Shear Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Sands

Salah Sadek, M.ASCE1; Shadi S. Najjar, A.M.ASCE2; and Fadi Freiha3

Abstract: Soil reinforcement using discrete randomly distributed fibers has been widely investigated over the last 30 years. Several
models were suggested to estimate the improvement brought by fibers to the shear strength of soils. The objectives of this paper are to 共1兲
supplement the data available in the literature on the behavior of fiber-reinforced sands; 共2兲 study the effect of several parameters which
are known to affect the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands; and 共3兲 investigate the effectiveness of current models in predicting the
improvement in shear strength of fiber-reinforced sand. An extensive direct shear testing program was implemented using coarse and fine
sands tested with three types of fibers. Results indicate the existence of a fiber-grain scale effect which is not catered for in current
prediction models. A comparison between measured and predicted shear strengths indicates that the energy dissipation model is effective
in predicting the shear strength of fiber-reinforced specimens in reference to the tests conducted in this study. On the other hand, the
effectiveness of the predictions of the discrete model is affected by the parameters of the model, which may depend on the test setup and
the procedure used for mixing the fibers.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲GT.1943-5606.0000235
CE Database subject headings: Fiber reinforced materials; Sand, material; Shear strength.
Author keywords: Fiber-reinforced sands; Shear strength; Discrete framework; Fibers.

Introduction
The use of fibers in reinforcing soil masses is expanding, particu-
larly with regard to applications involving the stabilization of
earth slopes and steep cover systems for landfills 共Zornberg
2002兲. In addition, fiber-reinforced soils 共FRSs兲 are currently
being used to recycle and reuse shredded and fibrous inorganic
wastes in engineering applications and as alternate backfills and
improved pavement materials 共ASCE GSP-69 1997兲. The design
of geotechnical systems involving FRSs is typically based on em-
pirical experience or available models developed from laboratory
experiments on composite FRS specimens or through independent
testing of soil and fiber specimens. The effectiveness of such
models in predicting the field behavior of FRSs is still a subject of
research and debate.
Most of the currently available FRS models use a formulation
proposed by Waldron 共1977兲 to predict the shear strength of the
reinforced soil. In these models, the contribution of fibers to the
shear strength of the composite, Sr, is expressed by a term ⌬S
added to the Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion 共Sr = S + ⌬S = c
+ ␴ · tan ␾ + ⌬S兲. As a result of their formulation, such approaches
1 One of the obvious limitations of the equations proposed by
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, American
Univ. of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Lebanon.
E-mail: salah@aub.edu.lb
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
American Univ. of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020,
Lebanon 共corresponding author兲. E-mail: shadi.najjar@aub.edu.lb
3
Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
American Univ. of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020,
Lebanon. E-mail: fadi_f_freiha@yahoo.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 19, 2008; approved on
August 31, 2009; published online on February 12, 2010. Discussion
period open until August 1, 2010; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 136, No. 3, March 1, 2010.
©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2010/3-490–499/$25.00.
may be suitable for estimating the safety of slopes, but fail in
providing a constitutive model for predicting the increase in the
shear strength of the soil due to fibers 共Michalowski and Zhao
1996兲.
In a departure from the conventional continuum approach
where fibers and soil are considered “together,” Zornberg 共2002兲
and Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 proposed two separate and
independent approaches to predict the shear strength of FRSs as a
function of the properties of the fibers 共volumetric fiber content,
fiber aspect ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the length of the
fiber to its diameter, and fiber ultimate strength兲, shear strength of
the unreinforced soil, and shear strength of the fiber/soil interface.
In the method proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲, the above param-
eters are used to define the “fiber-induced distributed tension,” a
parameter that is used to quantify the effect of fibers on shear
strength, whereas Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 introduced the
concept of “macroscopic internal friction angle” as a practical
description of the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands. Both
approaches offer the geotechnical designer a simple straightfor-
ward method to estimate the improvement brought by fiber inclu-
sions to shear strength of soils. Such an option is not possible in
continuum composite models.
Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 is their sole applicability to co-
hesionless soils, a limitation which is not present in the method
proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲. However, both models fall short of
incorporating a number of contributing factors to the shear
strength of the composite material, such as the fiber-grain “scale
effect” and the effect of fiber stiffness on the shear strength.
Moreover, the discrete method does not cater for the effect of the
nonlinear increase of shear strength with fiber content, a factor
which is included in the plasticity-based model proposed by
Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲.
In this paper, the results of a comprehensive direct shear test-
ing program are presented and analyzed to achieve the following
objectives: 共1兲 supplement the data available in the literature on

