©2004 by Economic Geology

Vol. 99, pp. 0000–0000

Economic Geology
BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

VOL. 99 August 2004 NO. 5

Characteristics and Evolution of the Hydrothermal Fluid in the

North Zone High-Grade Area, Porgera Gold Deposit, Papua New Guinea
E. RONACHER,†,* J. P. RICHARDS,
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3

M. H. REED,
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403

C. J. BRAY, E. T. C. SPOONER,
F. Gordon Smith Fluid Inclusion Laboratory, Department of Geology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B1

AND P. D. ADAMS**
Porgera Joint Venture, Porgera, Papua New Guinea

Abstract
The ~20-million-ounce (Moz) Porgera gold deposit, Papua New Guinea, is hosted by 6-m.y.-old alkalic in-
trusions and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in which the intrusions were emplaced. Gold-bearing veins occur
in three stages: (1) magnetite-sulfide-carbonate ± quartz veins with minor gold (prestage I), (2) base metal-sul-
fide-carbonate ± quartz ± Au veins (stage I), and (3) quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins and breccias (stage II).
Stage II veins are economically the most significant.
Quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins form high-grade zones associated with the Roamane fault (a late normal
fault that crosscuts the intrusive complex) and in the footwall to the fault (the North zone). The North zone
mineralization is the main focus of this study. The quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold assemblage occurs in three tex-
turally distinct styles: (1) thin (1–5 mm) veinlets in which roscoelite-pyrite-gold are more abundant than quartz
and in which roscoelite and gold also occur in the wall rock; (2) veins (5 mm to 10 cm) in which roscoelite-
pyrite-gold with minor quartz form a band at the vein edges, followed by coarse-grained quartz and the vein
centers commonly filled with anhydrite and carbonate; and (3) breccia veins and breccias in which wall-rock
fragments are rimmed by roscoelite-pyrite-gold and minor quartz, followed by vuggy quartz infilling.
Fluid inclusions from quartz in these veins and breccias are mostly liquid rich, and average salinities in in-
dividual samples range from 7.5 ± 1.0 to 9.6 ± 0.2 wt percent NaCl equiv. In five of 27 samples, an additional
cluster of salinities between 4.4 and 6.2 wt percent NaCl equiv was observed. These relatively low salinity in-
clusions occur toward the vein center and are less abundant than high-salinity inclusions that occur toward the
vein margins. Three samples exhibit a continuous salinity trend from 4.5 to 10.2 wt percent NaCl equiv. For
samples where CO2 analyses were available average corrected salinities range from 5.1 to 8.0 wt percent NaCl
equiv. Average homogenization temperatures (Th) of individual samples range from 127° ± 12° to 167° ± 25°C.
The average Th of the low-salinity inclusions (145° ± 9°C) is marginally lower but overlaps with that of all high-
salinity inclusions (152° ± 17°C).
Gas chromatographic analyses showed that the high-salinity fluid contains up to 2 mol percent CO2, 0.11 mol
percent CH4, 0.065 mol percent N2, and traces of C2H4, C2H6, and COS. Concentrations of Cl– (310–609
mM/l), Br– (0.28–0.75 mM/l), Li+ (1.25–8.80 mM/l), Na+ (462–1126 mM/l), K+ (0–81 mM/l), Mg2+ (0–7.0
mM/l), and Ca2+ (0–185 mM/l) were determined by ion chromatography.

† Corresponding author: e-mail, e_ronacher@hotmail.com

*Present address: Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401.
**Present address: Placer Granny Smith Pty., Ltd., Laverton, Western Australia 6440, Australia.

©2004 by Economic Geology, Vol. 99, pp. 843–867

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844 RONACHER ET AL.

The δ18O values of quartz range from 13.9 to 18.3 per mil, and calculated δ18OH2O values range from –1.2 to
4.1 per mil. The δDH2O values lie between –77 and –52 per mil. The calculated isotopic composition of the hy-
drothermal fluid lies between that of magmatic and that of meteoric water. The δ18O values of carbonates range
from 15.2 to 16.6 per mil. Carbon isotopes were analyzed on carbonates (δ13C = –3.3 to –2.4‰), altered and
unaltered sedimentary rocks (–5.4 to –4.0 and –1.5 to 0.0‰, respectively), and organic carbon in shales (–23.6
to –16.8‰). The δ34Spyrite values range from –9.4 to 6.1 per mil, and δ34Sanhydrite values range from 12.4 to 17.5
per mil.
The petrographic and analytical results suggest that an ascending fluid interacted with the sedimentary rocks
and/or fluid hosted by the sedimentary rocks at depth (rather than at the site of ore deposition). This interac-
tion is suggested by the presence of organic-derived volatiles and high NH+4 concentrations in inclusion fluid.
In some samples, two fluids were involved in stage II vein formation. Vapor-rich fluid inclusions indicate that
the hydrothermal fluid boiled locally, and continuous salinity trends suggest that fluid mixing occurred in some
stage II veins.
The analytical data and paragenetic information were used to estimate element concentrations in the Porg-
era hydrothermal fluid that were used for thermodynamic reaction path modeling using the software
CHILLER. This fluid was subjected to boiling, mixing with sedimentary formation water, cooling, and fluid-
rock reaction. During boiling, quartz, pyrite, gold, and K-feldspar formed; mixing resulted in the deposition of
pyrite, gold, and mica; reaction with diorite produced the observed wall-rock alteration assemblage; and cool-
ing formed quartz plus minor mica, pyrite, gold, and kaolinite.
Observations, analytical data, and modeling results suggest that more than one process was involved in stage
II vein formation in different locations and at different times. Boiling, mixing, and fluid-rock reaction, all ac-
companied by cooling, occurred intermittently over the entire depth extent of the North zone, and the size of
Porgera may be a result of all of these processes occurring at the deposit.

Introduction responsible for the formation of high-grade zones. Most

THE PORGERA gold deposit is located in the Pliocene fold and
thrust belt that forms the highlands of Papua New Guinea
(Fig. 1). With 10.3 million ounces (Moz) of gold recovered
between the start of production in 1990 and June 2001, the
mine is a significant gold producer in the southwest Pacific
region. Reserves and resources in June 2001 amount to 113
million tons (Mt) of ore at a grade of 3.5 g/t. The total con-
tained gold at Porgera is thus ~20 Moz.
The deposit is hosted by 6-m.y.-old alkalic intrusions and
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks into which the magmas were
emplaced. Three types of gold-bearing vein assemblages
occur: (1) magnetite-sulfide-carbonate veins with minor gold
(prestage I), (2) base metal-sulfide ± gold-carbonate veins
(stage I), and (3) quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins (stage II).
Stage II hosts the highest gold grades and is economically
the most significant. The discovery of bonanza gold grades in
stage II veins hosted by a late normal fault, the Roamane fault
zone, and its splays proved the economic potential of the de-
posit in 1983. In the high-grade domain referred to as zone
VII, up to 1,000 g/t Au occurred in quartz-roscoelite breccias;
this zone is now mined out. Much research has focused on the
quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins, and various different
mechanisms for stage II ore formation have been proposed.
Handley and Bradshaw (1986) and Handley and Henry
(1990) suggested that boiling or fluid mixing could have oc-
curred but considered that the bonanza-type zones were most
recently, Ronacher et al. (2000a, b) documented coexisting
vapor- and liquid-rich fluid inclusions in stage II quartz and
suggested that boiling was, at least locally, responsible for ore
formation. In this study, we use the term boiling to refer to
vapor phase separation from a saline, gas-rich fluid (cf. Trues-
dell, 1985, p. 7), resulting in the coexistence of two separate
phases. By itself, this does not constrain whether the system
was open or closed or whether boiling occurred adiabatically
or nonadiabatically.
This study focuses on a high-grade area, the North zone,
which is hosted by a diorite body and its surrounding sedimen-
tary rocks in the footwall of the Roamane fault (Fig. 2). Quartz-
roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins were examined by petrography,
fluid inclusion microthermometry, and bulk crush-leach gas
and ion chromatography, and stable isotope geochemistry (O,
0° 140°E
Porgera
Australia
Bismark Sea
Fold Porgera
&
Irian thru
Jaya Papua st
Solomon Sea
be

New Guinea
likely a result of boiling, by analogy with other gold deposit
lt

types having this style of mineralization. Richards and Kerrich

(1993) agreed with this interpretation and argued, on the Coral Sea
basis of mineralogical and textural grounds, that vapor phase 10°S
N
separation was responsible for stage II ore formation, a model Australia
further supported by fluid inclusion gas data (Richards et al., 200 km
140°E 150°E
1997). However, Wall et al. (1995) and Cameron (1998) con-
cluded from studies of vanadium chemistry and mineralogical FIG. 1. Simplified map of Papua New Guinea, showing the location of the
observations that mixing of an oxidized magmatic fluid and a 6 m.y.-old Porgera gold deposit in the Pliocene fold and thrust belt. Modified
reduced fluid expelled from carbonaceous sediments was after Richards et al. (1990) and Smith (1990).

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 845

11400mN
11000mN
N

11800mN
S

“Zone VII”
2400asl 2400asl

inferred structure

”
ne
lt

Zo
au
eF

th
or
an

“N
2000asl 2000asl
am
Ro

?
?
11000mN

11800mN
11400mN

Diorite Altered Black Shales Sample location Gold grades:

Fault 1.5-2.5 g/t

Gabbro Black Shales
2.5-3.5 g/t
Feldspar Porphyry Calcareous Sediments Inferred Structure >10 g/t

FIG. 2. Schematic north-south cross section through the Porgera mine, showing a dioritic intrusion in the center and
smaller gabbroic and feldspar porphyry bodies. The intrusions are hosted by altered black shales that grade into unaltered
black shales. White dots represent samples in which vapor- and liquid-rich fluid inclusions were observed. Black dots repre-
sent samples in which only liquid-rich inclusions were found, and crosses represent samples that showed dilution trends in
the fluid inclusion record. Note that one sample showed a dilution trend and coexisting vapor- and liquid-rich inclusions.
Samples were collected from drill core (except the sample from zone VII) but traces of the densely spaced drill holes were
omitted for clarity. Most of the samples were collected along a high-grade ore zone, the North zone, that strikes parallel to
the Roamane fault, a steeply dipping normal fault. Contour lines refer to average gold grades modeled by the Porgera Joint
Venture staff (grades averaged over 10 × 10 × 15 m blocks from assays of 2 m of drill core; individual assay results of up to
several hundred grams per ton were obtained locally). a.s.l. is the elevation above sea level (in meters), and the northing
refers to the Porgera mine grid.

H, C, S) to characterize the hydrothermal fluid from which
they formed. These data were used to numerically simulate
mineral precipitation based on thermodynamic modeling,
using the software CHILLER (Reed, 1982, 1998) to deter-
mine the mechanism(s) of vein formation. Suggested mecha-
nisms involved in high-grade ore formation are discussed in
the light of previous hypotheses of ore deposition at Porgera.
Geology of the Porgera Gold Deposit
Porgera Intrusive Complex
The Porgera gold deposit is hosted by a suite of mafic, sodic-
alkalic intrusions known as the Porgera Intrusive Complex,
which was emplaced at an estimated paleodepth of ~2.0 to 2.5
km (Davies, 1983; Fleming et al., 1986). In the absence of a
classification scheme for subvolcanic alkalic rocks, Richards
(1990a) used the classification of volcanic rocks of LeBas et al.
(1986) and determined that the hypabyssal intrusions were
characterized by alkali basaltic, hawaiitic, and mugearitic
compositions. Texturally, the plutons are gabbros, porphyritic
diorites, and feldspar porphyries, intruded as stocks (≤500 m
diam) and dikes.
The Porgera Intrusive Complex was emplaced into Creta-
ceous sedimentary rocks of the Chim Formation (Davies,
1983) in the latest Miocene (~6 Ma; Richards and Mc-
Dougall, 1990; Ronacher et al., 2002). The sedimentary rocks

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846 RONACHER ET AL.

