Geoscience Canada Volume 13, Number 2 has been gok-siver deposts ofthe “epithe ‘mal type’ also known variously as “bonanza ores’, “Tertiary type’, “precious metal d Posi of volcanic association” or “Yossi not spring type" (Figure 1 and Tabie 1), Epithermal precious metal deposits are at tractive, especially when base metal prices are depressed, because thoy have high unit 101 values of precious metals with generally low ‘oro base metal content. The deposits com- ‘monly occur as small vein systems (less than ‘a milion tonnes in siz) but they tend to have (900d grades, and many contain high-grade re shoots. They provide quick payback at high rates of retum on modest amounts of Invested capital. Consequently, epthermal Ore Deposits #10. A Canadian Cordilleran Model for Epithermal Gold-Silver sits ‘Andres Panteleyev Senior Project Geologist Geological Branch ‘Minera! Resources Division British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources Victoria, Brtish Columbia VAV 1x4 Introduction Discovery of lode gold in 1851 and placer {0d in 1857 initiated the fist large-scale eco- ‘omic activity in Brtsh Columbia and led to ‘a majo infix of miners during the got rushes of the mid- and late 1800's. This explosion ‘of non-native population necessitated colo- rial expansion, the creation of new sett: ‘ments, developments of infrastructure, and provided the economic base forthe fledging colony. ‘otal gold production o date from the Ca ‘radian Cordilera (Brtish Columbia and Yu kon) Is close to 1,182 tonnes (38 milion ounces), approximately one-third of the ‘amount produced by Ontario, About 60% of Cordilran gold comes trom lode deposits the remainder has been won from placer workings. Placer gold production peaked in 1900; lode gole production peaked in 1939 when 18.3 tonnes of gold were produced in Brish Columbia, Thereater, output dectines steadily uni the early 19708 when by-prod Lct gold, mainly trom porphyry copper mines as well as massive sulphide and skarn de- posits, became the dominant source. These accounted for up to 80% of the annual 3-4 tonnes of gold production ‘Gold was liberated in intemational markets in 1968 from the fixed price of $35US per ‘ounce set in 1934. The resulting pre in- creases, culminating in spectacular price Peaks in late 1978, renewed intrest n krown eposits and enlivened the quest for new supplies of both gold and siver. The search for gold has been the main focus during the 1980's of the mining exploration community, $100 millon annual enterprise in the Ca- ‘radian Cordilora, One ofthe primary targets HEART PKS. ZEBALLOS. SHEED CREEK: YMIR. ‘to. (MAIN DEPOSITS Prospects. EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS —__ CASSIAR BLACKDoME Figure 1 Distnbuton of gold doposts in Gitsh Columbia showing major camps, individual deposts and areas of recent exporaven acy. Lnes indicate major tctono physiograpnic bouncers. Crystalline Imetamerphvc tranes o! the Coast Plone Bet nthe west and Omineca Balt inthe east ave shown by ‘he hachured paterndeposits are particulary attractive to smaller ‘companies that seek fnancing primarily from pubic sources. In addition, major mining ‘companies, wit long-term investment stat- ‘agias and the abilty fo support major capital foutays, seek larger epithermal prospects suitable for open-pit operations. An example othe type of superior epitharmal deposit that expiorationsts svive to find is the El Indio Mine, Chile, which began limited production in 1979. In ils first year of operation, 12,800 kilograms of gla were produced trom £50,000 tonnes of direct shipsing ore. There remained 70,000 tonnes of similar material containing 277 grams gold per tonne as well ‘as main reserves of 3.2 milion tonnes with 12.3 grams gold per tonne, 141 grams siver por tonne, and 4.0% copper (Wahi ef al 1982) Cheracteristics of Epithermal Deposite The term “epithermal” was introduced by Waldemar Lindgren in 1933. Itis part of a {genetic classification of ore deposits that de Scribes hydrothermal fuid sources and depth Zonas in such terms as “epithermar’. "me sothermal’, and “hypothermal”. Epithermal ‘deposits were considered (Lindgren, 1999, '. 