2 %). In contrast, the amount of porosity destruction
intergranular and moldic pores are 9.7 and 6.0 %, by cementation (CEPL) is highest for lower shoreface HST
respectively, for the upper shoreface FSST sandstones; 8.4 sandstones (12.2 - 39.0 %; av. 28.1), followed by upper
and 5.5 % respectively, for the tide-dominated HST shoreface FSST sandstones (18.6 - 30.1 %; av. 24.1 %),
sandstones; 5.7 and 2.7 %, respectively, for the upper subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones (10.3 - 37.6 %; av. 22.2
shoreface-foreshore LST sandstones; 5.7 and 0.1 %, %), flood plain TST sandstone (av. 21.1 %), and upper
respectively, for the lower shoreface HST sandstones; and shoreface to foreshore LST sandstones (6.1 - 17.0 %; av.
3.4 and 0.6 %, respectively, for the flood plain TST 12.1 %).
sandstone.
During sandstone diagenesis, the depositional facies- Petrophysical Measurements
related porosity is greatly modified owing to compaction,
cementation, and dissolution of framework grains. Four facies assemblages including upper shoreface-
Moreover, the diagenesis created reservoir compartments. beach LST, lower shoreface HST, upper shoreface FSST,
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 17
and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones were selected for Porosity

petrophysical investigations. Table 3 lists the measured For most samples, the measured horizontal porosities
values of helium porosity and nitrogen permeability for (16.4 - 30.0 %; av. 22.8 %; Table 3) are slightly higher than
vertical and horizontal plugs. the vertical ones (16.4 - 26.4 %; av. 21.6 %; Table 3), and
both values are higher than the total thin-section porosity
(1.75 - 33.5 %; av. 13.6 %). A relatively weak correlation
(r = 0.63) between thin section porosity and measured
helium porosity estimated from vertical plugs is obtained
(Fig. 12A).
In the Araba sandstones, the measured porosity are
greatest in upper shoreface FSST sandstones (22.0 - 30.0 %;
av. 25.7 %), followed by subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones
(16.8 - 28.6 %; av. 22.6 %), upper shoreface-foreshore LST
sandstones (16.4 - 26.3 %; av. 20.5 %), and lower shoreface
HST sandstones (16.8 - 26.0 %; av. 20.3 %).
Permeability
The measured permeability (K) ranges from 0.4 to
400.6 mD (av. 94.3 mD; Table 3) in the vertical cores and
from 0.2 to 580 mD (av. 164.5 mD; Table 3) in the
horizontal plugs. Plots of the permeability against thin
section porosity and plug porosity (Figs. 12B and 12C,
respectively) showed that the thin section porosity has a
better relationship to permeability (r = 0.81) than vertical
and horizontal core porosities.
The measured permeability in the vertical and
horizontal plugs are greatest in upper shoreface FSST
sandstones (22.2 - 579.9 %; av. 212.2 %), followed by
subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones (0.2 - 570.8 %; av. 166.4
%), upper shoreface-foreshore LST sandstones (0.73 -
299.3 %; av. 42.9 %), and lower shoreface HST sandstones
(0.4 - 15.6 %; av. 4.9 %).
DISCUSSION
Sandstone Composition
The sandstone composition, which is initially a

