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 C IAP T E R T H E W O R ( O I _R E P R E S E N TOANI I5

I n th is c h a p te rw e w ill b e c o n c e n tra tin go n o n e o f th e k e y p ro c e s s e in s th e

'c u ltu ra l c irc u it' ( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ,a n d th e I n tro d u c tio nto th is
vo lu m e ) - th e p ra ctice so f re p re sen ta tio n . T h e a im o f th is ch a p te ris to
in tro d u c ey o u to th is to p ic , a n d to e x p ia in w h a t it is a b o u ta n d w h y w e g iv e it
su ch im p o rta n ce in cu ltu ra l stu d ie s.

T h e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio hn a s c o m e to o c c u p va n e w a n d im p o rta n tp la c e
in th e s tu d y o f c u ltu re . R e p re s e n ta tiocno n n e c tsm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto
c u ltu re . B u t w h a t e x a c tlyd o p e o p le m e a nb y it? W h a t d o e sre p re s e n ta tio n
h a ve to d o r,r'ithcu ltu re a n d m e a n in g ? O n e co m m o n - se n seu sa g eo f th e te rm
is a s fo llo w s : 'R e p re s e n ta tiom n e a n su s in g la n g u a g eto s a y s o m e th in g
m e a n in g fu la b o u t,o r to re p re s e n t,th e w o rld m e a n in g fu lly to , o th e r p e o p le . '
Y o u m a y w e ll a s k , 'I s th a t a ll? ' W e ll, y e s a n d n o . R e p re s e n ta tioisn an
e s s e n tia pl a rt o f th e p ro c e s sb y w h ic h m e a n in gis p ro d u c e da n d e x c h a n g e d
b e tw e e nm e m b e rso f a c u ltu re . I I d o e sin v o lv e th e u s e o f la n g u a g eo, f s ig n s
a n d im a g e sw h ich sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth in g s. B u t th is is a fa r fro m sim p le
o r s tra ig h tfo rw a rdp ro c e s sa, s y o u w ill s o o n d is c o v e r.
H o w d o e sth e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio cn o n n e c tm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto
c u ltu re ? I n o rd e rto e x p lo reth is c o n n e c tio nfu rth e r,w e w ill lo o k a t a n u m b e r
o f d iffe re n tth e o rie sa b o u th o w ia n g u a g eis u s e d to re p re s e n tht e w o rld . H e re
w e w ill b e d ra w in g a d is tin c tio nb e tw e e nth re e d iffe re n ta c c o u n tso r th e o rie s :
Ih e re fle ctive ,th e in te n tio n a l a n d Ih e co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a ch e sto
re p re s e n ta tio nD. o e sla n g u a g es im p ly re fle c ta m e a n in gw h ic h a lre a d ye x is ts
o u t th e re in th e w o rld o f o b je cts,p e o p le a n d e ve n ts ( re fle ctive ) ?D o e s
la n g u a g ee xp re sso n ly w h a t th e sp e a ke ro r w rite r o r p a in te r w a n ts to sa y.h is
o r h e r p e rso n a lly in te n d e d m e a n in g ( in te n tio n a l) ? O r is m e a n in g co n stru cte d
in a n d th ro u g h la n g u a g e( co n stru ctio n isf) ?Y o u w ill le a rn m o re in a m o m e n t
a b o u tth e s eth re e a p p ro a c h e s .

M o s t o f th e c h a p te rw ill b e s p e n te x p lo rin gth e c o n s tru c tio n isaf p p ro a c h .

b e c a u s eit is th is p e rs p e c tiv ew h ic h h a s h a d th e m o s t s ig n ific a n tim p a c t o n
c u ltu ra l s tu d ie sin re c e n ty e a rs . T h is c h a p te rc h o o s e sto e x a m in etw o m a jo r
v a ria n tso r m o d e lso f th e c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c h- th e s e m io lica p p ro a c h ,
g re a tlyin flu e n c e db y th e g re a tS w is slin g u is t, F e rd in a n dd e S a u s s u rea, n d
th e d iscu rsivea p p ro a ch ,a sso cia te dr,riithth e F re n ch p h ilo so p h e r a n d
h is to ria n ,M ic h e l F o u c a u it. L a te rc h a p te rsin th is b o o k w ill ta k e u p th e s etw o
th e o rie sa g a in ,a m o n go th e rs ,s o V o u w iil h a v e a n o p p o rtu n ityto c o n s o lid a te
yo u r u n d e rsta n d in go f th e m , a n d to a p p ly th e m to d iffe re n t a re a so f a n a lysis.
O th e r ch a p te rsw ill in tro d u ce th e o re tica lp a ra d ig m sw h ich a p p ly
c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c h e sin d iffe re n tw a y s to th a t o f s e m io tic sa n d
F o u c a u lt. A ll, h o w e v e r,p u t in q u e s tio nth e v e ry n a tu re o f re p re s e n ta tio n .
W e tu rn to th is o u e stio n first.
 |5 : - - r iE lI T A T o N : C U L T U P . ARLF P R E S E N T A T TAONNDSs tG N r F y r NPGR A CI r c E S

w h a t d o e sth e w o rd re p re se n ta tio nre a lly m e a n , in th is co n te xt? w h a t d o e s

th e p ro c e s so f re p re s e n ta tio in
n v o lv e ? H o w d o e sre p re s e n ta tio w
n o rk ?
T o p u t it b rie fly, re p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u ctio n o f m e a n in g th ro u g h
la n g u a g e . T h e sfio rfe r o xfo rd E n g lish D ictio n a ry su g g e ststw o re le va n t
m e a n in g sfo r th e w o rd ;
1 T o re p re s e n st o m e th in gis to d e s c rib eo r d e p ic t it, to c a ll it u p in th e m in d
b y d e s c rip tio no r p o rtra y a lo r im a g in a tio n to
; p la c e a lik e n e s so f it b e fo re
u s in o u r m in d o r in th e s e n s e sa; s ,fo r e x a m p le ,in th e s e n te n c e,,T h is
p ic tu re re p re s e n tsth e m u rd e r o f A b e l b y C a in . '
2 T o re p re s e n at ls o m e a n sto s y m b o liz e s, ta n d fo r, to b e a s p e c im e no f, o r to
su b stitu tefo r; a s in th e se n te n ce ,'In ch ristia n ity, th e cro ssre p re se n tsth e
su fT e rin ga n d cru cifixio n o f C h rist.'

T h e fig u re s in th e p a in tin g sta n d in th e p la ce o f, a n d a t th e sa m e tim e , sfo n d

fo r rh e sto ry o f ca in a n d A b e l. L ike w ise , th e cro sssim p ly co n sistso f tw o
w o o d e n p la n k s n a ile d to g e th e r;b u t in th e c o n te x to f c h ris tia n b e lie f a n d
te a c h in g ,it ta k e so n , s y m b o liz e so r c o m e sto s ta n d fo r a w id e r s e t o f
m e a n in g sa b o u tth e c ru c ifix io n o f th e s o n o f G o d , a n d th is is a c o n c e p tw e
c a n p u t in to w o rd s a n d p ic tu re s .

H e re is a sim p le e xe rcisea b o u t re p re se n ta tio n L. o o k a t a n y fa m ilia r

o b je ctin th e ro o m . Y o u w ill im m e d ia te ly re co g n iz ew h a t it is. B u t h o w
d o y o u k n o w w h a t th e o b je c tis ? W h a t d o e s're c o g n iz em
' e a n?
N o w try to m a ke yo u rse lf co n scio u so f w h a t yo u a re d o in g - o b se rvew h a t
is g o in g o n a s yo u d o it. Y o u re co g n iz ew h a t it is b e ca u seyo u r th o u g h t-
p ro c e s s e ds e c o d ey o u r v is u a l p e rc e p tio no f th e o b je c tin te rm s o f a
c o n c e p to f it w h ic h y o u h a v e in y o u r h e a d .T h is m u s t b e s o b e c a u s eif,
yo u lo o k a w a y fro m th e o b je ct,yo u ca n still tfrin k a b o u t it b y co n ju rin g it
u p , a s w e s a y ,'in y o u r m in d 's e y e '. G o o n - try to fo llo w th e p ro c e s sa s it
h a p p e n s T: h e re is th e o b je c t. . . a n d th e re is th e c o n c e p tin y o u r h e a d
w h ic h te lls y o u w h a t it is , w h a t y o u r v is u a l im a g eo f it m e o n s .

N o w , te ll m e w h a t it is . S a y it a lo u d :'I t's a la m p ' - o r a ta b le o r a b o o k o r

th e p h o n e o r w h a te v e r.T h e c o n c e p to fth e o b je c th a s p a s s e dth ro u g h y o u r
m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio no f it to m e via th e w o rd fo r it w h ich yo u h a ve ju st
u s e d ,T h e w o rd s ta n d sfo r o r re p re s e n tsth e c o n c e p t,a n d c a n b e u s e d to
re fe re n c eo r d e s ig n a tee ith e r a 're a l' o b je c tin th e w o rld o r in d e e d e v e n
s o m e im a g in a ryo b je c t,lik e a n g e isd a n c in go n th e h e a d o f a p in , w h ic h
n o o n e h a s e v e ra c tu a llys e e n .

T h is is h o w yo u g ive m e a n in g to th in g s th ro u g h la n g u a g e T. h is is h o w yo u
'm a k e s e n s eo f'th e w o rld o f p e o p le ,o b je c tsa n d e v e n ts ,a n d h o w y o u a re a b le
to e x p re s sa c o m p le xth o u g h ta b o u tth o s eth in g s to o th e rp e o p le ,o r
 C I A P I T _ R T I ]E W O R < O F R E P I T . E S E NOTNA I 17

co m m u n ica tea b o u t th e m th ro u g h la n g u a g ein w a ys w h ich o th e r p e o p ie a re

a b le to u n d e rs ta n d .

