ANSUAGMA 2004-B89 (Revision of AGMA 240.01) January 1989 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual @ vey AGMA STANDARDGear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual Gear Materials And Heat Treatment Manual AGMA 2004-B89 (Revision of AGMA 240.01) [Tables or osher sli-upporting sections may be quoted or extracted in their entirety. Credit lines should read: Extracted from AGMA 2005-B89, Gear Materlals and Heat Treatment Manual with the permission ofthe publiher, the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, ‘Alexandria, Viginia 22314] "AGMA Standards are subject to constant improvement, revision or withdrawal as dictated by exper ‘ence. Any person who refers to an AOMA Technical Publication should be sure thst the publication the latest avaliable from the Association on the subject matter. ABSTRACT “The Gear Moterals and Heat Treatment Manual proves information pertaining to engineering ma~ terials and material reatments ured in pear manufacture, Topics included are definions, selection guide- lines, heat eeatment, qualty contol, life considerations and a bibliography. The material selection in- cles ferous, nonferrous and nonmetalic materials. Wrought, cas, and fabricated gear blanks are con- Sidered, The heat treatment section includes data on through hardened, fame hardened, induetion ned, carbuited, carbonirded, and nitrided gears. Quenching, dstordon, and shot peening are di ‘cussed, Quality control is drcusod ax related to gear banks, process contol, and metallurgical vexing the final products. Copyright ©, 1989 ‘American Gear Manufacurers Astoelation 43500 King Seoet, Suite 201 Alexandria, Virgina. 22314 February 1989 ISBN: 1-§5589-524-7 ANSUAGMA. 1 ai 2004-Be9Gear Materials and Hest Treatment Manual FOREWORD [The foreword, footnotes, and appendices, if any, are provided for informational purposes only and should not be consted a5 pert of AGMA Standard 2006-889 (Formerly 240.01), Gear Materials and eat Treaiment Manual.) “The Standard provides a broad range of information on gear materials and their heat treatment, Its ended to asist the designer, proces engineer, manufacturer and heat treater in the selection and frocetsng of materials for gearing. Data contained herein represents a consenss from metallurgical rep- resenttves of member companies of AGMA, “This Standard replaces AGMA 240,01, October 1972. ‘The frst draft of AGMA 240.01, Gear Mate- rials Manual, was prepared in October 1966. It was approved by the AGMA membership in March 1972. Reprining of AGMA 240.01 for ditbuson was dlsconsinued in 1982 because k had been decided in 1979 by the Metllurgy and Materials Commitee to revise its format. The inal daft of AGMA 12004-B89 (formerly 240.01) was completed in Apel, 1983. Work continued on the Standard with nu- ‘merous additonal revised drafts within the Metalurgy and Materials Commitee unlit was balloted in 1988. Kr was competed and approved by the AGMA Technical Division Executive Commitee in Septem- ber £988 and on January 23, 1989 ft was approved as an American National Standard ‘Suggestions fr the improvement ofthis standard willbe welcome. They shouldbe sent wo the Ameri- ‘can Gear Manufacturers Asoeiaton, 1500 King Sweet, Suite 201, Alexandra, Vignia 22314. ANSUAGMA ih 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual PERSONNEL of the AGMA Committee for Metallurgy And Materials Chairman: L. E. Amold (ttek, Ine.) ‘Vice Chairman: G. J. Wiskow (Falk) ‘A. Bradley (Consultant) ANS/AGMA, R. MeVinie (The Gear Works ~ Sete) . Milzno (Regal Beloit Corporation) G. Milburn (The Gear Works ~ Seate) var (CLECIM) H. Shapiro (Arrow Gear) W. L. Shoulders (Reliance Electric) (Deceased) 'M. Staroahitsky (Outboard Marine) ‘A. A. Swiglo (TPSEN) S. Tipton (Ceterpil) D. Vukovich (Eaton) LL, Witte (General Motors) >. N a PB R J. Tanaka (Nippon Geet) , Vaglia (Farrel Connecticut) L, Winterowe (Cummins Engine) iv 2004-989Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual ‘Table of Contents Section ‘Title Page Be Scope ess essesseeeeee 1 2, ‘References and Information « 1 2a References 1 aa Information Sources 2 3. Delindons « oe 2 4, Materials Selection Guidelines... 5 4a ‘Mechanical Properties .s 42 Grade and Heat Tresument 6 «a Geanlines « 7 44 Dimensional Sabity 7 45 Cost and Availability 7 46 Hiardenablty . 8 ar ‘Machinabiy - 9 48 Ferrous Gearing = ° 43. Seesion cra rou Co aed Se an H9 4:10 Copper Base Gearing 9 411 Other Non-Ferrous Materials. 25 412 Non-Metae Materials 25 5, Heat Treament 2s “Through Hardening Processes Flame and Induetion Hardening Quenching Disonion Shor Peening «00. Residual Stress Bifecs 6. Metallurgical Quay Control... 64 Incoming Mae Quy Cota. 62 Incoming Material Hardness Tests 63 Incoming Material Mechanieal Tess =... 6 Heat Treat Process Control 65 Par Characteriice ‘i 66 Metallurglal, Mechanical and Noo Dearie Tes nd pets 56 67 Microsructure Soe 68 “Mechanical Property Test Bar Considerations 0... cescsevcceseseveesss 68 ‘Bibliography 64 ANSUAGMA, v 004-389Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘Table of Contents Section Title Page Appendices 65 ‘Appendix A Plas Gear Materials ‘Appendix B Approximate Maximum Contoling Section Sie Considerations for ‘Through Hardened Gearing... sees 61 ‘Appendix © Cate Hardenablty of Carbursing Sess. : ‘Appendix D_ Service Life Considerations... ‘Tables ‘Table 4-1 Typleal Gear Materials ~ Wrought Stel... ee ‘Tle 4-2. ‘Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Suengis for Anaealed, ‘Normalized & Tempered Steel Gearing -....- - 1 ‘Table 43 Typical Deon Harn Rage an Seng for Qutched ‘and Tempered Steel Gearing... peectorn| Machinabity of Common Gear Materials... fo t0 “Mechanial Properyy Requirements ~ Cold Drawn, Stes Relieved Steel Bars (Special Cold Drawn, High Tensile) S ‘ypicl Chemical Analyses for Though Hardened Cast Stel Gears vscv. 14 70, ‘Tensile Properties of Through Hardened Cast Steel Geary... baa Mim Haron od Tne Seng Reguemes for Gry Cas ro 16 Mechanical Properties of Duet Iron... tay ‘Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloy... whoa “Typical MechaniealPropedes of Wrouphe Bronze Alloy Red ad Bar «2... 22 (Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys S33 Machanicat Properties of Cast Bronze AUGye s.. cs scsscsicccsscewesee 24 ‘Tem Bar Sie for Care Hardness Determination . ‘Type Effective Case Depth Specification for Carburized Gearing. Approximate Minimum Core Hardness of Carburised Gear Teeth ‘Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness ~ Nisided Steels . Commonly Used Quenchanss for Ferrous Gear Materials ‘Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot Peening ANSVAGMA. wi 2004-Bs9Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘Table of Contents Section Title Page Figures Fig 4-1 Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears : 3 Fig 4-2 Direedonaiy of Forging Properties -...+++.00+0 : 20 Fig S-1 Variation fn Hardening Patems Obeainable on Gear Teeth by Flame Hardening... ner » Fig 5-2 Variations in Hardening Pauerns Obainable on Gear Teeth by Induction Hardening . 0 ig 5-3 Recommended Marisum Surtse Harénes and Etfecve Cave Depth ‘Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening... 33 Fig 5-4 General Design Guidelines for Blanks for Carburzed Gearing 45 Fig 5-5 Typlel Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing... 46 Fig 5-6 Shot Peening Inensty Control. cs Fig 6-7 Residual Stress by Peering 1048 Steel at 62 HRC wth 380 Shot seo... 49 Fig 5-8 Depth of Compressive Stee Versus Almen Intensity for Steel... 50 Fig 6-1 Cucular (Head Shot) Mapnetc Particle Inspection 38 Fig 6-2 Coll Shot Magnetic Pate Inspection 9 Fit €3 Unrasonic Inpecion Orllocope Seren sss. aeeorerar Fig 6-4 —_Distance-Amplnide Reference Line for Utrasonic Inspection ANSUAGMA 2004-BE9|ANSIAGMA, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manus (This page is intentionally left blank) 2004-389(Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manca! 1. Scope “This Manual was developed to provide baste ‘formation and recommend sources of sdatonal {information pertaining to gear materials, thelr treatments, and other considerations related to the manufacture and se of pearing. ‘Metallurgical aspects of gearing as related to rating allowable ye and fy values) are not ln- ded, but, are covered In AGMA rating stan- ‘ards. 2, References and Information 2.1 References. ‘Abbreviations are used inthe references t0 specie documents In this Standard. The abbre- Nistons inchide: AGMA, American Gear Manor Tacturers Asociaton; ASNT, American Society fof Nondestructive Testing, ASTM, American So- they for Testing Materas: SAE, Society of Auto- ‘motive Engineers. ‘The following documents contain provisions which through teerence in this Standard, cons {ute provisions of this document. At the time of publication, the edlions were valid. All publia- ons are subject revision, and the users ofthis Standard are encouraged to lavesgae the post- ‘ily of appbing the tas recent edions of the publications listed. AGMA 143.01-1964, Plates Gearing ~ Molded. Machined, And Other Methods, A Re- port on the State of the Art ‘AGMA 2001-B68, Fundamental Rating Fac tors and Calewation Methods for Invite Spur fand Helical Gear Teeth ‘AGMA 6033-A88, Standard for Marine Pro- ‘ulsion Gear Unit, Part 1 Materials 'ANSUAGMA 6034-A88, Practice for Single and Double Reduction Cylindrical-Worm and “Helial-Worm Speed Reducers ASNT-TC-1A (une 80), Recommended ‘Practice by American Society for Nondestructive Tesing [ASTM AM8-83, Specification for Gray Iron Costings ‘ASTM AL48-64, Stel Castings, High Surength, for Structural Purposes "ASTM. A220-76, Specification for Pearlie Maileable Iron Castings ANSUAOMA. ASTM A2S5-67, Method for End-Quench Test for Hardenablly of Steel 'ASTM 290-82, Carbon and Alloy Steet Forgings for Rings Jor Reduction Gears "ASTM. A310-77, Methods and Definitions ‘for Mechanical Testing of Sse! Products [ASTM A311-79, Specification fr Siress Re- lieved Cold Drown Carbon Steel Bare Subject 10 ‘Mechanical Property Requirements "ASTM 356-84, Heavy-Walled Carbon, Low Alloy, and Stainless Stel Castings Jor Steam Tur- pines "ASTM A370-77, Methods and Defnitions for Mechanical Testing of Stee! Products [ASTM 388-80, Recommended Practice for Lutrasonic Examination of Heany Steel Forgings "ASTM A400-69(1982), Recommended Prac- tice Jor Selection of Steel Bar Compostions Ac- cording t Section ASTM AS34-87, Standard Speciation for Crburzing Steels for Anti-Freton Bearings [ASTM AS3S-85, Standard Speciation for Special-Qualty Ball and Rolle Bearing Steel [ASTM AS36-80, Specification for Ductile ron Castings "ASTM AE39=06, Indentation Hardness of Metalic Materials by Comparison Hardness Test- ASTM A609-83, Specification for Steel Cast- Ings, Carbon and Low Alley Ukrasone Examina- tions Thereof ‘ASTM 8427-82, Specification for Gear Bronze Alloy Casings [ASTM BS05-84, Spectfcation for Copper- ‘Base Alloy Consinuous Castings ‘ASTM E-83, Methods of Tension Testing of Metalic Materials ‘ASTM E10-78, Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials ‘ASTM E16-79, Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwall Superficial Hardness of ‘Metalic Materials ‘ASTM ES4-80, Method Jor Chemical Analy sof Special Brasies and Bronses "ASTM E112-86, Methods for Determining Average Grain Sie SAE J434-June 86, Auomotive Ductile (iodular) Iron Castings 2004-389(Gear Materials and Heat Trestment Manual SAE 1461-Sept_ 81, Wrought and Cast Cop- er Alloys SAE 1462-Sept B1, Cast Copper Alloys SAE 1463-Sept 81, Wrought Copper and Copper loys SAE J8088-SAE HS 84, Manual on Shot Peening MIL-$-13165 B (31 Dec 66 Amendment 2-25 June 79), Shot Peening of Metal Paris ‘MIL-STD-271F, Requirements for Non- destructive Testing Methods ‘ASTM 709-80, Magnetic Particle Examina~ ASTM E125, Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings ‘ASTM E186-8, Standard Reference Radio- graphs for Heavy Walled 2 10 4112 inch) 10 11 mom) Stel