Council for Research in Music Education

From Tone to Melody to Music: Some Directions for a Theory of Musical Cognition
Author(s): Lola Cuddy
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 71 (Summer, 1982), pp. 15-
29
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40317728
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 75

article

FromTone to Melody to Music:

Some Directionsfora Theoryof Musical Cognition
Lola Cuddy

Developmentof a theoryof musicalcognitionand acquisitionis

an excitingchallenge,particularly so todaywithso manyissuesbe-
ing raised and so much information beingprovidedacrossa varie-
tyof disciplines.But despitethe wealthof data and observations
thatabound, an investigator comingfroma backgroundin tradi-
tional experimentalpsychologyoften must pause and reflect
whetherin factthestudyof perceptionhas a greatdeal to offerat
thetheoreticallevel. It does, or at least it has considerablepoten-
tial to illuminatetheoreticalconcerns,but we mustproceedwith
considerablecautionand perhapsconcentrate forthepresentupon
working out the framework for investigationratherthan im-
mediatelyprovidingglobal solutionsfor our concerns.Psycho-
musicologyis, afterall, not just a new word (and a newjournal)
butitalso represents a developinginteraction amongresearchers in
whichthemethodsas wellas thefindings of one disciplineare con-
veyed to others. Differentmethodsof investigation,however,
sometimesyield conflictingresults.In this paper, some of the
methods of experimentalpsychologyare outlined, their dif-
ferenceswithmusicalintuitionand knowledgeare described,and
then an outlinemade indicatingpossible approaches to solving
thesediscrepancies.
It is reasonableforthe musicstudentor the musiceducatorto
feelfrustrated by the fieldsof auditoryperception.Psychoacous-
tics, for example,seemsto be concernedwithreducingthe listen-
ingexperienceto thedetectionand discrimination of acousticdif-
ferencesthathave no discerniblerelationto musiclistening.And
evenstudiesin musicperceptiontendto deal withquite subtleef-
fects,effectsnot easily demonstrableas phenomenabut rather
that emergefromcarefulstatisticalanalysisof collecteddata.1
These effects,however,are worthnotingfortwo veryimportant
reasons: first,the verysubtletyof an effect,thatit is evidentfor
one personand notanother,or at one timeand notanotherforthe

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16 MusicalCognition

same person,maybe an indexof the flexibility of auditoryatten-

tion. I would go further and speculatethatsuch fluctuations are
not entirelyrandombut are to some extentdependentupon the
natureof the auditorypatternand/orthe mentalset of the lis-
tener.LaterI willtryto providea specificexampleof whatI mean;
for the moment,my point is that the experimental psychologist
facesthe seriousproblemof definingand isolatingthe sourcesof
variabilityunderlying empiricalresults.The second reasonis that
the advice, introspection,and analyses of musiciansand music
theoristswho have examinedthese experimental effectsis abso-
lutely if
critical we are to untangle the reasons for variability.
Our observation from interviewswith musicians in the
laboratoryhas been that musiciansare constantlyperforming
auditorytestsupon theirauditoryworld. They formhypotheses
about what music should sound like, they collect auditory
evidence,and theymake decisionsabout whatthemusicsounded
like;in otherwords,theyoftenoperateas empiricalscientists. And
forall of us, to translateauditoryexperiences
whileit is difficult,
into verbaldescriptionsof the experiences,it is nevertheless the
case thatthe descriptions,protocols,reports,or what have you,
reflectthe operationof real events.We need to examinewhether
thesereal events,as inferredfrommusicians'descriptions,bear
any correspondenceto our experimentalfindingsand, if so, to
whatextent.
Some classic psychoacousticstudiesof (melodic)pitchpercep-
tion and the questionsof musicianshave led to my rethinking
about thetypicalexperimental paradigms.Pitchperceptionis used
as an examplebecause of itshistoricalpredominanceand itsfairly
extensiveliterature,but similaraccountsshouldbe possibleforthe
perceptionof musicaltime,dynamics,and timbre(and, ultimate-
ly, forthe interrelation of dimensions).

and Identification
on theDiscrimination
Experiments of Tones

Pitchdiscrimination
The method of constantstimulifor pitch discrimination in-
volves the presentationof a standardtone followedby a com-
parisontonethatmaybe thesame, higherthan,or lowerthanthe