W h y d o w e h a v e to g o th ro u g hth is c o m p le r p ro c e s sto re p re s e n ot u r
th o u g h ts ?I f y o u p u t d o w n a g la s sy o u a re h o ld in g a n d rna lk o u t o f th e ro o m ,
v o u c a n s till / h in k a b o u tth e g la s s ,e v e nth o u g h it is n o lo n g e rp h y s ic a llv
th e re .A c tu a lly ,y o u c a n 't th in k w ith a g la s s .Y o u c a n o n lv th in k w ith tfte
c o n c e p to / th e g la s s A. s th e lin g u is tsa re fo n d o f s a y in g ,'D o g sb a rk . B u t th e
c o n c e p to f "d o g " c a n n o tb a rk o r b ite . ' Y o u c a n 't s p e a kr, r- ithth e a c tu a lg la s s ,
e ith e r. Y o u ca n o n ly sp e a kw ith th e w o rd fo r g la ss- G L A S S - rnh ich is th e
lin g u is tic s ig n w h ic h w e u s e in E n g lis hto re fe rto o b je c tsrnh ic h y o u d rin k
w a te r o u t o f. T h is is w h e re re p re se n ta tio nco m e sin . R e p re se n ta tio nis th e
p ro d u c tio no f th e m e a n in go f th e c o n c e p tsin o u r m in d s th ro u g hla n g u a g eI.t
is th e lin k b e tw e e n co n ce p tsa n d la n g u a g ew h ich e n a b le su s to re le r fo e ith e r
th e 're a i' w o rld o f o b je c ts p, e o p ie o r e v e n ts ,o r in d e e d to im a g in a ryr, r. o rld os f
fic tio n a l o b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n ts .

S o th e re a re tw o p ro c e s s e st., , t'os y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio n ,in v o lv e d .F irs t,

th e re is th e 's y s te m ' b y - , t'h ic ha ll s o rtso f o b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n tsa re
co rre la te dw ith a se t o f co n ce p tso r m e n fa l re p re se n ta tio n sr,t'h ichw e ca rry
a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s .W ith o u t th e m , w e c o u ld n o t in te rp re tth e w o rld
m e a n in g fu llya t a ll. in th e firs t p la c e ,th e n , m e a n in gd e p e n d so n th e s y s te mo f
c o n c e p tsa n d im a g e sfo rm e d in o u r th o u g h tsw h ic h c a n s ta n d fo r o r
're p re s e n t'th e w o rld , e n a b lin gu s to re fe rto th in g sb o th in s id e a n d o u ts id e
our he a ds.

B e fo rew e m o v e o n to lo o k a t th e s e c o n d's y s te mo f re p re s e n ta tio nw ', e

s h o u ld o b s e rv eth a t w h a t r. r'eh a v e ju s t s a id is a v e ry s im p le v e rs io no f a ra th e r
c o m p le xp ro c e s sI.t is s im p le e n o u g hto s e eh o - a u, , e m ig h t fo rm c o n c e p tsfo r
th in g s w e c a n p e rc e iv e- p e o p le o r m a te ria lo b je c ts lik , e c h a irs ,ta b le sa n d
d e s k s . B u t'"r'ea ls o fo rm c o n c e p tso f ra th e ro b s c u rea n d a b s tra c th t in g s .
w h ic h w e c a n 't in a n y s im p le \ ra y s e e ,fe e l o r to u c h . T h in k , fo r e x a m p le ,o f
o u r c o n c e p tso f w a r, o r d e a th ,o r frie n d s h ipo r lo v e . A n d , a s u , 'eh a v e
re m a rk e d w , e a ls o fo rm c o n c e p tsa b o u tth in g s \ v e n e v e rh a v e s e e n ,a n d
p o s s ib lyc a n 't o r w o n 't e v e r s e e ,a n d a b o u tp e o p le a n d p la c e sw e h a v e p la in ly
m a d e u p . W e m a y h a v e a c le a rc o n c e p to f, s a v ,a n g e ls m , e rm a id s ,G o d , th e
D e v il, o r o f H e a v e na n d H e il, o r o f M id d le m a rc h( th e fic tio n a l p ro v in c ia l
to w n in G e o rg eE lio t'sn o v e l) ,o r E liz a b e thfth e h e ro in e o f fa n e A u s te n 'sP rid e
a n d P re ju d ice ) .
W e h a v e c a lle d th is a 's y s / e m o f re p re s e n ta tio nT'. h a t is b e c a u s eit c o n s is ts ,
n o t o f in d iv id u a l c o n c e p tsb, u t o f d iffe re n tw a y s o f o rg a n iz in g c, lu s te rin g .
a rra n g in ga n d c la s s ify in gc o n c e p ts a, n d o f e s ta b lis h in gc o m p le xre la tio n s
b e tw e e nth e m . F o r e x a m p le ,w e u s e th e p rin c ip le so f s im ila rity a n d
d iffe re n c eto e s ta b lis hre la tio n s h ip sb e tw e e nc o n c e p tso r to d is tin g u is hth e m
fio m o n e a n o th e r.T h u s I h a v e a n id e a th a t in s o m ere s p e c tsb ird s a re lik e
p la n e sin th e s k y ,b a s e do n th e fa c t th a t th e y a re s im ila rb e c a u s eth e v b o th flv
- b u t I a ls oh a v e a n id e a th a t in o th e rre s p e c tsth e y a re d iffe re n t.b e c a u s eo n e
is p a rt o f n a tu rew h ils t th e o th e r is m a n - m a d e T. h is m ix in g a n d m a tc h in g, , 1
I8 R E P R E S E N T A T CI oUNL T U R A L R E P R E S E N T A T I o N S A N D S I G N I F Y I N G P R A C T I C E S

re la tio n s b e tw e e n co n ce p tsto fo rm co m p le x id e a s a n d th o u g h ts is p o ssib le

b e ca u seo u r co n ce p tsa re a rra n g e din to d iffe re n t cla ssifyin gsyste m s.In th is
e xa m p le ,th e first is b a se do n a d istin ctio n b e tw e e n flyin g /n o t flyin g a n d th e
se co n dis b a se do n th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e nn a tu ra l/m a n - m a d e T. h e re a re
o th e r p rin c ip le so f o rg a n iz a tio nlik e th is a t w o rk in a ll c o n c e p tu a sl y s te m s :
fo r e xa m p le ,cla ssifyin ga cco rd in gto se q u e n ce- w h ich co n ce p tfo llo w s
w h ich - o r ca u sa lity- w h a t ca u se sw h a t - a n d so o n . T h e p o in t h e re is th a t
w e a re ta lk in g a b o u t,n o t ju s t a ra n d o m c o lle c tio no f c o n c e p tsb, u t c o n c e p ts
o rg a n iz e d ,a rra n g e da n d cla ssifie d in to co m p le x re la tio n s w ith o n e a n o th e r.
T h a t is w h a t o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a ctu a lly is like . H o w e ve r,th is d o e s n o t
u n d e rm in e th e b a sic p o in t. M e a n in g d e p e n d so n th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
th in g s in th e w o rid - p e o p le ,o b je c tsa n d e v e n ts ,re a l o r fic tio n a l- a n d th e
co n ce p tu a lsyste m ,w h ich ca n o p e ra tea s m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio n so f th e m .

N o w it co u ld b e th e ca seth a t th e co n ce p tu a lm a p w h ich I ca rry a ro u n d in m y

h e a d is to ta lly d iffe re n t fro m yo u rs, in w h ich ca seyo u a n d I w o u ld in te rp re t
o r m a ke se n seo f th e w o rld in to ta lly d iffe re n t w a ys. W e w o u ld b e in ca p a b le
o f sh a rin g o u r th o u g h ts o r e xp re ssin gid e a s a b o u t th e w o rld to e a ch o th e r. In
fa ct, e a ch o f u s p ro b a b ly d o e su n d e rsta n da n d in te rp re t th e w o rld in a u n iq u e
a n d in d ivid u a l w a y, H o w e ve r,w e a re a b le to co m m u n ica teb e ca u sew e sh a re
b ro a d ly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a lm a p s a n d th u s m a ke se n seo f o r in te rp re t th e
w o rld in ro u g h ly sim ila r w a ys. T h a t is in d e e d w h a t it m e a n sw h e n w e sa y w e
'b e lo n g to th e sa m e cu ltu re '. B e ca u sew e in te rp re t th e w o rld in ro u g h ly
sim ila r w a ys, w e a re a b le to b u ild u p a sh a re dcu ltu re o f m e a n in g sa n d th u s
co n stru cta so cia l w o rld w h ich w e in h a b it to g e th e r.T h a t is w h y 'cu ltu re ' is
so m e tim e sd e fin e d in te rm s o f 'sh a re dm e a n in g so r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p s'
( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ) .