Castings ASTM 5280-81, Standard Reference Radio- raphs for Heaxy Walled (4 1/2 1012 inch) (114 0 ‘305 mm) Steel Castings ASTM 399-83, Test Method for Plain- Strain Fracture Toughness of Metalic Materials ASTM E446-81, Stondard Reference Radio- traphs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch ($1 mm) in ANSUSAE AMS 2300 F, Magnedic Particle Inspection, Premium Alreraft-Quaity Stel ‘Cleanliness "ANSUSAE AMS 3201 G, Magnetic Particle Inspection, Arcraft-Qualty Steel Cleanliness 2.2 Information Sources. Design of gears i concerned with the selee- tion of materals and. metallurpcal processing. ‘This Manual cannot subsinas for metallurgical ‘experts, but is intended to be a basic tool 1 a8 Stn the selection and metallurgical procesing of gear materials, The material information and met~ Allurgcal processes contained herein are based on ‘established data and pracices which canbe found In the appropriate publications. It is necessary that the designer use a source of metallurgical ‘knowledge of materials and procesing. ‘Material specications ae issued by agencies, Including the government, large industrial users, and technical fociees, some of whom are: ‘ASM Heat Tresters Guide ‘ASM Metals Reference Book ‘ASM Standard ‘American Society for Testing and Materials "ASTM Standards Society of Automotive Engineers, Ine. ‘SAE Handbook ‘American Iron and Ste! Insts ‘AIST Stee! Products Manuals ‘American National Standards Intute "ANSI Sundards [Naval Publications and Forms Cener ‘Miltary Standards and Specficavions Metal Pouder Industries Federation (MPIF Standard 35, ‘Copper Development Association (CDA Data books Tron Casings Society ‘Gray and Ductile Iron Casings Handbook ‘Suzel Founders’ Socleyy ‘Steel Castings Handbook 3. Definitions ‘Annealing ~ Fall, Full annealing consists of Ineating steel or other ferrous alloys to 1473-1650"F (802-899"C) and furnace cooling to a prescribed temperature, generally below {600°F (316°C), This westment forms coarse ls rmellar eae, the best microstructure for ‘machinabilty of low and medium carbon steels Unless otherwise sated, annealing i asumed t0 ‘mean full annealing. ‘Annealing - Spheroidising. Spherodize an- nealing 5 2 process of heating and cooling steel that produces a globular carbide in 2 ferric ma- trix, This heat treatment resuls in the bes smachinabilty fr hgh carbon (0.60 percent ear bon or higher) and alloy steels ‘Austempering. Ausempering is x heat treat process consisting of quenching a ferrous alloy (Geel or ductile iron) from 2 temperature above the wansformation range in a medium having 2 rate of cooling sufficiently high to prevent high temperature transformation producs, and main- taining the alloy temperature within the batniie range until desired transformation is obtained. ‘The bainie wansformation range is below the peare range, but above the martensite range. ‘Austempering is applied to sees and, more re. 2004-289Gear Materials and Hest Treatment Manual cently in the development stage for dvctle iron fearing (ele 10 4.8.4.3), ‘Austenite. Ausenite In ferrous alloys 6 3 ‘microsractaral phase consting of sold solution ff carbon and alloying elements in faecenered fubje crystal sructured iron. “Austenitizing Temperature, The tempers- ure at which ferrous alloys undergo a complete ‘microssactaral phase transformation to austenite Bante, Bainte is a mierostuctrat pha resulting from the transformation of austenite, and Consist of an aggregate of ferre and iron cat ‘ide. Is appearance i feathery if formed in the ‘Upper portion ofthe baie transformation range, the eteular if formed in the lower poron Carbon, Carbon isthe principal hardening clement in tel, and fs amount determines the maximum hardness obtainable, Generally a8 c3t= bon is increased, tense srength and wear resi- ance inerense; however, euetity and weldbiity decrease CCarbonitriding. A moxified frm ofan ca ‘uring im which sel eypiealy plain carbon and ‘ery low alloy) is beaad between 1450-1650°F (08-£99°C) in an ammonia enriched carburizing ‘niosphere.. This resus in simultaneous absorp- lon of con androgen which resus Sn che formation of complex mirides in a high carbon Carburising-Gas. Gas carburizing consis ‘of heating snd holding low carbon or alloy ste! (les chan 0.30 percent carbon) at 1650-1800°F (§59-982°C) in a controlled carbonaceous stmes- phere, which rests im the effusion of carbon Tmo the part (0.70-1.00 percent earbon is typ- ally obtained at the surface). Temperatures ove 1800°F (682°C) may be ullized in spe- Ciallzed equipment sich as vacoum carburicers ‘Aer carburaing, pars are elther cooled {475-1950°F (@02-643°C) and held at this tem perature to sable and then direc: quenched: ot Slow cooled and reheated 10 147S-1550°F (802-843°C) and quenched. Case Depth of Carburized Components “The case depth for carburized gearing may be de- fined in several ways including effective case Gepth, etched case depth tal ease depth, and depth to 0.40 percent carbon. The carburized ‘ate depth referred to in this Manual will be ef- fecive cae depth. Carburzed case dep terms ae defined as follows: ANSIIAGMA (1) Elective cate depth. The effective case Gepth isthe hardened depth 10 HRC 50 at 0.5 tooth height and mid face width, normal to the tooth surface, (@) Etched case depth. Etched ease depths determined by etching a sample erost-secton with psi aed, and measuring the depth ofthe dark- fed area, The etched case approximates the ef- eave cave. Hardness survey is preferred for 1-285 110 (760) 80 (350) Bo 310 c est 118 10) 50 (620) 110 280 > 2as-331 130 0) 100 (690) 100 260 z sea-sst 140 670) 115 90) 30 240 F mr36s 4s (000) 120 (30) sa 200 e mars 150 (030) 125. (60) 10 180 ores: 1 Above tensile requirements for seven classes are modifications of three grades of ASTM AIL (Grades 105-85 through 150-135). 2, Source: AGMA 6033-ABS, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials. ANSUAGMA. 4 2008-Bs9Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual 4.8.3.3 Repale Welding of Cast Steel, Re- pair welding ofeastings prior to heat treatment is outinely performed by the cating producer. Re~ pie inthe rim (Coos) portion and other crical {ad beerng locations should be performed only ‘rior to heat treatment. Heat creatable electrodes (4130, 4140 and 4340 Types) should be wed for fepiring prior to heat trestment in order to pro= (Suce hardness equivalent to the base metal ater hneat westment. Repair welding, if allowed after heat Geatment, shall be flowed by reheat teat- tment, whenever possble. If reheat teatment is ‘not posse, localized preheat and pos heat are ecommended to avoid or minimice unfavorsble ‘esidual tense tress of Bigh harness inthe heat Iifected zone, All welds should be inspected to the same quality standard used to inspect the cast- ing NOTE: Weld repair in the tooth portion Imay require notation ofthe purchaser 48.3.4 Heat Treatment of Cast Steel casings ae heat weated to either a specified hardness or to speciied hardness and minimum ‘mechanical properties. The minimum number of hardness ests Fequred on both rim faces of gar Casings is general based on the outside diame for. The mumber of teste increases with OD siz, Mechanical propeny ters (tense and impact) are feoerally required oly when specified. Reference Should be made to 6.2 and 6.5 fr addtional in- formation 4.8.3.5 Quality of Cast Steel. Casings should be furnished free of sand, scale, extrane- fous appendages, and hard areas resulting from Sre-alring, gs culng, and repair welding whieh ould adversely affect machining. Casting should tbo be fee of cracks, hot tears, eis, and un~ fused ehaples in the rim section. Castings must ‘meet the nondenructive test requirements in the Fim section, ‘The qualky specified in other than the rim (oot) geeon soften les stringent. Mi- ror dicontnufes im Gish machined teeth, if preter, are offen contour ground for removal, in reference to cosmetic weld repair. Approval by the customer may be required Dry or wet fluorescent magnetic parte in- sections are routinely performed to meet speci fed surface. qualiy requirements. Other “non Seszuctve esting, such as radiograph and ulra- sonic fy performed wo evaluate internal Innogy ofthe rim (oth) section when specie, ANSUAGMA ‘Methods of testing, test locations, and acceptance scandards are esabllshed between the purchaser fnd manufacturer. Recommended ASTM spi Cations for nondestuedive inspection tet proce: ures are "ASTM £709-80, Magnetic Particle Examtina- tion ASTM 6125-63 (1980), Reference Photo- graphs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Fer ous Castings 'ASTM 608-83, Ultrasone Examination of Carbon and Low Alay Stee! Casings ‘ASTM E186-80, Standard Reference Radio- graphs for Heary Walled [2 1041/2 inch) (S1 10 4114 mim) Stee! Castings ASTM 280-81, Standard Reference Radio~ graphs for Heavy Walled [4 1/2 1012 inch(114 505 mm} Steel Casings ASTM 446-81, Standard Reference Radio- graphs for Steel Casings Up 102 inch (51 mm) in Thickness 48.3.6 Additional Information for Cast Steel. Information is available in: ‘ASM Handbook series, Volume 5, th edi sion, Stel Founder's Society of America (SESA) [ASM Handbook, Volume 11, 8h edition, Nondestrucive Inspection and Quality Controt “484 Cast Iron. Cast Iron is the generic term for the family of high carbon, sicon, iron ‘loys. The fry of eas irons i clasified bythe following categories. 4.8.4.1 Gray Iron. Gray ron contains (pie cally over 3.0 percent) carbon, which i present as ipaphite fakes. It is characterized by the gray olor occuring on a fracture surlace. Refer to ‘Gray and Ductile Iron Castings Handbook for a8 ‘Stional information, (Q) Material considerations. Cast irons for gears are made by the elec are furnace, eu pola, or induction practice and shouldbe free of ‘Shrink, porosky, gas holes, entrapped sand and hard areas in the tooth porto. ‘Repair welds in areas to be machined should nave machinabllty equivalent to the casing. Re- pair welds inthe tooth portion should only be per Formed with the approval of the gear purchase (2) Hext Treating. Cas iron casings are gen- erally furnished as cat unles otherwise specied. 1s 2004-Bs9Gear Material and Heat Tresoment Manual ‘gress relieving may be deemed neces to hold lone dimensional tolerances.” tis commended that casings be bested to 1000 to 1100°F {:38-395"C), boing a temperature up to one our per inch of maximum secon and furnace Cooled to below 600°F (318°C). (@)_ Chemist Anais. Unless otherwise pected, the chemical aaa is eft othe di ‘Feuon ofthe casing super as nectar to pro duce casings to the species. (Mechanical Properties. Cas ion gears are rated according to AGMA practice based on Tardees, Therefore, hardness determines the ra ing ofthe gat. Minimum hardness requirements for the clages of cat ron are shown in Table 4-8. ‘Hardaes tes shouldbe made in accordance wrth ASTM E10. Hardest should be made Ur the mil rim tckess or mid face wih f che {loth poron dameter At let oe hares test SBeald be mage on ech plece, and sulfcent tress tex should be made 1 ven that he part mec te minimum herds pected. Speci minimum hardness mix be maintained to he ih machined mensions for acepance- “Tense tes should only be reuted when spectid, Tense te reguresaun are shown it ‘Piss #8, and teing should be pectormed in ac- cordance with ASTM AdS, Standard Speco tons for Gray Irom Casing “ensie te coupons ate cast in separate rods accordance with he provisions of ASTM. [Raby The sof the can te coupon is depend- ‘nt upon te thicknes of the toth potion ofthe casing flows! “Thleknese : Bi Toon peat, Mactenee ASTM AAs Secica, eam im Gan) TH Ba 025050 08800 Gen) ara) 12.7) 05-100 12007500 B (28-254 G05) (19.0) AOi-2ind. «2.00428 @5.5-508) G08) 1.8) NOTE: See ASTM A48 for tolerances on ts cas and machined diameter and retest considerations if bar fas to meet require- |ANSUAGMA ‘Table 4-8 ‘Minimum Hardness and Tensile ‘Strength Requirements for Gray Cast Iron “ASTM” —_Brinelt “Tense ‘cus nets Strength Nomter___ "a sh (MP9) 20 158 20 (140) 30 180 30 (205) 35 205 35 (240) 40 220 40 15) so 250, 50 (345) a 285 60 (415) 1 See ASTM Ad8 for addtional information. 