212)10 be formed “by hot ascending waters ‘of uncertain origin, but charged with igneous ‘emanations, Deposition and concentration {of ore minerals occurs) at sight depth’. He ‘considered temperatures to range trom '50-200°C under conditions of “moderate” pressure. Lindgren also noted thal epthor- ‘hal deposits have sking analogies to those products of the hot springs”. Other workers. ‘such as Budington (1995), recognized that temperatures greater than those suggested by Lindgren wore possible in near surface nyerothermal environments. Soon the upper temperature iit for epthermal deposits was ‘extended to atleast 300°C. Use of the term “epitherma!" became well entrenched in North ‘America and elsawhore during the 1940's and 1950, Many descriptions of epthermal-type deposits and districts accumulated and doc ‘ument the geometry, structural controls. and ‘mineralogical variations of these deposit. Review articles describing "epthermar ‘deposits abound: each period of renewed in- terest in gold produces updated summaries Notable desorption nctude: Schmit (1850). Wisser (1966), Siltoo (1977). Berger (1982) Berger and Eimon (1862), Siberman (1982), and Heald-Wetlaufor ef al. (1963). They ‘emphasize the folowing characteristics (1) The deposits form near the sustace. Mr neralization takes piace from surface 1 a ‘maximum depth of about 1,000 metres. Ore ‘can be developed over a considerable svike length but is festicted in vertical extent to intervals varying Irom 100 to 1,000 metres. Average vertical range of ore is about 350 metres; it rarely exceeds 800 metres. Ore ‘zones (078 shoots) Dottom in either barren rock or pass downward into sub-economc zones containing base metal suiphies. (2) Veins are the most common ote est; they tend to branch of fate upward into compl cated, wedge-like oF cone-like features Breccia zones, stockworks, and fine-grained Dbeding replacement zones also occur: larger zones o! these Iypes may extend to tens of millions of tonnes in size. {@) Deposits form n extensional tectonic set tings, in areas with wel-developed tension fracture systems and normal faults. The frac- ture systems are commoniy, but not neces~ sanly associated with large-scale volearic ‘collapse structures (4) Minecalizaon commoniy occurs in vol ganic terranes with well differentiated subaetial pyroclastic rocks, and numerous ‘small subveleanic intrusions. Hot spring de Posts and furarole volcanic phenomena are Sometimes evidant where centres of hydro- thermal cischaige have not been deeply eroded (6) Ore and associated minerals are depos- ited dominantly as open space ‘iling with banded, crusierm, wuggy. drusy. colltorm. ‘and cockscomb textures. Repeated cycies of ‘minaral deposion are evident. Ore minerals ‘are genoraly fine-grained but commonly have coarse-grained, well-crystalized over ‘growths of gangue mnerals. Some replace: ‘ment textures are evident; pseudomorphs of ‘quart after calcite are characteristic. (See Figure 2) (6) Gold and siver are the main economic ‘metals, and occur along with enhanced ‘amounts of Hg, Ae, Sb and rarely T, Se, and Te. Gold to siver ratios range widely, silver is typically more abundant than gold. Main ‘re rinerals are ative gold and silver, elec: trum. acanthte (argent), and siver-bear- ing areoric-antimony sulphosalts. Telurices are locally mportant. In adlvon, galena and ‘phaleste ara common; copper occuts gen- erally as chalcopyrite but in some deposits forms enargite. Cinnabar, stionite, tetra- hhodrte, and selerides are Important in some posits (7) Gangue minera's are mainly quartz and calcite wih lesser torte, baste, and pyrite. ‘Chioate, hematite, dolomite, modonite, and modechroste are less common. Silea oc- ‘curs in many varieties. most commonly as ‘quartz or amethystine quartz, but also as opal, chalcedony, and cristobalte (6) Hyorothermal alteration is pronounced. Precious metal mineralization is frequently ‘associated with slciteation. Zones of slic fication can be tlanked by zones of ilite-ser- leit and clay alteration, all occurring within farger zones of ropyltic altaration. At depth, vein structures contain aduiatia; near the ‘surface. broad argllic zones, some contain- ing alunite, can predominate. Some deposits have aluminous, advanced argilic alteration assemblages containing: kaointe’dickte, sercite, pytoohyiite, and andalusite with