490 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010

Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
the behavior of fiber-reinforced sands; 共2兲 study the effect of sev-
eral parameters which are known to affect the shear strength of
fiber-reinforced sands; and 共3兲 investigate the effectiveness of the
models proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲 and Michalowski and Cer-
mak 共2003兲 in predicting the improvement in shear strength of
sands as a result of the addition of fibers.
Background
Some of the earliest work on FRSs dates back to the 1970s, when
the primary focus was on the effects of fibrous plant roots on the
shear strength of soils and the resulting improvement in slope
stability 共Waldron 1977兲. A wide variety of reinforcing inclusions
have since been investigated. The potential use of discrete ran-
domly distributed fibers 共DRDFs兲 for the reinforcement of cohe-
sionless soils was recognized early on. Generally, the principle
advantages of DRDF are considered to be the relative isotropy of
the composite material and the resulting absence of predefined
planes of weakness 共Gray and Al Refeai 1986兲 when compared to
traditional methods of earth reinforcement which involve inclu-
sions 共strips, fabric, or grids兲 which are normally oriented in a
preferred direction. However, recent studies which include the
work done by Diambra et al. 共2007兲 and Michalowski and Cer-
mak 共2002兲 suggest that in practical applications, the distribution
of fibers can usually be characterized by a “preferred” plane of
fiber orientation. This plane is associated with the technique of
compaction and will thus result in a distribution of fiber orienta-
tion that is more likely to be anisotropic.
A number of complementary research tracks and approaches
have been adopted by various investigators for studying the be-
havior of FRSs. In the laboratory, several experimental studies
were conducted to explore the effect of various parameters on the
shear strength of soils reinforced with DRDFs. These include the
work done by Hoare 共1979兲, Gray and Ohashi 共1983兲, Gray and
Al Refeai 共1986兲, Al-Moussawi and Andersland 共1988兲, Shew-
bridge and Sitar 共1989, 1990, 1996兲, Maher and Gray 共1990兲,
Maher and Woods 共1990兲, Maher and Ho 共1993, 1994兲, Ranjan et
al. 共1996兲, Michalowski and Zhao 共1996兲, Jones et al. 共2001兲,
Kaniraj and Havanaji 共2001兲, Zornberg 共2002兲, Consoli et al.
共2003兲, Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲, Zornberg 共2004兲, Hei-
neck et al. 共2005兲, Consoli et al. 共2007兲, Diambra et al. 共2007兲,
and Michalowski 共2008兲. In parallel, a number of field trials were
conducted using plate load testing and other testing techniques to
establish the strength characteristics of FRS 共Santoni et al. 2001;
Santoni and Webster 2001; Tingle et al. 2002兲.
Among the most interesting conclusions common to all the
literature cited are the increase of the ultimate shear strength,
unconfined compressive strength, and splitting tensile strength of
the composite with the increase of fiber inclusions. Furthermore,
fibers were shown to increase the ductility and energy absorption
of soils by increasing the strain at failure and reducing the post-
peak loss in strength at high strains. Gray and Ohashi 共1983兲 also
noticed that random fiber inclusion practically yielded results
similar to those observed when the fibers were initially oriented
90° to the failure plane.
With regard to the shear strength of FRSs, there appears to be
a general agreement that the equivalent soil shear strength enve-
lope for FRSs follows a bilinear trend. Below a threshold confin-
ing pressure, ␴crit, the fibers tend to slip or pull out when the soil
is sheared, thus producing an apparently enhanced friction angle.
At higher confinement levels however, the strength envelope
“reparallels” that of the unreinforced soil and the strength im-
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010 / 491
Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
provement in those ranges shows as an apparent additional cohe-
sion. This behavior at relatively high confining pressure is
generally attributed by most researchers to rupture in the fibers
during shear. However, Michalowski 共2008兲 states that results of
tests conducted by Maher and Gray 共1990兲 on sands reinforced
with glass fibers showed that the fibers were still intact after the
completion of the tests, but the failure envelopes of the reinforced
sands still exhibited bilinear characteristics. Michalowski 共2008兲
suggested that the observed bilinear behavior could be attributed
to sand arching around the fibers, which prevents the transfer of
stresses to fibers at relatively large confining pressures 共above
threshold confining pressure兲.
With reference to the most critical or important parameters
affecting the improvement of the shear strength of the composite
material, the following conclusions were established as a result of
the work done to date.
• For a given fiber content, an increase in the fiber aspect ratio
leads to higher strengths for cohesionless soils. If the increase
in the aspect ratio is a result of an increase in length 共diameter
kept constant兲, the increase in strength is attributed to the
higher contact area and thus a greater interface frictional resis-
tance between the fibers and the sand 共Maher and Gray 1990;
Zornberg 2002; Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲. If the in-
crease in aspect ratio results form a decrease in diameter
共length kept constant兲, the increase in strength is attributed to
the increased number of fibers available in the soil mass per
unit volume 共Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲.
• For a given fiber content and a given fiber aspect ratio, an
increase in the length of fibers results in an increase in the
shear strength of the composite 共Ranjan et al. 1996; Zornberg
2002; Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲. This increase in shear
strength for a constant fiber aspect ratio is a scale effect which
depends on the relative sizes of fibers and soil grains, where
the reinforcement is more effective when the fiber length is
large compared to the size of the grains 共Michalowski and
Cermak 2003兲.
• Limited data in which coarse and fine sands were tested with
fibers of similar aspect ratios, volumetric fiber contents, and
fiber lengths indicate that when the fiber concentration is small
共0.5%兲, the improvement in shear strength is slightly greater in
fine sands compared to coarse sands; however, the relative
increase in strength of coarse sand is greater for large fiber
concentrations 共2%兲 共Ranjan et al. 1996; Michalowski and
Zhao 1996; Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲.
• Irrespective of the soil type, the strength appeared to increase
linearly with fiber content up to certain fiber contents beyond
which the strength reached an asymptotic upper limit 共Hoare
1979; Gray and Al Refeai 1986; Jones et al. 2001兲.
• Field tests indicate that fiber inclusions improved load bearing
capacity by increasing the mechanical confinement of sand
particles 共Santoni et al. 2001; Santoni and Webster 2001;
Tingle et al. 2002兲.
Several researchers such as Gray and Ohashi 共1983兲 explored