4.8.4.2 Ductile Iron. Duce ion, some- times referred to as nodular ron is characterized bby the mperoidal shape of the graphite in the ‘metal matrix, produced by innocuation with mag: fesium and rare earth elements. A wide range of ‘mechanleal properies are produced through con- twol ofthe alloying elements and subsequent heat treatments. (Refer to Gray and Ducille Iron Handbook.) (1) Material Considerations. Ductile iron east~ Ings are made bythe secre ae furnace, cupola tornducion practice and shouldbe free of shrink, porosity, pas holes and enuapped sand and hard Breas inthe tooth portion. ‘Repair welds in areat to be machined should have equivalent machinabilty a the cating. Re- ‘air welding in the tooth portion should only be performed with the approval of the gear pur chaser (@) Heat Treating. Ductile iron castings shall ‘be heat treated by annealing, normalizing and ‘empering or quenching and tempering or as-cast ts required to mest the specified mechanical ‘roperte. These heat treatments produce ferric, peatite or mares smuctures. (@) Chemical Analysis. Unless otherwise spectied, the chemical analysis is let 10 the dis- ‘ration ofthe casting supplier as necessary to ro {duce castings to the speciation. (4) Mechanical Properies. Typical mechani- cal properties are shown in Table 4-9. Other Properties may be as agreed upon by the gear manufacturer and easing produce. 2004-589(Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘Tensile test coupons should be poured from the same ladle or heat and be pven the same heat ‘weatments as the castings they represent. Test coupon mold design shall be in accordance with ‘ASTM A536, Size of the Y-block mold if used, {s atthe option of the producer unles specified by the gear manufacture “Tensile tests should be performed in accor- ance with ASTM. Designation ES, Standard Method of Tension Testing of Mevalic Materials: ‘The yield strength is normally determined by the (02 percent ofset method. For required reesng, {f tense bat falls to meet requirements, refer to ASTM A536, Hardness tests shouldbe pecformed in accor. ance with ASTM Designation E10, Standard Method of Test for Brnell Hardness of Metallic ‘Macerlale, Hardnes tests should be made on the ‘nid rim thickness or mid face width of te tooth portion dlameter, Number of hardness tess per piece is bated on the dameter of the casing as follows: Ouse Diameter Number of of Costing. inn) Hardness Tess ‘To 12 (305 ) 1 Over 12 G08) w 36 (15) 2 (Over 36 (915) t0 60 (1523) 4 ‘Over 60 (1528) 8 ‘When two hardness tes are required, one should be made on the cope side over riser and ‘he other on the drag side approximately 180 de- tyees away between risers. When four hardness {ests are required, two tess should be made on the cope side, one over asser and the other ap- proximately 180 degrees away between risers, and fwo tess on the drag side 90 degrees away from the tests on the cope ede. When ejght hardness tests are specie, they shall be made 90 degrees par on both cope and drag sie For slid cylindrical pleces, with length over iameter of one of mote, the numberof hardness ‘ests should be as follows: Diameter of Number of Toot Prion, In(mm) Hardness Tests To 3 (76) ine. 1 ver 3 (76) t0 6 (152) incl 2 Over 6 (152) 4 NOTE: The hardness tts shal be spaced uniformly around the cieumference ‘When many small pleces are involved, all poured trom the same ladle or heat, and heat rested in a single furnace lad, a sample testing plan is generally used with the approval of the bear manufacurer. 4.8.4.3 Austempered Ductile Tron. Aus: tempered Duce Iron (ADI) is a ductile ion with higher mrenghh and hardness than conventional ductile irons. The higher properties of ADI are Schieved by closely contoieg chemisry and an dustempering heat veatment. This treatment re- fuls in a unique mlerostructre of baile ferrite tnd larger amounts of carbon stabilred austenite, ‘With variation in austempenng temperature and transformation tine, several ranges of engineering ‘properties can be achieved. oo nich bp oe Date toe ASTM’ — Former “Min. Tensile Min. Yield Flongation se EK Ramet 2 Mgt” “Eee Boe Ae Soy oe ee ee ee hee ne msn nee Set ieneae ins wasn! sam 4 resets, sets Nem teiioreres a Be eam se eee Sh oe ee eS ae a —— 1 See ASTM AS36 or SAE J434 for further information NOTE: Other tensile properties and hardnesies should be used only by agreement between gear ‘manufacurer and casing producer. ANSAGMA wv 2004-889GGear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘ADI hat been uilleed in several significant spplications, such as automotve ring gears and Pinions, but is sll an emerging technology. ADI permits lower machining and heat teat com and replacement of more cosy forpings for certain ap- plcations. ‘Test progams are curently underway which wil more clesrly define operational properties of ‘ADI 4.8.4.4 Malleable Iron. Malleble iron is 2 heat teated white (chilled) iron which can be produced with a range of mechanical properties ‘depending on the alloying practice and heat treat- ‘men. Tais has generally been replaced by ductile iron. (Refer fo ASTM A220.) 4.8.5 Powder Metal (P/M). Powder metal pas are formed by compressing metal powders in 4 die cavity and heating (sintering) the resultant ‘compact to metallurgealy bond the powder pari- ‘les, Secondary operas such as repressing oF Siting may be used to obtain precise control of shape and size or to improve mechanical proper- tes "The powder metal proces is used to reduce cost by eliminating machining operons, provide accurate dimensional contol over large produc ‘Non runs, and obtain characteristics and shapes Uifiett to ubtain by other methods. However because of molding. die coms, high production quasites are usualy necessary to realize savings. Although several powder metal materials are avalable, alloy see! i usualy specifed for gear ‘pplistons. “As sinered” alloy steels have a tensile srengih range of 40-80 kat (275-550 MPa), with an elongation of 4.0 percent or less and an appar- font hardness of HRB 60-85. Heat weated powder ‘meal alloys have tensle srengihs of 100 to 170 si (690-1170 Ma) with elongations of 1.0 per- cent of les, depending on density and alloy se- lexed, ‘Density i the most significant characteristic of powder metal materials, For & given compostion, tsses have improved to the point where a rplal Gensity of 7.0't0 7-4 glem® can be achieved using secondary operations. ‘The ductty of powder metal pars is substan- tialy lower than for wrought steels. Hardness ANSUAGMA specifications can be developed for powder mel ‘ans, but must be speciiod as “apparent hard eit” since the hardness value obtained wing & fandard tester (ether HRE or HRC) is combi faton ofthe powder parce hardness and poros- fy. The actual hardness of the power metal max terial wil be higher than the apparent hardness treading and can be more accurately determined Ung special microhardness measurement tech- sigue. ‘Pans can be heat weated after sintering, but must be processed in a controlled atmosphere to ‘prevent changes in surface chemistry. Carburizing {nd carboniziding can be performed, but prod- tus with a density under 68 glem® will not de- velop a definite case due tothe ease of difusion Brough the more porous lower density material Penetration harciness testing cannot be corelated to material strengi, but pars will achieve a fle hard surface. Slt baths and water quench sys tems should be avoided. Further improvements in strength can be achieved by the ute of ot forming powder metal. Powder meal preforms are bested to forging tem perature and finished forged to final shape and enaty. Pans processed in this manner have Szenghs and mechanical properties approaching the properties of wrought materials. Although thit roses is much more cosy than the eonverional Dower meul process, it ean sll be cox effective for high produccon parts requiring higher me- chanical properties than achievable using the stan- dard proces. ‘The controled porosity in powder metal parts permits ther impregnation with oll 0 provide a self tubricating part, especialy for the inernal type of gears. ‘The powder metal proces is well-suited to the production of gears for several reasons: (1) Carbide des provide consistent par accu racy ove long runs. (@) Retention of some porosity contributes to ‘quely running gears and allows for slf-ubrca- (@) Ponder metal gears can be made with blind comers, thus eliminating undereut rele that f& needed wih ext gears, and have exra suppor serengih atthe blind end. (4) Powder metal gears canbe combined with ther pans such as cams ratchels, other gears, and asioned components. 18 2004-289(Gear Materials and Hest Treatment Manual ‘Spur gears are the easiest to produce out of powder metal because ofthe verical action ofthe Dress and eas of ection of the preform from the fie cavity Before siotering. Bevel, miter, elcl, Snd other special gear forms are, however, pos- bie in power matal with sulicient development. ‘Troe involute gears ae less dificult and may be Tess cowl to produce in suficint quantiles than by other methods because tooth configuration is ne 3 imitation. 4.8.6 Other Ferrous Materials. In addon to materials used for gears which are described in this Manual there ae oder ferrous materials used for gears. These include ot work tool steel (H fies), high speed eels, austen, martensitic tnd precipitation hardening stainless sees, pect gear analyes are frequently used in appl- cations with very high strength requirements 49. Selection Criteria for Wrought, Cast, or Fabricated Steel Gearing. Seleeon ofthe gear blank producing method for most applicadons is primary a mater of eco- pomics, with quay becoming increasingly impor- ent» tooth Tosds, down time costs and eafety ‘Considerations inereate, Ceical application gear- Ing. such a for aerospace and special high speed, is commonly manulacured of vacuum degassed ‘lly sel, rer refined at premium cost By vae- tuum are remek (VAR) of lecirodag. remek (ESR) processing. These and other more eco- romical refining processes (AOD, ladle refined, Ge) improve cleanliness and produce higher gual set Wrought or forged steel is generally consid- ered more sound than castings because the see s hot worked. Wrought sel i anisotropic, how fever, meaning that the mechanical properties (fonale duetlty and fatigue and impact strength) ‘ary according to the direction of hot working or Inclusion flow during forming (See Fig 4-2). In- proved steel cleanliness has the effect of improw- Ing the transverse and tangential properis of forged sec in order to approach, but not equal, the longitudinal properdes. Incusions in wrought steel forgings, barstock, rolled rings and plate are perpendicular to the root radius or profile of ma- ‘hined gear teeth. ANSUIAGMA 19 NOTES: Mechanical properties in the transverse direction will vary with inci+ sion spe and material form. ‘Mechanical property dat is normally measured in the longitudinal direction Casings generally being isotopic (non-diec~ tionality of properties), when sound in the rim tooth section, can provide comparable mechanical properis to those of forgings. Casting quality in- Notes controlled steel making, molding, casting, heat treating and non-desrucive inspection {(raynete panicle and ubrasonie or radiopraph) precios. Fabricated (welded) gears are generally ‘manulaceured when they are more economical than forged cast gears. Gear rims are normally forged or rolled rings, formed alloy plate of, ess frequent, cast. Hardenabilty of the gear rim steel must be adequate 10 enable a 1000°F {$40°C) minimum tempering temperature to ob- tain hardness. The welded assembly should, therefore, be sess relieved at 950°F(510°C) minimum [S0°F(26°C) below the tempering tem perature], Gear ris used inthe annealed condi- tion can be ares releved at 1250°F (675°C). Forge or hot rolled die generated gear teeth, withthe direcuon of etuson (meal) Bow pera Tel to the profile of tee, result in the optimum rection of inclusions for gearing. Application i limited because quantities or critical application ‘considerations mrt jusily the increased develop- rent and die coss. 4.20 Copper Base Gearing. Non-ferrous gears fare made from alloys of copper, alumi, and tine, Alloy of copper are in wide use for power transmission gearing. Most of these are used in trorm gearing where the reduced coefficient of {eden between disirular materials and increased maleabilty are desired, 4.101. Gear Bronzes. A family of four ‘bronzes accounts for mos ofthe nonferrous gear materials, mainly because of cheir “wear reais ance” characters for withstanding a high side ing velocity witha steel worm gear. () Phosphor or Tin Bronzes. These bronzes are tough and have good corrosion resizance. They jones excellent rubbing characteristics and wear Fessiance which permis use in gears and worm tthecs for severe wear applets. This allo i 2004-BE9Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manal ‘the basie gear alloy and is commonly designated 35 SAE C90700 (obsolete SAE 65) andi referred to as in bronze. @) Manganese Bronzes. This i the name siren to family of high strength yellow basses. ‘They are characterized by high srengh and hard ‘ess and are the toughest materials inthe bronze fami. They achieve mechanical properties through alloying witout eat treatment. These ‘bronzes have the same strength and ductility as annealed cas steel. They have good wear resis tance but do not poses the same degree of cor on ressance, wearblity or bearing quay as ‘Phosphor and aluminum bron. ()_ Aluminum Bronze, Aluminum bronze raterials are simala to the manganese bronzes in toughness, but are lighter in weight and atin higher mechanical properties through heat wreat- rent. Aé the strengdh of aluminum bronze i in frend, ductlty i reduced, This bronze has food wear ressance and has low coefficient of friction agains steel. Bearing charscersics are Deter than for manganese bronze but are inferior to the phosphor bronzes (4) Siicon Bronze. Sllcon bronzes are com- ‘monly used in lightly losded gearing for electrical “ppliatons because of thet low cost and non- magnetic properties. ‘PRION FORGNG LONGTUONAL TENSLE TEST BAR NOTE: ASTI E309 may be used if impect testing is required. Fig 4-2 Directionality of Forging Properties ANSUAGMA, 20 2004-289Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual 4.10.2 Gear Brasses and Other Copper Al loys. Gear brass ae selected for their corrosion resistant properties. The most common gear brass js yellow brass, used because of 8 good tachinablity. Other brass tnaterals are used be- ‘ruse of thelr higher strength, but they are more Sitheut to machine. Wear resistance of these brass is somewhat lover than for the higher ‘srengih manganese bronzes 4.30.3 Wrought Copper Base. Wrought copper base material is a general term used 10 Sersribe a roup of mechanically shaped ear ma~ ‘eral in which copper is the major chemical com ponent, This group of gear materials inciodes Eronses, basses, and other copper alloys. Table 4-10. presents chemical analyses of common ‘wrought bronze alloys, whe Table 4-11 presents Typical mechanical properties of these wrought ‘bronze alloys in rod and bar form. “4.10.4 Cast Copper Base. Copper base cast- ings are spect by meling method, beat reat- tment, analyse or type, hardness and tensile prop- 4.10.4.1 Cast Worm Bronzes. Specifications describe type of bronzes according to chemical Shatye.Reter tn Table 4-12 for chemical analy- of common cast copper bronze alloys, includ {ng phosphor orn bronee, leaded tin bronze (n= ‘proved machinabiiy) and higher strength mangs- ese bronze and akiminum bronze. Mechanical properties of separate cat test specimens are Shown in Table 4-13. 4.10.4.2. General Information for Copper Castings. Adeional Information regarding manufacturing, chemical analysis, heat treating, tensile properties, bardness and hardness contro, fast sructure and supplementary data for cast copper alloys is as follows: (1) Caning Manulacture, Cas copper base ‘gear materials may be meled by any commercially recognized meking method for the composition involved. Casings shouldbe free of shrink, po- osly, gus holes and enrapped sand in the foth portion: Casings should also be furnished free of {and and exranecus appendages ‘Repair weing in other than the tooth portion may be performed by the easing supplier. Repalr tres inthe tooth area shouldbe performed only trth the approval of the gear manufacturer. ANSUAGMA a (2) Casting Hest Treating. Copper Base cas- ings are heat ated as required to obtain the specified mechanical roperdes, (@) Casting Chemical Analysis. Chemical analjsis shal be in conformance with the Ope ‘Specified of as agreed to by the gear manufacurer and casting producer ‘The chemical anaiyis shall be determined from a sample obtained during pouring of the heat “The gear manufacturer may perform a prod vt analysis for chemi. In the event of dis lseement in chemial analysis, ASTM Designa- tion E54, Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis fof Special Brosses and Bronzes, may be used a8 the referee method. (4) Casting Hardness, Hardness tess are nor- milly made in accordance with ASTM E10, ‘Method of Tes for Brinell Hardness of Metallic ‘Materials, Tae’ load in Klograms force listed in ‘Table 4-13 should be used. Hardness tnt are to be made on the tooth portion of the par after final heat weatment, if Fequlred, The number of hardness tests made Should be speci by the gear manufacturer (6) Costing Tensile Propeies. Tensile tse are only required when specified. Tensile texs Iwnen specled are made in accordance with [ASTM ES, Tension Testing of Metalic Maris ‘Tensile vert bars fr sand casings may be atached to casting or cast separately. Tense test bars for ‘Sate chil castings may be cast separately with a hil inthe boom of the test bar mold, Tense test bars for centrifugal castings may be east in a ‘separate confual old for test bars orcas in a hil test bar mold NOTE: An integral or separately cast test bar doesnot necessary represent the prop- ferties obtained inthe casing. The proper- tle in the cating are dependent upon the sine and design of the casing and foundry practice ‘Three tet coupons shall be poured from each melt of metal of per 1000 bs (454 Kg) of mek ncept where the individual casing weighs more ‘han 1000 Tos (454 Kg) Heat treated castings should have the tet coupons hea treated in the same furnace loads as the casting they represent. 2004-569Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual Toble 4-10 Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloys nn ee Gabe doen ee eos, Forme - WaPo, SOMA (ottng) Pre $2 Za AL As Mn SLi Ca) camo) —~=~ Siem ts 00 02s 40 Pa 0 ceo == Rem == 2.0020 100 030 02s =~ & us 663000 ALBR6 Rem. -- 2.0 020 030 90 150 025 40 3 8 8 a ao & coA200ALBRS Rem. 005 020 0.20 050 63, 045 010 15 0.25 is a car300 0 040 050 0.30 Rem 02s 20 050 ao 30 seis 4 Unified Numbering System. For eros reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information ‘Report SAE 1461. For added eopper alloy information, ato see SAE 1463. ‘Table 411 ‘Typical Mechanical Properties’ of Wrought Bronze Alloy Rod and Bar Former longaton fn ronag Aley FOTT Tense Suengh Yield Suengh 7 OMO°S Hardness nso. ACMA si mPa) ks) OP) ae min HB and HRB caaseo == 80620) 28 BDH (1000 cand == 9565S) 5 AS) 200H8 ODDLY cs000 ALERS 90 (620), aS GH)? 100 HB coco ALRS 93 (40) HI) 6 90 HEB coro == Hts) as 70 HRB 1 Typical mechanical properies vary with form, temper, and section sive considerations. 2 Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information Report SAE J461. For added wrought copper alloy information, also see SAE 1465, ANSUAGMA, 2 2004-B8scas200 cs6200 ccasso0 ¢90700 ce92s00 ¢92700 32900 95200 95300 cas4o0 95500 ified Numbering System. For ros Report SAE J461,” For added copper alloy information, also MNBR3 60.0 66.0 MNBR 4 60.0 MNBR2 MNBR2 MNBR 5 MNBR3 86.0 ALERI 86.0 ALAR3 63.0 ‘nin ALBR 4 78 ‘ain ANSUAGMA, Geer Materials and Heat Treatment Manual Table 412 Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys ‘Composition, Peroent Maximum (unless shown as a range oF minim) su 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 10 0.40 10.0 0.50 120 10.0 1.0 m0 15 90 10 ako 25 90 20 sto 32 Zn m0 abo no ako 360 ao 050 0.50 0.70 oas Fe 20 40 20 40 os 20 oas 030 0.20 oI 8 net Co) § 0.20 os oas 10 10 os 08 1s 10 00s 00s 00s nee Sb a: so 2 23 P 030 ost oast oot ‘SAE 1462, +f For continuous castings, phosphorus shall be 1.5 percent maximum, As Ms 30 2s o so so as ts so os 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.008 0.005 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Trestment Manual ‘Table 4-13, ‘Mechanical Properties of Cast Bronze Alloyst Lene ee Nima Compe Former Minimum | Minimum ‘Typical Hardnes ley nGMa Spade Method Tensile Sens Yield Strength* Eonguon HB HB | oS oTwe ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) in 2 inch $00 3000, = (omm) _kaf__“kegt (686200 MNBR3 Sand, Centrifugal «90 (620) 45: (310) 18 180 Continuous 86300 MNBR4 Sand, Censifugal «110 (760) 60. (4) ns Continuous io (60) 2 (25) 25 (©86500 MNBR2 Sand, Conuifugal 5 25 (170) 20 ‘€86500 MNBR2 Continuous ” 35 (70) 25 4 90700 BRONZE 2 Sand 3s 18.2) 10 0 i (C8070 BRONZE 2 Continuous 0 25 (170) 10 80 i 50700 BRONZE 2 Convifugal 50 2695) 100 (92500 BRONZE $ Sand 38 wy 0 52500 BRONZE $ Continuous ra 24168) 1080 i (692700 BRONZE 3 Sand 35 182) 70 q (692700 BRONZE 3 Continuous 38 20 (140) 3 30 1692900 - - Sand, Continuous 45 25 (070) 8 0 9200 ALBR1 Sand, Cenuifuyal 65 25.070) 20 695200 ALBR1 Continuous 6 26 (480) 20 {| 95300 ALBR2 Sand, Cenvitupal 55 25170) 20 140 695300 ALBR2 Continuous 7 36 Ge) 28 10 €95300 ALBR2 Sand, Centrifugal 80 wa 2 160 (€95300 ALBR2 Continuous (H) 80 G7) 160 (95400 ALBR3 Sand, Conuifugal(HT) 75 30 @0) == 180 (695400 ALBR3 Continuous 8s na 2 == 160 (695400 ALBR3 Sand, Ceneifugal (HT) 90 45 G10) 6 = 0 (€95400 ALBR3 Continuous (HT) 9S 4G) 9 10-90 95500 ALBR4 Sand, Centrifugal 90 40 @75) 6 -- 0 (685500 ALBR4 Continuous 95 4 Go) == 80 695500 ALBR 4 Sand,Cenuitugal (HT) 110 60 Gis) S == 200 695500 ALBR4 Continuous (HT) 110 2 (45) a) 1 For ng of worm ger in ecodance wih AGMA 6OS4-AB7, he Maes Fair, wl depend ‘pon the pardcular casing method empl ‘2 United Numbering System, For eros reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information ‘Report SAE 1461" or added copper alloy information, aso see SAE 1462, 3. Refer to ASTM B427 for sand and camtlugal east €90700 alloy and sand east €92900, Minimum tense swength shal be reduced 10% for comtinuous ca bars having & CENTEELTEFA MCAD om or moe Gee ASIN BSS, Table 9 Toot). ‘5 BHI at other load levels (1000 kgf or 1500 ig) may be used if approved by purchase, |ANSVAGMA, 24Gear Materials and Hes ‘One test specimen should be teste from each troup of thre test coupons cast. If this bar meets ‘he tensile requirements, the lot should be ac- fepted. Ifthe fre bar fls to meet the specified requirements, the two remaining specimens shall be teed, The average properties of these two ars mont meet specified foquiremens for accep- tance of the lt. (6) Casting Hardness Con. The sear manufacturer can select at random any number of ‘auings fom a pen lotto determine the hard fess ator thin I inch (25mm) ofthe east OD oF tr indcated on gear manufacturer's drawing. The Tot should consist of all gears produced from one mmelt of metal, Determination of hardness at or ‘ear the roo. lamater is opional and should be Spreed upon by the purchaser and gear manu “The minimum hardness, using 2 500 kg load, shall be 80 HB for static cll and centrifuga chill ‘anings. and 70 HB for sand castings. The mini- foun hardness at or near the root diameter shall be agreed upon by the purchaser and the cating producer, Failure of any gear to meet hardness Fequlrements speciied fr subject to rejection. (7) Cast Suture, When required, the pro- aucer Should furnish specie mlcrospecimens ‘Photomicrographs for each melt withthe eerif- Ese of hardness, chemistry, and mechanical properties. (§) Supplemental Data. The following supple- mentary requitement should apply only when ‘peclled by contractual agreement. Detalls ofthis ‘Sipplementary requirement should be agreed pon by the casting producer and gear manufac- (@) With proper foundry technique, the prop- res of sate clled and cenfual cas separate test bars should be the same. (An integral or 9 separate test bar simply sipnllles the mek qualiy poured into the mold 10 take the casting. It does aot expres the seciic properties and characersics ofthe casting which tre realy dependent on design size, and foun- Gy technique. (©) The grain size of cat copper base alloys varies as 4 fimetion of cooling rate and section thickness. Recommended maximum grain size for enuiiga esting is 0.035 mm in the rm, 0.070 ANSUAGMA ‘Treaument Manual ram in the web and 0.120 mm in the hub. The pain size for copper ase alloys is determined per (ASTM E112 at 75X magnieation. (@ The grin sze of satic cast copper base stloy should be mualy agreed upon by the con omer and producer with reference ro the various Sections of the catings and, in particular, the ooth section. It may be advisable to specify by the of photomleropraphie sandards both accept~ table and. non-accepable phase diusons in the gear Him section. 