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Lola Cuddy 17

standardtone. A typicalfindingis that pitchdiscrimination

deterioratesas therangeand number of standardtonestestedin-
creases(e.g., Bull& Cuddy,1972).As appliedto a musicalsitua-
tion,thefinding wouldimplythattheaccuracywithwhichwe
perceiveintonation dependsupontherangeand numberof dif-
ferentnotesinthepiece.Thisstatement seemsabsurd;meaningful
questions would be concernedwithwhether accuracyof percep-
tiondepended uponthestyleofthepiece,thetonalcontext,andso
forth.Thereis an importantpointtothissimplefinding,however:
accuracy of discrimination be
may dependent upon thesizeofthe
taskrequirements and demands.In otherwords,theamountof
acousticinformation thatyouare requiredto keeptrackof in a
piecemayaffectyourabilityto discriminate finedifferencesin
tuning.

Pitchscaling
A scale of linearpitchheight,the mei scale, was developed
through psychophysical scalingtechniques byS. S. Stevens(e.g.,
Stevens& Volkman,1940).The meiscaledescribes pitchextent;
twopairsoftonesseparated bythesamenumber ofmelsaresaid
to be separatedbythesamepitchdistance.The classicmeiscale
doesnotpreserve constancy offrequency ratio,however, andwith
themeiscale,harmonic musicis impossible (Harris,1969).Does
thismeanthattheharmonic system, andthediatonicscale,areun-
natural,orat anyrate,lessnaturalthanthemeiscale?Underwhat
conditions can we judgetheintervals of theharmonic systemas
opposed to themei system?Why is itso difficult
to name melodic
intervals without
correctly considerable musicaltraining?

Pitchidentification
Classicstudiesto measurethechannelcapacityfortheabsolute
judgment of pitchhaveshownthattheabilityto name(identify)
individual tonesis severelylimited(Pollack,1952).The average
listenercando nobetter thanidentifythreeorfourtonescorrectly;
witha greater number oftones,thelistenerbecomesconfused. An
immediate musicalconcernis thattheincidence of absolutepitch
clearlyrunscontrary to the psychoacousticfinding.But apart
fromabsolutepitch,can musicians improve theirpitchjudgment

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18 MusicalCognition

withtraining?Does it dependuponthetimbre of thenotes,i.e.,

wasthelimitationon performance describedby Pollack to
specific
puretones? What happens ifwe alterthesetof notespresentedin
thetestof absolutejudgment? Whatif theywererelatedby oc-
etc.? In otherwords,howstableis themeasureof
taves,fifths,
channelcapacityand how can it be modified?Experimental
evidencehasindicated thatmusicians namenotesmoreaccurately
ifthenotesareselected froma structured set(thetriadF-A-Cover
severaloctaves).In addition,theywillimprovetheirjudgment
withtraining
thatemphasizes thestructuralnatureoftheset(Cud-
dy,1971).The findings do not hold fornonmusicians, however.

Pitchmemory
Although we are a longwayfroma comprehensive accountof
howpitchis retained inmemory, wehavea greatdealofevidence
thatmemory forthepitchof a tonedeteriorates overtimepar-
inthepresence
ticularly ofothertones(e.g.,Deutsch,1970,1972).
Deutsch'sresultsshowquiteconclusivelythatmemory forpitchis
extremelypoor if the for
tones thetestareselected randomly from
the chromaticscale. How then do we remember tunesand
melodies? Does ithavesomethingto do withtheunderlyingstruc-
tureof tonalmusic?WouldDeutsch'sresults holdtrueifthetest
toneswereselectedfromthediatonicscale? Fromthediatonic
scale withsequentialrulesbuiltin? Is musicaltrainingcritical
here?

Experiments to considermusicalquestions:
therole of diatonicismand tonality

In manyof thequestionsand queriesfrommusicalconsidera-

tionsof thenotionsof diatonicism, harmony, have
and tonality
occurred.We becameincreasingly concernedthattheseconcepts,
so extensivelyexaminedin music theory,be subjectedto
psychologicaltest. Two seriesof experiments were designed
(Cuddy, Cohen & Miller,1979, followedby Cuddy,Cohen&
Mewhort, 1981).
Our experiments havelookedat boththeroleof musicalex-
perienceand the role in determining
of objectivestructure the