ac- ‘cossory ciaspore, corundum, topaz, 2unylte, lazuite or scorzalte, dumortente, and rutile cr anatase. ‘Table 1 Reserves and Production, Briish Columbia Epithermat Deposits Reserves 4 mi, 2.43 git Au, 10.4 gt Ag) ~21 mt, 0.35% Cu, 0.85 ot Av, 109 gt Ag ~2 mt, 3.96 git gokd-equivelent Production Deposit {nition tonnes) Silbak Premior so1e-1976 42 Equity Sivor 986-present ~7 (Gam Goosiy) Big Missour 197-1942 08 Baker (Chappelle) 1990-1983 0.08 Dusty Mac 1969-1976 0.08, Nadina 197297302 Girola Lawyers, - Blackdome - Mt. Johany - (iskut F. area) Av ag a) (19) $6,000 271,000 3,300 696,000 1,800 +600 1,200 23,000 00 10,500, <10 13.700, 577,600, 3.1 gt Ag, 213 91 Ag, some Pb, 2n, Gu ~34 mt, 206 git AU mt, 7.27 gt Au, 254.2 91 Ag 195,000 1,27 git Av, 10 git Ag 554,000 1, 213 9% Au, some Ag, Pb. Zn, coGeoscience Canada Volume 13, Number 2 Figure 2 Textures of epinermal ores: (a) cystaline ametysine quartz in an kragur ven, Fine grained ‘quartz marks the vein margin and there isan acuana selvage atthe wal rock contact, Lawyers dopost Teodoggane area, Britsh Columbia, fb) banded chalcedonec quarts forms the ven wall, crystals of elena and phates (dark gran), and fre-granedfuonte accu a he contact wah ier zone amet sine ‘quarz, Croode, Colorado; (@) way breccia with tagment rimmed by chalceconc Quart and toe-grined cystaline quartz overgrowths, Lawyers depost, Teadoggone sree, Bissh Columba, 103 Genesis of Epithermal Deposits ‘Studies of racant and active geothermal sys tems, such as those by Henley and Elis (1983), Weissberg (1969), Weissberg ef al. (1979), Ewers and Keays (1977), and Write (1981), nave done much to demonstrate the ‘relationship between ho! springs and epither: ‘mal deposits, a relationship noted by Schmit (19500) and strongly promoted by White as ‘arly as 1955. The concept that ascending ‘magmatic-source hydrothermal uds are im Portant has been largely eliminated, mainly by fud inclusion and stabe isotope studies. Epitnermal deposits are now considered to form from relatively dilute, near-neutral to weakly-alkaline chloride waters {<5 weight per cent (w.%s) NaC! equivalent) at undergo boling or effervescent degas: Sing, fuid mixing, and oxidation at temper- atures generally between 200-300°C, and ‘most commoniy between 230-260°C. Boiling or mixing of fluids as they ascend of migrate laterally appear tobe the two most important ‘cooling mechanisms. Downward migration of fluids has been documented in one locality, Creede, Colorado, where hydrothermal fuids in at least part of the hydrothermal system hhave mixed with denser, cooler brines (Bothko and Fye, 1973) Recent detailed studies of a number of Ter- tiary epithermal deposits in caldera setings, ‘rncipally by geotogists trom the United States Geological Survey, thoroughly document the .goologe settings and present perceptive, wel researched explanations ofthe origins ofthese deposits (Steven and Eaton, 1975; Lipman and Steven, 1976; Lipman et al.. 1976: ‘Casadoval and Ohmoto, 1977; Slack, 1980; {and others). The authoritative descriptions ‘and genet interpretations o! these ceposits has led to extensive comparisons with other deposits and areas. Unfortunately, many new workers and explorationists place undue er phasis on the caldera or resurgent caldera ‘setting of the deposits. Consequently, thore |s a widely:neld notion that calderas are a requisite for the development of epithermal deposits. This is not the case. In fact, cal eras, as described by Smith and Bailey (1968), are simply a type of very specialized volcano, they do not inherenty contain any ‘mineralization. In Nevada, only 2 out of 31 recognized calderas are known to contain ore (McKee, 1978), andin the western United States, only 14 out of 125 known caldera have any associated ore (Rytuba, 1981). If ‘re occurs, it is because calderas produce large fracture systems, but any major frac ture system that channels hycrothermal fads can localize mineralization. Radiometric data from epithermal deposits in Tertiary volcanic areas ofthe southwestern United States (Silberman and McKee, 1974: ‘and others) show that ores are 2-17 millon years younger than the caldera-forming vor Canism, Thus t seems that hydrothermal ac: tivity is not genetically related to caldera104 