4.11 Other Non-Ferrous Materials. In addition fo the more comman nor-ferous materials used for geats, several wrought aluminum and bery tium copper alloys are occasionally used. Spect- ‘atone are specialized and shouldbe resolved be- {ween the user and supplier. 4.12 Non-Metallle Materials. Many gears, par- ‘ularly those used to tansmit motion rather than power, are produced from non-metallic mater- Ts, Because of the wide range of non-metal raters, enginering data onthe various pes of ‘pon-metas is usually most easly avaiable from the produces. Plats ae belng used a a rapidly incresing ates gen materiale in the fine ich range, Im proved material, advances in gear mold design [nd molding technology, development of engl- feering data, and the successtul use of plane fears in many applications have all contributed to the exablshmentofcetinplascs as engineering ‘material stable for fine pitch gear Non-metalic gear are usually selected for properties auch at low fiion, ably t operate Ich no hibicant resitance to water abwrbdon, Und uletness of operation. (See Appendix A and AGMA 141) 5. Heat Treatment eat treatment sa beating and cooling pros- ess used to achieve desired properties in gear ma teria, Ferrous gearing may be through bardened fr rurlace hardened when gear rating or service fequfements warrant higher hardness and Strength for improved fatigue szengih or wear re- ‘Smianee. Common het treaument for ferrous ma ‘eri inde: (1) Preheat treamments- ‘Anneal 25 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Trestment Mantal Normalize and temper (Quench and temper Stress rele! (@) Heat treatments- ‘Through harden (anneal, normalize, oF normalize and temper, and quench and temper). Surface harden profle heated (Name and Induction harden) and profile chemistry modified (carburize,carbonitride, and ni wide) (9) Post heat weatment= ‘Stree relieve Specialized heat treatment fr nonferrous ma~ terial should be recommended by the producer. 5.1 Through Hardening Processes. Through hardened gears are heated toa required tempera: ture and cooled in the furnace or quenched in air, 88 or liquid. “Through hardening may be used Defore or after the gear teeth are formed. ‘There are generally three methods of heat ‘treating through hardened gearing. In ascending order of hardness for a particular type of sel ‘they are: annealing, normalizing (or normallzing tnd tempering), and quenching and tempering. Modifieations of quench hardening, such as au temperiig and martemperingy over airequesly for steel gearing and are, therefore, nt discussed. ‘Austempering bused, however, for trough hard ‘ened (approximately 300 to 480 HB) ducal cant ftom gears. NOTE: ‘Through hardening does not iam ply equal hardness through all sections of the par. See 4.6 for discusion of har- enabiliy. 5.1.1 Annealing. Annealing consists of heat- {ng steel or other ferrous alloys to 1475-1650°F (802-899°C), and furnace cooing to a prescribed temperature (generally below 600°F (316°C). ‘Annealing may be the fina treatment (when low hardness requirements permit) or is typically 2 ‘retreatment applied to the castor wrought gear Blank in the “rough.” 1 results in low hardness and provides improved machinabilty and dimen- sional sabilty (minimum residual sess). Typical harcnes for annealed gearing {6 shown in Table 42. $.1.2 Normalizing. Normalicng consists of heating steel” or other ferrous alloys to 1600-1800°F (871-982 °C) and cooling fn sll ANSAOMA, for circulated ait. Normalizing results in higher Ihardness than annealing, with hardness being a funcsion of grade of steel and the part section thickness. However, wit pain carbon steels con- taining up to about 0.4 percent carbon, normaliz- ‘ng does not increase hardness signficantiy more than annealing, regardless of section size, Alloy sels are_ normally tempered at 1000-1250°F (538-677°C) afer normalizing for uniform hardness, dimensional sabiity and im- proved machina. ‘Typiealspected hardness ranges for normal fined and tempered steels are shown in Table 4-2. £.1.3 Normalizing and Annealing for Metallur- ‘ical Uniformity. The normalizing and anneal {ng proceses are frequently uted, elther singularly cor in combination, a8 a homogenizing eat trea- ‘ent fr alloy tel. These proceses are used in wrought steel to reduce metalurgial non-uni- ormity such as segregated alloy microsructures (Ganding) and distorted erysaine microsmuctures ‘fom mechanical working. Gye annealing isa term applied to spectal normalize/emper process in which the pars are rapidly cooled to £00-1000°F (427-S38°C) after nomalizing at 1600-1750°F (871-954°C), fol lowed by a 1200°F (649°C) temper with eon- ‘walled cooling to 600°F (316°C). 5.1.4 Quench and Temper. The quench ‘and teinper process on ferrous alloys involves heating to. form susente at 1475-1600°F (802-871°C), followed by rapid quenching. The ‘rapid cooling causes the gear 10 become harder ‘and stronger by formation of martensite, The gear ‘is then tempered toa specifi temperature, gener- Aly below 1275*F(691"C), to achieve the desired tnechanical properties, Tempering redoces the material hardness and mechanical srength but Improves the material ductility and toughnes (in- pact resistance). Selection of the tempering tem- perature must be based upon the specified hard- ‘ess range, material compostion, and the as (quenched hardness. The tempered hardness var- ses invereely with tempering temperature, Pars are ‘normally air cooled from tempering temperatures. ‘Table 4-3 gives hardness guidelines for some steel wade. ‘The hardness and mechanical properties achieved from the quench nd temper process are higher than those achieved from the normalize or anneal proces. 26 2004-289Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual 5.1.4.1 Applications. The quench and tem- per process should be spelled forthe following ‘conditions: (1), When the gear aplication stress analysis indicates thatthe hardness and mechanical prop- ies forthe specified material grade ean best be Schieved by the quench and temper proces. (2) When the hardness and mechanical prop- application can be per of lower alloy see, than by normaliring or sealing (G) When it is necessary to develop mechani= cal propetie (core properties) in sections of the ‘en hich wal not be altered by subsequent heat [Eeatments (for example nitriding, flame harden- Ing, induction hardening, electron beam harden- fing, and laser hardening) 5.1.4.2 Processing Considerations. The major factore of the quench and temper process ‘that influence hardness and material strength are (2). Material chemistry and hardenabity (2) Quench severity @) Section size (@) Time a temperance ‘The see! carbon content determines the maximum surface hardness. whieh can be chleved, while he aloy compestion determines the hardness gradient which can be achieved {Brough the par, Refer to 4.6 for more informa- tion on hardenaby. 5.1.4.3 Tempering. Tempering lowers hard ‘ess and strength, which improves ductlty and toughness or impact resistance. The tempering temperature must be carefully selected based ‘pon the specified hardness range. the quenched hardness ofthe part, and the material. Te opt- mum tempering temperate isthe highest tem perature posible whe maintaining dhe specified hardness range. Hardness after tempering varies Inversely with the tempering temperature used. Parts are normally air cooled from the tempering temperature “Tables in the appropriate reference ate avai- leat guidelines forthe effect of tempering tem perature on hardness, CAUTION: Some steels can become bit ‘Ue and wngutable fr service if wempere in the. temperaure range of 800-1200°F (425-650°C). This phenomenon i called ANSAGMA “temper britleness" and is generally con- sidered to be caused by segregation of al- Toying elements or precipitation of com: pounds at ferte and prise euserite grain Boundaries. If the par under consideration fnust be terpere in Us ange, investigate the speciie material's suscepubilty to tem per britleness and proceed accordinaly. Molybdenum content of 0.25-0.50 percent thes Deen shown to eliminate temper brite ress in mom sels Temper ‘ritleness hould not be confused wih the tempering fmbrialement phenomenon fom temper Sng in a lower range (S00-€00°F) often re- ferred to a8 "S00°F or A-Embrislement.” ‘S.le4e4 Designer Specification. The de- signer should spetity the following on the drawing. (1) Grade of sel (2) Quench and semper to hardness range. “The hardness range should be 2 4 HRC or 40 HB point range. The designer should not specify 2 empering temperature range on the drawing, tis best to apecly a bardness range and allow the ‘eat treater to selec the tempering temperature to brain the specified hardness. Specifying both Tempering temperatures and hardness ranges on a Coing eau am impracial santlan for the heat treater.” Tempering below 900°F(482°C) should be approved by the purchaser. (2) Any testing required. For example, hard ‘ess tests, oF any non-destructive test such as ‘magnetic panicle inspection or dye penetrantin- fection, including the frequency of testing. $.1.4.5 Specified Hardness. The specified hardness of through hardened pearing is generally ‘measured on the gear toth end face and rim sec- tion. Hisorleally, this has been interpreted 12 ‘mean thatthe speclied harénes must be met at this location. Designers often interpret this 0 ‘ean that minimum hardness be obtained at the roots of teeth for gear rating purpses. Since depth of hardening depends upon grade of see (iardenabiiy), controling section size (refer to ‘Append B) and hear weat practice, achieving ‘specified hardness on these surfaces may not nec- sarily insure hardness atthe roots of teeth. It 008 root hardness & erica wo a specifi design frterla, the gear tooth root hardness should be sptcled. However, are should be taken to avoid ‘eedleslyincressing material costs by changing 10 a7 2008(Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual a higher hardenablty tel where service life has been successful 54146 Maximum Controlling Section Size, The maximum controling section size is based upon the hardenablty of alloy stel for ‘through hardened gear blanks. Appendix B hs- lusts the controlling section for various gear con- figurations whose teeth are machined after heat 5.1.4.7 Additonal Informati ‘information, consult the folowing: “The ASM Handbook, Volume 4, Heat Treat= ing, th or Sth edon. ‘Miltary specification MIL-H-6875 and Mil STD-1684, 5.1.5 Stress Rellef, Stress rllofs 2 thermal cycle wed to elleve residual sreses created by Prior heat weaments, machining, cold working, Iwelding, or other fabricating technique, The ideal Temperature range for full sress reliving is 1100-1275°F (593-691°C). Lower te are sometimes used when 1100°F (593°C) tem peratures would reduce hardness below the spec- Fed minimum. Lower vemperatres with longer holding times are sometimes used. NOTE: Sires relief below 1100°F(593°C) reduces the elleciveness. Stes relief be- low 900°F (482°C) isnot recommended, 5.1.6 Heavy Draft, Cold Drawn, Stress Re- lieved Stoel Bars. Heavy drat, cold drawn, ssreae relieved bars may be used a an alternative to quench and tempered steel. However, fatigue properties of this steel may not be equivalent to (Quench and tempered sel wih the same tensile Properties. Sie limitations and mechanical prop- fries are sted in Table 4-8. For further detals tee ASTM A-BIL. 5.2 Flame and Induction Hardening. Flame or Induction hardening of gearing involves heating of tear teeth to 1450-1600°F(788-671°C) followed by quench and tempering. An oxyfuel bumer is ‘ed for flame hardening. An encircling coil or tooth by tooth inductor is used for induction hard- ning. These processes develop a hard wear ress- tac case on the gear teeth. When only the sur face i heated tothe requlred depth, ony the sur- face s hardened during quenching ‘(ee Figs 5-1 fang 5-2). Material selection and heat reat con- ‘ton prior to ame or induction hardening sig- For more ANSUAGMA, nificantly affects the hardness and uniformity of properties which ean be obtained. 