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Lola Cuddy 19

responseto a tone sequence. The levelsof experiencerangefrom

that of the professionalmusicianto that of the average college
undergraduate withno morethan a yearor two of musiclessons
thathe or she mightratherforget.In theseexperiments we com-
posed short tone sequences; to describe these sequenceswe used
the musical notions of diatonicism (membership in a scalar set of
tones)and harmonicprogression, lawfulrulesdescribing theorder
of thesequencingof harmonicunits.Our typicalprocedurewas to
compose a sequencethatwas highlystructured, highlytonal (ac-
cording to musical rules), and then to generate stringof altera-
a
tionsof thesequencein whichtherulesweregraduallyrelaxed,ig-
nored,or violated.An exampleof sucha setof sequencesis given
in Figure1.
Figure1 showsa set of 32 tone sequencesin musicalnotation.
Theywerepresentedin randomorderto twogroupsof 60 listeners
each. One group was highlytrainedin music performanceand
theory,the othergroup was moderatelytrained.The tones were
pure tones generatedby a General Radio frequencysynthesizer
undercomputercontroland therateof presentation was 500 msec
per tone. Each listener was asked to rate theperceivedstructure of
the sequenceon a six-pointscale, withsix representing the upper
end of thestructure scale. The mainpointsto be notedin Figure1
are as follows(furtherdetailsare available in Cuddy, Cohen &
Mewhort,1981): first,the sequencesare listedin orderof subjec-
tiveratingsprovidedby thehighlytrainedgroupof listeners.The
sequenceat thetop of theleft-handcolumnwas giventhehighest
ratingof structureon the six-pointscale, followedby the se-
quences, in order,down the column and thenthe sequences,in
order,down the right-hand column. For each sequence,the two
numbersseparatedby a slashrepresent themean ratingsfromthe
two separategroupsof listeners.Second, the sequence accorded
the higheststructuralratingis a diatonicsequencewiththe I-V-I
harmonicprogression,beginningand endingon the tonic, and
withthe leading-note-to-tonic ending.We have repeatedlyfound
thatthistypeof construction leads to a perceptualjudgmentof a
highlystructured,highlyorganizedtone sequence. Third, har-
monicanalysesof threeprofessionalmusictheorists are also given.
As the sequencesdescendin ratingof perceivedstructure thereis
an increasingdivergenceamong the analysts.

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20 Musical Cognition

Figure1: Thirty-twotone sequences in decreasingorder of perceived

as determined
structure by listenerratings.Harmonicanalyses
of three professionalmusic theoristsare also given (from
Cuddy, Cohen, and Mewhort,1981).

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Lola Cuddy 21

Figure2 showsa cross-classification of sequencesderivedfrom

studyof the resultsof the ratingexperiment.The rows of the
figurerepresent levelsof harmonicstructure, goingfroma strong
diatonicI-V-I progression in level 1 to multipleviolationsof the
musicalrulesin level 5. The columnsrepresentadditionaldimen-
sions thatwe and others(e.g., Dowling, 1978) have foundto be
important determinants of psychologicalstructure, contour(or the
patternof ups and downs) and excursion(or the distancein the
semitsbetweenthefirstand thelast note). Recentlywe reporteda
recognitionstudyusingthesesequences(Cuddy et al., 1981). In
thisstudyeach trialconsistedof a standardsequence,randomly
selectedfromthe set of Figure2, immediatelyfollowedby two
transpositionsof thesequence.One transposition was correct,the
othercontainedan alterationof one note by plus or minusone
semit.Here the task was to recognizethe correcttransposition.
Othertasksthatwe havestudiedwiththeseor similarsequencesin-
volve perceivedratingsof structure,detectionof a mistuning
withinthesequenceand, finally,ratingsof pleasingnessof these-
quence. For all of theseparadigmsthereis a commonfinding:the
levelof musicalstructure as definedby thekeymembership of the
notesand theharmonicprogressionof thenotesis a criticaldeter-
minantof performancethat holds across a varietyof levels of
musicaltraining.

Some interimconclusionsand further experiments

What we have now learnedfromour experimental workis the
importance of musical context in determininghow we perceive
pitch.If we build an ongoingmusicalstructure into our tone se-
quences,it appears thatit is quite naturalto apprehendthe har-
monicrelationswithina singlemelodicline. Even people without
musicaltrainingagreethata I-V-I progression soundshighlystruc-
tured and organized whereas a nondiatonic sequence of tones
soundsstrangeand jarring.The musicalscale, therefore, as wellas
the mei scale, is a meaningfulpsychologicalreferrent. But this
finding is in general to
restricted in
situations which we have tem-
poral structure, i.e., a harmonic progressionunfolding in time.
Note that such a conclusion does not imply that the early
psychoacousticstudieswerewrong.Rather,whattheywerestudy-

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22 Musical Cognition

of tonesequencesaccordingto harmonic
Figures2: A crossclassification
structure,contourand excursion(fromCuddy, Cohen, and
Mewhort,,1981).