Volcanism, but is related to younger, sub ‘oleanic magmatic activ in structurally ois- turbed rocks at the caldera margins and in the surrounding rocks. ‘Association of epithermal ores with felsic volcanic rocks (rhyolite and dacite flows, ‘domes, ash flow sheets, and tufts) has also been overemphasized. Epithermal ores oc: cur in all rock types, particulary those that sustain large, open-iracture systems over ‘extended periods of time during hyarother- ‘mal actvty In Nevada, McKee (1979) noted that in 96 mining aistcts with economically signifeant ore production, only 5 districts were in siiceous tuft; the majority of mineral de- posits were in andesitic hypabyssal and ex- trusive voleanic rocks. Ancesitc pyroclastic rocks of flow breccias appear to preteren: tilly maintain zones of primary high perme- ‘abiity during hydrothermal activity. In aditon, ‘andesites can sustain fault and fracture related diatent structures and openings, such as cymod structures or cymoid loops, over long periods of mineralization, In summary, hydrathermal activity is only taoly related to caldera development or re- ‘surgorce but the ore-contoling structures may be. The heat for hydrothermal activity ‘does not appear to be the latent heat of vol ‘canism but is more likely derived trom struc: turally controllag subvoleanc intrusions oF ooper plutons, Any rock type that maintains primary or structural induced permeabiliy land permis focussed hydrothermal uid fow can provide sites for ore deposition Zoning of Hydrothermal Alteration —The Key Exploration Guide Passage of hydrothermal uid through trac tured rocks produces structurally contiolied zones of hydrothermal alteration. In most epithermal districts at least some hydro: thermal alteration is evident as readily visible zones of Dleached rock. Larger alteraion zones can be many kilometres in dimension the ore zones are a fow metres or tens of ‘metres, at best. The challenge to the explo- rationst is to properly assess the alteration zones for economic potential and to locate and detine structural features that provided focus for sustained hydrothermal ui ow. Propyitic alteration (chlorte, calcite, py: rite, epidote, zeolite) is an early-developeed, Widespread and distictwide alteration in ‘many epithermal districts. The term “pro- pylt” was introduced by von Richthoten in the late 1800's to describe distinctive rocks in the famous Comstock Lode epithermal camp, Virginia Cty, Nevada. Within the broad areas of pxopyliic alleation are move re Stited zones a! serctic alteration or reces- ‘ive weathering clay alteration (ilte-kaolinte ‘montmoriionite). These surround central Zones of silifcation or quartz veining, some portions of which may be mineralized. The Bilcied zones are more resistant and com ‘monly form local heights of land, many of Which in old mining areas are sites of mine headtrames or other workings. The Buchanan “Boling” Model. Buchanan (1981) summarized and tabulated data for ‘any ofthe western US epithermal deposits and presented a model, now widely cic lated and uiiized by explorationiss in the Cordilera, that effecivelyilustrates the goo- metic arrangementof ore andatertion zones in“typical” epthermal voins thal are hosted by volcanic rocks (Figure 3). The model de- scribes a zone of mineralization that occurs ‘along a dominant subverical fracture system {rom a depth of about 500 metres to the sur face; close to surface it spits into a series of subsidiary structures. The centre of ore de- positon, placed by Buchanan at a depth of fabout 350 metres, has a discrete top and bottom. Above the ore zone, quartz veining persists but diminishes progressively in ‘abundance upward, as do precious and base total amounts. Similarly, quartz becomes progressively finer-grained upward and be: ‘comes opaline silca or chalcedony in the Upper part of the zone, I the slicatich hy- drothermal ids discharge at surface as hot ‘springs, mushroom-shaped caps of siliceous Shier are deposited, Alternatively, in veins ‘with less dynamic uid flow regimes, surace ‘expressions of deoper hydrothermal activity may be nothing more than thin calcite veins Or clay.altred zones in wall rocks adjoining fauls or fractures. Al the base of the ore zone, Bucharan describes two types of ore terminations. In one type, quantities of ore diminish downward and quertz veins that ‘continue to depth are barren or contain only ‘minor chalcopyrite and pyrthotite. nthe sec- fond more common type, precious metas, galena, and sphalerte occur in sub-eco: Romie amounts at cepth together with minor pyrite and chalcopyrite. In both cases. calcite fand adulaia contents decrease with depth _~ worsens suencar bee (Tssextoonn Semone [—Joreuce neces. 