function of the mineral composition of parent rock, is
subject to later modifications during transport, deposition,
and diagenesis. Thus, the analysis of mineral composition
of sandstone is a useful tool to characterize the provenance
(Dickinson et al., 1983), depositional environment (Espejo
and Lopez Gamundi, 1994), climate (Suttner et al., 1981),
and diagenesis (McBride, 1987).
The Araba sandstones consist mainly of quartz,
Fig. 12 Relationships between thin section porosity, feldspar, rock fragments, and accessory minerals with
measured porosity, and permeability. (A)
heterogeneous grain sizes, sorting, and roundness of grains.
helium porosity and thin section porosity, (B)
thin section porosity and measured
Such heterogeneity reflects high-energy environment
permeability, (C) core porosity and nitrogen and/or long distance transportation, indicating the
permeability. importance of mechanical factors for the sorting and
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 18
roundness of final grains. Quartz grains include both the upper shoreface-foreshore LST sandstones is probably due
monocrystalline and polycrystalline varieties; the former is to very coarse grain size of these sandstones.
more abundant than the latter in the studied sandstones. The enrichment of feldspar in the flood plain TST, the
Polycrystalline quartz grains are variable, consisting of two base of the upper shoreface-beach LST, and lower
to ten or more subcrystals, suggesting derivation from shoreface HST sandstones would be attributed to rapid
plutonic igneous sources (Blatt, 1992) and metamorphic sedimentation that precluded feldspar destruction. Low
terrain (Asiedu et al., 2000). sedimentation rate can substantially increase the
Feldspars constitute a small proportion in the Araba compositional maturity of sandy sediments, ultimately
sandstones, as they are commonly unstable in the resulting in the production of first cycle quartzarenite from
sedimentary environment and hence more susceptible to initially arkosic detritus. However, the sedimentation rate
chemical destruction during weathering and diagenesis. required for the most extremely compositional maturation
Muscovite is the most abundant accessory mineral in the is extremely low (Suttner et al., 1981).
studied sandstones, being usually more resistant to The presence of muscovite grains within the lower
chemical weathering than biotite (Blatt, 1992). It is shoreface HST sandstones is linked to their sheet-like
commonly derived from felsic igneous and metamorphic shape and the consequent low settling velocity; micas tend
sources. However, the dominance of ZTR heavy minerals to be hydraulic equivalents of finer grains thus are
in the Araba sandstones suggest prolonged abrasion and/or commonly deposited in very fine sands rather than coarser
extensive chemical weathering at the source area (Avigad sands (Boggs, 2009). The concentration of ultrastable
et al., 2005). heavy minerals in the upper shoreface FSST and subtidal-
The abundance of well-sorted monocrystalline quartz intertidal HST sandstones reinforces the idea of reworking
grains in subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones is probably (Marenssi et al., 2002).
due to increasing energy of sedimentary environments.
The high monocrystalline quartz content must result from Classification and Provenance
intense reworking by tidal currents and wave action in high The Araba sandstones are mainly quartzarenites to
energy setting that have caused selective removal of the sublitharenites with variable amounts of litharenite and
more labile components (feldspar and lithic fragments; arkoses (Folk, 1974). Their average modal composition is
Mack, 1978; Critelli et al., 1997). The notable enrichment Q88.1F2.5L9.4 (Fig. 13). Feldspars are virtually absent, except
of polycrystalline quartz grains and lithic fragments in the in a few samples, in which feldspars, high as 20.7 %, were
Fig. 13 Triangle diagram showing present and reconstructed framework

composition of the studied sandstones (after McBride, 1963). Q,
quartz; F, feldspar; R, rock fragments.
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 19
attained in the framework composition (Table 1). Those

restored (original) content would range from 0.4 to 34 %,
estimated from the sand-size kaolinite patches and moldic
oversized pores, suggesting that the Araba sandstones had
mature to submature mineral composition at the time of
deposition. The present-day maturity of the Araba
sandstones is attributed to intensive chemical weathering
during warm-humid climate prevailed over north
Gondwana from the end of the Neoproterozoic to the pre-
glacial Ordovician period (Suttner et al., 1981; Avigad et
al., 2005). However, extensive diagenetic modifications
due to the reaction with interstitial solution can not be
excluded for the absence of feldspars.
The influence of climate and topography on the
detrital material of sandstones, and therefore the
characteristics of the sandstones, is well known but not
easy to quantify. Detrital modes of sandstone suites
primarily reflect the different tectonic settings of
provenance areas, although various other sedimentological
factors such as weathering, erosion, transport, and
diagenesis can modify their composition (Harris, 1989).
These modes have been used by Dickinson and co-workers
(Dickinson and Suszek, 1979; Dickinson, 1985) to address
detrital compositions of sandstone to major provenance
types which may help to characterize the source area.
According to the Qt FL and Q m FL t ternary diagrams of
Dickinson et al. (1983), the detrital composition of the
Araba sandstones ranges between two main provenance
types: craton interior and recycled orogenic (Fig. 14A, B).
The source rock of the Araba sandstones could be
distinguished using a diagram according to Suttner et al.
(1981) (Fig. 14C), indicating metamorphic and plutonic
origins released under humid climate. As pointed out by
Dickinson et al. (1983), sandstones plotting in the craton
field are mature sandstones derived from relatively low-
lying granitoid and gneissic sources that supplied from
recycled sands of associated platform. Monocrystalline
(Tortosa et al. 1991) and polycrystalline quartz grains
(Asiedu et al., 2000), the logarithmic ratios of quartz to
feldspars and rock fragments (Weltje et al., 1998), and
inclusions in the quartz imply complex origins of the
studied sandstone from plutonic and medium- to high-
grade metamorphic rocks.
Paragenetic Sequence
A paragenetic sequence is constructed (Fig. 15) based