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Lola Cuddy 23

ingwastheresponse to an abstractand isolatedrepresentation of

tonefrequency. Puretonespresented as entities inthemselvesmay
notbe treatedas elements thatconveystructure; in moremusical
terms, a singlenoteor evenan interval doesnotconveysufficient
information to establishan unambiguous tonality. The musician
maybring to a psychoacoustic task a well developedinternalized
reference structure thatmaybe appliedto thetask,butthegeneral
oraveragelistener requiresa gooddealmoreinformation fromthe
soundpattern itselfinorderto establish a senseoftonalstructure.
But our experiments withsequencesrevealnew problemsas
well. Sometimesa sequencethat is constructed accordingto
musicalrules,containing diatonicnotesanda strong V-Icadential
ending, is remarkably to remember,
difficult at leastinsomeofits
parts.Examplesof suchsequencesare givenin Figure3 (after
Cuddy& Lyons,in press).As youmight expect,itis notverydif-
ficultto detect an errorin the middle of sequencesof Class 1,

Figure3: Diatonic(Class 1), Modulating(Classes2 and 3) and Non-

diatonic(Classes4 and 5) sequences(adaptedfromCuddy
and Lyons,in press).

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24 MusicalCognition

whichare highlytonal and obey the rules of a simpleharmonic

progression, to detectan errorin sequences
and it's quitedifficult
of Classes 4 and 5, which contain nondiatonicnotes. The se-
quencesof Classes 2 and 3, however,are a littlepeculiar.Firstof
all, note that,althoughtheyare nominallydiatonicin the keyof
C, theprogressionsoundsodd. Second, we have foundthatif we
transposethesesequencesto thedominant(thekeyof G) and alter
one of themiddlenotesby a semitoneto anotherdiatonicnote,it
is verydifficultfor most listenersto detectthe alterationat all.
That is to say, in thisparticularkind of recognitiontest,the se-
quencesof Classes 2 and 3 mightas wellbe nondiatonicsequences.
This findinghas puzzledus forsometime,becauseitseemsto imp-
ly thatharmoniccontextis obscuring,not clarifying, a particular
pitchdiscrimination. Yet the findinghas an applicationto music
listeningin the real world; it happens when you hear a tonal
answeras thesame as theoriginalmelodyand don't hearthatthe
intervalshave in factbeen changed.
A graduatestudent,Helen Lyons,has been studying peculiarse-
quenceslikethoseof Classes 2 and 3 in depthand willbe reporting
her findingsin a forthcoming doctoralthesis.Formally,she has
describedthe sequencesas modulatingor containingthe unlikely
progressionVI-I, but she has foundthatonly trainedmusicians
can applythesetermsaccuratelywithrespectto the sequences.If
thesemusicaltermsare circumvented, however,and listenersare
merely asked to ratethe structureof sequences,itis quiteapparent
fromLyons' data thatmovementaway froman underlying I-V-I
progressionis perceivedas degradingthe structureby listeners
across all levelsof musicaltrainingtested.Lyons has shownthat
this findingholds for five-and nine-notesequences as well as
seven-notesequencesand fortwo directionsof movement,major
to minorand minorto major.

Some futuredirections
The researchfindingspointdirectionsbothforthespecificstudy
of pitchperceptionand forthegeneralstudyof musicalcognition.
In pitchperception,researchhas tracedthe differencesbetween
and the relationsbetweenthe perceptionof singletones and the
structural
perceptionof tonesequences.In doingso, different sys-

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Lola Cuddy 25

ternshavebeenuncovered job istodefinethese

andourtheoretical
andto showhowandwhentheyrelate,overlap,andin-
structures
teract.Onecontributiontoa generaltheoryofmusicalcognition
is
to underlinetheimportance of multiple
structuresthatmaynot
merely butexistina well-defined
co-exist hierarchyforwhicheach
levelplaysan important musicalrole.
and significant