are mainly carbonaceous mudstones and calcareous silt-
stones, which were deposited on the shelf of the Australasian
plate margin (Davies, 1983; Gunson et al., 2000). Intrusion of
the magmas occurred slightly prior to, or during, the uplift of
the Papuan fold and thrust belt that formed as a result of the
collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Bismarck Sea
and Caroline oceanic plates (Hill and Gleadow, 1989; Hill and
Raza, 1999).
The mineralizing event occurred immediately after the em-
placement of the Porgera Intrusive Complex (Ronacher et al.,
2002) and was accompanied locally by intense phyllic alter-
ation that affected the shallow-level intrusions. A late steeply
dipping normal fault, the Roamane fault, crosscuts all intru-
sions and hosts the richest gold bearing veins and breccias.
Mineralization
Magnetite-sulfide-carbonate veins (prestage I) occur in the
central and deep parts of the mine. Magnetite is the dominant
mineral and contains lenses of pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopy-
rite, and rare inclusions of gold in pyrite. The main non-
metallic mineral is calcite, and quartz is present in minor con-
centrations. This vein type is economically not significant.
Thin alteration selvages around the veins contain fine-grained
biotite and actinolite, and the age of the alteration biotite has
been determined to be 5.98 ± 0.13 Ma (Ronacher et al.,
2002). The magnetite-sulfide-carbonate veins are crosscut by
all other vein types (Ronacher et al., 1999).
More gold is observed in the stage I base metal-sulfide ±
gold-carbonate veins than in the magnetite-sulfide-carbonate
veins. Here, the dominant sulfide minerals are pyrite, spha-
lerite, and galena, with rare chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, marc-
asite, freibergite, and proustite/pyrargyrite (Richards et al.,
1991). Gold occurs as invisible gold in pyrite or as micro-
scopic inclusions of native gold in pyrite. The gangue consists
of complex Mn-Ca-Mg carbonates and subordinate quartz.
The veins and the disseminated ore are accompanied by in-
tense phyllic alteration consisting of fine-grained muscovite/
illite and carbonate. Richards and Kerrich (1993) determined
an average homogenization temperature (Th) of fluid inclu-
sions in stage I quartz of 299° ± 33°C (n = 274) and a salinity
of 9.5 ± 1.8 wt percent NaCl equiv. After correcting for esti-
mated pressure, they calculated a trapping temperature (Tt)
of ~325°C.
The economically most significant vein assemblage, stage
II, is characterized by quartz-roscoelite[K(V,Al)2(Si3AlO10)
(OH)2]-pyrite-gold veins and breccia veins (Fig. 3). A list of
all ore minerals described from stage II is shown in Table 1.
Some pyrite was reported to be arsenian, and arsenopyrite oc-
curs locally in addition to pyrite; chalcopyrite is rare. Gold oc-
curs dominantly as native gold and electrum. The Ag-Au tel-
lurides, petzite, krennerite, calaverite, and the Ag telluride,
hessite, were described from the deposit as well as col-
oradoite (HgTe) and altaite (PbTe; Handley and Bradshaw,
1986; Handley and Henry, 1990; Richards et al., 1991), but
only minor hessite was observed in the samples analyzed for
this study. Tellurides appear to have been most abundant in
zone VII, the richest zone of the mine hosted by the Roamane
fault zone. In this area, proustite was also observed in rare

a b rosc-py-Au
rosc-Au
rosc-py-Au

qtz qtz

rosc-py-Au

qtz anh

FIG. 3. Drill core photographs of typical stage II quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins. (a). Four-mm-wide quartz veinlets
with roscoelite, pyrite, and gold rimming the vein edges (sample P99-061B). (b). Breccia vein with roscoelite, pyrite, and gold
rimming parts of the breccia clasts (sample P99-016). (c). Stage II vein with a band of roscoelite, pyrite, and gold forming
the vein edge, followed by a layer of quartz and anhydrite filling the vein center (sample P99-093). Scale in centimeters. Ab-
breviations: anh = anhydrite, Au = gold, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, rosc = roscoelite.

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TABLE 1. Ore and Gangue Minerals in Stage II Veins, Porgera (in approximate order of decreasing abundance)

Early Late

Quartz SiO2 xx xxx

Roscoelite K(V,Al)2Si3AlO10(OH)2 xxx
Pyrite FeS2 xxx xx
Anhydrite CaSO4 xxx
Ca-Fe-Mg carbonate (Ca,Fe,Mg)CO3 xx xx
Gold, locally tellurides Au (~20% Ag) xx
hessite Ag2Te x
petzite Ag3AuTe2 x
krennerite (Au,Ag)Te2 x
calaverite AuTe2 x
coloradoite HgTe x
altaite PbTe x
Tetrahedrite (Cu,Ag,)10(Fe,Zn)2Sb3S13 xx
Arsenopyrite FeAsS xx
Barite BaSO4 x
Adularia KAlSi3O8 x
Pyrargyrite/prousite Ag3SbS3/Ag3AsS3 x
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 x
Sphalerite ZnS xx
Marcasite FeS2 x
Hematite Fe2O3 x
Galena PbS x
Acanthite Ag2S x

Notes: Mineral names in italics not observed in this study (cf. Fleming et al., 1986; Handley and Henry, 1990; Richards et al., 1991; Richards and Kerrich,
1993); x = rare, xx = moderately abundant, xxx = abundant

cases as a late mineral intergrown with coarse-grained quartz,
and minor barite was reported to occur locally with roscoelite
and quartz (Richards and Kerrich, 1993). In some veins from
the North zone, tetrahedrite is intergrown with quartz, and
qualitative electron microprobe analyses showed that this
mineral is rich in Ag and contains traces of Fe and Zn. All
other minerals listed in Table 1 occur only locally and in trace
amounts.
Stage II veins in the high-grade zones within the Roamane
fault zone are texturally distinct from the North zone stage II
veins. The veins in the Roamane fault zone are typically
banded; the outermost band consists of fine-grained quartz
with minor pyrite, barite, and carbonate, followed inward by
a band of brown-green roscoelite intimately intergrown with
pyrite, gold, minor quartz, and locally barite. This band is suc-
ceeded by a layer of coarse-grained comb quartz. This se-
quence is repeated in some cases, and the vuggy vein centers
are typically either empty or filled with Ca- Fe-Mg carbonate
or anhydrite (Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Ronacher et al.,
2000a). Massive anhydrite fills late meter-wide veins within
the Roamane fault zone; however, these veins contain no
roscoelite and little gold.
In the North zone, stage II veins have the following three
different textural styles:
1. Banded veins have a layer of roscoelite, pyrite, gold, and
minor quartz rimming the wall rock and roscoelite is abun-
dant as rosettes in the veins. This band is followed by a layer
of quartz, and locally the vuggy center is filled with anhydrite
or carbonate. The veins are typically not wider than 1 cm and
locally, the quartz-rich center is missing and the veinlet con-
sists of roscoelite, pyrite, gold, and minor quartz only; wall-
rock alteration around these veins consists of thin halos of
fine-grained muscovite/illite, carbonate, and pyrite, and rare
adularia. The halos are typically only 5 mm wide (e.g., Figs.
3a-b; 4a-c).
2. Breccias and breccia veins contain angular clasts of wall
rock rimmed by bands of roscoelite, pyrite, gold, and minor
quartz. The clasts are supported by a matrix of quartz. Wall-
rock alteration adjacent to the breccia veins may widen to sev-
eral tens of centimeters (e.g., Fig. 3b).
3. Thin (≤1-cm) veinlets are also present with roscoelite,
pyrite, and gold in the wall-rock alteration and quartz in the
vein (e.g., Fig. 4d-f, h).
No change in stage II vein and alteration mineralogy with
depth or along strike nor any systematic variation in vein style
with depth were observed. In contrast, all vein types occur
along the entire depth extent of the North zone.
Fluid inclusions in the coarse-grained quartz of stage II
veins from the Roamane fault zone have average Th values of
146° ± 13°C (n = 519; Richards and Kerrich, 1993); inclusions
from the North zone have similar average Th values of 149° ±
15°C (n = 137; Ronacher et al., 2001). Richards and Kerrich
(1993) determined a bimodal distribution of salinities with
modes of 4.2 ± 0.3 (n = 104) and 7.8 ± 0.7 wt percent NaCl
equiv (n = 346); similar results were obtained in the present
study except that the majority of inclusions fall in the high-
salinity group (see below).
Sampling and Analytical Methods
Samples of quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins were col-
lected from the high-grade North zone, hosted by a diorite
body and its surrounding sedimentary rocks in the footwall of
the Roamane fault (Fig. 2). The ore shoot forms a steeply dip-
ping tabular body parallel to the Roamane fault, but at depth

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848 RONACHER ET AL.

a 100µm b 100µm c 100µm

quartz
quartz
quartz

wall rock

wall rock
d 100µm e 100µm f

quartz
carb

fg qtz
qtz

py-Au quartz

100µm

g 100µm h

rosc-py-Au-qtz

FIG. 4. Photomicrographs of stage II veins. (a). and (b). Wall rock rimmed by a layer of roscoelite, pyrite, and gold with
minor quartz and followed by coarse-grained comb quartz (samples P98-1157 and P98-618). (c). Band of roscoelite, pyrite,
gold, and minor quartz forming the vein margin (sample P98-932). (d). Roscoelite and pyrite ± gold in wall rock; the first
layer in the vein consists of quartz which is followed by a band of fine-grained quartz, pyrite, and carbonate, with coarse-
grained quartz in the vein center (sample P98-1466). (e). Same as (d) photographed with crossed polars; the bright colors of
quartz under polarized light are due to the thickness of the section (~80–100 µm; fluid inclusion section). (f). Roscoelite and
pyrite ± gold in the wall rock (sample P98-618). (g). Intergrown quartz, pyrite, and roscoelite forming the vein edge (sample
P98-1234A). (h). Gold in pyrite in wall rock (sample P97-16; photo from Richards, 1998, Porgera ’97 drill core samples: Porg-
era, Papua New Guinea, Porgera Joint Venture, unpub. company report, 20 p.). Abbreviations: Au = gold, py = pyrite, qtz =
quartz, rosc = roscoelite.