on the diagenetic mineral assemblage and their textures
Fig. 14 Ternary diagrams showing the main
provenances of the Araba sandstones (A and B,
confirmed by petrographic and SEM studies described
modified after Dickinson et al., 1983; C, above.
modified after Suttner et al., 1981). Iron-oxides were precipitated immediately after the
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 20
Fig. 15 Paragenetic sequence showing chronological order, relative timing and diagenetic impact on porosity of the
Araba sandstones. Dashed bars indicate degree of uncertainty (modified after Tawfik et al., 2009b).
Fig. 16 (A) SEM image of extensive iron-oxide coating on quartz grains. Note the absence of quartz overgrowth, AR
30. (B) Photomicrograph of microspar calcite cement post dating quartz overgrowth. Note dissolution created
secondary porosity, AR 26. (C) Photomicrograph of fractured quartz grain. Note fracturing occurred after
dissolution of early calcite cement and includes both quartz grain and overgrowth, crossed polars, AR 27. (D)
SEM image of well-developed, multi-stage quartz overgrowth partially engulfing kaolinite booklets, AR 6.
(E) Photomicrograph of kaolinite completely replacing feldspar grain, crossed polars, AR 27. (F)
Photomicrograph showing fractured quartz grains that healed by kaolinite cement, crossed polars, AR 21.
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 21
Fig. 17 (A) Photomicrograph of poikilotopic calcite cement filling fractures within quartz grain, crossed polars, AR
18. (B) Photomicrograph of kaolinite cement post-dating dissolution of late stage calcite cement during
uplifting, crossed polars, sample AR 18. (C) Photomicrograph of halite cement (h) precipitated in macro-
intragranular porosity (p) of feldspar grain (fd), crossed polars, AR 1. (D) Photomicrograph of halite filling
crack within K-feldspar grain (fd), crossed polars, AR 1. (E) Photomicrograph of halite cement surrounded
by preserved relics of kaolinite booklets (arrow), crossed polars, AR 1.
deposition; reddish hematite and/or goethite extensively kaolinite is formed after dissolution of calcite cement
coated detrital quartz grains and inhibited precipitation of during further compaction (Fig. 16F). With increasing the
quartz overgrowth (Fig. 16A). Quartz overgrowth was depth burial, kaolinite is transformed into fibrous illite, and
further succeeded by microspar calcite cement (Fig. 16B). the released silica was thought to be the source of
The primary depositional porosity was reduced by microcrystalline quartz cement (Ramm and Ryseth, 1996).
compaction up to 26 % (Houseknecht, 1987) via Late-stage poikilotopic calcite is observed replacing detrital
dewatering, rearrangement of grain fabrics, and bending of and overgrown quartz, as well as filling fractures inside
ductile grains. With progressing burial, less stable grains as quartz grains (Fig. 17A). Coarse calcite crystals also line
well as early formed calcite cement were dissolved (Fig. the secondary pores, suggesting that burial carbonates pre-
16B) to develop secondary pores. Dissolution of calcite date secondary porosity.
cement (Fig. 16C) caused fracturing of silicate grains due to Secondary pores that formed during shallow burial are
compaction. enhanced during the following exhumation, when meteoric
Late-stage, well-developed, euhedral quartz water was introduced especially at late stage of the
cementation probably post-dated the dissolution event and exhumation history. The younger generation of iron-oxides
pre-dated kaolinite cementation as indicated by severe and kaolinite cements were formed in these secondary pore
invasion of multi-stage overgrowths by authigenic kaolinite spaces, reducing porosity after the dissolution of late calcite
cement (Fig. 16D). Kaolinite also partially or completely cement (Fig. 17B). At this stage evaporite minerals were
filled large pores that formed as a result of detrital feldspar formed; e.g., halite cement post-dated feldspar dissolution
replacement (Fig. 16E). The occurrence of kaolinite filling (Fig. 17C), fractures (Fig. 17D), and kaolinite cement (Fig.
fractures within detrital quartz grains indicates that the 17E).
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 22
between compaction porosity loss and lithic fragments,