H o w e ve r,a sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p is n o t e n o u g h . W e m u st a lso b e a b le to

re p re se n to r e xch a n g em e a n in g sa n d co n ce p ts,a n d w e ca n o n ly d o th a t w h e n
w e a lso h a ve a cce ssto a sh a re dla n g u a g e L. a n g u a g eis th e re fo reth e se co n d
syste m o f re p re se n ta tio nin vo lve d in th e o ve ra ll p ro ce sso f co n stru ctin g
m e a n in g .O u r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p m u st b e tra n sla te din to a co m m o n
, th a t w e ca n co rre la teo u r co n ce p tsa n d id e a s w ith ce rta in w ritte n
Ia n g u a g e so
l rm w e u s e fo r w o rd s ,
w o rd s , s p o k e ns o u n d so r v is u a l im a g e s T. h e g e n e ra te
so u n d s o r im a g e sw h ich ca rry m e a n in g is s1 g n s.T h e se sig n s sta n d fo r o r
re p re se n tth e co n ce p tsa n d th e co n ce p tu a lre la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m w h ich w e
ca rry a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s a n d to g e th e rth e y m a ke u p th e m e a n in g - syste m os f
o u r cu ltu re .
S ig n s a re o rg a n iz e din to la n g u a g e sa n d it is th e e xiste n ceo f co m m o n
la n g u a g e sr,r,h iche n a b le u s to tra n sla te o u r th o u g h ts ( co n ce p ts)in to r,to rd s,
s o u n d so r im a g e s a, n d th e n to u s e th e s e ,o p e ra tin ga s a la n g u a g eto , e x p re s s
m e a n in g sa n d co m m u n ica teth o u g h ts to o th e r p e o p le . R e m e m b e rth a t th e
te rm 'la n g u a g eis ' b e in g u s e d h e re in a v e ry b ro a d a n d in c lu s iv e w a y . T h e
w ritin g syste m o r th e sp o ke n syste m o f a p a rticu la r la n g u a g ea re b o th
o b v io u s ly'la n g u a g e s '.B u t s o a re v is u a l im a g e s w
, h e th e rp ro d u c e db v h a n d .
m e c h a n ic a l,e le c tro n ic ,d ig ita l o r s o m e o th e r m e a n s ,w h e n th e y a re u s e d to
e x p re s sm e a n in g . A n d s o a re o th e rth in g s w h ic h a re n 't'lin g u is tic 'in a n v
 C .IAP IE R T IE W O R ,( O F R E P R ,E S E N IAT IO N I9

o rd in a ry s e n s e :th e 'la n g u a g e ' o f fa c ia l e x p re s s io n s o r o f g e s tu re , fo r e x a m p le ,

o r th e 'la n g u a g e ' o f fa s h io n , o f c lo th e s , o r o f tla ffic lig h ts . E v e n m u s ic is a
'la n g u a g e ', w ith c o m p le r re la tio n s b e t'"t'e e nd iffe re n t s o u n d s a n d c h o rd s ,
th o u g h it is a v e ry s p e c ia l c a s e s in c e it c a n 't e a s ilv b e u s e d to re f'e re n c ea c tu a l
th in g s o r o b je c ts in th e w o rld {a p o in t fu rth e r e ia b o ra te d in d u G a y , e d . , rg g z ,
a n d M a c k a y , e d . , 1 9 9 7 ) . A n y s o u n d , w o rd , im a g e o r o b je c t w h ic h fu n c tio n s
a s a s ig n , a n d is o rg a n iz e d w ith o th e r s ig n s in to a s y s te m rv h ic h is c a p a b le o f
c a rry in g a n d e x p re s s in g m e a n in g is , fro m th is p o in t o f v ie w , 'a la n g u a g e '. I t is
in th is se n se th a t th e m o d e l o f m e a n in g r, r, h ich I h a ve b e e n a n a lysin g h e re is
o fte n d e s c rib e d a s a 'lin g u is tic ' o n e ; a n d th a t a ll th e th e o rie s o f m e a n in g
w h ic h fo llo r, r,th is b a s ic m o d e l a re d e s c rib e d a s b e lo n g in g to 'th e lin g u is tic
tu rn ' in th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e sa n d c u ltu ra l s tu d ie s .

A t th e h e a rt o f th e m e a n in g p ro c e s s in c u ltu re , th e n , a re tw o re la te d 's y s te m s
o f re p re s e n ta tio n '. T h e firs t e n a b le s u s to g iv e m e a n in g to th e w o rld b y
c o n s tru c tin g a s e t o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e so r a c h a in o f e q u iv a le n c e sb e tw e e n
th in g s - p e o p le , o b je c ts , e v e n ts , a b s tra c t id e a s , e tc . - a n d o u r s y s te m o f
c o n c e p ts , o u r c o n c e p tu a l m a p s . T h e s e c o n d d e p e n d s o n c o n s tru c tin g a s e t o f
c o rre s p o n d e n c e sb e tw e e n o u r c o n c e p tu a l m a p a n d a s e t o f s ig n s , a rra n g e d o r
o rg a n iz e d in to va rio u s la n g u a g e s w h ich sta n d fo r o t re p re se n t th o se
c o n c e p ts . T h e re la tio n b e tw e e n 'th in g s ', c o n c e p ts a n d s ig n s lie s a t th e h e a rt
o f th e p ro d u c tio n o f m e a n in g in la n g u a g e .T h e p ro c e s s w h ic h lin k s th e s e
th re e e le m e n ts to s e th e r is w h a t w e c a ll 're o re s e n ta tio n '.

J u s t a s p e o p le w h o b e lo n g to th e s a m e c u ltu re m u s t s h a re a b ro a d ly s im ila r
c o n c e p tu a l m a p , s o th e y m u s t a ls o s h a re th e s a m e w a y o f in te rp re tin g th e
sig n s o f a la n g u a g e , fo r o n ly in th is w a y ca n m e a n in g s b e e ffe ctive ly
e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n p e o p le . B u t h o w d o w e k n o w w h ic h c o n c e p t s ta n d s fo r
w h ic h th in g ? O r w h ic h w o rd e ffe c tiv e ly re p re s e n ts w h ic h c o n c e p t? H o w d o I
kn o w w h ich so u n d s o r im a g e s w ill ca rrv, th ro u g h la n g u a g e , th e m e a n in g o f
m y co n ce p ts a n d w h a t I w a n t to sa y u 'ith th e m to yo u ? T h is m a y se e m
re la tiv e ly s im p le in th e c a s e o f v is u a l s ig n s , b e c a u s e th e d ra w in g , p a in tin g ,
ca m e ra o r T V im a g e o f a sh e e p b e a rs a re se m b la n ce to th e a n im a l w ith a
w o o lly c o a t g ra z in g in a fie ld to w h ic h I w a n t to re fe r. E t'e n s o , w e n e e d to
re m in d o u rs e lv e s th a t a d ra w n o r p a in te d o r d ig ita l v e rs io n o f a s h e e p is n o t
e x a c tly lik e a 're a l' s h e e p . F o r o n e th in g , m o s t im a g e s a re in tw o d im e n s io n s
w h e re a s th e 're a l' s h e e p e x is ts in th re e d im e n s io n s .

V is u a l s ig n s a n d im a g e s , e v e n w h e n th e y b e a r a c lo s e re s e m b la n c e to th e
th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r, a re still sig n s: th e v ca rry m e a n in g a n d th u s h a ve to
b e in te rp re te d . I n o rd e r to in te rp re t th e m , w e m u s t h a v e a c c e s sto th e tw o
s y s te m s o f re p re s e n ta tio n d is c u s s e d e a rlie r: to a c o n c e p tu a l m a p w h ic h
c o rre la te sth e s h e e p in th e fie ld w ith th e c o n c e p t o f a 's h e e p '; a n d a la n g u a g e
s y s te m w h ic h in v is u a l la n g u a g e ,b e a rs s o m e re s e m b la n c e to th e re a l th in g o r
'lo o k s lik e it' in s o m e w a y . T h is a rg u m e n t is c le a re s tif w e th in k o f a c a rto o r. r
d ra w in g o r a n a b s tra c t p a in tin g o f a 's h e e p ', w h e re w e n e e d a v e rv
 R I P R E S I _ N T AOTN : C U L T U R A LR E P R E S E N T A T I O NA SN D S I G N I F YN G P R A C T I C E S

I
{

F IG U R E I.I
W illia m H o lm a n
H u n t, O u r E n g lish
C oosts('S troye d
S h e e p ) ,1 8 5 2 .

s o p h is tic a te dc o n c e p tu a al n d s h a re dlin g u is tic s y s te mto b e c e rta inth a t w e a re

a ll 're a d in g 'th es ig n in th e s a m ew a y . E v e n th e n w e m a y fin d o u rs e lv e s
w o n d e rin gw h e th e rit re a lly is a p ic tu re o f a s h e e pa t a ll. A s th e re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e nth e sig n a n d its re fe re n tb e co m e sle ss cle a r- cu t,th e m e a n in gb e g in sto
slip a n d slid e a w a y fro m u s in to u n ce rta in ty.M e a n in g is n o lo n g e r
tra n s p a re n tlyp a s s in gfro m o n e p e rs o nto a n o th e r. . .