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG
it flattens toward the fault; therefore, it is interpreted to be a
splay of the Roamane fault. It extends 600 m downdip, has as
strike extent of ~400 m, and is about 50 m wide. The ore
shoot consists primarily of stage II quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-
gold veins, veinlets, and breccia veins with abundant gold, lo-
cally up to several hundred grams per ton. Drill core samples
were taken along a large part of the ore shoot with the aim of
determining variations in ore and gangue mineral assem-
blages, microthermometric properties, and geochemical and
isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in quartz.
Fluid inclusion microthermometry
Fluid inclusion microthermometry was conducted on a
Linkam THMSG 600 heating and freezing stage calibrated
using synthetic fluid inclusions manufactured by Syn Flinc.
Measurements below 31.1°C, the critical point of CO2, are
accurate to ±0.1°C, and measurements above this tempera-
ture are accurate to ±1°C. Salinities were calculated using the
equation of Bodnar (1993) for the H2O-NaCl system.
Gas and ion chromatography
Bulk crush-leach combined gas and ion chromatography was
conducted on 19 samples of quartz from quartz-roscoelite-
pyrite-gold veins. Large quartz grains (~1 mm3) were hand-
picked under a binocular microscope, soaked in aqua regia, fol-
lowed by a brief rinse with hydrofluoric acid to remove surface
impurities. The samples were then washed with pure water, and
3 to 5 g of this quartz was cleaned using electrolytic cleaning
cells according to the technique outlined by Roedder (1958).
The chromatographic analyses were conducted at the F.G.
Smith Fluid Inclusion Laboratory at the University of Toronto.
For gas chromatography, a 1- to 2-g aliquot was placed into a
stainless steel cylinder and flushed with He overnight. The sam-
ple was crushed in one step, and the gas released was analyzed
using a Hewlett Packard HP 5890A gas chromatograph fitted
with thermal conductivity and photo-ionization detectors. Stan-
dard gas mixtures were injected for calibration. Details of the
method are outlined in Bray et al. (1991).
The crushed residue was leached with ultra-pure water, di-
luted to 10 ml of leachate, and analyzed using a Dionex
2000i/SP ion chromatograph with an Ion Pac AG9-SC 4-mm
guard column and an Ion Pac AS9-SC 4-mm analytical col-
umn. The technique is described in detail by Channer and
Spooner (1992), and Channer and Spooner (1994) discuss ac-
curacy, precision, and detection limits. The analytical preci-
sion for the gas species was determined using standard gas
mixtures and is better than 10 percent; precision is better
than 15 percent for ionic species based on 35 standard runs
(Channer and Spooner, 1994). Inclusion-free Brazilian quartz
cleaned in the same manner as the samples was used as a
blank. Analyses were rejected if the blank value exceeded 25
percent of the measured value.
The concentrations of the ionic species are calculated by
combining the gas and ion chromatographic data and calcu-
lating the concentrations of ionic species in the amount of
H2O analyzed (cf. Channer and Spooner 1999).
Light stable isotopes
Oxygen isotope analyses were conducted on 10 to 20 mg of
cleaned, handpicked quartz, using the bromine pentafluoride
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849
method of Clayton and Mayeda (1963) and a Finnigan MAT
252 multiple collector mass spectrometer. The results are
reported relative to VSMOW, and the analytical precision
and accuracy are both ±0.2 per mil. Isotopic fractionation
between quartz and water was calculated using the equa-
tion of Clayton et al. (1972) at temperatures defined by
fluid inclusion homogenization. Oxygen isotope analyses on
Ca-Fe-Mg carbonates were conducted following dissolu-
tion in 100 percent H3PO4 at 50°C and using an acid frac-
tionation factor for ankerite of 1.01060 (Kontak and Ker-
rich, 1997). The analytical precision is ±0.2 per mil, and
accuracy is ±0.5 per mil.
The hydrogen isotope composition of fluid inclusion water
was determined by thermal decrepitation (heating to
~1,200°C) of fluid inclusions in handpicked, cleaned quartz.
CO2 and H2O were trapped in a U tube cooled by liquid ni-
trogen. All other gases (e.g., CH4, N2) were pumped away by
cooling the U tube with ethanol. The water was reduced to H2
by passing it over depleted uranium before transferring it to
the mass spectrometer. The results are reported relative to
VSMOW, with accuracy within ±3 per mil.
Carbon isotopes were analyzed on Ca-Fe-Mg carbonate
from stage II veins. CO2 was extracted from ~20 g of these
carbonates using 100 percent H3PO4 at 50°C. The results are
reported relative to VPDB, with an accuracy of ±0.2 per mil.
Organic carbon was analyzed by crushing the rock, remov-
ing carbonates by rinsing in dilute acid (10% HCl), and then
running the dried residue through a combustion furnace at
1,020°C in the presence of pure oxygen. The furnace is linked
to an SIRA II mass spectrometer. The accuracy of the analy-
ses is ±0.5 per mil.
The carbon isotope composition of CO2 in fluid inclusions
was analyzed on one sample by crushing the quartz in a ball
mill with special gas ports, from which the gas was extracted
with a syringe and transferred into an HP 6890 gas chro-
matograph. The gas was carried by an He carrier gas to the
mass spectrometer (Micromass IsoChrom mass spectrome-
ter) where its isotopic composition was analyzed with an ac-
curacy of ±0.5 per mil.
Sulfur isotopes were analyzed using a continuous-flow iso-
tope ratio mass spectrometer (Carlo Erba NA 1500 elemen-
tal analyzer interfaced to a magnetic-sector mass analyzer).
The sulfide sample was oxidized with O2(g) and transported to
the mass spectrometer in an He carrier gas. The results are
reported relative to CDT with an accuracy of ±0.7 per mil.
Results
Fluid inclusion microthermometry
Fluid inclusion microthermometry was conducted on 27
samples of stage II quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins from
the high-grade North zone and one sample from the high-
grade zone VII in the Roamane fault zone. The dominant host
of the fluid inclusions is the coarse-grained comb quartz that
succeeds the gold- and pyrite-bearing roscoelite bands. In-
clusions in minor quartz intergrown with roscoelite are rare,
small, and most are unworkable. Only primary and pseu-
dosecondary inclusions were selected for analysis according
to the criteria of Roedder (1984); secondary inclusions are
mostly small, unworkable, and volumetrically not significant
849
850
(<5%; see also Richards and Kerrich, 1993, p. 1029). Exam-
ples of representative groups of fluid inclusions are shown in
Figure 5.
The fluid inclusions are typically two-phase, liquid-rich,
and irregular in shape, characteristic of low-temperature
trapping conditions (Bodnar et al., 1985). In seven of the 27
analyzed samples from the North zone, vapor-rich inclusions
coexist with the dominant liquid-rich inclusions (Fig. 5c).
These vapor- and liquid-rich assemblages include heteroge-
neously trapped three-phase inclusions consisting of liquid
a 10µm
b ent salinity of ~3.2 wt percent NaCl equiv.
10µm
FIG. 5. Photomicrographs of fluid inclusion assemblages in quartz from
quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins. (a). Group of primary two-phase inclu-
sions (sample P99-197). (b). Primary fluid inclusion in growth zone (sample
P98-701). (c) Liquid- and vapor-rich inclusions in growth zone (sample P99-
1320).
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RONACHER ET AL.
CO2, CO2 vapor, and minor amounts of liquid H2O. No eu-
tectic melting was observed in any of the samples.
Table 2 lists average homogenization temperatures (Th) and
ice melting temperatures of the two-phase aqueous inclu-
sions. A plot of Th versus salinity (uncorrected for CO2) for all
samples from the North zone is shown in Figure 6; Figure 7
shows data for representative individual samples. The Th val-
ues do not increase with depth but are similar (within error)
along the entire depth extent of the North zone. Similarly,
there is no increase or decrease in salinity in this high-grade
zone.
CO2 concentrations known from gas chromatography may
be used to correct salinity estimates from ice melting tem-
peratures but, because CO2 concentrations are not known for
all samples and because the CO2 concentrations are variable,
a general correction for all samples would be inappropriate
(although corrections were calculated for those samples
where CO2 measurements are available; see below). Appar-
ent salinity values used to construct Figures 6 and 7 are there-
fore uncorrected.
The absence of liquid CO2 in the liquid-rich aqueous in-
clusions constrains the CO2 content to <2.2-m CO2 (Heden-
quist and Henley, 1985). CO2 concentrations of ≤2.2-m CO2
can depress the ice melting point by up to 4°C in pure water
and thus increase apparent salinity by up to 6.5 wt percent
NaCl equiv (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985, eq 4). The maxi-
mum concentration of CO2 in the samples analyzed in this
study is 1-m CO2. However, this equates to a freezing point
depression of only ~1.9°C and a maximum increase in appar-
All samples show a dominant grouping of apparent salini-
ties at ~7 to 10 wt percent NaCl equiv, and five of the 27 sam-
ples from the North zone show an additional cluster between
4 and 5 wt percent NaCl equiv. The number of individual in-
clusions containing the lower salinity fluid is small, and the
low-salinity inclusions are mostly located in the vein centers,
whereas the high salinities occur toward the vein margins.
Both groups exhibit similar average Th values (145° ± 9°C, n
= 77, for the low-salinity group; 152° ± 17°C, n = 995, for the
high-salinity group). Three samples show a continuous range
of salinities from ~4 to ~10 wt percent NaCl equiv (P98-1164,
P99-145, P98-611), possibly representing a dilution trend. Av-
erage Th values for all samples range from 127° ± 12° to 167°
± 25°C (Table 2; see below for a discussion of trapping
temperatures).
Vapor-rich inclusions were typically completely filled with
vapor, and phase changes were not visible. In the three-phase
heterogeneously trapped inclusions from the North zone
(P98-1576, P98-701, P98-1320, P98-066C, P99-197, P98-
1835, P98-611), Tm(CO2) could be measured (avg Tm(CO2) =
–56.6° ± 0.1°C, n = 27; Th(CO2) = 26.9 ± 1.9°C, n = 26), and
clathrate melting (Tm(clathrate)) ranged from 7.0° to 8.8°C (avg
7.4° ± 0.5°C, n = 26; estimated by observing instantaneous
bubble movement; Table 3). Salinities calculated from
these Tm(clathrate) data using the software Flincor (Brown and
Hagemann, 1994) range from 2.4 to 5.7 wt percent NaCl
equiv (avg 4.6 ± 0.9 wt % NaCl equiv) and give an estimate of
the salinity of the heterogeneously trapped aqueous phase
in these inclusions. Heterogeneous entrapment is further
indicated by the anomalously high total homogenization
850
 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 851

TABLE 2. Average Microthermometric Data of Liquid-Rich Fluid Inclusions Hosted by Stage II Quartz from Samples from the Footwall Diorite

Sample no. Elevation (m a.s.l.) Th1 (°C) Tm(ice)1 (°C) Salinity1 (wt % NaCl equiv) N Au2 (ppm)

Roamane fault zone

P98-2204* 2,390 142 ± 4, 157 ± 16 –2.8 ± 0.2, –5.5 ± 0.3 4.7 ± 0.2, 8.6 ± 0.4 10, 27 n.a.3
North zone
P99-120 2,335 140 ± 4, 140 ± 14 –3.8 ± 0.1 ,–5.3 ± 0.2 6.2 ± 0.2, 8.2 ± 0.3 7, 7 <0.1
P98-1576* 2,330 144 ± 9 –5.0 ± 0.6 7.9 ± 0.8 18 4
P98-992 2,315 157 ± 18 –6.3 ± 0.2 9.6 ± 0.2 9 15
P98-1466 2,190 145 ± 12 –5.4 ± 0.4 8.4 ± 0.5 18 2
P98-1459 2,190 154 ± 13 –5.1 ± 0.4 8.1 ± 0.6 36 1
P98-1600 2,150 139 ± 22 –5.8 ± 0.3 9.0 ± 0.4 13 5
P98-1448 2,120 149 ± 12 –5.5 ± 0.2 8.5 ± 0.3 18 7
P98-1413 2,120 127 ± 12 –5.3 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.5 37 60
P98-701* 2,080 137 ± 13 –5.3 ± 0.8 8.3 ± 1.1 40 11
P98-1379 2,030 150 ± 10 –5.0 ± 1.6 8.2 ± 0.7 52 10
P98-1320* 2,030 155 ± 15 –4.9 ± 1.4 7.9 ± 0.5 53 8
P98-1631 2,020 145 ± 11 –4.8 ± 0.7 7.5 ± 1.0 34 3
P98-846 2,000 148 ± 20 –5.6 ± 0.3 8.6 ± 0.4 25 9
P98-1111 1,980 132 ± 11 –4.9 ± 0.2 7.8 ± 0.3 6 3
P99-145 1,980 160 ± 10 –2.7 to –5.5 4.5 to 9.2 48 5
P99-178 1,945 150 ± 12, 146 ± 14 –3.0 ± 0.1, –4.9 ± 0.3 5.0 ± 0.0, 7.8 ± 0.4 3, 69 51
P98-611* 1,930 156 ± 11 –3.0 to –5.6 5.0 to 8.7 101 9
P98-612B 1,930 142 ± 19 –5.3 ± 0.5 8.3 ± 0.7 38 11
P98-1162 1,915 161 ± 11 –5.2 ± 0.6 8.2 ± 0.7 12 9
P98-1537 1,910 144 ± 13, 153 ± 9 –2.8 ± 0.1, –4.2 ± 0.4 4.8 ± 0.1, 6.8 ± 0.6 10, 49 28
P98-1164 1,900 163 ± 19 –2.7 to –6.5 4.5 to 10.2 96 9
P99-066C* 1,880 155 ± 16 –5.6 ± 0.5 8.7 ± 0.6 68 2
P99-095C 1,875 161 ± 13 –5.4 ± 0.3 8.4 ± 0.4 47 15
P99-197* 1,855 142 ± 2, 149 ± 13 –2.9 ± 0.1, –5.2 ± 0.3 4.8 ± 0.0, 8.1 ± 0.4 4, 36 <0.1
P98-1170 1,850 153 ± 13 –5.3 ± 1.4 8.5 ± 0.4 71 <0.1
P98-1835* 1,845 167 ± 25 –5.3 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.4 27 <0.1
P99-231 1,820 147 ± 7, 163 ± 12 –2.7 ± 0.3, –5.7 ± 0.5 4.4 ± 0.3, 8.8 ± 0.4 13, 5 70

Notes: Samples are listed in order of increasing depth; asterisk (*) denotes samples where vapor-rich inclusions were observed; m a.s.l. = meters above sea
level; n = number of fluid inclusions analyzed (two values represent the number of inclusions in each of the two salinity groups)
1
Where two averages are indicated, the numbers correspond to separate low- and high-salinity groups
2
Gold assayed over a 2-m interval
3
No gold assay data are available for this sample, but it was collected from a high-grade stope within the Roamane fault zone

temperatures of approximately 300°C and the fact that some H2O vapor bubble, suggesting that it may be an immiscible
inclusions homogenize to the liquid and others to the vapor hydrocarbon that was trapped heterogeneously. In sample
phase; still others decrepitated before total homogenization. P124, the presumed hydrocarbon occurred in an assemblage
In some fluid inclusions in samples P98-2204 and P124 of low-salinity inclusions; the H2O vapor bubble homoge-
from the Roamane fault zone, a phase other than CO2 was ob- nized at 135°C and the organic-rich bubble at 180°C,
served. This phase formed a second bubble in addition to the whereas in sample P98-2204 the hydrocarbon occurred in an
assemblage of high-salinity inclusions, and the H2O vapor
bubble homogenized after the hydrocarbon bubble.
Tmice (°C)
-2.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0 Gas and ion chromatography
250
Gaseous species detected include H2O, CO2, CH4, N2,
C2H4, C2H6 (including C2H2), and COS (Table 4), and ionic
200 species detected include Cl–, Br–, Li+, Na+, K+, NH+4, Mg2+,
and Ca2+ (Table 5). Sulfur concentrations were measured as
Th (°C)

SO2–4 , but this analysis includes the actual concentration of

150 SO2–4 in the fluid plus an unknown amount of reduced S,
which may be partially or fully oxidized in the chromatograph
100
column. Thus, H2S, if present, would not have been detected,
and the measured SO2– 4 value gives a minimum estimate of
the total amount of sulfur in the fluid. Those samples in which
50 vapor-rich inclusions were observed are distinguished with an
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 asterisk after the sample number in Table 4 and were excluded
wt % NaCl equiv from calculations of the gas content of the hydrothermal fluid
FIG. 6. Apparent salinity (in wt % NaCl equiv) vs. homogenization tem- (i.e., the gas content prior to ore deposition) because boiling
perature (Th) of all samples from the North zone. results in a concentration of gases in the vapor phase.

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852 RONACHER ET AL.

(a) P98-1170 Tmice(°C ) (b) P98-1448 Tmice(°C )

-3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0
200 200

150 150

Th(°C)
100 100

50 50
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
(c) P98-1164 (d) P99-145
-3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0
200 200
Th(°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

(e) P98-1537 (f) P99-231

-3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -7.0
200 200

150 150
Th(°C)

100 100

50 50
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

wt % NaCl equiv wt % NaCl equiv

FIG. 7. Apparent salinity (in wt % NaCl equiv) vs. homogenization temperature (Th) and ice melting temperature (Tm(ice))
of representative samples of quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins. Three distinct patterns can be recognized. The examples in
(a) sample P98-1170 and (b) sample P98-1448 belong to a single group with salinities between ~8 and 9 wt percent NaCl
equiv, examples in (c) sample P98-1164 and (d) sample P99-145 show a range of salinities from ~4 to ~10 wt percent NaCl
equiv, and examples (e) sample P98-1537 and (f) sample P99-231 show a bimodal salinity distribution with one cluster at ~4
to 5 and a second cluster at ~7 and ~9 wt percent NaCl equiv, respectively.