Burial Depth indicate that detrital mineralogy was the main control on
compaction process. The rock fragments are usually
The burial depth of sediment layer is usually inferred coarser in grain size than sand particles resulting in poorly-
from the thickness and age of the overlying strata, although sorted and closely-packed fabric of grains which in turn led
incertainties exist in the thickness of rock removed by to high compaction.
erosive events. In the present study, recognition of the Dissolution of detrital grains such as feldspars and
burial depth is estimated using the clay mineralogy and other labile minerals is a common feature in the Araba
morphology. The morphological and structural sandstones. Plagioclase is more easily dissolved at
modifications of clay minerals are a function of temperature shallower depths than K-feldspar. Wilkinson et al. (2001)
and depth (Lanson et al., 2002). The transformation of stated that dissolution of K-feldspar in sandstones occurs at
kaolinite to dickite observed in sedimentary basins with shallow depth over depth ranges of 1.5 to 4.5 km, but is
increasing burial depth reflects increasing temperature and commonly extensive at 2.5 km burial depth (Harris, 1989).
pressure (Ehrenberg et al., 1993). The size and shape of Dissolution is more common in the upper shoreface FSST
illite crystals also vary significantly with temperature, as and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones, owing to meteoric
stated by Lanson et al. (1996). water circulation during RSL fall and basinward shift of the
Several authors (e.g. Lanson et al., 1996; Beaufert et shoreline than in the TST and LST sandstones.
al., 1998) noted the presence of kaolinite crystals exhibiting The observed etch pits on incompletely formed quartz
elongation along the ab plane of the crystals, building up overgrowth suggest that corrosion of quartz by calcite was
kaolin booklets, and thickening along the c- axis of stacks trivial and restricted largely to the incompletely formed
that became more regular. In the Araba sandstones, quartz crystal faces and those well-formed overgrowth are
coexistence of elongated, thick filamentous-shaped illite highly resistant to corrosion (McBride, 1987). In the Araba
crystals (Fig. 8B), and the absence of intercalation of sandstones, both detrital and authigenic quartz are severely
blocky dickite crystals between stacks of partly dissolved invaded by kaolinite. This phenomenon has been
plates of kaolinite indicate that the maximum burial depth previously reported by Sommer (1978), who stated that
of these sandstones was not deeper than 3 km. This value quartz is slightly unstable under kaolinite forming
was compatible with the estimated burial depth of the Araba conditions.
sandstones at Gebel El-Zeit, west of the Gulf of Suez The most common diagenetic cements found in the
(Abdel-Wahab, 1998). Araba sandstones include clay minerals, iron oxides, quartz,
and calcite together with minor amounts of gypsum and
Diagenetic Impact and Depositional Facies halite. Clay minerals are present in all the studied
depositional facies, and their abundance decreases upward
In the Araba sandstones, mechanical rearrangement of in the succession. The clay-mineral phase is strongly
grains is expressed by low values of intergranular volume related to the prevailing climatic conditions (Wooden and
(IGV), deformed lithoclasts, bending of mica, and fractured Morad, 2003). Under warm, humid climatic conditions,
rigid grains such as quartz and rock fragments. The grains extensive meteoric water flushing results in the dissolution
fractures are sometimes open or more commonly filled with of detrital silicates (e.g. feldspars) to form kaolinite and
certain authigenic mineral. Such fractures are important secondary intragranular porosity. The amount of kaolinite
because they provide the space for younger cement formed is dependent on the volume of unstable silicate
precipitation and/or act as fluid migration paths during late grains (e.g. micas and feldspars) and meteoric water
diagenesis. involved, which in turn depends on: (i) meteoric water
Chemical compaction has resulted in the development supply, which is a function of climate; (ii) permeability of
of pressure solution at grain boundaries during advanced the sediments; (iii) amplitude and frequency of sea-level
burial of the Araba sandstones (Dutton and Diggs, 1990). change, and hence duration of subaerial exposure; and (iv)
The greater than 26 % loss in intergranular volume is physiography and gradient of the basin floor exposed
caused by intergranular pressure solution (Houseknecht, during relative sea-level fall, which determines the extent of
1987). Consequently, chemical compaction is well subaerially exposed area and the meteoric recharge area
pronounced in the upper shoreface to beach LST sandstones (Wooden and Morad, 2003).
lowering intergranular volume (IGV) to 17.4 %. In the Araba sandstones, kaolinite is interpreted to
The negative correlation between IGV and percentage have been formed by the influx of meteoric water during
of rock fragments, along with the positive relationship basinward shift of the shoreline which occurred as a result
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 23
of relative sea level fall (Ketzer et al., 2003a; El-ghali, overgrowths in the Araba sandstones was presumably
2005). Kaolinite formation was presumably favoured by derived internally from at least two sources: 1) alteration of