9 F pau aeceenty t = Figure 3 ldealzed section of @ bonanza epitemal depost. afer Buchanan (1981). Real systems ae commoniy mare complex because this single stage mode! Is overonted by sever! stages of mineralzatn related to migration of ic boing or degassing ives,‘Geoscionce Canada Volume 13, Number 2 Buchanan (1981) concluded that ore de- positon and attendant wall rock alteration resulted from boiling and oxidation of the as- ending hydrothermal fuids. In the mode}, repeated seit-sealing is tolowed by episode folracturing and breceation along tho oro structures. The attencant pressure drops ‘causa boiling that results in mineral precip- tation. This produces multiple stages of ore ‘sepositon, and the distinctive, layered and ‘symmetically-banded ore textures so com ‘mon i epithermel deposi. The boiing love! is contioied by the tomperature and salinity of the fluids: hydrostatic Muid pressures are ‘considered to prevail in this type of shallow, ‘open-fracture system. Boling causos a de- ‘tease in ud tamporatures and vapour loss that increases pH in the ore fluids. At the srt of boling, alter a sight loss of volatiles, solutions become neutral to sightly akaline: with a 20% vapour loss and more alkaline ‘conditions, iver minerals depostt along with ‘dvlria, minor soricite, and abundant sce, Atthe topo the boing zone, vigorous boing leads to faster vapour loss with attendant rapid cooling. At highor structural levels, the released vapours may condense into ox ‘zed, acidic tuids. In this environment the ‘various goid complexes (bisuiphate, chlo- ‘ide, tiocomplexes, oF others) destabilize and {gold precipitates along with copious amounts of silica (Seward, 1973). At or near surtace, ‘any temairing volatiles that are released ‘condense to form a hight-oxidized, acidic ‘environment. The strong acid solutions formed can be diuied by the neutral groundwaters but are generally only weakly chemically buffered. Extensive and intenso sariciio or argiic atsration develops in this zone. This so-called "low pH of acid capping” charac- terizes many epithermal deposits, The clay ‘ateration zones are generally not ol ore grade ‘but commonly have anomalous amounts of ‘Au, As, Pb and loss commonly Hg, Sb, W, Mo, B and Ag: some contain alunite {KAL{S0,}(0H)). The size of sericte-clay Zones tends to be proportional to that of lated orebodias — the larger the alteration Zone, the larger the zone of mineralization, Buchanan's model is frequent ercize. Despite many detaied studies of epithermal deposits and despite theoretical studios (Drummond and Onmoto, 1985), only a few deposits show evidence of boling. In tic inclusions boting is indicated by widespread ‘entrapment of various amounis of vapour in ‘ore and gangue minerals, and the presence ‘of remnant concentrated brine, An alters tive explanation, based on the diute nature ‘of flids in epthermal deposits and the iso- topic signatures of vein minerals (ONall and Silberman, 1974; Radke ot a, 1980). i that ‘the hyérothormal systems aro troe-towing {luids derived trom, and recharged by, me- teoric wators that undergo litle isotopic x: ‘change with wal rocks. Models that postulate ‘mixing of fuids as a cooling and oxdizing ‘mechanism have bean discussed by Henley ‘and McNabb (1978), Honiey and Els (1983), Hedenquist and Henley (1985), and others In their models developed trom stucies of active gocthermaltields, hycrothermal luis, ‘which are primanly deepiy-circulating meteo- tie waters, are hested. rise in @ buoyant ther mal plume, ang then mix with cooler, ‘oxygenated, noviral to acidic surtace waters. ‘Buchanaris major contribution is hs clear description of ore and alteration mineral 20n- ing and the spatial relationship betwoen mi- neralizing solutions and the paleosurtace, Undoubtedly most ore fuids have