522.1 Methods of Flame and Induction Hardening. Both of these methods of surface hardening can be done by spin hardening, ot by tooth fo tooth hardening. Spin hardening of gearing involves eating all fof the teeth seross the face simukaneously by Spinning the gear element within the beat source (ame or indeton co) which envelopes the en- tire face width Gearing i removed from the hest source and immediately hardened by the ‘quenchant. Shalting end gearing can also be pro- fresively spin hardened by spinning the shaft or Tooth section within the heat source and folowing ‘quench head. The heat source and quench head traverse analy along the lengh tobe hardened. Gearing can also be tooth to tooth, proges- sively hardened by passing the fame of Inductor ‘and following quench head between the roots of teeth. Induetor of lame heads or burner may be designed either to passin the root diameter be- tween flanks of adjacent teeth, to heat the root iameter and opposite flanks of adjacent weet, oF ‘may ft or encompas the top land to heat the top land and opposite fanks ofeach toot, est sourest dargned to pass between adja- cent teeth followed by quenching are desirable ftom both endurance of bending suengih and ‘wear considerations, beeause both the flanks of teeth and root diameter are hardened. Only the ‘on-crtical top lands of teeth are not hardened. ‘An inductor or lame head whieh encompasses ‘only top lands of teeth and adjacent flanks fol- lowed by quenching provide wear resistance to the flanks, but endurance of bending srength in the roots is not enhanced, Residual tense stress in the foou of teeth may ako prove detrimental 1 {s,therefre, recommended tht both the designer and heat treater know what type of hardening pat- tem is desired. Gearing may also be 100th 10 tooth, prores- sively hardened by passig the inductor between the root of adjacent teeth, while the gear element is submerged ina symbeuc quench (termed “Delapens Process"). This proces, ke other tooth fo tooth hardening technique, is time con- fuming and {not economical for small, finer Ditch gearing (Bier than 10 DP). Spin hardening [Bmore economical for smaller gears. 2004-389Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual SPIN FLANK FLAME HARDENING FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD — FROM THIS To THIS FLANK FLAME HARDENING 4 HEAD 7 HEAD FROM THES To THs FLANK AND ROOT FLAME HARDENING FLANE HEAD FLAME HEAD i FROM THS | f To THs ’ FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD MY, “Te wapoeNnG PATTERNS SHOWN ARE NOT POSSIBLE FOR ALL SZES AND DIAMETRAL TIRHEEGe GEARING, An ANE DEPENOENT UPON THe CAPACITY OF THE EQUIPMENT. ‘Fig 5-1 Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on Gear Teeth by Flame Hardening ANS/AGMA 29 2004-589GGear Materials and Hest Trestment Manual SPIN HARDENING INDUCTION Con iNOUCTION Con OR FLAME HEAD (OF FLAME HEAD FLANK HARDENING INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD plale FLANK AND ROOT HARDENING INDUCTOR OA FLAME HEAD Fig 5-2 Variations in Hardening Patterns Obtalnable on Gear Teeth by Induction Hardening ANSAGMA. 30 2004-589Gear Materials and Hest Treatment Manusl “Three bese gases ate sed for flame heating, which include MAPP, acetylene and propane. "These gases are each mixed with air in particular ratios and ate burned under pressure to generate the flame which the burner directs on the work piece. ‘Simple toreh type flame beads are also used ‘to-manuly harden teeth. Since there i n0 auto trate conto ofthis process, high operator skills required, Induction hardening employs a wide variety of Inductors ranging from coled copper tubing to forms machined from slid copper combined with laminated materials to achieve the requied in- (diced electrical eurrens CCoatser ich teeth general require inductors powered by medium frequency motor generator ets or slid sate uns. Fine pitch gearing gener~ tly iis enclrling cols wih power provided by high frequency vacuum tobe units ‘Wide faced gearing is heated by scanning type equipment whe more limited areas can be heated ‘by sationary inductors. Pan are rotated when encircling ais are used, Tnduction heating depth and pattern are con trolled by frequency, power density, shape ofthe Inductor, workpiece geometry and workpiece area boing heated. Contour or profile hardened woth patterns for 4-12 DP. pearing can be obtained by dual frequency spn coll indtion heating using both low (audio) frequency (AF) of 1-15 kis and higher (radio) frequency (RF) of approximately 350-300 KH. Inially low audio frequency is ‘sed to preheat the root are fllowed by igh ‘io frequency to develop the profile heated pa- tem, flowed by quenching (Quenching after flame or induction heating can be inegral withthe heat source by use of a Separate following spay, or separate by using an fmmerson quench tank- Ol, water or polymer so- ons can be used, in adaltion to ar, depending ‘upon bardenabilty of the steel and hardening r= squrement. 5.22 Application. Flame and induction hardening have Deen used succesfully on most {84r pe eg. Spur, lial, bevel, herringbone, fe There procewes are used when gear teeth Fequirehiph furlace harness, bu size or confign- fatlon does not lend itself w carburang and ANSUAGMA 31 quenching the entre part. These processes may tke be used when the maximum conact and ‘bending strength achieved by eaburizing isnot re~ {uired. These procesres ae also used in place of {hore costly nitriding which cannot economically fenerate some of the deeper cases required. Contour induction ie prefered over fame when root hardness and closer control of case Sept is required. Contour fame hardening of the flanks and root is not generally avalable ‘The general application of fame hardening isto the flanks only, except when spin fame hardening 'S applied. The spin fame process generally harc- ‘ens below the rons, but hardens teth through the fntire eros section, reducing core ductility of Aeceth and increasing distortion (see Fig 5-2) I high root hardness not required, flame hardening s more avaiable and more economical than induction hardening for herringbone and sp- ral evel gearing. NOTE: AGMA qualty love wil be re- duced approximately one level (from the teen condition) after lame or induction hardening unless subsequent finishing is performed. 5.2.3 Material. A wie variety of materials can be flsme or induction hardened, incivcing (Gest and wrought) carbon and alloy steels, mar~ tenslde stainless sees, duct, malleable and gray ‘ait ions, Generally, sels with carbon content of pproximately 0.35-0,55 percent are suitable for fame of induction hardening. Alloy steels of 0.5 percent carbon or higher are susceptible wo erack- Ing. The higher the alloy content with igh eat- bon, the greater the tendency for eracking. Cast irons also have a high tendency for eracking. Selection of the material condition of the earng can atfoct the magalude and repeatability fof fame and indietion hardening. Hot rolled ma- terial exits more dimensional change and vari {ton than hot rolled, cold drawn material because ‘of densification from cold working. A quench and tempered material condition or preheat resent, however, provides the best hardening response and mos repeatable ditorion 45.24 Prior Heat Treatment. For more con- sinent rene, i i recommended that coarser plched gears of leaner alloy stels receive a ‘quench and temper preveaument: for example, 4140 steel with teeth conver than 3 DP. 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Mana! In both carbon and alloy stels, normalized or annealed structures ean be hardened, ‘These ftructres 40, however, require longer heating ey- ‘los and a more severe quench which increase the ‘chance of eracklng. The annealed structure is the Teast receptive to lame or induction hardening. ‘Successful induction hardening of ether gray ‘or duce eat iron & dependens on the amount of farbon in the muwix. The combined carbon in pearite wil readily dissolve at the austeniizing Temperature. Pearlte microstructures are desir tie. Pearlte promoting alloy additions such as ‘copper, tn, nickel or molybdenum may be neces: sy to form this microstructure. 5.2.8 Hardening Patterns. ‘There are ovo basic methods of fame or induction hardening tears, spin hardening and tooth to tooth harden ing. See Figt S-1 and $2 for vartions ofthese procestes and the resultant hardening patterns. “The hardening paters shown are not pos ‘le forall sizes aid amet ptches. For coarser pitches, requirement should ‘be worked outwith {he supplier. For induction hardening, the KW ot ‘ower capacity ofthe equipment limits the pattem Which can be auained. Root fame hardening by the tooth by tooth process is ificlt and should ‘The induction oil method is generally limited to geats of approximately $ DP and finer. The ‘maximum diameter and face width of gears capar ble of being singe shot indction col hardened is determined by the area of the outside diameter and the KW capacity ofthe equipment. Long sien der pans can be induction hardened with lower KW eapaciy equipment by having the cols sean the Tenge of the part while dhe parti rotating in the call Flank of root and flank indtion scan hard ening (contour) can be applied 10 almost any tooth size wid appropriate supporting equipment tnd KW capaciy. However, for ptehes of ap proximately 16 DP and fine, these methods are fot recommended. Spin hardening in a indue- ‘ion coll is recommended. Spin hardening of finer pitches i also required when using fame burers. ‘The allowable durability and root strength rat- ing forthe diferent hardening paterns should be obtained from appropriate AGMA rating prac: tees. These bending zength ratings are lower at ANSAGMA, the roots of teeth when only the tooth Manks sre hardened. 5.2.6 Process Considerations. Several areas rust be considered when processing. Some ofthe more ertical requirement are outlined below. 