the establishment of warmer and more humid climatic detrital feldspar by acidic water producing kaolinite and
conditions (Ketzer et al., 2003a, b) that most likely excess silica and, 2) intergranular pressure dissolution of
prevailed during the Cambrian (Suttner et al., 1981; Avigad quartz. The first process of leaching and kaolinitization
et al., 2005). However, kaolinite formation is unexpected in occurred mostly due to meteoric flushing during relatively
the flood plain TST sandstone which was deposited during shallow depths (~1000 m). Sandstones of cratonic settings
transgression when the meteoric water flux was restricted. are characterized by a large residence time at shallow
The occurrence of kaolinite in these sandstones could be depths, evidenced by commonly found eogenetic quartz
explained by the influx of meteoric waters into TST cementation which can limit compaction and preserve large
sandstones during the formation of the SB2 (El-ghali, intergranular volumes (Longstaffe, 1993).
2005). Silicate reactions in sandstones (often involving
Authigenic kaolinite was derived from the alteration of feldspars) liberate silica to form quartz cement. The
detrital feldspars as indicated by abundant, feldspar-like volume of the librated silica can be estimated from the point
patches of vermicular kaolinite (Fig. 9F). Additional count data. The silica released from the dissolution of
kaolinite filled nearby primary pores, suggesting that Al2O3 feldspars is as high as 0.43 cm 3 per each cm 3 of the
derived from altered feldspars was retained in the dissolved feldspar (Morad and Al Dahan, 1987). On
sandstones. The relatively rugged relief that left after the average, detrital feldspar comprised about 10.6 % of the
Pan-African orogeny along the margins of the basin would framework grains of the Araba sandstones at the time of
provide needed hydraulic gradient for extensive meteoric deposition, based on the present-day feldspar content (1.6
flushing, dissolution, and kaolinitization of feldspars and %) and existing moldic pores (9 %). This means that 9 %
micas (De Ros, 1998). of the original feldspar content was leached, leading to a
Illite, fibrous and lath-like mineral found surrounding possible increase in quartz content by approximately 3.9 %
and/or replacing kaolinite, is typically of mesogenetic (i.e. 0.43 × 9), which account for about 3.9 % by volume of
origin (Morad et al., 2000). On progressive burial, it is the total quartz cement.
probable that the presence of excess K-feldspar leads to Intergranular pressure dissolution of quartz may
kaolinite transformation into illite. This transformation account for the second source of silica. Oelkers et al.
process occurs at temperature greater than ~70℃ and (1992) considered that the dissolution of quartz is enhanced
becomes pervasive at temperatures greater than 130℃ along mica contacts as a consequence of a local pH increase
(Chuhan et al., 2000). arising from the interaction of mica surfaces with the
Red stain coating in uncompacted framework grains adjoining pore fluids. The pressure dissolution of detrital
(Fig. 16A) indicates near-surface precipitation of iron- quartz was enhanced along mica contacts in the Araba
oxide minerals. The presence of reddish iron-oxide sandstones and was also extensive along intergranular
minerals in the lower shoreface HST and partly in upper quartz contacts especially in upper shoreface-foreshore LST
shoreface FSST and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones sandstones. This type is mainly mesogenetic in origin
suggests their derivation from ferromagnesian minerals, (Worden and Morad, 2000) and is known to precipitate in
especially biotite. This conclusion is supported by the significant amounts at temperatures of about 90 - 130℃ and
positive correlation (r= 0.85) between iron-oxides and depths of 3 km or greater in most sedimentary basins
muscovite mica. The studied sandstones are closely (Morad et al., 2000).
located to the south of Dokhan volcanics and to the west of Heterogeneous distribution of quartz cement within the
Older granites which may account for extensive Araba depositional facies is strongly controlled by the
pigmentation, where oxidation of ferromagnesian grains spatial and temporal distribution of early-formed iron-oxide
occurs particularly at shallow burial depths in the presence cements and coatings. Sandstones free from or poorly
of oxic meteoric waters (Schöner and Gaupp, 2005; Boggs, cemented by iron-oxides during eodiagenesis, retained good
2009). Those labile mafic minerals are prone to diagenetic porosity, such as subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones and the
alteration and suggest that the pigmentation process took upper shoreface FSST sandstones, were pervasively
place during earlier diagenetic stage. Various early formed cemented by quartz overgrowth, which formed at shallow
Fe-hydroxides were transformed into hematite at higher burial stage of diagenesis. In contrast, lower shoreface HST
temperatures via dehydration (Cornell and Schwertmann, sandstones were not cemented by quartz overgrowths due to
1996). the presence of eogenetic iron-oxide materials that have
The silica required for the formation of quartz coated and supported quartz grains and thus inhibited the
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 24