complex. bistoris, some incuding both baiting (Orum- mond and Ohmoto, 1985) and fluid mixing (Casadevall and Onmoto, 1877). Uncertainty About the mechenism of ore depositon in spithermal systems does not lessen the use- ‘uiness of Buchanaris empirical model. Once the position of the palsosurface has been recognized oF postulate trom geological ld data, Ne model provides a useful guide for ‘timating dopths to mineralization. ‘A Hot Spring Model — Acid-Sulpnate Sit- Cceous Alteration. White (1955) described a numberof active springs with associated epi- {thermal mercury and gold-siver deposits. in 1981 he stated: "The correlation of fossil geothermal systems (ore deposits) wih pres- ‘ent-day active systems provides insighis into possible origins of various consttuens of ore- {generating systems”. One of the best-stud- od examples is at Stoamboat Springs, rear Reno, Nevada, where active hot springs and areas of steaming ground have been axien- ‘ively studied and nearby mineral deposits ‘genetically related to extinct hot springs have ‘baen exposed by shalow pits and tested 10 depth by boreholes. Mader siicoous hot spring deposits and thelr partaly-exposed underlying akered rocks represent the "siica cap” and “low pH acd cap” described by Buchanan (1961) ao tho surface products of an epitnermal system The silceous sinter deposited is porous at surface but compacted and cemented {epth; it consists of opaine silica. chaice- dony, and cristobalite. The deposite at Steamboat Springs were formed by hot springs related to underlying 1-3 mikon year ‘old myolte domes, Maximum water temper- ‘ature measured in boreholes is 186°C. The sinters are enviched in Au, Ag, Sb, Hg, AS, Tl and B (White, 1981); locally, black, sii- ce0us muds contain crysialing sionite, of metastbnite, and cinrabar. Uptill rom the active hot springs, fossil ponds are now seen {as ¢mallienses of chalcodny. some of which Contain up t00.1% Hgin the formotcinnabar or matacinnabar, ‘Altered rocks underlying the hot spring de osits, which were originally basaltic ande- site and granodiorte, are nov exposed inthe nearby "Siica Pt” as zones of beached, write clay-alunite-siica rock. The alteration is ‘caused by sulphuric acid furs that stil is- sue from fractures in the walls and floor of the pit. The vapours deposited enough su- 105 hur and meccury to permit recovery of crys: lating naive supnur and earthy cinnabar tom ‘another, nearby excavation. Visible cinnabar is v@strictes to a zone win 15 metres of the present ground surface, and aralytical de- taction of mercury is possible to 26 metres, ‘White, 1981). Stbnite along with arsenic val- ues are found somewhat deeper, to a me Jmum depth of 48 metres, Values of up to 15 ppm gold, 150 ppm Ag, 3.9% Sb, and 0.19% Hg are obtained from siiceous muds in he ser, native sulphur and possibly some innabar are deposited above the ground- water table as subtimates trom vapours. The position of the groundwater table marks the boundary between hot waters and the va- Pour-dominanted fuids (White et a. 1971) ‘Above this boundary, where HS is oxidized to H,SO, and condenses to aqueous su phurie acid, descending reflnxing solutions ‘cause the most severe acidleacting, Schoen tal. (1974) have shown thatthe acid cap- ping (soltateric alteration) at Steamboat ‘Springs consists ofthe folowing zones from ‘surface to depth: opal, cristoballte, and sore anatase (presumably trom the tlanium-ich basaltic country rocks); opal, alunite, quart, {and minor pyte; and Kaolinite, aluite, mont- ‘marilonite and pyrite. Below the clay-aiunite zone, narrow 20008 of montmorillonite and ite alteration are restricted to the walls of the hydrothermal channetways. The Marysvale Replacement Model — Hydrothermal Alunite Deposits Alunite- ‘slica deposits associated wih hydrothermal ‘activity in volcanic areas can be large and tenses more genase: Gectogical Society of Lon- ‘on, Spec! Publeation Number 7, p. 9-116 ‘site, RH. 198, Erarge-bearng massive au ‘pride ceaosds high n Bory coppe” S/N Evoneme Geology. v 78, p. 348-352 Sind, A. and Haraen, N.C, 1969, Resource iessesement of goiequartz vows, Zebaos min- Ing camp, Vancouver Ilan, in Geological Fec- two, 1962 Baten Calum Misty of Energy. Mines and Peiclou Recoures, Paper 83, 291-08