5.2.6.1 Repeatability. Repeatable process ‘contol is essential for acceptable resus. With in- ction, this is usually not a problem with prop- fly maintained equipment since elecrical power tharacterinice, inducer movement and incegral ‘quench intensity can be reedly consoled. Repeatabitiy becomes more dificult with flame hardening, Equipment varies from hand held torches to tailor made machine tool with well controlled movement of burner heads. Equlp- ‘ment mast be euch that heating rates across the ‘bumer face are consistent from cycle to eye. Gas pressure and mixing of heating eases must be uni form. Burner head location must be precise From eyele to eye 5.2.6.2 Heating with Flame or Induction. Accurate esting to the proper surface temperar ture its erica ep. Burner or inductor design, heat input and cycle ume must be closely €on- ‘woled.” Undeeheating resuls in ess than speci fed hardness and case depth. Overheating can result in cracking, Flame’ hardening may also use baring or melting of tooth surfaces 5.2.6.3 Quenching. Heat must be removed quickly and uniformly 10 obtain desired hardness. ‘The quenchant should produce accepuble a5 quenched hardness, yet minimize cracking. (uenchants used ae: water, soluble ol, pelymer, ol and air arts heated in an induction coll are usally ‘quenched in an integral quench rng on an ag {ited quench media. When the par Is seanned wile rousing a col a spray quench usually fol Tows behind the call Flank hardened teath usualy have an integral ‘qvench following the inductor, oF the gear is Sub- ‘merged in ligud during heating ‘Quench time and temperature ae erica and In-spray quenching, pressure velocy and direc- tion of the quench media mus be considered. ‘When localized or air quenching fused, a coolant is used on & portion ofthe meal away from the heating zone to maintain dhe base metal near am- bent temperature so the part muss ean absorb heat from the heated zone. 2004-889Gear Material and Hest Treatment Manual 5.2.6.4 Tempering. Tempering s mandatory ‘only when specified. However, for parcular proc ses, judpment shoud be exercised before omit- ting tempering. Iris good pracice to temper afer [quenching to increase toughness and reduce resé- al stress and crack suscepbiliy. Tempering Should be fora scent ie to insure that hard- ned teth reach te speciled tempering tempera- ture, Fame hardened pars which are air (quenched are self tempered, and separate temper- tg i unnecesary. 5.2.6.$ Surface Hardness. Surface hardness is the hardness measured on the immediate sur face and is primal function ofthe carbon con- tent (oe Fig 5-3). Hardness may be lower a6 @ fesul of prior beat treatment, alloy content, depth fof hardening, heating time, mass and quenching ‘considerations. 5.2.6.6 Effective Case Depth. Eifocive case depsh for fame and indoeion hardened gers is hormaly defined asthe astance below the surface fat the 0.5 tooth height where hardness drops 10 IRC points below the surface hardness (ste Fig MAXUM SUBFACE HARONESS 8 ai HARONESS— ROCKWELL C 8m Fig 5-3 30 Tag ‘CARBON CONTENT ~ PERCENT Recommended Maximum Surface Hardness and Effective Case Depth u 5-3). When a tooth through hardened, effective case depth does not apply. When roc is also 10 be hardened, depth of ease atthe root may be specified. 5.2:7 Rating Considerations. Designers should be aware that AGMA decreases load ratings for fears which do not have hardened roots. AGMA fear rating standards should be consuted for ap- Dropratesress numbers. 5.2.71 Heat Affected Zone. In fame harden- ings the het affected zone (HAZ) is region that heated to 1500-1400°F, (704°C-760°C) but floes not get hardened and thus has lover ftrengih, This zone should be located either ‘ninimam of 1/8 inch up the flank from the er- ‘cal root filet or well below the root diameter Contour induction hardening results in ease depth at the root tobe approximately 60 percent tf the depth atthe pteline due to mass quench tnd hardenabikiy effet. Profile hardening of ine pitched gearing using & submerged quench de- ‘reaes the eifference between piteline and root cease depth EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH HARDNESS. cd 080 L Tis0 Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening ANSUAGMA aGear Materials and Heat Tretment Manual 5.2.7.2 Case Depth Evaluation (Hardness Pattern), Although is nt always praca par- ticularly on larger gearing the only postive way to check case dept is by sectioning an actual par For tooth by toth hardening, a sepment of a gear fan be hardened and sectioned. Cate depth ‘Should be determined on 2 normal tooth section, “sing an appropriate superficial or micro-hardness tester. When a gear eannot be sectioned, hardness petern and depth ean be checked by polishing nd faces of teeth and nivic acid etching. Grit basting is also occasionally used. Hardness can fso be checked on end faces at flank and root NOTE: During tooth by tooth induction hardening, power de lowered and travel is sometimes increased as the inductor ap- proaches the end faces, This isto prevent fedge burning and cracking. In these in- Sances, hardness may be lover at the fs, particulary at che root area. In this fase, existence of a hardness patern ean be demonstrated by acid etching, But ac~ tual depth cannot be accurately measured 5.2.8 Specifications. ‘The drawing, order, of writen speifiation should include the fllowing Information| (1) Chemleal analysis range ofthe material or Sesigation. (2) Prior hea weatment. (@) Hardening pater required. () Minimum surface hardness required (Maximume may be specified for induction haré- ened par), (6) Those areas where the surface hardness is tobe measured andthe trequency of inspection. (© Depth of hardening required andthe loca- tion(s) at which the depth i 19 be obtained. (1) Whether destructive tests are to be wee {for determining the depth of hardening and the Arequency of such Inspection. (8) Tempering temperature, if required. (@) Magnet parle inspection, if required. £.2.9 Documentation. The eat treater should submit te following information: (1) Surface hardness range obtained and the number of places inspected. ANSIIAGMA. (2) Depth of hardening obtained at each to cation specified when destructive tess are re aquired, and the number of pices inspected, (@)_ Resuts of magoedc partle inspection, if required 15.3 Carburising. Gas carburiting consis of heating. and. holding low carbon alloy steel (0.07-0.28 percent’ Carbon) at normally 41650-1800°R.(€99-962°C) in a controled at- mosphere which causes additonal carbon to dit fase into the steel (oplealy 0.70-1.10 percent carbon atthe surface). Gear blanks to be carburized and hardened are generally preeated after the ital anneal by i suberieal anneal at 1100°F-1250°F ($90-675°C), normalize, normalize and temper for quench and temper to specified hardness be- ore carburize hardening. This is done for machine, dimensional stably and possble pain refinement considerations. An intermediate ftres reli before final machining before car- buriing may be used to remove resdual stress from rough machining. ‘After carbusiaing for the appropiate ime, caring. wil urually be cooled to 1475-1550°F (G02-843°C), held at temperature 10 stabilize ‘wile malnaining the carbon potential, and direct “guenched, Gearing may be atmosphere cooled af ter carburizing 10 below approximately 600°F {G15*C) and then reheated in controlled stmos- phere 10" 1475-1550°F (802-843°C) and uenched, Aer quenching, gearing is usually Tempered at 300-375°F (149-191°C). Gearing tay be subsequently given a rergeration reat tment to transform retained austenite and retem- pered. ‘5.3.1. Applications. Carburized and hard- ned geating is used when optimum properties are equired. High surface hardness, high case ‘srengh, favorable compresive residual stress in the hardened case, and suluble core properties ‘bated on selection of the appropriate carburizing ade of see, result in the highest AGMA. pear tooth ratings for contact ses, iting resistance fd root sength (bending). Carburized gear rat ings ae higher than the ratings for through hard- tne and ether types of surface hardened gearing beau of higher faxgue strength. Improved load Glacoation can be obtained by subsequent hard fear finishing, Conventional hard gear finishing (Gkiving and grinding) resus in some sacrifice of 2004-289r- Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual beneficial compressive sss at the surface and susamlly increases costs. CCarburzed gearing is used in enclosed gear unis for general industal use, high speed and Serospace precision gear unis and also large open fearing for mil appieaons. Carburized gearing {5 als used for improved wear resistance. ‘Spec fied. finish opertions after hardening depend ‘pon accuracy and contact requirements forall appleations ‘carburizing technology is well esabished and ‘the avaiable equipment and controls make f 2 feliable process. Surace hardness, case depth, land core hardness can be specie to reasonably lose tolerances, and the quality can be audited, Some gearing oes not lend itself to earburze hardening because of ditorion, Gearing which itm and cannot be saighiened without crack- Ing, rack ears, thin secdons, complex shapes, pars not designed for finshing or where finishing {s cost prohibitive, present manufacturing prob Tema, Press quenching after carburizing can be ted to minimize disorlon. Selected areas of fearing can be protected from carburizing {oasked) to permit machining ater hardening, oF an be machined after earbursing and slow cool ing before hardening, Gearing beyond £0 inch (2032 mm) diameter is dificult wo carburze veto the limited rumber fof avaiable furnaces for processing. Maximum fice of carburize gearing 8 curently in the 120 finch (2048 mm) diameter range. Most of this large gesting requires woth finishing (slving and! ‘or grinding) after earburizing and hardening 45.32 Materials, Material seleson is an in- tegral part ofthe design proces. Selection should bbe made on the basis of material hardness and hardenability, chemiszy, cleanliness, perform ance, and. economical considerations. Perform- fanee etteria Include, but ze not limited t, the following: toughness, notch sensitivity, fatigue serengih, bending strength, piting wear esitance, tnd operational characterises, Reference should ‘be made to Table 4-1 for alist of peal earburiz= ing materials and Appendix C for cate har ‘al gearing, Microcracks can result ‘which ean reduce fatigue strength 10 8 moderate depree. Use of relierntion tay require agreement between the cus tomer and sopplie (4) Carbide Control. When high surface ca ‘hon remem a heavy continuous carbide network {in the outer porlon of the case, pars should be febeated to typically 1650°F(900"C)in a lower farbon potential atmosphere, typically 0.60 per~ ‘cent catbon, to dilise and break up the excess fatbide, Carbide networks should be avoided ‘whenever possble as they tend to reduce fatigue ‘srengih of the materi. (6) Decarburization. Surface decarburization 1s celine for carburized gearing is» reduction in the surface carbon in the outer 0.008 inch (43 tim) below the specified minimum. This i ehar~ feted by an increase in carbon content with fnereating depth; for example, when the peak car ‘bon content subsurface Gross decarburitation can be readily detected microscopically a8 a lighter shade of martenste tnd cleary defined feet grains. Hardness in this trea wil be substanaally lower. Pari decarburlatin wil result in ler shade of martensite, but may not show dscerible feonte. It wil reskin reduced hardness if the carbon content falls below approximately 0.60 percent. 37 2004-89(Gear Materials and Heat Tresument Manual Table 5-2 ecifications for Carburized Gearin ilecive Case Depih (aches) RC SO Range of Notnal ‘Spur, Helical Worms with Creal Borel & Mixe® Ground. Pich ‘Threaas" % Das 15-137 0180-0230 0.010- 0.020 0.020 - 0.030, M 0112 17.8- 12.7 080-2300 0.010 0.020 0.020 - 0.030 n O13! 12.710. 0230-0300 0.015 0.025 0.028 - 0.040 10 0157 «S05 BS 0300-0370 0.020 0.030 0.035 - 0.050 8 0198 BS= 7S 0370-0480 0.025 0.040 0.040 - 0.085 1 026 «7S - 6S 01370-0480 0.025 0.040 0.040 - 0.058 ‘ 0281 «6S = 52 0480-01600 0.020 - 0.050 0.045 - 0.060 5 0316 S2- 43 0600-0728 0.040 - 0.060 0.045 - 0.060 ‘ 0393 43237 0728-0860 0.050-0.070 0.045 - 0.060 350449 © -3.7= 30.860 1.028 0.060 0.080 0.060 - 0.075 300523 «31-28 1.026 1.200 0.070.090 0.075 - 0.090 215 (OST«=—«28= 26 1.026 1200 0.070 0.090 0.075 - 0.090 25 068 «= «26-23 1200-1400 04680-0.105 0.075 - 0.090 225 0698 «23-22 1200-1400 0080 0.105 0.075 - 0.090 20 «0788 «2.2 19 1ADB- 1.675 0.090 0.125 0.075 - 0.090 1750897 «19> 1.6 «1676-1976 0.105 - 0.140 0.075 - 0.050 ts 1.047 16-13 1976-2400 0.120 0.155 0.075 - 0.050 f2s fase 4.3. 