S o , e v e n in th e c a s eo f v is u a l la n g u a g ew, h e re th e re la tio n s h ipb e tw e e n th e

co n ce p ta n d th e sig n se e m sfa irly stra ig h tfo rw a rd ,th e m a tte r is fa r fro m
sim p le . It is e ve n m o re d ifficu lt w ith w ritte n o r sp o ke n la n g u a g e w , h e re
w o rd s d o n 't lo o k o r so u n d a n yth in g like th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r. In
p a rt, th is is b e c a u s e th e re a re
d iffe re n t kin d s o f sig n s. V isu a l sig n s
a re w h a t a re ca lle d ico n ic sig n s.
T h a t is , th e y b e a r, in th e ir fo rm , a
c e rta in re s e m b la n c e to th e o b je c t,
p e rso n o r e ve n t to w h ich th e y re fe r.
A p h o to g ra p h o f a tre e re p ro d u c e s
s o m e o f th e a c tu a l c o n d itio n s o f o u r
v is u a l p e rc e p tio n in th e v is u a l s ig n .
W ritte n o r sp o ke n sig n s, o n th e o th e r
h a n d , a re w h a t is ca lle d in d e xica l,

F IG U R E I.2
Q : W h e n is a s h e e pn o t a s h e e p ?
A : W h e n it's a w o rk o f a rt.
( D a m ie n H irst, A w o yfro m th e F lo ck,1 9 9 4 ) .
 C I I A P T E R T H E W O R . KO F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 2 I

T h e y b e a r n o o b vio u s re la tio n sh ip a t a ll to th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r.T h e

le tte rsT , R , E , Ed, o n o t lo o k a n y th in glik e tre e sin N a tu re ,n o r d o e sth e w o rd
'tre e 'in E n g lis hs o u n d lik e 're a l' tre e s( if in d e e d th e y m a k e a n y s o u n d a t a ll!) .
T h e re la tio n s h ipin th e s es y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio bn e tw e e nth e s ig n ,th e
c o n c e p t a n d th e o b je c tto w h ic h th e y m ig h t b e u s e d to re fe ris e n tire ly
a rb itra ry. B y 'a rb itra ry' w e m e a n th a t in p rin cip le a n v co lie ctio n o f le tte rs o r
a n y so u n d in a n y o rd e r w o u ld d o th e trick e q u a lly w e ll. T re e sr,vo u ldn o t
m in d if w e u s e d th e w o rd S E E R T- 'tre e s 'w ritte n b a c k w a rd s- to re p re s e n t
th e co n ce p t o f th e m . T h is is cle a r fro m th e fa ct th a t, in F re n ch , q u ite d iffe re n t
le tte rs a n d a q u ite d iffe re n t so u n d is u se d to re fe r to w h a t, to a ll a p p e a ra n ce s,
is th e sa m eth in g - a 're a l' tre e - a n d , a s fa r a s w e ca n te ll, to th e sa m e co n ce p t
- a la rg e p la n t th a t g ro w s in n a tu re . T h e F re n ch a n d E n g lish se e mto b e u sin g
th e s a m ec o n c e p t.B u t th e c o n c e p tw h ic h in E n g lis his re p re s e n te db y th e
w o rd , T R E E ,is re p re s e n te din F re n c hb y th e w o rd , A R B R E .

E t. l
H o lm a n

'r E n g lish T h e q u e s tio n th

, e n , is : h o w d o p e o p lew h o b e lo n gto th e s a m ec u ltu re ,w h o
S vo ye d
sh a reth e sa m e co n ce p tu a im a p a n d w h o sp e a ko r w rite th e sa m e la n g u a g e
( E n g lish )kn o w th a t th e a rb itra ry co m b in a tio n o f le tte rs a n d so u n d sth a t
m a ke su p th e w o rd , T R E E , w ill sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth e co n ce p t 'a la rg e
p la n t th a t g ro w sin n a tu re '? O n e p o s s ib ilityw o u ld b e th a t th e o b je c tsin th e
w o rld th e m s e lv e se m b o d ya n d fix in s o m ew a y th e ir'tru e 'm e a n in g .B u t it is
n o t a t a ll cle a r th a t re a l tre e skn o w th a t th e y a re tre e s,a n d e ve n le ss cle a r th a t
th e y kn o w th a t th e w o rd in E n g lish w h ich re p re se n tsth e co n ce p to f
th e m se lve sis w ritte n T R E E w h e re a sin F re n ch it is w ritte n A R B R E I A s fa r a s
th e y a re c o n c e rn e dit, c o u ld ju s t a s w e ll b e w ritte n C O W o r V A C H E o r in d e e d
X Y Z . T h e m e a n in gis n o f in th e o b je c to r p e rs o no r th in g , n o r is it in th e w o rd .
It is w e w h o fix th e m e a n in g so firm ly th a t, a fte r a w h ile , it co m e sto se e m
n a tu ra l a n d in e vita b le . T h e m e a n in g is co n stru cte db y th e syste m o f
re p re se n ta tio nIt . is co n stru cte da n d fixe d b y th e co d e ,w h ich se tsu p th e
co rre la tio nb e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a n d o u r la n g u a g esyste m in su ch
a w a y th a t, e v e rytim e w e th in k o f a tre e ,th e c o d e te lls u s to u s e th e E n g lis h
w o rd T R E E ,o r th e F re n c hw o rd A R B R E .T h e c o d e te lls u s th a t, in o u r c u ltu re
- th a t is , in o u r c o n c e p tu a al n d la n g u a g ec o d e s- th e c o n c e p t'tre e 'is
re p re s e n te db y th e le tte rsT , R , E , Ea, rra n g e din a c e rta ins e q u e n c eju, s t a s in
M o rse co d e , th e sig n fo r V ( w h ich in W o rld W a r II C h u rch ill m a d e 'sta n d fo r'
o r re p re s e n 'V
t ic to ry ')is D o t, D o t, D o t, D a s h ,a n d in th e 'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic
I ig h ts ',G re e n= G o ! a n d R e d = S to p !

O n e w a y o f th in k in g a b o u t'c u ltu re ',th e n , is in te rm s o f th e s es h a re d

co n ce p tu a lm a p s, sh a re dla n g u a g esyste m sa n d th e co d e s w h ich g o ve rn th e
re la tio n sh ip s o f tra n sla tio n b e tw e e nf.h e m .C o d e sfix th e re la tio n sh ip s
b e tw e e n co n ce p tsa n d sig n s.T h e y sta b iliz e m e a n in g w ith in d iffe re n t
la n g u a g e sa n d cu ltu re s. T h e y te ll u s w h ich la n g u a g eto u se to co n ve y w h ich
id e a .T h e re v e rs eis a ls o tru e . C o d e ste ll u s w h ic h c o n c e p tsa re b e in g re fe rre d
to w h e n w e h e a r o r re a d u ,h ich sig n s.B y a rb itra rily fixin g th e re la tio n rh ip t,n ,* t
,
22 R EPR ESEN TATC
I oUNL: T U R ARL E P R E S E N To A
N TS A N D S G N I r y I N GP R A C] C E S

b e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a n d o u r lin g u istic syste m s( re m e m b e r,

'lin g u is tic 'in a b ro a d s e n s e )c, o d e sm a k e it p o s s ib lefo r u s to s p e a ka n d to
h e a r in te llig ib ly, a n d e sta b lishth e tra n sla ta b ility b e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tsa n d
o u r la n g u a g e sw h ich e n a b le sm e a n in g to p a ssfro m sp e a ke rto h e a re ra n d b e
e ffe ctive ly co m m u n ica te dw ith in a cu ltu re . T h is tra n sla ta b ility is n o t g ive n
b y n a tu re o r fix e d b y th e g o d s .I t is th e re s u lt o f a s e t o f s o c ia lc o n v e n tio n sI.t
is fixe d so cia lly,fixe d in cu ltu re . E n g lish o r F re n ch o r H in d i sp e a ke rsh a ve ,
o v e r tim e , a n d w ith o u t c o n s c io u sd e c is io no r c h o ic e ,c o m e to a n u n w ritte n
a g re e m e n t,a so rt o f u n w ritte n cu ltu ra l co ve n a n tth a t, in th e ir va rio u s
la n g u a g e s,ce rta in sig n s w ill sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tce rta in co n ce p ts.T h is is
w h a t c h ild re n le a rn ,a n d h o w th e y b e c o m e n, o t s im p ly b io lo g ic a lin d iv id u a ls
b u t cu ltu ra l su b je cts.T h e y le a rn th e syste m a n d co n ve n tio n so f
re p re se n ta tio n th, e co d e so f th e ir la n g u a g ea n d cu ltu re , w h ich e q u ip th e m
w ith cu ltu ra l 'kn o w - h o w ' e n a b lin g th e m to fu n ctio n a s cu ltu ra lly co m p e te n t
s u b je c tsN. o t b e c a u s es u c h k n o w le d g eis im p rin te d in th e ir g e n e s b, u t
b e c a u s eth e y le a rn its c o n v e n tio n sa n d s o g ra d u a llyb e c o m e , c u ltu re d
p e rs o n s -r i. e . m e m b e rso f th e ir c u ltu re .T h e y u n c o n s c io u s lyin te rn a liz eth e
c o d e sw h ic h a llo w th e m to e x p re s sc e rta inc o n c e p tsa n d id e a sth ro u g h th e ir
s y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio -n w ritin g , s p e e c h g, e s tu re v, is u a liz a tio n ,a n d s o o n
- a n d to in te rp re t id e a s w h ich a re co m m u n ica te dto th e m u sin g th e sa m e
s y s te m s .

Y o u m a y fin d it e a sie rto u n d e rsta n d ,n o w , w h y m e a n in g ,la n g u a g ea n d

re p re se n ta tio na re su ch critica l e le m e n tsin th e stu d y o f cu ltu re . T o b e lo n g to
a cu ltu re is to b e lo n g to ro u g h ly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a la n d lin g u istic u n ive rse ,
to kn o w h o w co n ce p tsa n d id e a s tra n sla te in to d iffe re n t la n g u a g e s,a n d h o w
la n g u a g eca n b e in te rp re te d to re fe r to o r re fe re n ceth e w o rld . T o sh a reth e se
th in g s is to se eth e w o rld fro m w ith in th e sa m e co n ce p tu a lm a p a n d to m a ke
se n seo f it th ro u g h th e sa m e la n g u a g esyste m s.E a rly a n th ro p o lo g istso f
la n g u a g e ,like sa p ir a n d w h o rf, to o k th is in sig h t to its lo g ica l e xtre m e w h e n
th e y a rg u e dth a t w e a re a ll, a s it w e re , lo cke d in to o u r cu ltu ra l p e rsp e ctive so r
'm in d - s e ts ',a n d th a t la n g u a g eis th e b e s tc lu e w e h a v e to th a t c o n c e p tu a l
u n ive rse .T h is o b se rva tio n ,w h e n a p p lie d to a ll h u m a n cu ltu re s, lie s a t th e
ro o t o f w h a t, to d a y, w e m a y th in k o f a s cu ltu ra l o r lin g u istic re la tivism .