nucleation of the overgrowth and also intergranular pressure sandstones, suggesting that these sandstones were affected
dissolution of quartz grains. during shallow burial by early formed iron-oxide, quartz,
Sources of eogenetic carbonate cements in siliciclastic and calcite cements that helped to retain porosity by
sediments are often enigmatic and poorly constrained in the supporting the sandstone framework against mechanical
literature (Salem et al., 2000). The first generation compaction and pressure solution (Tawfik et al., 2009a). In
(microspar calcite) fills large pores in the loosely packed contrast, sandstones with lower IGV and higher COPL
sandstones of the Araba Formation attaining high values including upper shoreface-foreshore LST and some
intergranular volume (IGV) and hence reflects precipitation subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones were isolated from
during near-surface eodiagenesis before significant meteoric water and thus less cemented by these minerals in
compaction by meteoric waters. Consideration of meteoric addition to their enrichment in lithoclasts and poorly-sorting
water as a main source of ions needed for calcite nature.
cementation (Prosser et al., 1993; Morad, 1998) is based on Elevated core porosities than thin section porosity, in
the lack of bioclasts and detrital carbonate grains. This type addition to weak correlation between both types are
of calcite is found mainly in the upper shoreface FSST and attributed to the presence of microporosity (Fig. 18A),
subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones where meteoric water which is difficult to quantify in thin sections. The
flux into FSST and HST sandstones has probably occurred microporosity not only depends on the amount of clay
during the formation of these sandstones as a consequence (McBride et al., 1996), but also on the growth habit of clays
of progradation and basinward shift of the shoreline (Morad (vermicular and honeycomb kaolinite, platy and fibrous
et al., 2000). illite, etc.), rock fragments, ductile grains and on clay
The alteration of Ca-bearing minerals such as replacement, and leaching fabric of preexisting crystal
plagioclase during early diagenetic stage may exert as a lattices in feldspars (Marfil and Gomez-Gras, 1992).
possible source of early carbonate cements (Salem et al., However, exceptionally high thin-section porosity is
2000). However, geochemical analysis of the Araba attributed to uneven distribution of cements such as calcite
sandstones indicates a granitic-gneissic derivation, and iron-oxides or to exfoliation of some grains during thin
suggesting a negligible role of calcium-rich plagioclases. sections preparation.
Moreover, the lack of isotope analysis precludes precise Measured horizontal and vertical permeabilities for the
elucidation of pore-water data and formation temperature of same sample are different due to grain orientation, sorting,
calcite cement. and alignment of mud laminae of the sedimentary structure.
The second generation calcite, poikilotopic calcite, Samples having higher horizontal permeabilities (KH) than
which fills fractures (Fig. 17A) in tightly packed vertical ones (KV) are composed with aligning elongated
sandstones, is interpreted to have been precipitated at grains such as muscovite and low-grade metamorphic
greater burial depths than those of microspar calcite during fragments as well as silt and clay laminae which act as
mesodiagenesis and probably before uplifting and exposure barriers for vertical permeability (Figs. 18B, C). In
of these sandstones (Rossi et al., 2001). contrast, higher values of KV than KH in a rock sample are
Evaporitic minerals apparently were leached by attributed to the presence of fractures and/or vertical joints
modern meteoric water from nearby outcrops, transported and dissolution channels (Fig. 18D).
in surface and groundwater to the topographically low The good correlation between permeability and thin-
terrain where the Cambrian sandstones crop out and section porosity suggests that permeability is less affected
precipitated by evaporation of water (Abdel-Wahab, by the presence of microporosity and indicates that
1998). petrophysical measurements support petrographic data.
Permeability of the Araba sandstones is not only a
Reservoir Characterization function of porosity but also depends on pore throat, grain
size (which controls pore size), grain sorting, bed
Thin section porosities of the Araba sandstones include architecture, mineralogy, and amount of diagenetic clay
intergranular, intragranular, and moldic macroporosity as (Giles, 1997; Kameda, 2005). The wide range of
well as fractures. The intergranular and moldic pores are permeability compared to porosity is attributed to
volumetrically significant compared to the intragranular variations in the amounts and distribution pattern of
pores and fractures. Most of the studied sandstones are interstitial clay minerals (mainly kaolinite), grain size, and
characterized by high values of IGV and cementation to a lesser extent, the presence of intragranular pores that
porosity loss (CEPL) such as lower shoreface HST, upper are poorly connected to the intergranular pore conduits in
shoreface FSST, and almost subtidal-intertidal HST the sandstones (Fig. 12C).
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 25
Fig. 18 (A) SEM photograph of micro-intergranular porosity (arrows) in pseudohexagonal book-shaped