Q+/Q– in Table 5 is the ratio of total cationic to anionic for carbonate species can be made using the bicarbonate ion.
charge (Channer and Spooner, 1992). Deviation from the ideal However, nearly all of the corrected Q+/Q– values are less
value of 1 is due to the presence of ions that cannot be mea- than 1, suggesting that using HCO–3 alone may result in over-
sured with this technique (e.g., CO2– – – 2+
3 , HCO3, HS , Fe , Mn )
2+ correction. This seems likely because the wall-rock alteration
+ – indicates that the fluid was moderately acidic and therefore
as well as analytical error and sulfide oxidation. Q /Q is >1
for all samples indicating a deficiency of anions. A correction most likely contained a substantial amount of dissolved car-
bonate as H2CO3 (pKa for H2CO3 is 6.7 at 150°C).
TABLE 3. Average Microthermometric Data for Light stable isotopes
Fluid Inclusion Assemblages Containing CO2 in Stage II Quartz
from Samples from the Footwall Diorite Oxygen and hydrogen: The δ18O values for quartz from
stage II veins range from 13.9 to 18.3 per mil (Table 6). Val-
Sample no. Tm(CO2) n Tm(clathrate) n Th(CO2) n
ues for water (δ18OH2O) in equilibrium with quartz were cal-
P98-611 –56.6 ± 0.1 12 7.8 ± 0.4 12 27.9 ± 0.6 12 culated using the fractionation equation of Clayton et al.
P98-1835 –56.6 ± 0.1 1 7.8 ± 0.1 1 26.8 ± 0.1 1 (1972) and the average Th values measured in each sample.
P98-701 –56.6 ± 0.1 1 7.1 ± 0.1 1 29.0 ± 0.1 1 Because of the observed evidence for boiling, pressure cor-
P98-1576 –56.6 ± 0.1 11 7.6 ± 0.3 10 25.3 ± 1.9 11 rections are unnecessary and Th represents trapping temper-
P99-066 –56.6 ± 0.1 1 6.2 ± 0.1 1 30.0 ± 0.1 1
P99-197 –56.6 ± 0.1 1 8.5 ± 0.1 1 29.0 ± 0.1 1 ature (Tt; see below). Calculated δ18OH2O values range from
1.4 to 4.1 per mil.
Notes: n = number of fluid inclusions analyzed; standard deviation for Oxygen isotope ratios of stage II carbonates intergrown
samples with one measurement only is the analytical error with coarse-grained quartz (as opposed to the more abundant

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 853

TABLE 4. Results of Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Fluid Inclusions in Quartz

Sample no. N21 CH4 CO2 H2O C2H4 C2H62 COS

(mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %)

Roamane fault zone

P98-2204* 0.04553 0.07431 1.820 98.06 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-2204A3* 0.11011 0.02255 1.108 98.76 n.d. n.d. n.d.
North zone
P99-120 0.01314 0.03965 1.815 98.12 n.d. 0.00209 0.00793
P98-992A 0.03115 0.10982 1.187 98.67 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1466 0.02624 0.03537 2.004 97.93 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1459 0.01426 0.03249 1.415 98.54 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1600 0.00938 0.02073 1.393 98.58 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1448 0.01479 0.03818 1.627 98.32 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1320A* 0.04923 0.08114 0.621 99.25 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P99-145 0.04043 0.09273 1.384 98.48 n.d. n.d. 0.00214
P99-178 0.06471 0.12656 0.718 99.09 0.00012 0.00112 n.d.
P99-178X3 0.05208 0.10255 0.575 99.27 n.d. 0.00063 n.d.
P98-611* 0.03041 0.04844 1.547 98.37 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-612B 0.03737 0.03717 1.444 98.48 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P98-1162 0.01551 0.03573 1.407 98.54 n.d. n.d. 0.00069
P98-1537 0.03908 0.09279 0.850 99.02 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P99-066C* 0.02413 0.04093 1.106 98.83 0.00003 0.00090 n.d.
P99-095B 0.06388 0.03546 1.846 98.05 n.d. n.d. n.d.
P99-197* 0.04013 0.05695 1.227 98.67 n.d. 0.00050 0.00243
P99-197X3* 0.04017 0.05789 1.167 98.73 0.00005 0.00061 0.00175
P98-1170 0.02100 0.04539 1.198 98.73 n.d. n.d. 0.00275
P99-231C 0.02351 0.09177 0.948 98.93 n.d. n.d. 0.00166

Notes: * = samples contain liquid- and vapor-rich fluid inclusions, for all other samples, the values correspond to the gas dissolved in the aqueous liquid
phase (see text); n.d. = not detected
1
The N2 peak is a composite peak of N2 + Ar + CO + O2
2
C2H6 values are combined values of C2H6 and C2H2
3
Two samples from the same quartz vein were analyzed; differences in concentrations may be due to crusher efficiency and abundance of fluid inclusions
in the sample or to the proportion of liquid- versus vapor-rich inclusions

TABLE 5. Ion Chromatographic Analyses (in millimoles per liter) of Fluid Inclusions in Quartz

Sample no. Cl–

Br– ΣS1 Li+ Na+ NH+4 K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Q+/Q– Q+/Q–corr2

Roamane fault zone

P98-2204 633 1.62 n.a. n.d. 2008 0 828 n.a. n.a. 4.47 0.28
P98-2204A3 298 0.40 75.1 2.41 448 27 153 n.d. 0.0 1.95 0.85
North zone
P99-120 529 0.42 99.8 1.72 584 56 81 2.8 184.9 2.20 0.61
P98-992A 429 0.63 26.0 4.40 620 0 0 0.0 0.0 1.30 0.09
P99-066C 609 0.68 89.6 5.77 876 55 47 0.0 28.3 1.94 1.12
P98-1537 347 0.50 74.4 5.51 479 37 0 0.0 0.0 1.71 0.90
P98-1320A 575 0.69 42.3 3.08 776 16 100 2.5 15.7 1.63 1.09
P98-1448 485 0.71 89.8 5.16 884 23 0 0.0 0.0 1.68 0.73
P98-1466 538 0.75 96.9 4.58 996 18 30 0.0 0.0 1.65 0.67
P98-1170 539 0.52 n.a. 1.58 829 0 372 n.a. n.a. 2.23 1.03
P99-145 353 0.36 0.0 6.04 462 12 121 0.0 0.0 2.00 0.65
P99-178 474 0.65 18.5 6.47 654 43 28 7.0 0.0 2.20 1.27
P99-178X3 279 0.53 n.a. 4.85 545 n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 1.97 0.94
P98-611 335 0.31 42.1 8.80 473 20 371 0.0 0.0 2.50 0.85
P98-1600 420 0.56 69.9 5.44 780 14 24 0.0 0.0 1.70 0.73
P98-1162 446 0.65 71.1 3.40 780 12 0 0.0 0.0 1.54 0.68
P98-1459 356 0.36 44.6 3.89 557 30 0 0.0 0.0 1.94 0.72
P98-612B 495 0.54 76.6 3.32 904 14 281 0.0 0.0 2.05 0.94
P99-095B 510 0.63 226.4 2.97 1126 10 28 0.0 0.0 1.31 0.65
P99-197 399 0.50 90.2 4.32 731 23 0 0.0 0.0 1.66 0.78
P99-197X 3 310 0.28 n.a. 2.60 613 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.98 0.66
P99-231C 421 0.51 32.6 1.25 659 0 0 0.0 0.0 1.36 0.67

Notes: corr = corrected, n.a. = not analyzed, n.d. = not detected

1
Values of ΣS were measured as SO2– 2–
4 , but this analysis includes the actual concentration of SO4 in the fluid plus an unknown amount of reduced S,
which may be partially or fully oxidized in the chromatograph column; thus, H2S, if present, would not have been detected, and the measured SO2– 4 value
gives a minimum estimate of the total amount of sulfur in the fluid
2 –
Q+/Q– is the cation/anion ratio and Q+/Q–corr is the cation/anion ratio corrected for the presence of CO2 dissolved as HCO3 (after Channer and Spooner,
1992; see text for details)
3
Two samples from the same quartz vein were analyzed; differences in concentrations may be due to crusher efficiency and relative abundance of low-
versus high-salinity fluid inclusions in the sample

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854 RONACHER ET AL.

TABLE 6. Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Data for Fluid Inclusion Water from quartz (in per mil relative to V-SMOW)

Sample no. δ18Oquartz Average Th (°C) δ18OH2O1 δ18OH2O2 δDH2O

Roamane fault zone3

P2.Q1 17.7 136 3.2 –46
–
P17.Q1 18.1 141 4.0 62
P18.Q1 18.9 144 5.0 –48
P39.Q1 18.7 139 4.4 –52
P45.Q1 18.8 148 5.2 –42
P46.Q1 17.1 130 2.0 –34
P123.Q1 18.5 134 3.8 –57
P124.Q1 18.4 144 4.5 –45
P98-2204 18.3 131 3.3 5.2 –64

North zone
P98-1576 16.4 144 0.6 2.7 –63
P98-981 16.5 No workable fluid inclusions
P98-992 15.2 157 0.6 2.5 –67
P98-1466 14.9 145 –0.8 1.3 –55
P98-1600 15.1 139 –1.1 1.1 –57
P98-1448 13.9 149 –1.4 0.6 –77
P98-1413 16.5 127 –0.9 1.5
P98-701 15.8 137 –0.6 1.2
P98-1631 17.0 145 1.3 3.4 –64
P98-1379 14.8 150 –0.5 1.6 –58
P98-846 15.9 148 0.5 2.6 –53
P98-1111 16.4 132 –0.5 1.8
P98-611 14.6 156 –0.1 1.9 –57
P98-1162 14.5 161 0.2 2.1 –52
P98-1537 13.9 151 –1.2 0.8 –81
P98-1164 17.6 163 3.5 5.4 –64
P98-1170 16.9 153 1.2 3.2 –66
P98-1833 16.7 No workable fluid inclusions –76
P98-1835 17.9 167 4.1 5.9

1 Calculated assuming average Th ≈ Tt; fractionation equation of Clayton et al. (1972)

2 Calculated using average Th +25°C; fractionation equation of Clayton et al. (1972)
3 The values for the Roamane fault zone are from Richards and Kerrich (1993)

vug-filling carbonate) range from 15.2 to 16.6 per mil (avg
15.9 ± 0.5‰, n = 5), and δ18O of the fluid was calculated
using the equation of Zheng (1999) for ankerite and assum-
ing an equilibrium temperature of 160°C. The resulting
δ18OH2O values range from 2.2 to 3.6 per mil (avg 2.9 ±
0.5‰, n = 5).
Hydrogen isotope ratios of water in fluid inclusions in stage
II quartz range from –81 to –52 per mil.
Carbon: Carbon isotopes were analyzed in stage II vein car-
bonate intergrown with coarse-grained quartz, in organic car-
bon and carbonate from the sedimentary country rocks, and
in one sample of CO2 from bulk inclusion fluid (Table 7).
Stage II carbonates have a narrow δ13C range of –3.3 to –2.4
per mil, with an average value of –2.7 per mil (± 0.3‰, n =
6). The δ13C values for carbonate in unaltered mudstones and
siltstones are between –1.5 and 0.0 per mil (avg –0.9 ± 0.6‰,
n = 4), whereas carbonate in altered rocks has δ13C values of
–5.4 to –4.0 per mil (avg –4.6 ± 0.5‰, n = 4). Organic carbon
in the sedimentary rocks has δ13C values from –23.6 to –16.8
per mil (avg –20.7 ± 2.2 ‰, n = 6). The δ13CCO2 of CO2 in
fluid inclusions from sample P98-2204 is –9.5 per mil.
Sulfur: The δ34S values of sulfur in pyrite range from –9.4
to 6.1 per mil, and values for late, vug-filling anhydrite range
from 12.4 to 17.5 per mil (n = 8; Table 8). Whole-rock sulfur
isotope ratios of the sedimentary host rocks were determined
on a carbonaceous mudstone (δ34S = 2.1‰), on a calc-aren-
ite (δ34S = 5.9‰), and on an altered carbonaceous mudstone
(δ34S = –12.7‰). Petrographic observations show that essen-
tially all sulfur in these rocks is in pyrite.
Interpretation of Analytical Data
Fluid inclusion microthermometry
No pressure correction was applied to the Th values because
of local evidence for boiling (i.e., similar average Th values for
fluid inclusion groups with and without coexisting vapor-rich in-
clusions, see Table 2). The highest average Th in stage II quartz
is 167° ± 25°C (Th of individual inclusions is up to 200°C), and
this sample (P98-1835) contains vapor-rich, heterogeneously
trapped inclusions, indicating that boiling took place at this tem-
perature (Th ≈ Tt). Ronacher et al. (2000a) estimated the trap-
ping pressure of a group of fluid inclusions to be between ~250
and 340 bars. Given the estimated depth of ore deposition of 2.0
to 2.5 km (Davies, 1983; Fleming et al., 1986), hydrostatic pres-
sure at these depths is ~200 to 250 bars, slightly below the
calculated pressure of Ronacher et al. (2000a) and suggesting
overpressuring of hydrothermal fluid. This is consistent with
hydraulic fracturing and brecciation in the veins.