the possibility of developing theoretical predictive equations that
are based on force equilibrium principles to model the improve-
ment in shear strength brought by the addition of fibers to soils.
Other investigators used statistical techniques 共Ranjan et al.
1996兲, a discrete formulation 共Zornberg 2002兲, or energy dissipa-
tion formulations 共Michalowski and Zhao 1996; Michalowski and
Cermak 2003兲 to achieve the same purpose. The models proposed
by Zornberg 共2002兲 and Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 are dis-
cussed in detail in the following sections.
Discrete Model „Zornberg 2002…
In an attempt to address some of the inherent limitations in the
adoption of a composite material model, Zornberg 共2002兲 intro-
duced a discrete approach for the design of FRS slopes. In the
proposed approach, fibers are treated as “discrete elements that
contribute to stability by mobilizing tensile stresses along shear
planes,” allowing the geotechnical designer to bypass testing FRS
specimens and focus on design optimization.
The framework proposed by Zornberg adopts the bilinear
shear strength envelope in which the fiber-induced distributed ten-
sion acting along a failure surface is calculated and added to the
soil shear strength. The resulting shear strength envelope changes
slope at a critical normal stress ␴n,crit, which may be obtained
from
␴ f,ult−␩ · ci,c · c
␴n,crit =
␩ · ci,␾ · tan ␾
where ci,c and ci,␾ = respectively the interaction coefficients for the
cohesive and frictional components of the interface shear
strength; ␩ = fiber aspect ratio 共␩ = Lfiber / dfiber兲; ␴ f,ult = ultimate
tensile strength of an individual fiber; and c and ␾ = drained un-
reinforced Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters.
For cases where the average normal stress ␴n,ave acting on the
fibers is below the critical normal stress ␴n,crit, the equivalent
shear strength is given by the following equation:
Seq,p = c + tan ␾ · ␴n + ␣ · ␹ · ␩ · 共ci,c · c + ci,␾ · tan ␾ · ␴n,ave兲
⇒ 兵ceq,p = 共1 + ␣ · ␩ · ␹ · ci,c兲 · c
共tan ␾兲eq,p = 共1 + ␣ · ␩ · ␹ · ci,␾兲 · tan ␾其
where ␹ = volumetric fiber content in the soil mix and ␣
= empirical coefficient that accounts for the orientation and effi-
ciency of mixing of the fibers. ␣ is equal to 1 if the fibers are
randomly distributed and working with 100% efficiency, other-
wise ␣ will be smaller than 1. ␴n is the normal stress acting on the
failure plane and ␴n,ave is the average normal stress acting on an
individual fiber. Zornberg 共2002兲 assumed that ␴n,ave ⬵ ␴n.
Alternatively, if ␴n,ave is above the critical normal stress ␴n,crit,
then the equivalent shear strength becomes
Seq,t = c + tan ␾ · ␴n + ␣ · ␹ · ␴ f,ult
⇒ 兵ceq,t = c + ␣ · ␹ · ␴ f,ult
共tan ␾兲eq,t = tan ␾其
Energy Dissipation Model „Michalowski and Cermak
2003…
One of the more recent contributions to estimate the ultimate
shear strength of discrete randomly distributed FRSs in the “fiber
slip” confinement ranges was proposed by Michalowski and Cer-
mak 共2003兲 based on an energy dissipation model. The model
defines a “macroscopic or equivalent” internal friction angle, ␾ ¯,
which allows the designer to replace the fiber-reinforced sand
with an equivalent granular material having a higher internal fric-
tion angle than the unreinforced value, ␾, such that
␾
¯ = 2 · tan−1 冑 ␩ · ␹ · M · ci,␾ · tan共␾兲 + 6 · tan2共45 ° + ␾/2兲 ␲
6 − ␩ · ␹ · M · ci,␾ · tan共␾兲
−
2
M = tan2共45 ° + ␾/2兲 · sin关tan−1冑tan2共45 ° + ␾/2兲/2兴
492 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010
Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
Limitations and Assumptions of Current Models
Based on the formulations presented in Eqs. 共1兲–共5兲, it is clear
that a number of factors which have been documented to affect
the behavior of FRS are not included in the proposed models. The
grain-size effect noticed by Maher and Gray 共1990兲, Ranjan et al.
共1996兲, and Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲, and the asymptotic
upper limit on reinforcement effectiveness reported by Hoare
共1979兲, Gray and Al Refeai 共1986兲, and Jones et al. 共2001兲 are
case in point. In addition, both models do not incorporate the
effect of flexural stiffness of the fibers on the shear strength.
According to Maher and Gray 共1990兲, fibers with low modulus
共e.g., rubber兲 contribute little to strength no matter how high their
pullout resistance is.
An important assumption that is inherent to both models is
related to the magnitude of the average fiber-soil interface shear
共1兲 stress, ␴n,ave. The constitutive model proposed by Michalowski
and Cermak 共2003兲 assumed that ␴n,ave ⬵ 共␴1 + ␴3兲 / 2, while Zorn-
berg 共2002兲 assumed that ␴n,ave can be approximated as ␴n, which
is the stress normal to the shear plane. Finally, the applicability of
the method proposed by Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 is lim-
ited to isotropic mixtures. Zornberg’s method caters for this limi-
tation by including the factor ␣ in the expression of the equivalent
shear strength. However, since the evaluation of the factor ␣ re-
quires testing the fiber-soil composite, the introduction of this
factor seems to defeat the purpose of using a discrete model that
predicts the shear strength of the composite as a function of the
properties of the fibers and the soil independently.
共2兲
Laboratory Testing Program
An extensive direct shear testing program was designed and
implemented in an effort to study the parameters which are
known to affect the composite shear strength of fiber-reinforced
sands. A total of sixteen series of drained direct shear tests were
performed using two types of sands with different grain sizes and
three types of fibers with different diameters and aspect ratios.
Direct shear testing was adopted because of the relative ease of
sample preparation and testing routine 共Gray and Ohashi 1983;
Mostafa et al. 2004兲. This choice was made in spite of the inher-
ent test limitations, including the kinematic constraints imposed
on the sample, the nonuniform stress distribution, and the nonuni-
共3兲 form shear zone thickness. In an attempt to minimize the effect of
the above limitations and in an effort to obtain reliable and rep-
resentative samples, a 100⫻ 100⫻ 30 mm3 shear box was used in
all the tests in lieu of the more conventional 60⫻ 60⫻ 30 mm3
box. Each test was repeated at least twice to insure repeatability
and average results were reported. The tests were carried out ac-
cording to ASTM D3080 at a constant displacement rate of 1.20
mm/min. Both the shearing load and the vertical displacement
were recorded as functions of the horizontal displacement using a
load cell and LVDTs. Total horizontal displacements of 11.5 mm
were reached.
Test Materials
Two types of sand were used in the test program. The two sands
will be referred to as Ottawa sand and black green line 共BGL兲
sand in the balance of this paper. The grain-size distribution and
共4兲 the granulometric characteristics for both sands are presented in
Fig. 1 and Table 1 respectively. The main difference between the
共5兲 two sands is that Ottawa sand is relatively fine compared to BGL
 Fig. 1. Grain-size distribution curves of Ottawa and BGL sands