kaolinite, AR 6. (B) Photomicrograph of aligned detrital muscovite flakes parallel to bedding, plane
light, AR 11. (C) Photomicrograph showing ferruginous silt-clay lamina aligned parallel to bedding,
plane light, AR 12. (D) Photomicrograph showing dissolution fissure in subtidal-intertidal sandstones,
plane light, AR 19.
and iron-oxides are by far the most common cements,

Reservoir Heterogeneity whereas quartz overgrowth and calcite are less found.
Compaction results in bending, squeezing, and fracturing of
Granulometric parameters such as grain size, sorting, detrital grains and is well pronounced in the upper
and diagenetic modifications including compaction, shoreface to nearshore LST compared to lower shoreface
dissolution, and cementation (especially kaolinite, iron- HST sandstones which are extensively cemented by early
oxides and quartz cements) have a considerable impact on iron-oxides. Intergranular and moldic macropores are
the porosity and permeability of the studied sandstones. volumetrically less abundant than in type B. Intragranular
The Araba Formation can be subdivided into two different pores and fractures are fairly common, particularly in the
sandstone types: A and B (Fig. 19). The latter has LST due to dissolution of less stable rock fragments and
reasonable reservoir potential compared with the former. owing to high compaction, respectively. Helium porosity
varies from 16.4 to 26.3 %, whereas nitrogen permeability
1) Type A sandstones typically ranges from 0.4 to 299.3 mD.
This type belongs to the middle depositional sequence
(SQ2) represented mainly by the upper shoreface to 2) Type B sandstones
nearshore LST and the lower shoreface HST sandstones. This type of sandstone is found in the uppermost part
The former sandstone is notably characterized by higher of SQ2 and the entire SQ3 of the Araba Formation. It is
detrital quartz content probably due to reworking in high represented by the upper shoreface FSST sandstones and
energy environment and increase in grain size. This type is subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones that consist of medium-
dominated by very coarse- to very fine-grained sandstones, to fine-grained, well- to very well-sorted quartzose
with extremely poorly-sorted grading. The sandstones are sandstones and sublitharenite with a common occurrence of
mainly litharenites to sublitharenites or arkosic. Kaolinite kaolinite cement and grain replacement. Multi-stage
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 26
Fig. 19 A model showing the most important factors leading to reservoir heterogeneity of the Araba sandstones.
syntaxial quartz overgrowth and calcite cements are Cambrian, depositional facies, post-depositional
common in these sandstones, although some horizons are modifications such as compaction, cement mineralogy
highly cemented by iron-oxide patches. Dissolution by (iron-oxides, quartz, calcite and clay minerals), replacement
meteoric water of less stable, labile grains such as rock of detrital grains by clay minerals, dissolution of grains due
fragments and feldspars is common. Well-interconnected to influx of meteoric waters, and maximum burial depth
intergranular macropores and moldic pores are abundant, determined the reservoir quality of the Araba sandstones.
and intragranular and micropores are observed within Helium porosity and nitrogen permeability
volcanic rock fragments. Although the porosity is reduced measurements enabled to divide the middle and upper
by quartz and kaolinite cements, the permeability is depositional sequences into two reservoir petrofacies (A
excellent due to interconnected macropores. Most of the and B). The lower sequence, comprised of submature upper
depositional porosity was lost by the cementation process, shoreface to beach LST and lower shoreface HST
and the compactional effect is less pronounced. Measured sandstones, has a poor reservoir potential. In contrast,
porosity varies from 16.8 to 30.0 %, and nitrogen compositionally mature to supermature FSST upper
permeability typically ranges from 0.2 to 579.9 mD. shoreface and subtidal to intertidal HST sand-flat
sandstones have reasonable reservoir quality as a result of
Conclusions better sorting and reaction with infiltrated meteoric water
during RSL fall.
The Cambrian Araba sandstones of Gebel Somr El-
Qaa, west of the Gulf of Suez, northestern Egypt, are Acknowledgements
differentiated into eight depositional environments ranging
from clast-supported conglomerates and very-coarse This work is a part of the M.Sc. thesis of the first
grained fluvial sandstones at the base to fine-grained author, who is fully sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of
intertidal sand-flat at the top. High-resolution sequence Education, Sciences, Culture and Sports
stratigraphic analysis documented three genetically related (MONBUKAGAKUSHO). The authors are greatly
unconformity (SB2 and SB3) bounded depositional indebted to Prof. Harue Masuda, Osaka City University for
sequences (SQ1 - SQ3). critical review of the manuscript. We are grateful to Mr.
Integrated petrological and petrophysical studies Haruo Maeda and Mr. Yoshihiro Miyagawa, INPEX
indicated that there was no single factor controlling the Corporation, Tokyo, for their kind assistance during
evolution of porosity and permeability and thus reservoir petrophysical measurements. We are also indebted to Dr.
quality of the studied sandstones. Instead, the combination Keiji Shinoda, Osaka City University, for facilitating the
of original mineral composition, paleoclimate during the use of laboratory instruments.
01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:28 ページ 27
reservoir sandstones from Haltenbanken and North