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 855

TABLE 7. Carbon Isotope Values for Carbonate and Organic Carbon from Various Rocks from Porgera, Stage II Vein Carbonate,
and for CO2 in Inclusion Fluids (in ‰ relative to V-PDB)

Sample no. Description δ13Ccarb δ13Corg-shale δ13CCO2 δ18Ocarb δ18Ofluid

P98-1538 Stage II carbonate –2.4 16.6 3.6

P98-1532 Stage II carbonate –2.6 15.5 2.5
P98-1325 Stage II carbonate –2.5 16.2 3.2
P98-1537 Stage II carbonate –2.7 16.0 3.0
P98-1344 Stage II carbonate –3.3 15.2 2.2
P144 Carbonaceous mudstone (Om Fm) –1.5 –20.0
RJR-69 Altered (qtz, carbonate, pyrite) Chim Fm1 –4.6 –22.9
RJR-75 Altered (qtz, carbonate, pyrite) Chim Fm1 –5.4 –20.3
P139 Mudstone (Chim Fm) –0.8 –20.5
P141 Siltstone 0.0 –16.8
RJR-68 Altered (qtz, carbonate, pyrite) Chim Fm1 –4.0 –23.6
RJR-74 Calc-arenite (disseminated py; altered?; Chim Fm) –4.3
RJR-73 Calc-arenite (Chim Fm) –1.4
P143 Limestone (Nipa Gr)2 1.2
P98-2204 Inclusion fluid –9.5

Notes: δ18Ofluid calculated using the equation of Zheng (1999) for ankerite and a temperature of 160°C; abbreviations: carb = carbonate, Fm = formation,
Gr = group, org = organic, qtz = quartz, py = pyrite
1 Carbonaceous mudstone
2 Nipa Gr limestone overlies the Porgera deposit; analysis from Richards and Kerrich (1993)

Apparent fluid inclusion salinities, shown in Table 2 and in Richards and Kerrich (1993) in which most samples have bi-
Figures 6 and 7, exhibit three patterns: (1) most salinities modal populations with modes at 4.3 ± 0.4 (n = 119) and 7.8
cluster between ~7 and ~9 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 7a-b), ± 0.7 wt percent NaCl equiv (n = 439).
(2) a bimodal distribution of ~4 to ~5 and ~7 to ~9 wt percent Because CO2 concentrations are not known for all samples,
NaCl equiv was observed in several samples (Fig. 7e-f), and a general correction of the apparent salinities is not possible.
(3) some samples display a full range of salinities from ~4 to However, for those samples where the CO2 concentration is
~10 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 7c-d). The majority of sam- known salinities were corrected according to Hedenquist and
ples from the North zone (19 of 27) fall in group one, whereas Henley (1985): Tm = –(KNa+ × mNa+ + KCl– × mCl– + KCO2 ×
six samples have a bimodal distribution of salinities, and three mCO2), where Tm is the melting point of ice, KNa+ and KCl– are
have a range of salinities. The fluid inclusion salinities in the 1.72 Kelvin/mol, and KCO2 = 1.86 Kelvin/mol, and mCO2 is the
sample from the Roamane fault zone (P98-2204) are distrib- molality of CO2. Corrections applied to the data in Table 9 are
uted bimodally, consistent with data previously reported by between 0.9 and 2.5 wt percent NaCl equiv.
Calculations of salinity based on Na+ and Cl– concentra-
tions obtained from ion chromatography (Table 9) are con-
TABLE 8. δ34S Data for Pyrite and Late, Vug-Filling Anhydrite/Gypsum sidered less reliable than CO2-corrected ice melting temper-
from the North Zone and the Roamane Fault Zone
(in ‰ relative to V-CDT) atures because of the unknown concentrations of additional
anions such as bicarbonate (e.g., Richards et al., 1997).
Sample no. Mineral Area δ34S (‰) Three samples from the North zone (P98-611, P98-1164,
P98-145) show a range of salinities from ~4.5 to ~10.0 wt per-
P98-2204 Stage II pyrite Roamane fault zone 6.0
P98-1466 Stage II pyrite North zone –8.2
cent NaCl equiv, suggesting fluid mixing between a high- and
P98-1459 Stage II pyrite North zone 2.5 a low-salinity fluid of about the same temperature. The range
P98-1600 Stage II pyrite North zone –6.7 of salinities is therefore interpreted to represent a dilution
P98-145 Stage II pyrite North zone 1.7 trend. In the five other samples where two fluids were ob-
P98-1162 Stage II pyrite North zone 6.1 served (P98-120, P98-1537, P98-178, P98-197, P98-231), the
P98-1170 Stage II pyrite North zone –9.4
P99-197 Stage II pyrite North zone 1.0 salinity trend was not continuous but bimodal. Hence, in situ
P97-2 Anhydrite, vug filling North zone 12.4 mixing cannot be inferred in these samples.
P97-6 Anhydrite, vug filling North zone 17.5 In samples that contain both high- and low-salinity fluid in-
P97-16 Gypsum, vug filling North zone 14.7 clusions, the high-salinity inclusions occur close to the vein
P97-93 Anhydrite, vug filling Roamane fault zone 16.0
P97-94 Anhydrite, vug filling Roamane fault zone 16.0
edge and the low-salinity inclusions occur toward the vein
P97-95 Anhydrite, vug filling Roamane fault zone 17.0 center, suggesting that these fluids were not present coevally
P97-96 Anhydrite, vug filling Roamane fault zone 17.2 in these veins. However, the different fluid inclusion popula-
P98-2206 Anhydrite, vug filling Roamane fault zone 17.2 tions do not correlate with a particular vein type. For exam-
P144 Mudstone (Om Formation) Host rocks1 2.1 ple, two of the three samples that show a dilution trend are
RJR-145 Calc-arenite Host rocks1 5.9
RJR-68 Mudstone quartz veins with a roscoelite-pyrite-quartz band at the vein
(Chim Formation) Altered host rocks1 –12.7 edges (P98-611, P98-1164), and the third sample (P99-145) is
a breccia vein with angular clasts of altered mudstone in a
1 Sulfur in pyrite matrix of quartz and minor carbonate. Likewise, the samples

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856 RONACHER ET AL.

TABLE 9. Average Inclusion Fluid Salinity Corrected for the Presence of CO2 in the Fluid Inclusions and
Salinity Estimated from Cl– and Na+ Concentrations Analyzed by Ion Chromatography

Salinity based on Cl– Salinity based on Na+

Salinity1 (uncorrected; CO2 Salinity corrected for concentration3 concentration4
2
Sample no. wt % NaCl equiv) (mol %) CO2 (wt % NaCl equiv) (wt % NaCl equiv) (wt % NaCl equiv)

P99-120 6.2, 8.2 1.815 5.6 3.2 5.4

P98-992 9.6 1.187 8.0 2.6 6.0
P98-2204A 4.7, 8.6 1.108 5.9 1.8 3.7
P98-1466 8.4 2.004 5.5 3.2 6.7
P98-1459 8.1 1.415 6.1 2.2 5.1
P98-1600 9.0 1.393 7.0 2.5 5.6
P98-1448 8.5 1.627 6.1 2.9 7.5
P98-1320 7.9 0.621 7.0 3.5 4.6
P99-145 7.1 1.384 5.0 2.1 6.0
P99-178 5.0, 7.8 0.718 6.7 2.9 5.1
P98-612B 8.3 1.444 6.2 3.0 5.8
P98-611 7.4 1.547 5.1 2.1 6.1
P98-1162 8.2 1.407 6.1 2.7 5.3
P98-1537 4.8, 6.8 0.850 5.5 2.1 4.1
P99-066C 8.7 1.106 7.1 3.7 6.9
P99-095C 8.4 1.846 5.7 3.1 5.9
P99-197 4.8, 8.1 1.227 6.3 2.4 4.6
P98-1170 8.5 1.198 6.8 3.2 4.9
P99-231 4.4, 8.8 1.182 7.0 2.7 4.9

Note that only the high-salinity values were corrected for CO2 because clathrate was not observed in the low-salinity inclusions
1 Salinity calculated from ice melting point (Table 2); the two values for salinity represent the low- and the high-salinity group
2 Salinity calculated according to the method outlined by Hedenquist and Henley (1985)
3 Salinity calculated assuming all Cl– analyzed by ion chromatography is present in the fluid as NaCl
4 Salinity calculated assuming all Na+ analyzed by ion chromatography is present in the fluid as NaCl

exhibiting a bimodal salinity distribution have a variety of tex-
tures. Samples P98-1537 and P99-197 are breccia veins with
quartz and carbonate matrix and thin (1-mm) bands of
roscoelite-pyrite-quartz rimming the wall rock (visible gold was
found in sample P99-197). Sample P98-120 is an ~2-cm-thick
quartz vein with thin (~2-mm) roscoelite bands. Sample P99-
178 is an 8-cm-thick quartz vein with thin (~1-mm) roscoelite
bands in quartz (this sample also contained visible gold). Sam-
ple P99-231 consists of a network of quartz veinlets and veins
(1 mm to 1 cm thick), where the wider veins contain small
clasts of black shale rimmed by roscoelite and abundant visible
gold. The high-salinity fluid inclusions occur in all vein types.
Whereas there are clear dilution trends that are interpreted
to be the result of fluid mixing, vapor-rich fluid inclusions co-
existing with liquid-rich inclusions in some samples (Fig. 5c)
indicate that boiling also took place during the formation of at
least some stage II quartz veins. Although gold was observed
to be closely intergrown with quartz containing coexisting liq-
uid- and vapor-rich fluid inclusions in one sample from a
high-grade area close to the Roamane fault zone (Ronacher et
al., 2000b), this relationship was not observed in the samples
from the North zone. In the former case, a direct link be-
tween boiling and gold precipitation was suggested
(Ronacher et al., 2000b), but this correlation is unclear for the
North zone. Both boiling and mixing occurred locally over the
entire depth extent of the North zone and it is not possible to
clearly distinguish zones where boiling or mixing dominated.
Fluid inclusion gas contents
The gas contents of samples containing liquid-rich inclu-
sions only and samples with coexisting liquid- and vapor-rich
inclusions are the same, within error. The average CO2 con-
tent of samples containing liquid-rich inclusions is 1.31 ± 0.40
mol percent (n = 16) and that of samples containing rare
vapor-rich inclusions in addition to liquid-rich inclusions is
1.13 ± 0.30 mol percent (n = 4). This similarity suggests that
the contribution of gas from gas-rich inclusions did not affect
the analyses, and this is consistent with the small number of
gas-rich inclusions observed. However, certain gases, particu-
larly C2H6, appear to be more abundant in samples with a bi-
modal distribution of salinities. For example, three of the five
samples that show bimodal salinity distribution also contain
ethane (0.0005–0.00209 mol % C2H6), whereas only one of 11
samples with high salinities only contains C2H6 (0.0009 mol
%). No clear correlation between gas content and salinity pat-
terns or vein textures could be observed for the other gases.
Ion chromatography
Br–/Cl– ratios of Porgera fluids range from 0.8 × 10–3 to 1.9
× 10–3 with one outlier of 2.6 × 10–3 (avg value of 1.2 ± 0.2
× 10–3, n = 22). These values overlap with the Br–/Cl– ratio of
modern seawater (1.5 × 10–3) and lie just outside the value
reported for magmatic water (~0.9 × 10–3) by Böhlke and
Irwin (1992).
I– was not determined in the present study, however, Fig-
ure 8 shows a Br–/Cl– versus I–/Cl– diagram with data for
Porgera from Richards et al. (1997) in comparison to data for
seawater, Broadlands and Wairakei, New Zealand, and Yel-
lowstone from Böhlke and Irwin (1992). The Br–/Cl– ratios of
most samples from Porgera are similar to the Br–/Cl– ratios
for geothermal waters from Broadlands and Wairakei as well
as to seawater, but they show much higher I–/Cl– ratios than