Pitchperception and memory

A comprehensive accountof pitchidentification and memory
mustincorporate a notionof rulesystems thatgovernperceived
relationsin accordancewiththedegreeof tonalstructure thatis
detectableinthepitchpattern. Singletones,orevenpairsoftones,
aretonallyambiguous; theycouldbelongto one of manykeysor
tonalities.
Perceptual judgments inthiscasedo notrelyupontonal
information butaregenerally baseduponan identification oftone
height-a senseof "upness" and "downness" that is limited in
discrimination bythephysiological resolution of frequency infor-
mationandinidentification bytheestablished capacity fora single
sensorydimension. On occasion,however,singletonesmaybe
forced intoa tonal role;thatis to say,a singletonemaybe regard-
ed as a tonicnote withimpliedor inferred relationsto other
diatonicand nondiatonic notes(cf. Krumhansl & Kessler,1981).
Butthemainpointis thattheprocessing ofa singleevent,a tone,
involvesa structure that is tonallyfluid,or adaptable,and
thereforehighly susceptibletointerference, alteration, ortransfor-
mation.The pitchof a tone is verydifficult to identify or to
remember if the tone is presented in a contextof nondiatonic
tones.Presumably no reference structure is established in a non-
diatoniccontext. Other information is pickedup, such as repeti-
tionandcontour, butI suspectthisinformation is againrepresen-
tativeoftoneheight only.Thesystem thatcodestheup-and-down
movement of a tonesequencecan be shownto be independent of
thesystem thatcodesintervals and harmony (cf.Dowling,1978).
Tonesin a sequenceare notnecessarily melodiesin a musical
sensebuttheseexperimentally producedstrings at leastbeginto
captureone veryimportantpropertyof melody-the unity,
coherence, orgoodformoftheunderlying pitchset.Thisproperty
is particularlycompelling forthe set that incorporates lawfuland

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26 Musical Cognition

regularharmonicprogressions.Harmonicprogressions in thetone
patternprovide stable information about a tonal structure. In-
dividualpitchesare coded and are providedfunctionalvaluesthat
representthe positionwithrespectto the tonic (e.g., dominant,
mediant,etc.). Further,thesefunctionalvalues existin a hierar-
chical arraywithnotesof the tonicchordtakingprecedenceover
otherdiatonicnotes, whichthemselvestake precedenceover ac-
cidentals(nondiatonic)notes (Krumhansl,1979). This process,
however,is notstaticbutis in a continuing stateof development as
thesequenceunfoldsin time.We havepreviously characterizedthe
processas a searchforinvariance(stability)of a tonal structure in
the presenceof changingacoustic events (Cuddy & Lyons, in
press). The structureof a novel melodyis to be discoveredin a
mannerlikesolvinga puzzle. A hypothesis is setup about thetonic
or centralreference pointand each note is subsequentlytestedor
examinedto determinewhetheror not it fitsthe hypothesis.If it
does, it is givena functionalvalue withinthe structure;if it does
not, the hypothesismust be rejected and a new hypothesis
adopted. A reasonableset of workingassumptions,and one that
appears to be supportedby experimental evidence,is to assume
thatthe firstnote is the tonic,to assumesubsequentnotesare an
embellishment of thetonicchord,and to assumemovementaway
fromthetonicwillbe to a closelyrelatedkey(whichitselfcan be
consideredan embellishment of the tonic). These are the cues or
clues to a sourceof invarianceunderlying the movingpattern.
But whatif such regularities do not existin the pattern?What
happensto thefunctionalcode fora notethatdoesn'tquitefitthe
pattern,such as occursin our modulatingsequences?Thereare a
numberof possibilities:one is thatthecodingsystemis simplynot
applied; only a roughapproximationof pitchheightis retained.
Anotheris thatthenoteis providedwithmultiplecodes indicating
thealternative hypothesesabout structure thatmustnow be enter-
tained.The recognition data tendto favorthelatteralternative. A
note in theregionof modulationwas moreeasilyconfusedwitha
neighboringdiatonic note than witha neighboringnondiatonic
note.For thesequenceswe have studieditcould be arguedthatthe
neighboring diatonicnotessharesome membersof theirmultiple
codes, thenondiatonicdo notand are therefore moredistinctively