Y o u m ig h t like to th in k fu rth e r a b o u t th is q u e stio n o f h o w d iffe re n t

cu ltu re s co n ce p tu a lly cla ssify th e w o rld a n d w h a t im p lica tio n s th is h a s
fo r m e a n in g a n d re p re se n ta tio n ,

T h e E n g lish m a ke a ra th e r sim p le d istin ctio n b e tw e e n sle e ta n d sn o w .

T h e In u it ( E skim o s)w h o h a ve to su rvive in a ve ry d iffe re n t, m o re
e xtre m e a n d h o stile clim a te , a p p a re n tly h a ve m a n y m o re w o rd s fo r sn o w
a n d sn o w y w e a th e r.C o n sid e rth e list o f In u it te rm s fo r sn o w fro m th e
S co ttP o la r R e se a rchIn stitu te in T a b le 1 .1 . T h e re a re m a n y m o re th a n in
E n g lish , m a kin g m u ch fin e r a n d m o re co m p le x d istin ctio n s. T h e In u it
h a ve a co m p le x cla ssifica to ryco n ce p tu a lsyste m fo r th e w e a th e r
co m p a re dw ith th e E n g lish . T h e n o ve list P e te rH o e g ,fo r e xa m p le ,w ritin g
 C TL R I H L . 4 O R r O i R T P R L S L NA I I O N 23
- iA P

a b o u t G re e n la n din h is n o ve l, M iss S m illa 's F e e lin gF o r S n o w ( 1 9 9 4 ,

p p , 5 - 6 ) , g ra p h ica lly d e scrib e s'fta z z il ice ' w h ich is 'kn e a d e dto g e th e rin to
a so a p ym a sh ca lle d p o rrid g e ice , w h ich g ra d u a lly fo rm s fre e - flo a tin g
p la te s ,p a n c a k eic e , w h ic h o n e ,c o ld , n o o n d a yh o u r, o n a S u n d a y fre
, ezes
in to a s in g le s o lid s h e e t'.S u c h d is tin c tio n sa re to o fin e a n d e la b o ra te
e ve n fo r th e E n g lish w h o a re a lw a ys ta lkin g a b o u t th e w e a th e r!T h e
q u e stio n ,h o w e ve r,is - d o th e In u it a ctu a lly e xp e rie n cesn o w d iffe re n tly
fro m th e E n g lish ?T h e ir la n g u a g esyste m su g g e ststh e y co n ce p tu a liz eth e
w e a th e r d iffe re n tly. B u t h o w fa r is o u r e xp e rie n cea ctu a lly b o u n d e d b y
o u r lin g u is tic a n d c o n c e p tu a ul n iv e rs e ?

T a b le l. I ln u itte rm sfo r s n o wa n dic e

snow ic e s ik u
b lo w in g p iq tu lu k - p a n ,b r o k e n s iq u m n iq
rss n o w s to rm rn g p r q tu lu K tu q ic e w a te r m m iu g a q
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r < h e in o d r if ic r l n rrcr u , it h - a p iy u a q

O n e im p lica tio n o f th is a rg u m e n ta b o u t cu ltu ra l co d e sis th a t, if m e a n in g is th e

re su lt, n o t o f so m e th in gfixe d o u t th e re , in n a tu re ,b u t o f o u r so cia l,cu ltu ra l
a n d lin g u istic co n ve n tio n s,th e n m e a n in gca n n e ve rb e fin a llyfixe d . W e ca n
a ll 'a g re e 'to a llo w w o rd s to ca rry so m e w h a td iffe re n t m e a n in g s- a s w e h a ve
fo r e x a m p le w , ith th e w o rd 'g a y ',o r th e u s e ,b y y o u n g p e o p le ,o f th e w o rd
'w ic k e d !' a s a te rm o f a p p ro v a l.O f c o u rs e th
, e re m u s t b e s o m efix in g o f
 24 R EPR ESEN TATC
I oUNL: T U B , ARLE P R E S E N TOANI S A N D 5 G N I F Y I N G
P R A CI I C E S

m e a n in g in la n g u a g e o, r w e w o u ld n e ve r b e a b le to u n d e rsta n do n e a n o th e r.
w e c a n 'tg e tu p o n e m o rn in g a n d s u d d e n lyd e c id eto re p re s e nth t e c o n c e p to f
a 'tre e ' w ith th e le tte rso r th e w o rd v Y x z , a n d e x p e c tp e o p leto fo llo w w h a t
w e a re sa yin g .o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re is n o a b so lu teo r fin a l fixin g o f
m e a n in g .s o c ia la n d lin g u is tic c o n v e n tio n sd o c h a n g eo v e rtim e . I n th e
la n g u a g eo f m o d e rnm a n a g e ria lis mw, h a t w e u s e dto c a il 's tu d e n ts ',, c lie n ts , ,
'p a tie n ts 'a n d 'p a s s e n g e rsh'a v e a ll b e c o m e'c u s to m e rs '.L in g u is ticc o d e sv a ry
sig n ifica n tly b e tw e e no n e la n g u a g ea n d a n o th e r.M a n y cu ltu re s d o n o t h a ve
w o rd s fo r c o n c e p tsw h ic h a re n o rm a l a n d w id e lv a c c e p ta b leto u s . w o rd s
c o n s ta n tlyg o o u t o f c o m m o nu s a g e a, n d n e w p h ra s e sa re c o in e d .th : in k , fo r
e x a m p le ,o f th e u s e o f 'd o w n - s iz in g to
' re p re s e ntht e p ro c e s so f firm s la y in g
p e o p le o ff w o rk . E v e n w h e n th e a c tu a lw o rd s re m a in s ta b le th , e ir
co n n o ta tio n ssh ift o r th e y a cq u ire a d iffe re n t n u a n ce .T h e p ro b le m is
e s p e c ia llya c u tein tra n s la tio n F. o r e x a m p ie ,d o e sth e d iffe re n c ein E n g lis h
b e tw e e nkn o w a n d u n d e rsta .n dco rre sp o n de xa ctly to a n d ca p tu re e xa ctly th e
sa m e co n ce p tu a ld istin ctio n a s th e F re n ch m a ke b e tw e e nsa vo ir a n d
co n n a itre ?P e rh a p s;b u t ca n w e b e su re ?

T h e m a in p o in t is th a t m e a n in g d o e sn o t in h e re in th in g s, in th e w o rld . It is
c o n s tru c te dp, ro d u c e d .I t is th e re s u lto f a s ig n ify in gp ra c tic e- a p ra c tic eth a t
p ro d u ce sm e a n in g ,th a t m o ke s th in g s m e o n .

T h e re a re b ro a d iys p e a k in gth re e a p p ro a c h e to
s e x p la in in gh o w re p re s e n ta tio n
o f m e a n in gth ro u g h la n g u a g ew o rks. w e m a y ca ll th e se th e re fle ctive ,th e
in te n tio n a la n d th e c o n s tru c tio n isot r c o n s tru c tiv is at p p ro a c h e sy.o u m ig h t
th in k o f e a cha s a n a tte m p tto a n sw e rth e q u e stio n s,'w h e re d o m e a n in g sco m e
fro m ? 'a n d 'h o w c a n w e te ll th e "tru e " m e a n in go f a w o rd o r im a g e ? '

In th e re fle ctive a p p ro a ch , m e a n in g is th o u g h t to lie in th e o b je ct,p e rso n ,id e a

o r e ve n t in th e re a l w o rld , a n d la n g u a g efu n ctio n s like a m irro r , ro re fle ctrh e
tru e m e a n in ga s it a lre a d ye x is tsin th e w o rld . A s th e p o e t G e rtru d eS te in o n c e
s a id ,'A ro s eis a ro s e is a ro s e '. I n th e fo u rth c e n tu ryB C ,th e G re e k su s e dth e
n o tio n o f m im e sisto e xp la in h o w la n g u a g e e, ve n d ra w in g a n d p a in tin g ,
m irro re d o r im ita te d N a tu re ;th e y th o u g h t o f H o m e r'sg re a tp o e m , T h e llia d , a s
'im ita tin g ' a h e ro ic se rie so f e ve n ts.so th e th e o ry w h ich sa ysth a t la n g u a g e
w o rks b y sim p iy re fle ctin g o r im ita tin g th e tru th th a t is a lre a d yth e re a n d fixe d
in th e w o rld , is s o m e tim e sc a lle d 'm im e tic '.
O f c o u rs eth e re is a c e rta ino b v io u stru th to m im e tic th e o rie so f re p re s e n ta tio n
a n d la n g u a g eA. s w e 'v e p o in te d o u t, v is u a i s ig n sd o b e a rs o m ere la tio n s h ipto
th e sh a p ea n d te xtu re o f th e o b je ctsw h ich th e y re p re se n t.B u t, a s w a s a lso
p o in te d o u t e a rlie r,a tr, r, o - d im e n s io nvaisl u a l im a g eo f a ro s e is a s ig n - it
s h o u ld n o t b e c o n fu s e dw ith th e re a l p la n t w ith th o rn sa n d b lo o m sg ro w in gin
th e g a rd e n .R e m e m b e ra lso th a t th e re a re m a n y w o rd s, so u n d sa n d im a g e s
w h ich w e fu lly w e il u n d e rsta n db u t w h ich a re e n tire ly fictio n a l o r fa n ta sya n d
re fe r to w o rld s w h ich a re w h o lly im a g in a ry - in clu d in g , m a n y p e o p le n o w
 C H APTER T H E W O R ( O F R E P R E S EI N
A I 'I O N