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG
3 10
2.5
Br/Cl (x10 -3)
2 felsic magmatic
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150
-6
I/Cl (x10 )
– – – –
FIG. 8. Br /Cl vs. I /Cl in fluid inclusion water (from Richards et al.,
– – – –
1997). The Br /Cl of seawater falls within the range of Br /Cl ratios of the
– –
Porgera fluid, but the two fluids have distinctly different I /Cl ratios. Values
from Broadlands and Wairakei (New Zealand) and Yellowstone (United
States) are shown for reference (Böhlke and Irwin, 1992).
seawater, and higher I–/Cl– ratios than the New Zealand geo-
thermal waters. Böhlke and Irwin (1992) attributed the high
I–/Cl– values (up to ~200 × 10–6) in some waters to reaction
with organic-rich material. Similarly, Kendrick et al. (2001)
attributed I–/Cl– values of 121 × 10–6 in porphyry Cu deposits
to mixing of magmatic water with a sedimentary formation
water. A similar explanation may apply to Porgera.
The Br–/Cl– ratio of seawater (1.5 × 10–3) falls within the
range of Br–/Cl– ratios of Porgera fluid (avg 1.3 ± 0.3 × 10–3),
which may indicate a contribution from a connate seawater
because the sedimentary rocks that surround the Porgera In-
trusive Complex are Cretaceous to Tertiary marine shelf sed-
iments (Davies, 1983). Alternatively, the same signature could
be a result of interaction of a fluid with shales; the Br–/Cl– ra-
tios of modern shales analyzed by Walter et al. (1989) and
Kharaka et al. (1977) range from 0.9 to 2.6 × 10–3, and the
Porgera values fall within this range.
Stable isotopes
Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes: Oxygen isotope compositions
of water in equilibrium with quartz fall between the values
typical of meteoric water and Porgera magmatic water
(Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Fig. 9). Hydrogen isotope com-
positions of stage II water range from slightly lower than
Porgera magmatic water to within the range of Porgera mag-
matic water. For comparison, Richards and Kerrich’s (1993)
data from the Roamane fault zone are also plotted in Figure
9.
Both the oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of
water in fluid inclusions from the samples from the North
zone are lower than those from the Roamane fault zone
(Richards and Kerrich, 1993). This difference is not an arti-
fact of the different Th values used to calculate δ18OH2O and is
interpreted to reflect a real difference in the isotopic compo-
sition of the fluid from which stage II veins formed in the
Roamane fault zone and in the North zone.
There is no correlation between oxygen and hydrogen iso-
tope data and fluid inclusion salinity. For example, samples
P98-611 and P98-1164 both show a dilution trend but corre-
sponding δ18OH2O values are at the opposite ends of the
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857
North Zone
SMOW
Roamane Fault Zone
-10
-30
δDH2O (%o )
L water
W
Porgera M
Broadlands -50
Wairakei Porgera
Seawater -70 magmatic
Yellowstone MORB water
-90 fluid
Porgera mine water
200 250 300
-110
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10
δ OH2O (%o )
18
FIG. 9. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope data of water in equilibrium with
stage II quartz. δ18OH2O was calculated from δ18Oquartz using the fractionation
equation of Clayton et al. (1972) and measured homogenization tempera-
tures (assumed to be the trapping temperatures; see text for details). The iso-
topic composition of present-day Porgera mine water is plotted for reference
(data from Richards and Kerrich, 1993). The filled circles represent data
from the North zone (this study), whereas the open circles represent data
from the Roamane fault zone (Richards and Kerrich, 1993). Note that for the
samples from Richards and Kerrich (1993) a 25°C temperature correction
was applied to the Th to calculate δ18OH2O from δ18Oquartz because no clear ev-
idence for boiling was observed in the fluid inclusion record from these sam-
ples. Ranges for MORB fluid and felsic magmatic arc water from Taylor
(1986). Ranges for Porgera magmatic water are from Richards and Kerrich
(1993). MWL = meteoric water line.
range, i.e., –0.5 and 3.1 per mil, respectively. Likewise, there
is no relationship between δ18OH2O or δDH2O and vein tex-
tures. The δ18OH2O values of breccias range from –1.2 to 3.3
per mil, and the δ18OH2O values of quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-
gold veins range from –0.1 to 3.5 per mil.
Carbon isotopes: The average carbonate carbon isotope
composition of altered sedimentary rocks is –4.6 per mil,
which is similar to that of stage I carbonates (from –7.1 to
–4.5‰). Richards and Kerrich (1993) interpreted these val-
ues to reflect a magmatic origin for the fluid that altered the
sedimentary rocks and formed the stage I carbonate veins.
Unaltered sedimentary rocks show an average carbonate car-
bon isotope composition of –0.9 ± 0.6 per mil (n = 4). The av-
erage value of stage II carbonate is –2.7 ± 0.3 per mil (n = 6)
and is intermediate between the magmatic and sedimentary
values, suggesting that mixing between magmatic and sedi-
mentary carbon may have occurred.
The δ13C value of CO2 in fluid inclusions from one sample
of stage II quartz was –9.5 per mil. This value is similar to
some active geothermal systems where CO2 is thought to be
magmatic (e.g., –6.9 to –9.1‰ at Broadlands; Lyon and Hul-
ston, 1984). The carbonate isotope composition of stage II
carbonates is consistent with a δ13C value of –9.5 per mil and
the fractionation between CO2 and carbonate (~6‰ at 150°C
for siderite, which is considered to be a proxy for Porgera
stage II Ca-Fe-Mg carbonates; Hoefs, 1997). The δ13C of Fe-
rich carbonate in equilibrium with a fluid having a δ13CCO2 of
–9.5 is –3.5 per mil, similar to the analyzed average value of
857
858 RONACHER ET AL.
–2.7 ± 0.3 per mil. However, other sources of light carbon are
discussed below.
Sulfur isotopes: The variable δ34S values for pyrite from the
North zone suggest that isotopic equilibrium between H2S in
the hydrothermal fluid and pyrite was not reached, possibly
because of the slow reaction kinetics at temperatures below
200°C (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Ohmoto and Goldhaber,
1997). The negative δ34S values for pyrite may be due to a
change in oxidation state of the hydrothermal fluid (Ohmoto
and Rye, 1979; Ohmoto and Goldhaber, 1997). For example,
oxidation accompanying boiling may result in formation of
sulfides with negative δ34S values from heavier sulfur (Drum-
mond and Ohmoto, 1985; McKibben and Eldridge, 1990).
The sedimentary host rocks are characterized by positive δ34S
values (2.1 and 5.9‰) except for the altered mudstone
(–12.7‰), indicating a significant change in either the S
source or the oxidation state of sulfur in altered relative to un-
altered mudstones.
The δ34S values of late anhydrite (12.4–17.5‰) are similar
to the sulfur isotope values of sulfate in seawater, suggesting
that evolved seawater descending in faults during the waning
stages of the hydrothermal system could have caused the for-
mation of the late anhydrite. Porgera was formed slightly
prior to or during the onset of tectonic uplift or synuplift,
which makes the involvement of seawater plausible (Hill and
Gleadow, 1989; Hill and Raza, 1999).
Constraints on Fluid Sources and
Hydrothermal Processes
Bimodal salinity distribution and mixing
The fluid inclusions in stage II quartz provide evidence
for two fluids with different apparent salinities. This may be
explained by the existence of two fluids of different salini-
ties but similar Th that had access to the veins at different
times during the evolution of the hydrothermal system.
This is further supported by the observation that the low-
salinity inclusions occur toward the vein center, whereas
the high-salinity inclusions cluster near the vein edge. The
higher salinity fluid could have been a deep fluid that had
cooled upon ascent, whereas the lower salinity fluid may
have been a formation water at the ambient temperature at
2.0- to 2.5-km depth. The formation water appears to have
been ~150°C at this depth, suggesting a geothermal gradi-
ent of ~50°C/km. Such a gradient may be realistic for the
aureole of a shallow-level intrusive complex. Alternatively,
Richards and Kerrich (1993) suggested that both fluid
sources were deep.
The presence of a range of apparent salinities in a minority
of samples also suggests that the two fluids may have mixed.
The fact that a continuous salinity trend is present in at least
some of the samples suggests that this process may have oc-
curred locally.
The possibility of CO2 degassing as cause of the higher ap-
parent salinity is excluded because the CO2-corrected salinity
values are still higher than the low-salinity values.
Boiling
The three-phase inclusions containing liquid CO2, CO2
vapor, and liquid H2O are interpreted to have been trapped
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heterogeneously during boiling because final total homoge-
nization (Th(total)) occurred to the vapor in some and to the liq-
uid phase in others; Th(total) of some of the inclusions could not
be measured because of decrepitation, and where it could be
measured, Th(total) exceeded Th of the liquid-rich inclusions by
more than 120°C. Such three-phase, CO2-rich inclusions ap-
pear to be rare in epithermal deposits, although they have
been described (Belkin et al., 1985). High CO2 concentra-
tions in fluid inclusions were reported from the Cripple
Creek district, Nevada (Thompson et al., 1985), the Bessie G
deposit, Colorado (Saunders and May, 1986), and from the
epithermal gold deposits in the Baguio district, Philippines
(0.06–0.73 mol % CO2, Sawkins et al., 1979). The distribution
of CO2-rich fluid inclusions suggests that hydrothermal sys-
tems in alkalic rocks are richer in CO2 than are systems in
calc-alkaline rocks (Mutschler and Mooney, 1993; Richards,
1995; Jensen and Barton, 2000).
The importance of CO2 in increasing the pressure at which
boiling occurs was stressed by Barton and Chou (1993) who
found that even small, undetected concentrations of CO2 can
significantly increase the depth of boiling and can thus have
an impact on the depth of epithermal-type ore deposition
(Wilkinson, 2001). CO2 was not the only gas contributing to
the boiling point depression at Porgera; CH4 and N2 also
occur in the inclusion fluid, and these components may have
an even greater effect than CO2 in deepening the onset of
boiling because of their greater volatility (Price, 1981; Duan
et al., 1992). Duan et al. (1992) plotted CO2-CH4 solubility in
a 5 wt percent NaCl equiv fluid at 149°C and 345 bars from
the data of Price (1981) and showed that CH4 decreases the
solubility of CO2 significantly. The P-T-salinity conditions of
the model of Duan et al. (1992) resemble the conditions at
Porgera, and Richards et al. (1997) superimposed the Porgera
CH4 and CO2 data (from the Roamane fault zone) on the
curve of Duan et al. (1992). Richard et al. (1997) showed that
most of the data points fall close to the curve, suggesting that
the Porgera fluids may have been saturated with gas (Fig. 10).
We added the new gas data from the North zone to the plot
of Richards et al.(1997), and most of the gas data from the
North zone (circles in Fig. 10) fall slightly above the CO2-CH4
solubility curve of Duan et al. (1992), which suggests that the
conditions at which the saturation curve was modeled may
not be correct for the North zone. Higher pressures may have
prevailed in the North zone where boiling was less common
than in the Roamane fault zone. Because the Roamane fault
is a major fault, the pressure may have been lower (i.e., closer
to hydrostatic) than in the North zone, which is a smaller
splay. Richards and Kerrich (1993) suggested that the brec-
cias observed dominantly in the Roamane fault zone are con-
sistent with boiling in this area. In addition, they interpreted
the fine-grained silica margins that they observed in stage II
veins from the Roamane fault zone as having formed during
rapid precipitation due to boiling.
Possible fluid source(s)
Br/Cl and I/Cl data for Porgera fluids (Richards et al., 1997;
this study) can be interpreted in a number of ways. Porgera
fluids have Br/Cl ratios that are similar to that of modern sea-
water, but the I/Cl ratios are higher. These fluids bear a closer
resemblance to geothermal fluids and particularly those fluids
858
 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG
0.40
liquid-rich only inclusions
liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions
0.30 data from Richards et al. (1997)
CH4 (mole%)
from the Roamane Fault Zone
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
CO2 (mole%)
FIG. 10. Solubility of CO2 and CH4 in a 5 wt percent NaCl equiv solution
at 150°C and 345 bars (from Price, 1981, and Duan et al., 1992). Data from
Porgera are overlain on the curve. Black circles represent samples that con-
tain liquid-rich inclusions only, and open circles represent samples that con-
tain vapor- in addition to liquid-rich inclusions. Triangles represent data from
Richards et al. (1997).
that have reacted with organic matter. However, some contri-
bution from connate fluids of seawater composition cannot be
ruled out.
CH4 and N2 concentrations in the Porgera fluid (0.0225 to
0.1226 and 0.0094–0.1375 mol %, respectively) appear to be
high compared to data from other epithermal deposits (e.g.,
0.0002–0.0100 mol % CH4, and from 0.0096–0.0724 mol %
N2 at Acupan, Philippines, Sawkins et al., 1979; 0.013 mol %
CH4 and 0.029 mol % N2 at Ladolam, Lihir Island, Papua
New Guinea, Müller et al., 2002). A potential source of CH4
and N2 is the organic-rich sedimentary rocks into which the
Porgera Intrusive Complex was emplaced. A contribution of
methane gas from the sediments might also have been im-
portant for ore formation. Richards et al. (1997) showed that
CH4 was critical for boiling to occur under the pressure and
temperature conditions during stage II vein formation.
Although the δ13C of CO2 in fluid inclusions (–9.5‰) is
similar to that of magmatic CO2 in modern geothermal sys-
tems, the slightly lower value for the Porgera sample may be
due to a contribution of light carbon from pyrolysis or hy-
drolysis of organic matter or graphite (e.g., 2C + 2H2O → CO2
+ CH4; Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). Given that the average
δ13Corganic of the Porgera shales is –20.7 ± 2.2 per mil (n = 6)
and that the expected fractionation between graphite and
CO2 at temperatures below 300°C is between 12 and 14 per
mil, the analyzed δ13CCO2 value of –9.5 per mil could reflect a
contribution of light carbon from the shales.
NH+4 concentrations in the Porgera inclusion fluids are high
(up to 61 mmol/kg) relative to waters from geothermal sys-
tems (e.g., 0.1–1.0 mmol/kg at Fushime, Japan: Akaku et al.,
1991; 0.05 mmol/kg at Wairakei, New Zealand: White et al.,
1963). The Porgera ammonium concentrations are also high
relative to brines, such as Searles Brine Lake, California (~1
mmol/kg, White et al., 1963). Slightly higher values were
recorded from sedimentary formation waters (2–4 mmol/kg,
Merino, 1975), and even higher values were detected in hy-
drothermal solutions from the Guayamas basin, Gulf of Cali-
fornia (up to 15.6 mmol/kg NH4+: Von Damm et al., 1985b). In
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859
comparison, solutions from oceanic spreading centers such as
the East Pacific Rise contain <0.01 mmol/kg (Von Damm et
al., 1985 a, b; Viets et al., 1996; Cruse and Seewald, 2001).
Von Damm et al. (1985b) attributed the higher NH+4 concen-
trations to interaction of the hydrothermal solution with or-
ganic sediments in the Guayamas basin. A similar source
seems likely for the Porgera fluids.
A further indication of interaction of the hydrothermal fluid
with the sedimentary country rocks is the presence of higher
hydrocarbon species, such as C2H4 and C2H6 (including
C2H2; see Table 4) in the fluid inclusions. Although these
species are present in minor amounts, they are most likely of
organic origin and are thus useful for tracing fluid sources
(e.g., Norman et al., 1997; Brathwaite and Faure, 2002). Liq-
uid hydrocarbons also were observed in fluid inclusions in
some samples from the North zone, and these may have been
derived from the organic-rich sedimentary rocks into which
the Porgera Intrusive Complex was emplaced and which
partly host mineralized veins. The hydrocarbons occur in
both the high- and low-salinity inclusions. The latter could
represent formation waters in the organic-rich sedimentary
rocks.
Richards and Kerrich (1993) explained the negative
δ34Spyrite (–14.0 to –1.6‰) values in the Roamane fault zone
by oxidation of magmatic sulfur due to boiling. The difference
in the range of δ34Spyrite values between the North zone and
the Roamane fault zone suggests that the precipitation
process operating in the North zone was either different or
only partly the same as in the Roamane fault zone, with addi-
tional processes operating in the North zone. The sulfur
source for stage II pyrite remains ambiguous, and both mag-
matic sulfur and sedimentary sulfur may have contributed to
the system.
Richards et al. (1991) analyzed the lead isotope composi-
tions of igneous rocks (Porgera Intrusive Complex), sedimen-
tary host rocks of the Chim and Om Formations, and gold and
sulfides of stages I and II mineralization. They found that the
lead isotope compositions of gold and sulfides fall between
the lead isotope compositions of the igneous and sedimentary
rocks and concluded tentatively that the hydrothermal miner-
als incorporated a mixture of lead from the Chim Formation,
the Om Formation, and igneous lead.
The δ18OH2O and δDH2O values for the Porgera hydrother-
mal fluid from quartz, carbonate, and fluid inclusion water
suggest the presence of both a magmatic and a meteoric
water component. Samples from the Roamane fault zone
tend to record higher δ18OH2O and δDH2O values, which may
indicate different proportions of magmatic and meteoric
water in the two areas.
The analyzed fluid chemistry and the observed salinity dis-
tributions suggest that two distinct fluids were involved in the
hydrothermal system. One end member (salinity of ~6 wt %
NaCl equiv, Th ≈ 160°C) may have been a magmatically de-
rived fluid ascending from depth, whereas the second fluid
(salinity of ~3 wt % NaCl equiv, Th ≈ 150°C) could have been
formation water hosted by the country rock surrounding the
Porgera Intrusive Complex. These two fluids appear locally to
have mixed at the level of vein formation as suggested by Th-
salinity plots of samples P98-1164 and P99-145, but in other
samples (e.g., P98-1537 and P99-231) the fluid inclusion
859
860 RONACHER ET AL.