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Lola Cuddy 27

A further
different. implicationof thenotionof multiplecodingis
thata recognitionmistakemayin factnotbe an errorof memory.
It mayreflecttherichnessor complexity
of thecognitivestructures
thatare beingevaluatedat thattime.
Musical Cognition
The theoreticalimplicationsof experimental findingson single
notes and tone sequenceswithmelody-likepropertieshave been
considered.In summary,thefindings emphasizethepsychological
realityof tonalsystems and theroleof tonalsystemsin settingup a
cognitivestructurethatdescribesthe invariances(or lawfulrela-
tions) among constantlychangingperceptualevents.Can we go
further,however,and speculateas to how thesenotionsmightap-
ply to the perceptionand cognitionof music?
Listeningto music involves the detectionof relations and
associations.It seemsreasonableto suppose thatthe regularities
and functions ascribedto pitchperceptionapplyto largerfieldsof
experience.Veryobviouslyand veryclearlyas one questionthat
must be addressedis the question of how otherdimensionsin-
fluenceor interactwiththe apprehensionof a melodicline. One
issue we are considering,forexample,is the extentto whichthe
provisionof harmonyin lowervoices would help resolvethe am-
biguitiesof themodulatingsequences.Anotheris to followup the
preliminary findingthatitis easierto detectharmonicprogressions
in melodiclinesif the line has a smoothcontourthan if it has a
complex patternof ups and downs. In the last instance,no
responseto contouror contourchangeswas requiredin theexperi-
ment,yettheoverallshape did influencetheresponseto harmonic
structure.The impressionis one of many aspects working
simultaneously yetorganizedin a regularlawfulfashion.Further,
and withregardto musicthisis purespeculationat thispoint,we
can organize dimensionsat differentlevels of attentionin an
overallhierarchy.2
The tonalansweris a particularinstanceof a subtletypeof flexi-
ble structuring.Is it or is it nottheoriginalmelody?The construc-
tionof thepatternsetsup thepotentialforambiguity, whilethein-
tervalsare changedand the melodyis therefore different,certain
otheraspectsof the melody,its contourand its keymembership,

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28 MusicalCognition

are the same. The experiencedlistenermay resolvethe ambiguity

byhearingboththedifference and thesamenessas distinctmusical
functions.The existenceof multiplestructures forstimulusevents
is difficultto testexperimentally but it should not be ignoredfor
thatreason. A theoryof musicalcognitionneeds to considerthe
possibilitythatlearninga piece of musicdoes not just consistof
improving a singlesetof stimulus-response connections.It also in-
cludes a diversity of structuring and restructuring as well.
The notionsof hierarchicalstructures may also be relevantto
the problemsof different levelsof musicappreciation.In rating
the pleasingnessof sequence,listenersacrossa varietyof levelsof
musicaltrainingall had highestpreferences forthesequenceswith
I-V-I structure. The musicalimplications of thisfindingare at first
a littlestrange;surelywe do notseekultimatesatisfaction in music
based onlyon tonic-dominant-tonic progressions. There is another
findinghowever:whenwe changedtheinstructions to a requestto
ratetheinterestingness of thesequences,musicallytrainedlisteners
shiftedtheirhighestratingsto thesequenceswithone accidental -
the sequencesof level4. (Untrainedlistenersstayedwithlevel 1.)
Althoughan interpretation at this point should be cautious,we
mightspeculatethatthetwoinstructions probeddifferent musical
processes. At thelevel of cognitive structure, a is
melody pleasing
if it containsa harmonicunity.At the surface,or in real time,
however,musicalinterestresidesin the artisticdeviation,the ex-
cursionsto and fromthe structure.At this level, fractionaldif-
ferencesin musical treatmentmay make huge differencesin
aestheticjudgment.
Music theoristsin the analysisof tonal musichave treatedthis
topicin a muchmoreformalsense,particularly thenotionof levels
of tonalorganization.Whatpsychologicalresearchcan contribute
is a senseof theprocessesthatdevelop,structure, and restructure
thelevelsof theorganization.The analysisof processallowsus to
considerthe responseto musicboth at the levelof immediateex-
perienceand, at thesame time,at levelsof profoundand complex
abstraction.

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Lola Cuddy 29

Acknowledgements
The researchwas supportedbygrantsfromtheNaturalScienceand Engineer-
ing ResearchCouncil of Canada and theAdvisoryResearchCouncil of Queen's
University.I thankM. G. Wiebe forvaluable discussions.

Lola Cuddyis Professorof Psychology,Queen's University,

Kingston,Ontario.

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