th in k , m o s t o f T h e I lia d ! O f c o u rs e I, c a n u s e th e w o rd 'ro s e 'to re le rto re a l,

a c tu a lp la n tsg ro w in gin a g a rd e n ,a s w e h a v e s a id b e fo re .B u t th is is b e c a u s eI
k n o w th e c o d ew h ic h lin k s th e c o n c e p t w ith a p a rtic u la rw o rd o r im a g e .I
ca n n o t th in k o r sp e a k o r d ra w w ith a n a ctu a lro se .A n d if so m e o n esa ysto m e
th a t th e re is n o s u c h w o rd a s 'ro s e 'fo r a p la n t in h e r c u ltu re ,th e a c tu a lp la n t
in th e g a rd e nca n n o tre so lve th e fa ilu re o f co m m u n ica tio nb e tw e e nu s. W ith in
th e co n ve n tio n so f th e d iffe re n t la n g u a g eco d e sw e a re u sin g , w e a re b o th rig h t
- a n d fo r u s to u n d e rsta n de a ch o th e r, o n e o f u s m u st le a rn th e co d e lin kin e
th e flo w e r w ith th e w o rd fo r it in th e o th e r'scu ltu re ,

T h e s e c o n da p p ro a c hto m e a n in gin re p re s e n ta tio an rg u e sth e o p p o s itec a s e .

It h o ld s th a t it is th e sp e a ke r,th e a u th o r, w h o im p o se sh is o r h e r u n iq u e
m e a n in g o n th e w o rld th ro u g h la n g u a g e W . o rd s m e a n r,r'h a tht e a u th o r
in te n d s th e y sh o u ld m e a n . T h is is th e in te n tio n a l a p p ro a ch . A g a in , th e re is
s o m ep o in t to th is a rg u m e n ts in c e w e a ll, a s in d iv id u a ls ,d o u s e la n g u a g eto
co n ve y o r co m m u n ica teth in g s w h ich a re sp e cia lo r u n iq u e to u s, to o u r w a y
o f s e e in gth e w o rld . H o w e v e r,a s a g e n e ra th l e o ry o f re p re s e n ta tio thn ro u g h
la n g u a g eth
, e in te n tio n a la p p ro a c his a ls o fla w e d .W e c a n n o tb e th e s o le o r
u n iq u e s o u rc eo f m e a n in g sin la n g u a g es, in c e th a t w o u id m e a n th a t w e c o u id
e x p re s so u rs e lv e sin e n tire ly p riv a te la n g u a g e sB. u t th e e s s e n c eo f la n g u a g eis
co m m u n ica tio n a n d th a t, in tu rn , d e p e n d so n sh a re dlin g u istic co n ve n tio n s
a n d s h a re dc o d e s L. a n g u a g ec a n n e v e rb e w h o lly a p riv a te g a m e .O u r p rirra te
in te n d e dm e a n in g sh, o w e v e rp e rs o n a to l u s , h a v e I o e n te rin to th e ru le s ,c o d e s
a n d c o n v e n tio n so f la n g u a g e lob e s h a re da n d u n d e rs to o d L. a n g u a g eis a
so cia l syste mth ro u g h a n d th ro u g h . T h is m e a n sth a t o u r p riva te th o u g h tsh a ve
to n e g o tia tew ith a ll th e o th e r m e a n in g sfo r w o rd s o r im a g e sw h ich h a ve b e e n
sto re d in la n g u a g ew h ich o u r u se o f th e la n g u a g esyste mw ili in e vita b ly trig g e r
in to a c tio n .

T h e th ird a p p ro a c hre c o g n iz e th s is p u b lic , s o c ia lc h a ra c te or fla n g u a g e I.t

a ckn o w le d g e sth a t n e ith e r th in g s in th e m se lve sn o r th e in d ivid u a l u se rs o f
Ia n g u a g eca n fix m e a n in g in la n g u a g e T. h in g s d o n 't m e cn : w e co n stru ct
m e a n in g ,u s in g re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m s- c o n c e p tsa n d s ig n s .H e n c eit is
ca lle d th e co n stru ctivisto r co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a ch to m e a n in g in la n g u a g e .
A cco rd in g to th is a p p ro a ch ,w e m u st n o t co n fu se lh e m a te ria l w o rld , w h e re
th in g s a n d p e o p le e xist, a n d th e sym b o lic p ra ctice sa n d p ro ce sse sth ro u g h
w h ic h re p re s e n ta tio nm, e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eo p e ra te C . o n s tru c tiv is tsd o n o t
d e n y th e e x is te n c eo f th e m a te ria lw o rld . H o w e v e r,it is n o t th e m a te ria l
w o rld w h ich co n ve ysm e a n in g :it is th e la n g u a g esyste m o r w h a te ve r syste m
w e a re u s in g to re p re s e n ot u r c o n c e p ts .I t is s o c ia la c to rsw h o u s e th e
c o n c e p tu a sl y s te m so f th e ir c u ltu re a n d th e lin g u is tic a n d o th e r
re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m sto c o n s tru c tm e a n in g ,to m a k e th e w o rld
m e a n in g fu la n d to co m m u n ica tea b o u tth a t w o rld m e a n in g fu lly to o th e rs.

O f c o u rs e s, ig n sm a y a ls oh a v e a m a te ria ld im e n s io n .R e p re s e n ta tio n a l
s y s te m sc o n s is to f th e a c tu a ls o u n d sw e m a k e w ith o u r v o c a l c h o rd s ,th e
im a g e sw e m a ke o n lig h t- se n sitivep a p e r w ith ca m e ra s,th e m o rks w e m a ke
w ith p a in t o n ca n va s,th e d ig ita l im p u lse s w e tra n sm it e le ctro n ica lll,.
R e p re s e n ta tiois n a p ra c tic e ,a k in d o f 'w o rk ', w h ic h u s e sm a te ria lo b je c tsa n d
26 R E P R E S F N T A T oCNt_: . lL T U RR;\ELp R E S E N T A T O N S AsNGDN lF y tN Gp R A C tc ts

e ffe c tsB. u t th e m e o n in gd e p e n d s n, o t o n th e m a te ria lq u a lity o f th e s ig n ,b u t

o n its sym b o licfu n ctio n It is b e ca u sea p a rticu la r so u n d o r w o rd sta n d sfo r,
syn b o liz e s o r re p re se n tsa co n ce p tth a t it ca n fu n ctio n , in la n g u a g e ,a s a sig n
a n d c o n v e ym e a n in g- o r, a s th e c o n s tru c tio n is tss a y ,s ig n ify ( s ig n - i- fy ) .

T h e s im p le s te x a m p leo f th is p o in t, rn h ic h is c ritic a l fo r a n u n d e rs ta n d in go f
h o w la n g u a g e fus n c tio n a s re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m sis , th e fa m o u stra ffic
lig h ts e xa m p le .A tra ffic tig h t is a m a ch in e w h ich p ro d u ce sd iffe re n t
co lo u re d lig h ts in se q u e n ce T. h e e ffe ct o f lig h t o f d iffe re n t w a ve le n g th so n
th e e ye - r,vh ichis a n a tu ra l a n d m a te ria l p h e n o m e n o n- p ro d u ce sth e
s e n s a tio no f d iffe re n tc o io u rs .N o w th e s eth in g s c e rta in lyd o e x is t in th e
m a te ria l w o rld . B u t it is o u r cu ltu re w h ich b re a ksth e sp e ctru m o f lig h t in to
d iffe re n tc o lo u rs ,d is tin g u is h e sth e m fro m o n e a n o th e ra n d a tta c h e sn a m e s-
R e d , G re e n ,Y e llo w , B Iu e - to th e m . W e u se a w a y o f cla ssifyin gth e co lo u r
sp e ctru m to cre a te co lo u rs '"r,h icha re d iffe re n t fro m o n e a n o th e r.W e
re p re se n to r sym b o liz e th e d iffe re n t co lo u rs a n d cla ssify th e m a cco rd in gto
d iffe re n tc o lo u r- c o n c e p tsT.h is is th e c o n c e p tu a cl o lo u r s y s te mo f o u r
c u ltu re .w e s a y 'o u r c u ltu re 'b e c a u s eo, f c o u rs e ,o th e r c u ltu re sm a y d iv id e th e
co lo u r sp e ctru m d iffe re n tly.w h a t's m o re , th e y ce rta in iy u se d iffe re n t a ctu a l
w o rd s o r |e tte rsto id e n tify d iffe re n t co lo u rs:w h a t e ca ll 're d ', th e F re n ch ca ll
- "t
'ro u g e 'a n d s o o n . T h is is th e lin g u is tic c o d e- th e o n e w h ic h c o rre la te sc e rta in
w o rd s ( s ig n s rn
) 'ithc e rta inc o lo u rs( c o n c e p ts )a, n d th u s e n a b le su s to
c o m m u n ic a tea b o u tc o lo u rsto o th e r p e o p le ,u s in g 'th e la n g u a g eo f c o lo u rs '.