Fig. 2. Graphic representation of 共a兲 Ottawa sand with fiber Type 1;

Table 1. Material Properties of the Two Used Sands
共b兲 Ottawa sand with fiber Type 2; 共c兲 Ottawa sand with fiber Type 3;
Sand type and 共d兲 BGL sand with fiber Type 1
Ottawa BGL
Sand property sand sand
The basic properties of the fibers are shown in Table 2. A sche-
D85 共mm兲 0.69 2.08
matic showing the dimensions of the different fiber lengths and
D60 共mm兲 0.42 1.59
diameters with respect to sand grain sizes is presented in Fig. 2.
D50 共mm兲 0.39 1.45 The figure provides a visualization of the relative sizes of the
D30 共mm兲 0.31 1.18 fibers and sand grains.
D10 共mm兲 0.22 0.87
Coefficient of uniformity Cu 1.95 1.83
Coefficient of curvature Cc 1.04 1.01
Specimen Preparation and Testing
Minimum void ratio emin 0.49 0.57 The sample global void ratio was adopted to indicate the level of
Maximum void ratio emax 0.75 0.87 compaction of the sands in the process of sample preparation and
Specific gravity Gs 2.65 2.8 for the interpretation of test results. The choice of void ratio rather
than relative density as the reference parameter was made based
on the fact that 共1兲 the fiber inclusion interferes with particle
sand 共D50 = 0.39 mm for Ottawa sand compared to D50 packing and thus causes lower sand densities 共Al-Moussawi and
= 1.45 mm for BGL sand兲. The advantage of the grain-size dis- Andersland 1988兲 and 共2兲 the fiber inclusion modifies the maxi-
tribution of the sands used is that both have comparable coeffi- mum and minimum void ratios of FRS mixtures rendering the
cients of uniformity and curvature. As a result, the effect of grain relative density impractical for the description of the FRS degree
size could be isolated in the interpretation of results in reference of compaction 共Michalowski and Zhao 1996; Michalowski and
to the type of sands used. Cermak 2003兲.
To meet the objectives of the testing program which included Therefore, the specimen preparation method detailed in
studying the effect of relative soil granulometry to fiber diameter Michalowski and Zhao 共1996兲 was adopted for preparing soil
on the strength improvement brought by fiber inclusion, the use of samples at target void ratios. For the unreinforced sand, the
fibers of specific lengths and diameters was necessary. The fibers adopted target void ratios were equal to 0.6 and 0.71 for Ottawa
needed to be short enough to fit in the direct shear test box, but and BGL sand, respectively, corresponding to a relative density of
long enough to result in a measurable improvement in strength. In ⬃55%. The choice of that particular target value was driven by
addition, the fibers needed to be of varying diameters so that the the following considerations: 共1兲 the relative density needed to be
effect of the fiber aspect ratio and relative soil granulometry to high enough to overcome the potential difference in results that
fiber diameter can be investigated. To control the fiber geometry, may emerge from choosing direct shear testing instead of triaxial
the fibers used in this study were obtained using nylon fishing testing for very loose to loose sands 共Rowe 1969兲, and 共2兲 the
wire of various diameters, cut to various lengths. A dedicated tool relative density needed to be low enough to minimize the en-
was designed and built to cut the fibers to the required lengths. tanglement and distortions in slender fibers potentially caused by

Table 2. Basic Properties of the Three Types of Fibers

Fiber property
Length Diameter Young’s modulus Tensile strength Specific gravity
Fiber type Lfiber 共mm兲 dfiber 共mm兲 Efiber 共MPa兲 ␴ f,ult 共MPa兲 Gfiber 共g / cm3兲
1 7 0.18 4,100 830 1.3
2 27 0.18 4,100 830 1.3
3 27 0.70 4,100 830 1.3

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010 / 493

Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
Table 3. Laboratory Testing Program and Results
Volumetric
Length of Sand grain size Ratios fiber content Extent of
Test Fiber fiber Internal friction improvement
Sand type number type 共mm兲 D50 共mm兲 Lfiber / D50 dfiber / D50 Lfiber / dfiber ␹ 共%兲 angle 共%兲
Ottawa sand 1 — — 0.39 — — — 0.00 30.5 —
2 1 7 0.39 17.9 0.46 40 0.50 31.6 4
3 1.00 32.9 10
4 1.50 34.5 17
5 2 27 0.39 69.2 0.46 150 0.50 34.7 17
6 0.75 36.0 23
7 1.00 37.5 30
8 3 27 0.39 69.2 1.79 40 0.50 32.6 8
BGL sand 9 — — 1.45 — — — 0.00 37.9 —
10 1 7 1.45 4.8 0.12 40 0.50 37.8 0
11 0.75 37.9 0
12 1.00 39.5 6
13 1.50 43.4 22
14 2 27 1.45 18.6 0.12 150 0.50 41.6 14
15 0.75 44.3 26
16 1.00 46.8 37

the very large compaction effort needed in the case of high fiber fibers 共Lfiber = 7 mm兲 with a fiber content of 1.5%, whereas curves
contents 共Gray and Al Refeai 1986兲. In an attempt to create an in Fig. 3共b兲 correspond to soil samples reinforced with relatively
isotropic distribution of fiber orientation as the sand and fibers long fibers 共Lfiber = 27 mm兲 with a fiber content of 1.0%. These
were placed in the direct shear box, the sand and fiber mixture curves are representative of the typical behavior of samples tested
was placed over a square grid of steel wires and the grid was at other fiber contents using fiber Types 1 and 2. The results
pulled slowly through the mixture to decrease the likelihood of presented in Fig. 3 indicate increases in strength for short fibers
getting an anisotropic orientation, with the horizontal being the 共Type 1兲 and long fibers 共Type 2兲. The general form of the stress-
preferred direction 共Michalowski and Zhao 1996兲. Visual inspec- displacement curves of fiber-reinforced specimens was similar to
tion of soil samples indicated a relatively uniform distribution of that of unreinforced specimens except for an increase in the slope
fiber orientation in the samples. of the stress-displacement curve at small displacements.
A summary of the testing program and relevant parameters for
each test is shown in Table 3. The volumetric fiber content was
varied from 0 to 1.5% for both sand types. For each set of param-
eters, a minimum of three specimens were tested at normal stress
levels of 100, 150, and 200 kN/ m2, leading to a total of about
150 direct shear tests. These normal stresses were chosen because
they represent stress ranges typical of relevant geotechnical engi-
neering applications. The relatively low normal stress levels
adopted allowed for limiting the study and proposed model to
fiber-slip conditions.