record shows no evidence for mixing. In another group of The initial temperature of the solution at the start of reac-
samples (e.g., P98-1576 and P99-066C), the high-salinity tion was set at 170°C, corresponding to the highest average
fluid was undergoing boiling, as indicated by heterogeneously fluid inclusion homogenization temperature measured in
trapped fluid inclusions. Thus, it appears that both boiling stage II quartz.
and fluid mixing were involved in vein formation at Porgera.
Composition of the mixing solution
Numerical Modeling To simulate fluid mixing, a separate fluid corresponding to
Numerical modeling was conducted to test the effective- sedimentary formation water was chosen because fluid inclu-
ness of boiling, fluid mixing, fluid-rock reaction, and simple sion data and ion chromatography indicate the involvement of
cooling for vein deposition in the North zone of the Porgera such a fluid (see above). We produced a deep ground water
deposit. The computer program CHILLER (Reed, 1982, that had equilibrated with the sedimentary rocks that host the
1998) was used to model boiling, mixing, cooling, and wall- Porgera Intrusive Complex, i.e., siltstones and mudstones and
rock reaction. minor sandstones typical of shelf sediments (Davies, 1983;
Gunson et al., 2000). The known composition of a mudstone
Starting solution composition and modeling conditions (Richards, 1990b) was equilibrated with seawater (simplified
The composition of the inferred high-salinity fluid at Porg- from Berner and Berner, 1996) to simulate formation water
era was estimated using gas and ion chromatography data (Table 11).
from fluid inclusions and the mineral paragenesis observed in
stage II veins (Table 10). Average values of Cl–, Na+, K+, and Assumptions and limitations of the method
NH4+ were used. The value for K+ is approximately what The bulk fluid inclusion samples were taken from quartz
Richards et al. (1997) measured. The component species overlying the roscoelite-pyrite-gold-quartz band, and there-
NH4+ incorporates all N species, and therefore the gas analy- fore the fluid inclusions may not represent the exact compo-
sis of N2 was added to the measured concentrations of NH+4. sition of the initial solution from which the ore precipitated
The component species HCO3– was calculated, using the con- because it was trapped after the main ore deposition. Never-
centrations of CO2 and CH4 determined by gas chromatogra- theless, it is the closest approximation available because few
phy (Reed, 1998). The concentrations of Fe2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ workable fluid inclusions occur in the roscoelite band.
were fixed by near saturation with siderite, calcite, and mag- Roscoelite precipitation cannot be modeled at the present
nesite, respectively, because Ca-Fe-Mg carbonate was ob- time because thermodynamic data for aqueous V-bearing
served in stage II veins. Al3+ was determined by saturating the species and minerals are not included in the Soltherm data-
solution with muscovite at 170°C. The pH was buffered by base used by CHILLER. However, we assumed that precipi-
muscovite under conditions that were slightly undersaturated tation of muscovite occurs under similar conditions as
with respect to K-feldspar. Saturation with quartz was used to roscoelite because of the chemical similarity of the two micas
fix SiO2, and saturation with pyrite was used to fix the total [KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2 versus K(V,Al)2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2];
sulfur concentration. The fluid was also saturated with gold. therefore, muscovite was used as a proxy for roscoelite.
Concentrations of other elements (e.g., Zn, Cu, and Pb) were Cameron (1998) modeled the stability of roscoelite and con-
low and poorly constrained and so were not added to the cluded that at 200°C roscoelite was stable between pH values
starting solution. of 4 and 12 and log fO2 values between –60 and –35, thus over-
lapping the muscovite field.
TABLE 10. Composition of the Starting Solution Used Although the starting solution consists of a limited number
for Numerical Modeling of species and is thus only an approximation, all principal
T (°C) 170
pH 5.00 TABLE 11. Chemical Composition of the Formation Water Used for the
Log fO2 –42.59 CHILLER Fluid Mixing Run
Component species Concentration (total molality) T (°C) 150
pH 6.1
Cl– 7.3 × 10–1 Log fO2 –44.16
SO2–4 1.2 × 10–2
HCO3– 6.5 × 10–1 Component species Concentration (total molality)
HS– 1 –1.1 × 10–2
SiO2 2.4 × 10–3 Cl–
5.2 × 10–1
Al3+ 7.3 × 10–8 SO2– 3.6 × 10–2
4
Ca2+ 2.8 × 10–5 HCO3– 2.3 × 10–2
Mg2+ 5.5 × 10–6 HS– 3.3 × 10–6
Fe2+ 2.9 × 10–8 SiO2 1.7 × 10–3
K+ 3.0 × 10–2 Al3+ 2.9 × 10–7
Na+ 7.1 × 10–1 Ca2+ 3.2 × 10–3
NH4+ 2.9 × 10–2 Mg2+ 1.4 × 10–4
Au+ 5.6 × 10–9 Fe2+ 1.1 × 10–6
K+ 2.8 × 10–3
1 The negative value of HS– is a reflection of the relatively higher abun- Na+ 5.9 × 10–1
dance of SO2– –
4 than HS in this fluid; for details on how CHILLER calculates Au+ 2.3 × 10–12
these negative values see Reed (1998, p. 112)

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 861

minerals occurring in stage II veins can be modeled with this Boiling

fluid (if muscovite is accepted as an analogue for roscoelite).
The program CHILLER assumes that all reactions reach (a) -1
equilibrium. Although kinetics most likely influences some qtz
-3
mineral precipitation reactions, including gold precipitation

log grams
(Brown, 1989), the program has proved useful in replicating -5
mineral assemblages in the geothermal and epithermal envi- py micro
ronments (Reed and Spycher, 1985; Spycher and Reed, 1989; -7
Saunders and Schoenly, 1995; Simmons and Browne, 2000;
-9
Cooke and McPhail, 2001), for Carlin-type (Hofstra et al.,
Au
1991), MVT (Plumlee et al., 1994), greisen (Halter et al., -11
1998), VHMS (Reed, 1983), and laterite deposits (Getahun et (b) 8.0
al., 1992).
Boiling 7.0

pH
Adiabatic boiling was modeled starting at 170°C because
6.0
the highest average Th observed was 167° ± 25°C. One kilo-
gram of starting solution was adiabatically boiled from 170° to
100°C. As soon as a mineral is saturated and precipitates, it is 5.0
removed from the contact with the hydrothermal fluid, simu-
(c) 30
lating flow along a path.
The mineral assemblage that precipitates upon adiabatic

boiling is shown in Figure 11a. The assemblage consists of
quartz, pyrite, and gold, which all precipitate during the ear-
liest stages of boiling. Microcline forms when a temperature
of ~135°C is reached. The pH increases from 5.0 at 170°C to
7.5 at 100°C (Fig. 11b) due to loss of volatiles, such as CO2 to
the vapor phase (cf. Reed, 1998).
Figure 11c shows the ratio of the sums of all oxidized and
reduced sulfur species in the system (ΣS6+/ΣS2–) and corre-
sponds to the redox state of the fluid (Cooke and McPhail,
2001). The liquid becomes oxidized during boiling due to ex-
solution of species such as H2S, CH4, and H2. The experiment
yields a paragenesis similar to that observed in stage II veins,
inasmuch as gold, pyrite, and quartz coprecipitate; however,
microcline is formed instead of muscovite.
Fluid mixing
The temperature of the mixing solution was set at 150°C to
match the Th values of the low-salinity fluid inclusions. In this
model, 2 kg of mixing solution was progressively mixed into 1
kg of starting solution at 170°C. Minerals were removed upon
saturation.
After mixing 1 kg of formation water with the starting solu-
tion, the temperature is ~160°C, and after adding 2 kg of for-
mation water the temperature is 157°C. Mixing results in the
early precipitation of muscovite and pyrite, followed by gold
after adding 1.4 kg of formation water. The pH changes
slightly from 5.0 to 5.2, and the oxidation state of the mixture
increases. The minerals calculated to precipitate upon mixing
are observed in the vein assemblage. However, quartz, a dom-
inant mineral in most veins, does not form in the mixing
model. Also, gold precipitation is delayed relative to mus-
covite and pyrite (Fig. 12).
Cooling
Simple cooling of the starting solution was modeled from
170° to 100°C, and minerals were removed after precipita-
tion. This results in the precipitation of quartz, pyrite, mus-
covite, and gold during the first 5°C of cooling (Fig. 13a). At
logΣS6+/ΣS2-
20
10
0
170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100
T (°C)
FIG. 11. Results of model calculations for boiling of 1 kg of starting solu-
tion (see text). (a). Minerals precipitating during adiabatic boiling from 170°
to 100°C. The reactions progress from left to right as boiling proceeds from
higher to lower temperatures. The curves symbolize minerals precipitating
from the solution; a mineral, once precipitated, is removed from reacting
with the fluid; the lines indicate the rate of mineral precipitated per degree
of temperature change. (b). Change of pH during boiling. (c). Change in the
redox state of the fluid represented by S6+/S2– (Cooke and McPhail, 2001).
Abbreviations: Au = gold, micro = microcline, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz.
120°C, the fluid no longer precipitates muscovite and forms
kaolinite instead, reflecting the drop in pH from 5.0 at 170°C
to 4.6 at 100°C (Fig. 13b). The oxidation state of the fluid in-
creases upon cooling (Fig. 13c). All minerals predicted to pre-
cipitate during cooling occur in stage II except kaolinite.
However, temperatures in the veins do not fall to 120°C, so
kaolinite is not expected to form.
Fluid–wall-rock reaction
Fluid–wall-rock reaction was modeled by titrating 10 g of a
dioritic host rock of known composition (Roamane diorite;
Richards, 1990a) into 1 kg of starting solution at 170°C. In
this case, minerals were not removed because fluid flow in
the wall rock is assumed to be slower than in veins, and thus
minerals are expected to be in contact with the hydrothermal
fluid.

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862 RONACHER ET AL.

Mixing Cooling
(a)
T (°C) (a) -2
(a) 170 163 160 158 157 -2
-2 qtz
qtz

grams
-4

loggrams
-4
musc
-4
log grams

-6
py -6 py musc kaol
py musc kaol

log
-6 Au -8 Au
-8 Au
-8 -10
-10
(b) 5.5
(b) 5.5
-10
(b) 5.0

pH
5.0

pH
5.0
pH

5.5

4.5
4.5
(c)
(c)
4.5
20
2- 2-
(c) 160 20
/Σ/ΣSS
logΣS6+/ΣS2-

6+6+

120
SS
10
ΣΣ
10
log
log

80

40
0 T (°C)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
amount of mixing solution (kg)
FIG. 12. Modeling results for mixing of 1 kg of starting solution (170°C)
with up to 2 kg of formation water (150°C). The amount of mixing solution
(in kilograms) increases from left to right. (a). Minerals precipitating from
the solution during mixing. The temperature change that occurred during
mixing is indicated on the top axis of the plot. (b). Change in pH during mix-
ing. (c). Change in redox state of the fluid represented by S6+/S2– (Cooke and
McPhail, 2001). Abbreviations: Au = gold, musc = muscovite, py = pyrite.
The minerals calculated to precipitate include quartz, mus-
covite, pyrite, siderite, gold, and apatite followed by dolomite.
After 5 g of rock was titrated into the starting solution,
ankerite also precipitated, followed by hematite at 7 g (Fig.
14). The observed alteration assemblage consists of carbon-
ate-sericite-pyrite with minor quartz and gold, which is simi-
lar to the alteration paragenesis. Hematite, clay minerals, and
chlorite are also observed in small amounts in the altered wall
rock, and apatite is present as a stable residual phase in the
diorite. This numerical experiment also served as a test for
the quality of the starting solution composition because the
minerals simulated to precipitate could be compared to the
observed alteration assemblage.
Boiling alone is unlikely to have been responsible for stage
II vein formation because muscovite (i.e., roscoelite) does not
form in the boiling run. Fluid mixing may account only for
roscoelite-pyrite-gold formation, but mixing does not seem to
be responsible for the precipitation of the coarse-grained
0
0
170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100
170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100
T (°C)
FIG. 13. Modeling results of simple cooling of 1 kg of starting solution. (a).
Minerals precipitating from the solution upon cooling from 170° to 100°C.
(b). Change in pH during mixing. (b) Change in pH during cooling. (c)
Change in redox state of the fluid. Abbreviations: Au = gold, kaol = kaolinite,
musc = muscovite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz.
quartz that forms the center of most veins. Cooling is very ef-
ficient in deposition of quartz, whereas only small amounts of
muscovite, pyrite, and gold form upon cooling, and it is there-
fore likely that the coarse-grained quartz that forms the bulk
of some veins was deposited by cooling. Boiling and mixing
were accompanied by cooling. Modeling of fluid-rock reac-
tion satisfactorily generates the mineral paragenesis observed
in the wall-rock alteration and in some of the mineralized
veins at Porgera (i.e., veinlets with roscoelite-pyrite-gold in
the wall-rock alteration). However, because only a limited
amount of wall rock can interact with the hydrothermal fluid
due to shielding of fresh rock by a layer of altered rock and
mineral deposition at vein walls, this process, although ob-
served locally, probably played a minor role in ore formation
at Porgera.
The modeling results suggest that the individual bands of
stage II veins may have formed by different processes. The
roscoelite-pyrite-gold band may have formed by mixing or
fluid-rock reaction (which forms the largest amount of mus-
covite of all processes), whereas some of the early quartz may
have formed by boiling, and the bulk of the coarse-grained
quartz in the vein centers may have formed by cooling. It is
also likely that a combination of processes occurred.