Viking Graben, offshore Norway. Mar. Petrol. Geol.,
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Manuscript received August 31, 2009.

Revised manuscript accepted January 29, 2010.

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01TAWFIK̲01 10/04/02 14:27 ページ 1

Journal of Geosciences, Osaka City University

Reservoir heterogeneity in the Cambrian sandstones: A case study

Hossam A. TAWFIK1, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR2, Wataru MAEJIMA1

Key-words : Araba Formation, diagenetic modifications, Porosity, Permeability, Reservoir

north of Africa and Arabia, extending from Morocco at the

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 3

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 5

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 7

Material and Methods RESULTS

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 9

Table 2 X-ray diffraction data of the Araba sandstones.

acidic- to intermediate-volcanoclastics are the next in

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 11

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 13

Dissolution pyroxene and amphibole were also suffered from

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 15

Fig. 11 Plot of pore-filling cement versus intergranular volume (IGV).

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 17

and subtidal-intertidal HST sandstones were selected for Porosity

The sandstone composition, which is initially a

Fig. 13 Triangle diagram showing present and reconstructed framework

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 19

attained in the framework composition (Table 1). Those

A paragenetic sequence is constructed (Fig. 15) based

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 21

between compaction porosity loss and lithic fragments,

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 23

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 25

Fig. 18 (A) SEM photograph of micro-intergranular porosity (arrows) in pseudohexagonal book-shaped

and iron-oxides are by far the most common cements,

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 27

reservoir sandstones from Haltenbanken and North

Hossam A. TAWFIK, Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR, Wataru MAEJIMA and Abdel-Monem T. ABDEL-HAMEED 29

Moore, D. M. and Reynolds, R. C. (1989) X-ray diffraction 26, 175-208.

Manuscript received August 31, 2009.

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