Test Results and Discussion

Test results include shear stress and vertical displacement versus

horizontal displacement plots for soil specimens tested at normal
stress levels of 100, 150, and 200 kPa. These plots were analyzed
to investigate the effect of fibers on 共1兲 stress-displacement be-
havior; 共2兲 volume change; and 共3兲 increase in shear strength and
friction angle. Relevant test parameters and deduced internal fric-
tion angles for unreinforced and fiber-reinforced samples are sum-
marized in Table 3.

Ottawa Sand—Fine
Plots showing the variation in shear stress and vertical displace-
ment with horizontal displacement are presented in Fig. 3 for
unreinforced and fiber-reinforced Ottawa sand. Curves in Fig.
3共a兲 correspond to soil samples reinforced with relatively short
Fig. 3. Variation of shear stress and vertical displacement with hori-
zontal displacement for fiber-reinforced Ottawa sand: 共a兲 fiber Type
1—1.5% fiber content; 共b兲 fiber Type 2—1% fiber content

494 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010

Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
Fig. 4. Effect of 共a兲 fiber content; 共b兲 fiber aspect ratio on composite
shear strength of Ottawa sand

Results on Fig. 3 also indicate that the presence of fibers con-

sistently increases the tendency for dilation in fiber-reinforced
Ottawa sand for all normal stresses. The increase in dilatancy is
more for specimens reinforced with longer fibers. This result is
interesting since typical results from triaxial tests 共Michalowski
and Zhao 1996; Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲 and direct shear
tests 共Gray and Ohashi 1983兲 on fiber-reinforced sands indicate
that fibers generally inhibit dilatancy, particularly at high confin-
ing pressures. The main difference between published results and
results presented in this paper is the relative density of the soil,
which was taken as 55% in the current study, while being always
greater than 70% in the studies mentioned above. It is worth
noting that a similar increase in dilatancy as a result of fiber
inclusion was observed by Kaniraj and Havanaji 共2001兲 while
performing direct shear tests on fiber-reinforced fly ash-soil speci-
mens.
The maximum shear stress for almost all samples was
achieved at a horizontal displacement of about 2 mm. Beyond this
value, the shear stress became approximately constant, a behavior
which is consistent with the fact that soil samples were prepared
at an initial loose to medium dense state 共DR ⬇ 55%兲. The in-
crease in the maximum shear stress as a function of the fiber
content is illustrated in Fig. 4共a兲 for sands reinforced with short
fibers 共␩ = 40, Lfiber = 7 mm兲. Results pertain to an effective nor-
mal stress of 100 kPa, but are representative of the behavior at
other normal stresses. As expected, the curves indicate that the
maximum shear stress of the sand-fiber composite increases ap-
proximately linearly with fiber content. Data presented in Table 3
indicate a 17% maximum improvement in shear strength for the
largest fiber content 共␹ = 1.5%兲. The increase in maximum shear
stress translates into an increase in the friction angle of the com-
posite 共from 30.5° for unreinforced sand to 34.5° for sand rein-
forced with ␹ = 1.5% fibers兲.
The effect of fiber aspect ratio on the extent of improvement in
shear strength is shown in Fig. 4共b兲. An increase in aspect ratio
from 40 to 150 共Dfiber = 0.18 mm兲 results in about four times the
improvement in shear strength for a fiber content of ␹ = 0.5% and
about two times the improvement for a fiber content of ␹ = 1.0%.
This result is significant because it indicates that significantly
larger improvements in shear strength can be obtained with rela-
tively small fiber contents 共␹ = 0.5%兲 if long fibers of the same
diameter are used in lieu of short fibers. The calculated friction
angle of sand reinforced with ␹ = 1.0% fibers having an aspect
ratio of 150 increased from 30.5° 共unreinforced sand兲 to about
37.5° 共Table 3兲.
A single test was conducted with fiber Type 3 共␩ = 40, Lfiber
Fig. 5. Variation of shear stress and vertical displacement with hori-
zontal displacement for fiber-reinforced BGL sand: 共a兲 fiber Type
1—1.5% fiber content; 共b兲 fiber Type 2—0.5% fiber content
= 27 mm兲 to study the effect of fiber length on the extent of
improvement in shear strength for a constant aspect ratio. Results
in Table 3 indicate that for a fixed fiber aspect ratio of 40 and for
a fiber content of 0.5%, an increase in the length of fibers 共7–27
mm兲 increases the extent of improvement in shear strength from 4
to 8%. This result is in line with the soil-fiber scale effect reported
by Maher and Gray 共1990兲, Ranjan et al. 共1996兲, and Micha-
lowski and Cermak 共2003兲 and indicates that any model that aims
at predicting the improvement in shear strength of fiber-reinforced
sands should include in its formulation the effects of both the
fiber aspect ratio and the fiber length on the shear strength. How-
ever, it is worth noting that the increase in shear strength due to
increase in length at a constant fiber aspect ratio 共␩ = 40兲 is much
smaller than the improvement obtained using the same fiber
length but at a higher aspect ratio 共␩ = 150兲, thus reducing the
relative significance of fiber length in any proposed model formu-
lation.
BGL Sand—Coarse
Plots showing the variation in shear stress and vertical displace-
ment with horizontal displacement for unreinforced and fiber-
reinforced BGL sand are presented in Fig. 5. Curves in Fig. 5共a兲
correspond to soil samples reinforced with relatively short fibers
共Lfiber = 7 mm兲 with a fiber content of 1.5%, whereas curves in
Fig. 5共b兲 correspond to soil samples reinforced with relatively
long fibers 共Lfiber = 27 mm兲 with a fiber content of 0.5%. Some
softening in the stress-displacement behavior was observed in un-
reinforced specimens of coarse BGL sand, with the peak shear
stress mobilized at a displacement of about 2.5 mm. Softening in
the stress-displacement behavior was not observed in fiber-
reinforced specimens, which showed improvement in both shear