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 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG 863

Fluid-wall rock reaction by groups of higher and lower salinity inclusions. Vapor-rich
(a) -1 fluid inclusions coexisting with liquid-rich inclusions in some
-2
qtz samples indicate that boiling occurred, at least locally, and in
musc ank
-3 py the Roamane fault zone a direct link has been made between
log grams

-4 sid
apa boiling and gold deposition (Ronacher et al., 2000b). In the
-5

nontr
North zone samples, vapor-rich fluid inclusions were not ob-
-6
dolo
hem served in quartz intergrown with gold, but their presence in
-7
-8 Au quartz immediately overlying the gold-rich layer nevertheless
-9 demonstrates that conditions were favorable for boiling when
-10 this quartz was deposited. Organic compounds in the fluid
(b) 5.5 (e.g., C2H2, C2H4, C2H6) and liquid hydrocarbons in rare fluid
inclusions indicate a reaction of the fluid with organic-rich
sedimentary rocks at depth in the system. Also, the gas and
ion compositions of stage II fluids suggest the involvement of
a formation water (e.g., CH4, N2, I–/Cl–; NH4, Br–/Cl–, pres-
pH

5.0
ence of higher hydrocarbons, and, in rare cases, liquid hydro-
carbon). The carbon isotope signatures of stage II carbonates
(~–2.5‰) are different from the magmatic value of stage I
4.5 carbonates (~–5‰; Richards and Kerrich, 1993) and suggest
(c) 0.1 a contribution from a source other than magmatic water,
probably the sedimentary rocks. The δ18O and δD data sug-
0.08
logΣS6+/Σ S2-

gest a significant contribution of meteoric water to the hy-

0.06
0.04
0.02
0 more likely deposited by boiling and fluid-rock reaction. Pet-
0 2 4 6 8 10
diorite added (grams)
FIG. 14. (a). Results of model calculations for reaction of the starting so-
lution with dioritic wall rock. Diorite (composition from Richards, 1990b) is
titrated into 1 kg of solution. The amount of titrated diorite increases from 0
to 10 g of diorite titrated as shown on the abscissa. The lines in this plot in-
dicate cumulative mineral precipitation because the minerals are not re-
moved from the solution (see text). (b). pH evolution during fluid-rock reac-
tion. (c). Redox state of the fluid. Abbreviations: ank = ankerite, apa =
apatite, Au = gold, dolo = dolomite, hem = hematite, musc = muscovite, ntr
= nontronite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, sid = siderite.
Discussion and Conclusion
Both boiling and fluid mixing have been suggested as ore-
forming mechanisms at Porgera. Arguments for boiling were
based on textural observations of abundant breccias and brec-
cia veins in the Roamane fault zone and vein margins consist-
ing of fine-grained quartz interpreted to be recrystallized
chalcedony (Richards and Kerrich, 1993). In addition, vapor-
rich fluid inclusions coexisting with liquid-rich inclusions
were observed in stage II quartz intergrown with gold in one
sample from near the Roamane fault zone (Ronacher et al.,
2000b). In contrast, Wall et al. (1995) and Cameron et al.
(1995), based on considerations of mobility of V3+ versus V5+
in a hydrothermal fluid, argued that precipitation of
roscoelite was a result of reduction (rather than oxidation
caused by boiling) and that mixing with a reduced fluid was a
likely mechanism of ore formation (see also Cameron, 1998).
The data on quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold veins in this study
have been used to readdress the question of ore deposition at
Porgera. The crucial results from the North zone are summa-
rized here and are integrated to generate a model of ore for-
mation for this zone. The presence of two fluids is indicated
drothermal fluid (Richards and Kerrich, 1993; this study).
Numerical simulations indicate that the most efficient mech-
anisms to precipitate quartz are boiling and cooling, whereas
muscovite (used as a proxy for roscoelite) is formed most ef-
ficiently by fluid-rock reaction and fluid mixing, and gold is
rographic observations showed that gold also occurs in the
wall rock adjacent to veins, implying fluid-rock reaction
and/or wall-rock sulfidation.
These data indicate that several different processes were
involved in ore formation. Vapor-rich fluid inclusions in some
samples suggest boiling, continuous salinity trends in Th-
salinity plots for other samples suggest fluid mixing, and gold
in the wall rock suggests fluid-rock reaction as a precipitation
mechanism. Because these different processes are not mutu-
ally exclusive, are geologically reasonable, and can be related
to particular samples, they can be combined and integrated
into a model for ore formation at Porgera. The observations
indicate that boiling, mixing, and fluid-rock reaction, accom-
panied by cooling, all occurred intermittently along the North
zone. In several cases, more than one process has been docu-
mented in individual samples, suggesting that a combination
of processes may have been involved in vein deposition, op-
erating in the same location but at different times, forming
the individual bands of the quartz-roscoelite-pyrite-gold
veins.
We suggest that the ore-forming fluid exsolved from the in-
ferred parent pluton at depth, interacted with the country
rocks, mudstones and siltstones of the Om and Chim Forma-
tions (Davies, 1983), and mixed with the deep ground water
hosted by these rocks. As this mixed fluid rose to shallower
levels, it reacted with the dioritic and gabbroic wall rocks and
started to precipitate minerals in the order predicted by the
fluid-rock simulation. Fractured rock resulting from normal
movement along the Roamane fault may have allowed more
formation water to interact with the ascending fluid, and lo-
cally, mineral precipitation may have cemented the available
open space in the faults, resulting in overpressuring of the

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864 RONACHER ET AL.
fluid, followed by hydrofracturing, decompression, breccia-
tion, and boiling. Boiling may have been prevalent in the
highest grade areas, such as zone VII located directly in the
Roamane fault zone, where quartz intergrown with gold con-
tains both liquid and vapor inclusions (Ronacher et al. 2000b).
In the North zone of the footwall diorite, in contrast, where
gold occurs partly in thin veinlets intergrown with abundant
roscoelite and partly in the wall rock adjacent to thin quartz-
roscoelite-pyrite-gold veinlets and breccia veins, fluid-wall
rock reaction may have been an additional ore precipitation
mechanism. Elsewhere in the system, fluid mixing may have
been the dominant ore deposition mechanism as indicated by
the fluid inclusion salinity trends observed in some samples
from the North zone. Given the size of the Porgera deposit, it
is not surprising that more than one mechanism caused ore
formation. This interpretation is similar to that of Cooke and
McPhail (2001) who concluded that phase separation, fluid
mixing, cooling, and fluid-rock reaction all contributed to vein
formation of the Acupan deposit, Baguio district, Philippines,
and that these processes may have occurred simultaneously
(Cooke and Bloom, 1990; Cooke et al., 1996).
Porgera in the context of alkalic rock-related gold deposits
Gold deposits associated with alkalic rocks have been the
topic of a number of reviews (e.g., Mutschler and Mooney,
1993; Richards, 1995; Jensen and Barton, 2000; Müller and
Groves, 2000) in which the similarity between these deposits
was stressed. In contrast, Sillitoe (2002) emphasized the
uniqueness of deposits like Porgera, Emperor, and Cripple
Creek. The following section compares depositional mecha-
nisms inferred to have played a role at Porgera with the ore-
forming processes in other alkalic systems and comments on
the potential uniqueness of Porgera and the implications for
exploration.
A variety of depositional processes have been suggested for
alkalic-rock related, low-temperature vein deposits (e.g.,
Jensen and Barton, 2000), including fluid phase separation,
fluid mixing, cooling, and fluid-rock reaction. Ahmad et al.
(1987) suggested, based on the fluid inclusion record, that ore
deposition at the Emperor mine, Fiji, was dominantly due to
phase separation. However, Kwak (1990) interpreted his own
fluid inclusion data to indicate that cooling due to fluid mixing
and wall-rock reaction were responsible for ore formation.
Poliquin and Simmons (1998), in another study on the Em-
peror mine, obtained results similar to those of Ahmad et al.
(1987) and concluded that phase separation was involved in ore
formation. They noted that phase separation over a long verti-
cal interval (~500 m) with no vertical temperature gradient was
“a puzzling feature of the ore-forming hydrothermal condi-
tions of this deposit” (Poliquin and Simmons, 1998, p. A302).
Thompson et al. (1985) suggested that cooling may have
been the dominant ore deposition mechanism at Cripple
Creek, and Jensen and Barton (2000) stressed that, locally,
there is evidence for fluid-rock reaction at Cripple Creek.
Zhang and Spry (1994) and Spry and Thieben (1998), based
on isotopic and microthermometric observations, suggested
that mixing was involved in the formation of the Gies gold-sil-
ver telluride deposit, Montana (except for the bonanza ore
zones that may have formed by phase separation; P. Spry,
pers. commun., 2002).
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The findings of our study and the above evidence from the
literature emphasize that epithermal deposits are both
rapidly evolving and are dynamic systems (cf. Cooke and
McPhail, 2001), and a variety of depositional mechanisms are
only a logical consequence of the fast-changing nature of
these systems.
Is Porgera unique? Implications for exploration
for Porgera-type deposits
As pointed out by Sillitoe (2002), some characteristics of
Porgera do not appear to be typical of epithermal deposits.
For example the inferred depth of ore formation of ~2 to ~2.5
km is greater than the typical depth of ore formation in ep-
ithermal deposits. In addition, the host rocks of the Porgera
Intrusive Complex consist of sedimentary rocks dominantly of
the Chim Formation (siltstones and mudstones) and, perhaps
more importantly, the Porgera Intrusive Complex is underlain
by carbonaceous mudstones and siltstones of the Om Forma-
tion, which is a source of oil and gas (Davies, 1983). Hence,
fluids exsolved from the inferred parent pluton at a ~6-km
depth (Richards, 1990a) passed through ~4 km of hydrocar-
bon-rich sedimentary rocks. The interaction with these rocks
is argued to have enriched the fluids in CH4 and N2, causing
these fluids to boil at depths of ~2.0 to 2.5 km. It remains un-
clear, however, whether the interaction with organic-rich sed-
imentary rocks had other consequences, such as providing or-
ganic ligands that may have played a role in transport not only
of precious metals but also of Al and Na (Gize, 2000; Shock,
2000).
The inferred paleodepth of ore formation at Porgera indi-
cates that exploration for similar deposits could extend to
depths greater than those assumed for the epithermal envi-
ronment, especially in the vicinity of carbonaceous sedi-
mentary rocks and alkalic, CO2-rich intrusions. Under these
conditions, even areas where some degree of erosion has
been documented may still be prospective for epithermal-
type deposits.
We suggest that Porgera is a giant deposit because of the in-
terplay and coincidence of a number of different factors.
These include (1) a tectonic setting prone to alkalic magma-
tism (i.e., back-arc environment, postsubduction, or exten-
sional setting: Richards, 1995; Sillitoe, 2002); (2) a structural
setting favorable for magma ascent (e.g., intersection of deep
crustal structures: Corbett et al., 1995); (3) a structural setting
favorable for focused ore precipitation (e.g. Roamane fault
and its splays); (4) conditions favorable for phase separation,
possibly due to interaction with the host sedimentary rocks;
(5) conditions favorable for fluid mixing and cooling in dila-
tional zones; and (6) the large size of the parent pluton indi-
cated by a 5-km-diam aeromagnetic anomaly around Porgera.
Similar deposits may form in the absence of one or more of
these conditions. For example, the Mount Kare deposit, 15
km southwest of Porgera, located along the same structural
trend and associated with similar alkalic intrusions, may be
smaller because of the much smaller size of the intrusive
complex. However, it seems likely that the large size of Porg-
era can be attributed to the unusual coincidence of all of
these conditions in one deposit (see also Richards, 1997; Sil-
litoe, 1997).
 NORTH ZONE HIGH-GRADE AREA, PORGERA DEPOSIT, PNG
Acknowledgments
We thank the Porgera Joint Venture for funding this study
and for permission to publish our results. In particular, we
thank Mike Johnston, Rod Henham, Shawn Crispin, Sonia
Konopa, Tony Burgess, and Martin Torovi for their support
on the Porgera mine site.
E.R. was financially supported in part by the Austrian
Academy of Sciences and by the Izaac Walton Killam Memo-
rial Foundation, which is gratefully acknowledged. E.T.C.S.
and C.J.B. thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council and the Department of Geology, University of
Toronto (Steven D. Scott, Chair) for support of the F. Gordon
Smith Fluid Inclusion Laboratory.
Stable isotope analyses were conducted at the University
of Alberta, the University of Calgary, the University of
Saskatchewan, and the University of Waterloo, and we thank
Karlis Muehlenbachs, Stephen Taylor, Chris Holmes, and
Bob Drimmie.
Reviews of an earlier draft of this paper by Andrew Camp-
bell, Sarah Gleeson, Karlis Muehlenbachs, and Tom Chacko
significantly improved the manuscript. We thank Stuart Sim-
mons, Paul Spry, and Bruce Mountain for their thorough and
insightful reviews, which were greatly appreciated. Mark
Hannington’s comments improved the style of the manuscript
significantly.
September 10, 2002; March 15, 2004
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