B u t h o w d o w e u s e th is re p re s e n ta tio n aolr s y m b o lics y s te mto re g u la teth e

tra ffic? C o lo u rs d o n o t h a ve a n y 'tru e ' o r fixe d m e a n in g in th a t se n se .R e d
d o e sn o t m e a n 'S to p 'in n a tu re ,a n y m o re th a n G re e nm e a n s'G o ', I n o th e r
s e ttin g sR, e d m a y s ta n d fo r, s y m b o liz eo r re p re s e n 'B t lo o d ' o r 'D a n g e r'o r
'C o m m u n is m ';a n d G re e nm a y re p re s e n 'It re ia n d 'o r'T h e C o u n try s id e o' r
'E n v iro n m e n ta lis m E '. v e n th e s em e a n in g sc a n c h a n g e I. n th e 'la n g u a g eo f
e ie c tricp lu g s ',R e d u s e d to m e a n 'th e c o n n e c tio nw ith th e p o s itiv e c h a rg e '
b u t th is n a s a rb itra rily a n d w ith o u t e xp la n a tio n ch a n g e dto B ro w n ! B u t th e n
fo r m a n y y e a rsth e p ro d u c e rso f p lu g s h a d to a tta c ha s lip o f p a p e rte llin g
p e o p le th a t th e c o d e o r c o n v e n tio nh a d c h a n g e d o, th e rw is eh o w w o u ld th e y
k n o w ? R e d a n d G re e nw o rk in th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts b e c a u s e, S to p ,a n d
'G o 'a re th e m e a n in g sw h ic h h a v e b e e na s s ig n e dto th e m in o u r c u ltu re b y th e
c o d e o r c o n v e n tio n sg o v e rn in gth is la n g u a g ea, n d th is c o d e is w id e ly k n o w n
a n d a im o st u n ive rsa llv o b e ye din o u r cu ltu re a n d cu ltu re s like o u rs - th o u g h
w e c a n w e ll im a g in e o th e r c u ltu re s. 'r. h ic hd id n o t p o s s e s sth e c o d e ,in w h ic h
th is la n g u a g ew o u id b e a c o m p le tem y s te ry .

L e t u s sta y w ith th e e xa m p le fo r a m o m e n t, to e xp lo re a little fu rth e r h o w ,

a c c o rd in gto th e c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c hto re p re s e n ta tio nc,o lo u rsa n d th e
'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts' w o rk a s a sig n ifyin g o r re p re se n ta tio n a syste
l m.
R e ca ll rh e tw o re p re se n ta tio n a syste
l m sw e sp o ke o f e a rlie r.F irst, th e re is th e
c o n c e p tu a ml a p o f c o lo u rsin o u r c u ltu re - th e w a y c o lo u rsa re d is tin g u is h e d
 C H A P T E R T H E W O R KO F R E P R E S F N T A T I O N 2 7

fio m o n e a n o th e r,cla ssifie da n d a rra n g e din o u r m e n ta l u n ive rse .se co n d ly,

th e re a re th e w a ys w o rd s o r im a g e sa re co rre la te dw ith co lo u rs in o u r
la n g u a g e- o u r Iin g u istic co lo u r- co d e s.A ctu a lly, o f co u rse ,a la n g u a g eo f
co lo u rs co n sistso f m o re th a n ju st th e in d ivid u a l w o rd s fo r d iffe re n t p o in ts o n
th e co lo u r sp e ctru m .It a lso d e p e n d so n h o w th e y fu n ctio n in re la tio n to o n e
a n o th e r- th e so rts o f th in g s w h ich a re g o ve rn e db y g ra m m a ra n d syn ta x in
w ritte n o r sp o ke n la n g u a g e s,w h ich a llo w u s to e xp re ssra th e r co m p le x id e a s.
In th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts, it is th e se q u e n cea n d p o sitio n o f th e co lo u rs,
a s w e ll a s th e co lo u rs th e m se lve s,w h ich e n a b leth e m to ca rrv m e a n in e a n d
th u s fu n ctio n a s sig n s.

D o e sit m a tte r w h ich co lo u rs w e u se ?N o , th e co n stru ctio n istsa rg u e .T h is is

b e ca u sew h a t sig n ifie s is n o t th e co lo u rs th e m se lve sb u t ( a ) th e fa ct th a t th e y
a re d iffe re n t a n d ca n b e d istin g u ish e dfro m o n e a n o th e r;a n d ( b ) th e fa ct th a t
th e y a re o rg a n iz e din to a p a rticu la r se q u e n ce- R e d fo llo w e d b y G re e n ,w ith
so m e tim e sa w a rn in g A m b e r in b e tw e e nw h ich sa ys,in e ffe ct, 'G e t re a d y!
L ig h ts a b o u t to ch a n g e .'co n stru ctio n istsp u t th is p o in t in th e fo llo w in g w a y.
w h a t sig n ifie s,w h a t ca rrie sm e a n in g - th e y a rg u e- is n o t e a ch co lo u r in
itse lf n o r e ve n th e co n ce p to r w o rd fo r it. It is th e d iffe re n ceb e tw e e n R e d a n d
G re e nw h ich sig n ifie s.T h is is a ve ry im p o rta n t p rin cip le , in g e n e ra l,a b o u t
re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g ,a n d w e sh a ll re tu rn to it o n m o re th a n o n e
o cca sio nin th e ch a p te rsw h ich fo llo w T h in k a b o u tit in th e se te rm s. If yo u
c o u ld n 't d iffe re n tia teb e tw e e nR e d a n d G re e n ,y o u c o u ld n 't u s e o n e to m e a n
'S to p 'a n d th e o th e rto m e a n 'G o '.I n th e s a m ew a y , it is o n ly th e d iffe re n c e
b e tw e e nth e le tte rs P a n d T w h ich e n a b leth e w o rd sH E E p to b e lin ke d , in th e
E n g lish la n g u a g eco d e , to th e co n ce p t o f 'th e a n im a l w ith fo u r le g s a n d a
w o o lly c o a t',a n d th e w o rd S H E E Tto 'th e m a te ria lw e u s e to c o v e ro u rs e lv e s
in b e d a t n ig h t'.

In p rin cip le , a n y co m b in a tio n o f co lo u rs - like a n y co lle ctio n o f le tte rs in

w ritte n la n g u a g eo r o f so u n d s in sp o ke n la n g u a g e- w o u ld d o , p ro vid e d th e y
a re su fficie n tly d iffe re n t n o t to b e co n fu se d .co n stru ctio n ists e xp re ssth is
id e a b y s a y in gth a t a ll s ig n sa re 'a rb itra ry '.'A rb itra ry 'm e a n sth a i th e re is n o
n a tu ra l re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e sig n a n d its m e a n in g o r co n ce p t.sin ce R e d
o n ly m e a n s'S to p 'b e c a u s eth a t is h o w th e c o d e w o rk s , in p rin c ip le a n y
co lo u r w o u ld d o , in clu d in g G re e n .It is th e co d e th a t fixe s th e m e a n in g ,n o t
th e co lo u r itse lf. T h is a lso h a s w id e r im p lica tio n s fo r th e th e o ry o f
re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g in la n g u a g e It
. m e a n sth a t sig n s th e m se lve s
ca n n o t fix m e a n in g .In ste a d ,m e a n in g d e p e n d so n fh e re la tio n b e tw e e na sig n
a n d a c o n c e p tw h ic h is fix e d b y a c o d e .M e a n in g ,th e c o n s tru c tio n is ts
w o u ld
s a y ,is 'r e la t io n a l'.

W h y n o t te st th is p o in t a b o u t th e a rb itra ry n a tu re o f th e sig n a n d th e
im p o rta n ce o f th e co d e fo r yo u rse lff C o n stru cta co d e to g o ve rn th e
m o ve m e n to f tra ffic u sin g tw o d iffe re n t co lo u rs - Y e llo w a n d B lu e - a s in
th e fo llo w in g :
28 R EPR ESEN TATC
I OUNLIT U R ARL E P R E S E N To A
N TS A N D S I G N ]F Y ]NPGR A C T I C E S

W h e n th e y e llo w lig h t is s h o w in g ,. , .

N o w a d d a n in s tru c tio na llo w in g p e d e s tria n sa n d c y c lis tso n ly to c ro s s ,

u sin g P in k.

P ro v id e dth e c o d e te lls u s c le a rlyh o w to re a d o r in te rp re te a c hc o lo u r,a n d

e ve ryo n ea g re e sto in te rp re t th e m in th is w a y, a n y co lo u r w ill d o . T h e se a re
ju s t c o lo u rs ,ju s t a s th e w o rd S H E E Pis ju s t a ju m b le o f le tte rs .I n F re n c hth e
sa m e a n im a l is re fe rre dto u sin g th e ve ry d iffe re n t lin g u istic sig n M O U T O N .
S ig n s a re a rb itra ry.T h e ir m e a n in g sa re fixe d b y co d e s.

A s w e sa id e a rlie r,tra ffic lig h ts a re m a ch in e s,a n d co lo u rs a re th e m a te ria l

e ffe ct o f lig h t- w a ve so n th e re tin a o f th e e ye . B u t o b je cts- th in g s - ca n a lso
fu n c tio n a s s ig n s ,p ro v id e d th e y h a v e b e e n a s s ig n e da c o n c e p ta n d m e a n in g
w ith in o u r c u ltu ra l a n d lin g u is tic c o d e s .A s s ig n s ,th e y w o rk s y m b o lic a lly-
th e y re p re se n tco n ce p ts,a n d sig n ify. T h e ir e ffe cts,h o w e ve r,a re fe lt in th e F IG U I
Cl
m a te ria l a n d so cia l w o rld . R e d a n d G re e n fu n ctio n in th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic . - :-

lig h ts a s sig n s,b u t th e y h a ve re a l m a te ria l a n d so cia l e ffe cts.T h e y re g u la te

th e so cia lb e h a vio u r o f d rive rs a n d , w ith o u t th e m , th e re w o u ld b e m a n y m o re
tra ffic a ccid e n tsa t ro a d in te rse ctio n s. :- , - - ;
: 5 ll

W e h a ve co m e a lo n g w a y in e xp lo rin g th e n a tu re o f re p re se n ta tio n It
. is tim e
to su m m a riz ew h a t w e h a ve le a rn e d a b o u t th e co n stru ctio n ista n n ro a chto
re p re se n ta tio nth ro u g h la n g u a g e .