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010 / 495

Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org

Fig. 6. Effect of 共a兲 fiber content; 共b兲 fiber aspect ratio on composite
shear strength of BGL sand
strength and ductility with the addition of fibers. Interestingly, the
increase in shear stress occurred at relatively large displacements
compared to unreinforced specimens.
The increase in maximum shear stress is illustrated on Fig.
6共a兲 for BGL sand reinforced with short fibers 共␩ = 40, Lfiber
= 7 mm兲. Results pertain to an effective normal stress of 150 kPa.
As with Ottawa sands, the curves show a consistent increase in
the maximum shear stress as the fiber content increased. Unlike
Ottawa sands, the increase in shear strength was very limited at
small fiber contents 共␹ = 0.5%兲, but significant at relatively large
fiber contents 共␹ = 1.0%兲. This indicates that the relative dimen-
sions of the reinforced sand grains and the reinforcing fiber diam-
eters have an important effect on the extent of improvement
brought by fiber inclusion in sands. The reinforcing effect in fine
sand 共Ottawa sand兲 is more pronounced when the fiber concen-
tration is small, whereas the relative increase in strength of coarse
sand 共BGL sand兲 is greater for larger fiber concentrations. These
results are consistent with the grain-size effect reported by Micha-
lowski and Cermak 共2003兲 for fine versus coarse fiber-reinforced
sands.
To confirm the grain-size effect, the extent of improvement in
shear strength was plotted on Fig. 7 as a function of the fiber
content for both sands reinforced with fibers Type 1 and 2, re-
spectively. Results on Fig. 7 support the hypothesis of a grain-size
Fig. 7. Extent of improvement in shear strength of fiber-reinforced
Ottawa sand 共D50 = 0.39 mm兲 and BGL sand 共D50 = 1.45 mm兲
496 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010
Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
effect which should be incorporated in prediction models for
fiber-reinforced sands. Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 attrib-
uted the grain-size effect to the decrease in the dilatancy of sand
as a result of the addition of fibers. At small fiber concentrations,
dilation results in a loss of contact between sand grains and fibers,
resulting in a smaller improvement in shear strength, particularly
for coarse-grained soils. Once the fiber concentration is increased,
dilation is strongly inhibited and interaction between sand grains
and fibers is enhanced particularly for coarse-grained soils
共Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲. The above hypothesis does not
explain the difference in behavior observed in the current study
for fine versus coarse sands since the inclusion of fibers in Ottawa
and BGL sand resulted in an increase in the dilatancy of the
composite. More research needs to be conducted to provide an
explanation for the grain-size effect observed in the current study
and in other published studies.
The effect of fiber aspect ratio on the improvement in shear
strength for BGL sand is shown on Fig. 6共b兲. As with Ottawa
sand, an increase in aspect ratio results in a significant increase in
shear strength for all fiber contents. The friction angle of BGL
sand increased from a value of 37.9° to a value of 46.8° when
reinforced with ␹ = 1.0% fibers with an aspect ratio of 150 共Table
3兲.
Effectiveness of Fiber-Reinforced Sand Models
Data collected in the current study were used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the predictions of the discrete model proposed by
Zornberg 共2002兲 and the energy dissipation model proposed by
Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲. These models can predict the
equivalent friction angle of fiber-reinforced sands as a function of
the fiber content, aspect ratio, sand-fiber interface strength, and
unreinforced friction angle of sand. The interface friction angles ␦
for Ottawa and BGL sands were obtained from interface direct
shear tests conducted using sands and nylon sheets made of the
same material used in the tested fibers. The interface friction
angle was equal to 18° for Ottawa sand and 20° for BGL sand,
with the difference being due to the relatively higher roundness
characterizing the grains of Ottawa sand. The interface coeffi-
cients required in the formulation of the model proposed by Zorn-
berg 共2002兲 are thus equal to ci,␾ = 0.55 and ci,␾ = 0.47 for Ottawa
and BGL sands, respectively.
Measured and predicted friction angles for all the tests con-
ducted in the current study are presented in Table 4. For predic-
tions using the model proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲, ␣ was taken
as 1 共100% fiber efficiency兲 and ␴n,ave was approximated as ␴n,
based on the recommendations of Zornberg 共2002兲. A comparison
between measured and predicted friction angles is also shown in
Fig. 8 for predictions using the discrete model and the energy
dissipation model.
Results presented in Fig. 8 and in Table 4 indicate that the
discrete model of Zornberg 共2002兲 with an ␣ of 1.0 consistently
overestimated the reinforcing effect of fibers, while the energy
dissipation model proposed by Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲
accurately predicted the increase in the friction angle due to fibers
for tests conducted in this study. The average and coefficient of
variation 共COV兲 of the ratio of predicted to measured strength
共taken as tan ␾predicted / tan ␾measured兲 are equal to 1.18 and 0.09,
respectively, for Zornberg’s model and 0.99 and 0.04, respec-
tively, for the model proposed by Michalowski and Cermak
共2003兲. Although the coefficients of variation in the ratio of pre-
dicted to measured strength are relatively small for both models
Table 4. Comparison between Measured and Predicted Friction Angles for the Models of Zornberg 共2002兲 and Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲
Length of Volumetric fiber content Measured Predicted
fiber Aspect ratio friction friction angle Predicted friction angle
Sand type 共mm兲 of fiber ␹ 共%兲 angle 共Zornberg 2002兲 共Michalowski and Cermak 2003兲
Ottawa sand — — 0.00 30.5 — —
7 40 0.50 31.6 33.1 31.3
1.00 32.9 35.6 32.2
1.50 34.5 37.9 33.0
27 150 0.50 34.7 39.8 33.7
0.75 36.0 43.7 35.4
1.00 37.5 47.1 37.1
27 40 0.50 32.6 33.1 31.3
BGL sand — — 0.00 37.9 — —
7 40 0.50 37.8 40.3 39.0
0.75 37.9 41.5 39.6
1.00 39.5 42.6 40.2
1.50 43.4 44.7 41.4
27 150 0.50 41.6 46.4 42.4
0.75 44.3 49.9 44.8
1.00 46.8 52.9 47.3

when compared to coefficients of variation of typical geotechnical

engineering models 共generally between 0.2 and 0.5兲, the data in-
dicate that the method of Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 seems
to be very effective in predicting the improvement in strength for
fiber-reinforced Ottawa and BGL sands tested in this study.
The strength overprediction in the reinforcing effect of fibers
encountered with the discrete model proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲
for the data presented in this paper can be attributed to the fact
that the fibers were assumed to be randomly distributed and work-
ing with 100% efficiency 共␣ = 1兲. If a value of 0.4 is used instead
to represent the model parameter ␣, results indicate that the av-
erage and COV of the ratio of predicted to measured strength can
be reduced significantly from 1.18 to 0.99 and from 0.09 to 0.04,
respectively. The corresponding scatter in the measured versus
predicted friction angles is presented in Fig. 9.
The sensitivity of the strength predictions of the discrete
model to the values of the model parameter ␣ is investigated in
Fig. 10 for values of ␣ ranging from 0.4 to 1.0. Results on Fig. 10 Fig. 9. Measured versus predicted capacities: Zornberg 共2002兲 共␣
indicate that the mean value of the ratio of the predicted to mea- = 0.4兲 and Michalowski and Cermak 2003
sured shear strength for the data collected decreases linearly from

Fig. 8. Comparison between measured and predicted friction angles Fig. 10. Sensitivity of the effectiveness of the model predictions of
for discrete and energy models Zornberg 共2002兲 to ␣