R e p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u ctio n o f m e a n in g th ro u g h la n g u a g e In .

re p re s e n ta tio nc,o n s tru c tio n is tsa rg u e ,w e u s e s ig n s ,o rg a n iz e din to la n g u a g e s
o f d iffe re n t kin d s, to co m m u n ica tem e a n in g fu lly w ith o th e rs.L a n g u a g e sca n
u s e s ig n sto s y m b o liz e ,s ta n d fo r o r re fe re n c eo b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n tsin
th e so - ca lle d're a l' w o rld . B u t th e y ca n a lso re fe re n ceim a g in a ry th in g s a n d
fa n ta syw o rld s o r a b stra ctid e a s w h ich a re n o t in a n y o b vio u s se n sep a rt o f
o u r m a te ria l w o rld . T h e re is n o sim p le re la tio n sh ip o f re fle ctio n , im ita tio n o r
o n e - to - o n eco rre sp o n d e n ceb e tw e e n la n g u a g ea n d th e re a l w o rld . T h e w o rld
is n o t a ccu ra te lyo r o th e rw ise re fle cte d in th e m irro r o f la n g u a g e .L a n g u a g e
d o e s n o t w o rk like a m irro r, M e a n in g is p ro d u ce d w ith in la n g u a g e ,in a n d
th ro u g h va rio u s re p re se n ta tio n a syste
l m sw h ich , fo r co n ve n ie n ce ,w e ca ll
'la n g u a g e s M'. e a n in gis p ro d u c e db y th e p ra c tic e ,th e 'w o rk ', o f
re p re se n ta tio n It. is co n stru cte dth ro u g h sig n ifyin g - i.e . m e a n in g - p ro d u cin g
- p ra c tic e s .

H o w d o e sth is ta ke p la ce ?In fa ct, it d e p e n d so n tw o d iffe re n t b u t re la te d

syste m so f re p re se n ta tio n F. irst, th e co n ce p tsw h ich a re fo rm e d in th e m in d
fu n ctio n a s a syste m o f m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio nw h ich cla ssifie sa n d o rg a n iz e s
th e w o rld in to m e a n in g fu l ca te g o rie s.If w e h a ve a co n ce p tfo r so m e th in g ,w e
ca n sa y w e kn o w its 'm e a n in g '. B u t w e ca n n o t co m m u n ica teth is m e a n in g
w ith o u t a se co n dsyste m o f re p re se n ta tio n a, la n g u a g e .L a n g u a g eco n sistso f
sig n s o rg a n iz e din to va rio u s re la tio n sh ip s.B u t sig n sca n o n ly co n ve y m e a n in g
 C F ]A P T E R T H E W O R KO F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 2 9

if w e p o s s e s sc o d e sw h ic h a llo w u s to tra n s la teo u r c o n c e p tsin to la n g u a g e-

a n d v ic e v e rs a .T h e s ec o d e sa re c ru c ia lfo r m e a n in ga n d re p re s e n ta tio nT. h e y
d o n o t e xist in n a tu re b u t a re th e re su lt o f so cia l co n ve n tio n s.T h e y a re a
cru cia l p a rt o f o u r cu ltu re - o u r sh a re d{m a p so f m e a n in g '- w h ich w e le a rn
a n d u n c o n s c io u s lyin te rn a liz ea s w e b e c o m em e m b e rso f o u r c u ltu re .T h is
co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a chto la n g u a g eth u s in tro d u ce sth e sym b o lic d o m a in o f
Iife , w h e re w o rd s a n d th in g s fu n ctio n a s sig n s,in to th e ve ry h e a rt o f so cia l life
its e lf.

A ll th is m a y se e mra th e r a b stra ct. B u t w e ca n q u ickly d e m o n stra teits

re le va n ceb y a n e xa m p le fro m p a in tin g .
L o o k a t th e p a in tin g o f a still life b y th e S p a n ishp a in te r,fu a n S a n ch e z
F IG U R E I.3 C o t6 n ( 1 5 2 1 - 1 6 2 7 ) ,e n title d Q u in ce , C a b b a g e M
, e lo n a n d C u cu m b e r
J u a nC o t6 n , ( F ig u re1 . 3 ) . I t s e e m sa s if th e p a in te rh a s m a d e e v e rye ffo rtto u s e th e
Q uince C , obba ge , . - 'la n g u a g eo fp a in tin g ' a c c u ra te lyto re fle c tth e s efo u r o b je c tsto
, c a p tu reo r
M e lo no n d 'im ita te n a tu re '. Is th is, th e n , a n e xa m p le o f a re fle ctive o r m im e tic fo rm o f
C u cu m b e r, re p re se n ta tio n- a p a in tin g re fle ctin g th e 'tru e m e a n in g 'o f w h a t a lre a d y
c.1 6 0 2 . e xistsin C o t6 n 'skitch e n ? O r ca n w e fin d th e o p e ra tio no f ce rta in co d e s,
 R F P R E S E N T A T ] O CN U: L T U R A LR E P R E S E N T A T I O NA SN D S I G N I I _ Y I N PG R A C T I C E S

th e la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g u se d to p ro d u ce a ce rta in m e a n in g ? S ta rtw ith

th e q u e s tio n w
, h a t d o e sth e p a in tin g m e a nto y o u ? W h a t is it 's a y in g '?
T h e n g o o n to a s k ,h o r. vis it s a y in git - h o w d o e sre p re s e n ta tio w
n o rk in
+ L :^
r r r r ) *P^:d- +r: .r^^t
rrrrrB :

W rite d o rnn a n y th o u g h ts a t a ll th a t co m e to yo u o n lo o kin g a t th e

p a in tin g . W h a t d o th e s eo b je c tss a y to y o u ? W h a t m e a n in g sd o th e y
trig g e r o ff?

N o w re a d th e e d ite d e xtra ctfro m a n a n a lysiso f th e still life b y th e a rt

c ritic a n d th e o ris t,N o rm a nB ry s o n ,in c lu d e d a s R e a d in gA a t th e e n d o f
th is c h a p te r.D o n 't b e c o n c e rn e da, t th is s ta g e if, th e la n g u a g es e e m sa
little d iffic u lt a n d y o u d o n 't u n d e rs ta n da ll th e te rm s . P ic k o u t th e m a in
p o in ts a b o u tth e w a y re p rcse n ta tio nw o rks in th e p a in tin g , a cco rd in gto
B ry s o n .
B ryso n is b y n o m e a n sth e o n ly critic o f C o t6 n 'sp a in tin g , a n d ce rta in ly
d o e s n 'tp ro v id e th e o n ly 'c o rre c t're a d in go f it. T h a t'sn o t th e p o in t. T h e
p o in t o f th e e x a m p leis th a t h e h e lp s u s to s e eh o w , e v e nin a s till life ,
th e 'la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g 'd o e sn o l fu n c tio n s im p ly to re fle c to r im ita te a
m e a n in gw h ich is a ire a d yth e re in n a tu re ,b u t to p ro d u ce m e a n in g s.
T h e a ct o f p a in tin g is a sig n ifyin gp ra ctice . T a ke n o te , in p a rticu la r,o f
w h a t B ry s o ns a y sa b o u tth e fo lio w in g p o in ts :
1 th e w a y th e p a in tin g in vite s yo u , th e vie w e r, to lo o k- w h a t h e ca lls
its 'm o d e o f s e e in g ';in p a rt, th e fu n c tio n o f th e la n g u a g eis to p o s itio n
y o u , th e v ie w e r,in a c e rta inre la tio nto m e a n in g .
I
2 th e re la tio n s h ipto / o o d w h ic h is p o s e db y th e p a in tin g .
3 h o w , a c c o rd in gto B ry s o n ,'m a th e m a tic afo
l rm ' is u s e db y C o td nto
d isto rtth e p a in tin g so a s to b rin g o u t a p a rticu la r m e a n in g . C a n a
d is to rte dm e a n in gin p a in tin gb e 'tru e '?
4 th e m e a n in g o f th e d iffe re n ceb e tw e e n'cre a tu ra l'a n d 'g e o m e tric'
s p a c e th
: e la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g c re a te sits o w n k in d o f s p a c e .
I f n e c e s s a ryw, o rk th ro u g hth e e x tra c ta g a in ,p ic k in g u p th e s es p e c ific
p o in t s .

T h e so cia lco n stru ctio n istvie r,t'o f la n g u a g ea n d re p re se n ta tio nw h ich w e h a ve

b e e n d is c u s s in go w e sa g re a td e a lto th e w o rk a n d in flu e n c eo f th e S w is s
I in g u is t,S a u s s u rew, h o w a s b o rn in G e n e v ain 1 8 5 7 ,d id m u c h o f h is w o rk in
P a ris ,a n d d ie d in 1 9 1 3 . H e is k n o w n a s th e 'fa th e ro f m o d e rn lin g u is tic s '.
F o r o u r p u rp o s e sh, is im p o rta n c elie s , n o t in h is d e ta ile dw o rk in lin g u is tic s ,
b u t in h is g e n e ra lvie r,r'o f re p re se n ta tio na n d th e w a y h is m o d e l o f la n g u a g e