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010 / 497

Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
1.18 to 0.99 as ␣ decreases from 1.0 to 0.4. On the other hand, the
COV of the ratio of the predicted to measured strength decreases
approximately linearly from 0.09 to about 0.04 as the value of ␣
is reduced from 1.0 to 0.5, but reaches a plateau of about 0.04 at
an ␣ value of 0.5.
The relatively small scatter observed in Fig. 9 for both models
indicates that fiber length 共at a constant aspect ratio兲 and sand
grain size do not have a strong influence on the accuracy of the
models proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲 and Michalowski and Cer-
mak 共2003兲, although both models do not account explicitly for
these two effects. However, a comparison between measured and
predicted friction angles for Ottawa sand tested with 0.5% fiber
Type 1 共␩ = 40, Lfiber = 7 mm兲 and fiber Type 3 共␩ = 40, Lfiber
= 27 mm兲 indicates that the model proposed by Michalowski and
Cermak 共2003兲 predicted successfully the increase in friction
angle for the short fibers 共␾measured = 31.6, ␾predicted = 31.3兲, but did
not accurately predict the increase in friction angle for the longer
fibers 共␾measured = 32.6, ␾predicted = 31.3兲. This result is expected
since the formulations of the proposed models include the effect
of the aspect ratio, but do not account explicitly for the effect of
fiber length. Although more data are required to confirm the ob-
servations presented above, it can be concluded that models
aimed at predicting the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands
will need to include the effect of fiber length in addition to fiber
aspect ratio in the model formulation. A similar statement applies
with regards to the effect of grain size on the extent of improve-
ment in the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands brought by the
increase in fiber content.
Conclusions
Based on the results of 150 direct shear tests conducted in this
study, the following conclusions can be drawn with regard to
parameters affecting the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands
and the effectiveness of current prediction models.
• The addition of nylon fibers with an aspect ratio ranging from
40 to 150 and a fiber content ranging from 0.5 to 1.5% to both
fine and coarse sands prepared at a relative density of 55%
increased the shear strength and the ductility of the sand-fiber
composite. The maximum increase in shear strength was about
37% for coarse sand reinforced with 1% fibers having an as-
pect ratio of 150 and a length of 27 mm;
• Unlike most published results which showed a tendency for
fibers to inhibit dilatancy of sands prepared at a relative den-
sity that is greater than 70%, the tests conducted in this study
indicated that the vertical displacements observed during
shearing increased with the addition of fibers for both coarse
and fine sand, with the increase being more obvious for coarse
sand. The increase in the measured vertical displacement dur-
ing shear reflects an increased tendency for dilation of a nar-
row band of soil that is affected by the presence of fibers;
• Limited tests indicate that longer fibers resulted in a greater
improvement in the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands,
although the fiber aspect ratio was kept constant;
• The observations reported by Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲
with regard to the importance of the relative dimensions of the
reinforced sand grains and the reinforcing fiber diameters in
defining the extent of improvement brought by fibers was con-
firmed. The reinforcing effect in fine sand 共Ottawa sand兲 is
more pronounced when the fiber concentration is small,
whereas the relative increase in strength of coarse sand 共BGL
sand兲 is greater for larger fiber concentrations. However, the
498 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010
Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
hypothesis presented by Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 to
explain this observation does not apply for the tests reported in
this paper. More data need to be collected to determine the
main reasons behind the grain-size effect observed;
• The effectiveness of the prediction of the models proposed by
Zornberg 共2002兲 and Michalowski and Cermak 共2003兲 was
studied in reference to the accuracy and uncertainty associated
with shear strength predictions of fiber-reinforced sands tested
in this study. The average and COV of the ratio of predicted to
measured strength was equal to 1.18 and 0.09, respectively for
Zornberg’s model with an ␣ value of 1.0 and 0.99 and 0.04,
respectively for the model proposed by Michalowski and Cer-
mak 共2003兲;
• The ability of the model proposed by Zornberg 共2002兲 to pre-
dict the results of the tests conducted in this study can be
significantly improved if ␣ is taken as 0.4. This modification
results in an average and COV of the ratio of predicted to
measured strength of 0.99 and 0.04, respectively;
• Finally, it can be concluded that models aimed at predicting
the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands should cater for the
observed grain-size effect which includes the effect of the fiber
length on the degree of improvement in shear strength for fine
versus coarse sands. These improved models should be tested
against a comprehensive database that includes results from all
the experimental studies published in the literature with re-
gards to the shear strength of fiber-reinforced sands; and
• It is recommended that future triaxial testing programs should
be conducted to validate and confirm the observations and
conclusions presented in this study, and which were based on
results of conventional direct shear tests.
Acknowledgments
The writers would like to acknowledge the support of the Univer-
sity Research Board 共URB兲 at the American University of Beirut
共AUB兲 for funding this research program.
References
Al-Moussawi, H., and Andersland, O. B. 共1988兲. “Discussion on the be-
havior of fabric versus fiber-reinforced sand.” J. Geotech. Engrg.,
114共3兲, 383–385.
ASCE GSP 69. 共1997兲. Ground improvement, ground reinforcement,
ground treatment, development 1987–1997, ASCE GSP-69, Reston,
Va.
Consoli, N. C., Casagrande, M. D. T., and Coop, M. R. 共2007兲. “Perfor-
mance of a fibre-reinforced sand at large shear strains.” Geotechnique,
57共9兲, 751–756.
Consoli, N. C., Casagrande, M. D. T., Prietto, P. D. M., and Thome, A.
共2003兲. “Plate load test on fiber-reinforced soil.” J. Geotech. Geoen-
viron. Eng., 129共10兲, 951–955.
Diambra, A., Russell, A. R., Ibraim, E., and Muir Wood, D. 共2007兲.
“Determination of fiber orientation distribution in reinforced sands.”
Geotechnique, 57共7兲, 623–628.
Gray, D. H., and Al Refeai, T. O. 共1986兲. “Behavior of fabric versus
fiber-reinforced sand.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 112共8兲, 804–820.
Gray, D. H., and Ohashi, H. 共1983兲. “Mechanics of fiber-reinforcement in
sand.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 109共3兲, 335–353.
Heineck, K. S. and Consoli, N. C. 共2004兲. “Discussion of ’Discrete
framework for limit equilibrium analysis of fiber-reinforced soil,’ by
J. G. Zornberg,” Geotechnique, 54共1兲, 72–73.
Heineck, K. S., Coop, M. R., and Consoli, N. C. 共2005兲. “Effect of mi-
 croreinforcement of soils from very small to large shear strains.” J.
Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 131共8兲, 1024–1033.
Hoare, D. J. 共1979兲. “Laboratory study of granular soils reinforced with
randomly oriented discrete fibers.” Proc., Int. Conf. on Soil Reinforce-
ment: Reinforced Soil and Other Techniques, Ecole Nationale des
ponts et chaussées, Paris, 47–52.
Jones, M. J., McKinley, J. D., Ogden, C., and Ellis, D. J. 共2001兲. “The
strength properties of a fiber-reinforced engineered soil.” Proc., XVth
Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Balkema,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1605–1608.
Kaniraj, S. R., and Havanaji, V. J. 共2001兲. “Behavior of cement-stabilized
fiber-reinforced fly ash-soil mixtures.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.,
127共7兲, 574–584.
Maher, M. H., and Gray, D. H. 共1990兲. “Static response of sands rein-
forced with randomly distributed fibers.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 116共11兲,
1661–1677.
Maher, M. H., and Ho, Y. C. 共1993兲. “Behavior of fiber-reinforced ce-
mented sand under static and cyclic loads.” Geotech. Test. J., 16共3兲,
330–338.
Maher, M. H., and Ho, Y. C. 共1994兲. “Mechanical properties of kaolinite/
fiber soil composite.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 120共8兲, 1381–1393.
Maher, M. H., and Woods, R. D. 共1990兲. “Dynamic response of sands
reinforced with randomly distributed fibers.” J. Geotech. Engrg.,
116共7兲, 1116–1131.
Michalowski, R. L. 共2008兲. “Limit analysis with anisotropic fibre-
reinforced soil.” Geotechnique, 58共6兲, 489–501.
Michalowski, R. L., and Cermak, J. 共2002兲. “Strength anisotropy of fiber-
reinforced sand.” Comput. Geotech., 29, 279–299.
Michalowski, R. L., and Cermak, J. 共2003兲. “Triaxial compression of
sand reinforced with fibers.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129共2兲,
125–136.
Michalowski, R. L., and Zhao, A. 共1996兲. “Failure of fiber-reinforced
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2010 / 499
Downloaded 11 Jun 2012 to 180.211.192.67. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visit http://www.ascelibrary.org
granular soils.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 122共3兲, 226–234.
Mostafa, H., El Khouly, M., El Zahaby, K., and Hafez, H. 共2004兲. “Effect
of discrete fibers inclusion on the mechanical behaviors of sands.”
Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering, Beirut, Lebanon,
281–287.
Ranjan, G., Vasan, R. M., and Charan, H. D. 共1996兲. “Probabilistic analy-
sis of randomly distributed fiber-reinforced soil.” J. Geotech. Engrg.,
122共6兲, 419–426.
Rowe, P. W. 共1969兲. “The relation between the shear strength of sands in
triaxial compression, plane strain and direct shear.” Geotechnique,
19共1兲, 75–86.
Santoni, R. L., Tingle, J. S., and Webster, S. L. 共2001兲. “Engineering
properties of sand-fiber mixtures for road construction.” J. Geotech.
Geoenviron. Eng., 127共3兲, 258–268.
Santoni, R. L., and Webster, S. L. 共2001兲. “Airfields and road construc-
tion using fiber stabilization of sands.” J. Transp. Eng., 127共2兲, 96–
104.
Shewbridge, S. E., and Sitar, N. 共1989兲. “Deformation characteristics of
reinforced sand in direct shear.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 115共8兲, 1134–
1147.
Shewbridge, S. E., and Sitar, N. 共1990兲. “Deformation based model for
reinforced sand.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 116共7兲, 1153–1170.
Shewbridge, S. E., and Sitar, N. 共1996兲. “Formation of shear zones in
reinforced sands.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 122共11兲, 873–885.
Tingle, J. S., Santoni, R. L., and Webster, S. L. 共2002兲. “Full-scale field
tests of discrete fiber-reinforced sand.” J. Transp. Eng., 128共1兲, 9–16.
Waldron, L. J. 共1977兲. “Shear resistance of root-permeated homogeneous
and stratified soil.” Soil Science Society of America Proceedings, 41,
843–849.
Zornberg, J. G. 共2002兲. “Discrete framework for limit equilibrium analy-
sis of fiber-reinforced soil.” Geotechnique, 52共8兲, 593–604.