1424002828 0145-0180 0.075 - 0.080 Lo 1570 AA Glass 2.828 & more —T0- 0.208 0.075 - 0.090 ors 2.094 11a less 2325 & more _0.170- 0.205 0.075 ~ 0.090 onvered before speclving a case depth. ‘alelated belore # case Gare a rooe 8 ypically ‘The case depth for bevel and mare gears For fon seal ied. fer to AGMA 2001-1 ‘Worm and ground-tnread case depth ‘han shown in able may be required. 5.4 Carbonitrding. The purpose of this Sec- tion {6 to establish Methods for specifying car ‘bontided gearing. Information in $.3 on car During will generally apply to carbonieiaing, wich noted exceptions. ‘Typeallyearbontrding is caried ot at lower temperatures, 1$80-1650°F (843-899°C), and for shoreer Umes than gas carburizing. Shalower case depths are generally specified for carboniid- fing than is usal for production carburizing. Tis tetfect on steel smal to liquid eyaniding and ANSUAGMA. ‘Gears with thin top lands may be subject to excessive ca ‘All cate depths are based on normal diamewal pitch. All other ptch measurements should be se depth atthe Ups. Land width should be 6 percent of cae at mid tooth. ‘clculted fom the thickness ofthe tooth’s small end. "Toquirng maximum performance, dealed studies toast be made of the application, and inimufacturing procedures 10 determine the required elfecave case depth For further o ‘Tovconver above cata to moti, multiply values given by 254 to determine mm equivalent. fallow for grinding” Un~ground worm gear cases may be Gecroased atcordngly. For very heavy loaded coarse pitch ground thread worms, heavier case depth has replaced cyanlding because of oyanide di posal problems. Normally 25 t § percent anhy- frous ammonia Is added to the carburizing tmos- phere when carbonitriding. Specified cae depths fre usually from 0.003. 10 0.030 inch (0.076 to 0.76 mm) maximum. 45.4.1 Applications (Advantages and Limi- tations). Use of eatboniriding i mare restricted than carburizing. Tis limited to shallower cases for finer pitch gearing since the process must be conducted at lower temperatures than carburizing. 2004-589Gear Materisls and Heat Treatment Manual Deep case depths requir prohibitive time cycles. ‘One of the advantages of carbontring is better case hardenabllty in lower alloy or plan earbon ‘toes, The eatbortrided case has better wear and femper rexsance than 1 staight carburized case ‘Carbonlrding can be used to minimize dinorion In finer pitch paring because lower austeniizing tnd quenching temperatures can be vsed along wrth less severe quench techniques. and. sll Tchieve hardnes. These facts, along with lower thoy steels result inthe lower core hardness men- tioned previously, thus redelng tooth growth and distortion. However, if higher core hardnes and Seeper case depths are required fr bending resis- tance, carboniiding may not be applicable. Table 5-3. Approximate Minioum Core Hardness " of Carburized Gear Teeth ‘Hardness HRC Minimal Onde Fanos 45-6 78 UP 3516 uO pas 2M 6 OT 3310 2 BS 9310, oe oe | 820 pe eas 022 oe ee a 320, 3 om 0 OS 620 iM Ow 4620 = wo on 1020 we ‘Depending upon the Jominy curve of the panlcular materia, madam hardness wil ‘play be 10 ps per than be ‘minimums ised. Use of H band see isthe ‘Bormal method of hardenablty contro 5.4.2 Material, Typleally carbon and low log sees such a8 1018, 1022, 1117, 4022, 4118 ‘and 6620 steels are wed for carboniciding 5.4.3. Specification and Inspection. Case depth, micronructee, hardness, ete. for care bonkrided pars ean abe specified and evaluated t preserbed inthe section for earburzed gear fing, Cate depth is specified and measured as ef fecive or total depending upon application. Caves shallower than 0,010 inch (0.25 tm) are general specified a total ease pth. The advan~ {ages and tiatons a5 described herein should ‘be fully understood before specifying carbonitd- ing for industria pearing, ANSUAGMA, 15.5 Nitriing. The purpose of this section is to provide information, means of specifying, and inspection of nkrided gearing. ‘This section covers the selection and processing of materials, hherdnesses obtainable, and defintions and inspes- ‘on of depth of hardening ‘Conventional gas nitride hardening of gearing, which has had a quench and vemper pretreatment nd fs csualy finish machined, involves eating fand holding ata temperaure between 950-1060°F (510-S71"C) ina controlled cracked ammonia atmosphere (10 0 30 percent Gisciation). Nivide hardening can also be tchieved withthe fon nitriding process. During n- ‘ding, nrogen atoms are absorbed into the su face to form hard iron and alloy nitrides. The ‘racial limit on cave depdh i about 0.040 inch (2.0 mm) snaximum, which requires 2 thorough sures anaes (for other than wear applications) ofthe effectiveness of the case for coarse pitch seating. NOTE: The above processes (5.4 and 5.5) should not be confused with aerated salt bath niriding or nirocarburiing in twhich nitrogen is absorbed nto the steel turface at approximately 1060°F(S70°C) for short cylos of 2-5 tn 4.0 hours in an aerated sak bath of atmosphere. These processes result in a wear restant surface layer of 0.00% inch (0.025 mm) or les, ‘with & nitrogen compound layer 10 Gepeh of 0.015-0.020 inch (0.38-0.50 rm) which enhances fague strength. 5.5.1. Applications. Nirided gears are used when gear geometry and tolerances do not lend ‘hemeelves to other case hardening methods be- ‘cause of diortion, and when through hardened {ears do not provide sulcent wear and piting resitance, Nisded gears ae wed on applications there thin, high hardnes eases can withstand ap pled loads, Nirided gears should not be speci- fied if shock loading i present, due to inherent brtleness ofthe case 5.5.2. Materlals. Steels containing, chro- ‘mlum, vanadium, shiminim, and molybdenum, tlther singularly or ia combination, are required fn order to form stable nitrides a the nitriding temperature. ‘Typleal eels slab for nitriding are 4140, 4150, 4340, the Nizalloy grades, and steels with ‘chromium contents of 100 t0 3.00 percent. Alu- 9 2004-589GGear Materials and Hest Treatment Manual rinum containing grades such as Nixalloy 135, and Niall N wil dovelop higher case hardness. 5.5.3 Pre-treatments. Pans tobe nitided ‘mutt be quenched and tempered to produce the fcsentally tempered marenstie microstructure Fequied for cate eifusion. Mlcrosrucure most be ee of primary ferrite, suchas is produced by snesing sd normalizing, which produces a brite te ease prone to spaling, ‘The niviing process wl cause a sight uniform increase in size. Hom (ver residual ereses from quench and tempering Imay be relieved at the sliding cemperaure, ‘Casing cstorion. Tis shouldbe avoided by er ering at approximately 50°F (28°C) minimum Shove the intended nitrded temperature after (quenching. In order to minimize distoion of cer~ fain pearing designs, intermediate stress relieving ‘her rough machining at 25-50°F (14-28°C) be- low the tempering temperature may also be re- ‘quired prior to fnsh machining to relieve machin- ing sreses before nisiding. In alloys such as series 4140 and 4340 sees, ritrided hardness is lessened appreciably by de- creased core hardness prior to nitriding, This ‘un be considered when selecting tempering or sre relieving temperatures. 1f disonion control is very cra, the newer Jon nitriding proces thould be considered. Ni- ‘riding ean be accomplished at lower temperatures ‘eth fon nleding than those used fr conventional ws ticing, [Nisriding over decarburzed steel causes a ‘rite ease which may spall under load. ‘There- fore, nirided surfaces subject to stress should be free of decarburisation. Sharp comers or edges become brite when irided and should be removed o prevent poss- ble chipping during handling and service. Where it i desired to selectively nitride 2 part, the surfaces to be protected from nitriding fan be plated with dense copper 0.0007 inch (0-018 mm) minimum thickness, tn pate 0.0003, 0-0,005 inch (0.008 to 0-13 mm) thick, ot by ‘costing with proprietary paints specially. de- Saned fortis purpose. [Narided pars wal distr in a consistent man ner when all manufacturing phases and the nivid- Ing process are held constant, The amount and |ANSUAGMA direction of growth or movement shouldbe deter- rmined foreach part by dimensional analyses both prior to and after nizing 5.5.4 Nitriding Process Procedures. Vari- ables in the nitriding proces are the combined ef fects of surface condition, degre of ammonia dis- sociation, temperature, and Ume of nitriding. Ni- ‘ogen adkorption in the sel surface is affected by oxide and surface contamination. In order to ‘guarantee nitrogen adsorption it may be necessary to remove surface exiation by chemical or me- canleal means “The nitriding proces affects the rate of nitro gen adsorption and the thickness ofthe resultant ‘rile whit layer on the surface. ‘A two sage nitiding process (two temper tures with increased percent of ammonia dssoca- tion st the second higher temperature) generally reduces the thickness of the white layer 10 10,0005-0.001 inch (0.013-0.026 mm) maximum. ‘The white layer thickness also dependent upon the analyis of steel. “The fon ntride procest uses fonized nitrogen {ms to effect trogen penetration ofthe surface by fon bombardment. The proces can provie flexi Diy in determining the type of compound pro- ‘duced. The process can aio be tailored t0 better ‘control nluiding of geometric problems, such as Dlnd holes and small orifices. 5.5.5. Specific Characteristics of Nitrided Gearing. Nividing does not lend ise to every feat application. The nitride proces is resiced by and specified by eae depth, surface hardness, core hardness and material selection consins 5.5.5.1 Material Selection. Selection ofthe rade of see limited wo those alloys that contain ‘mec elemens that form hard nivides as die cused in 5.5.2 5.5.5.2 Core Hardness. Core hardness ob- tained in the quench and temper preteatment ‘mun provide sufficient srengih to support the ‘eae Under load and tooth bending and rim ftreates, Core hardness requirements iit mate- Fal aelction to those sels tat ean be tempered {a the core hardness range wit a tempering tem perature that is atleast 50°F (28°C) above the ‘riding temperature. Approximate core hardness 2004-BE9Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual obtained on typical nitded stels ae as follows: Minimum Surace Steel Type Hardness, HRC 4100 8 4150 30 340 xu Navalloy 135, 3 5.8.5.3 Surface Hardness. Surlace hardness ls limited by the concenation of hard nie forming elements in the alloy andthe core hard- nest ofthe gear. Lower core hardness does not fupport the hard, tin case as well as higher core hardness. Lower core hardness will result fom Jess alloy, larger section sie, redaced quench se- ‘erty and a preter degree of martensite temper- Ing Lower core hardness rests ip a microstuc- ture which causes a lover surface hardness Dltrided case, since i limits the abiliy to form Fish concentration of hard metalic nitrides. Sur- face harcnes wil algo increase with increasing i- trie ease depth ‘Approximate minimum surface hardness which ean be obtained on niteded steel is shown in Table 5-1 Table $-4 Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness ~ Nitrided Steels Steel Type Nitralloy (contains At) 12/2 percent Chrome (EN 408 & 40C ana SiceMov9)" 1 Converted to HRC 2 Bath and German analyses, respectively NOTE: ‘Data infers 269HB minimum core hardness. 5.5.54 Case Depth. The speciied case eet for miided gearing is determined by the Surface and sub-surface stress gradient of the de- ‘Sen applicadon, Surface hardness and core hard- ‘ness wil influence the design's minimum required case depth Since the diffusion of nirogen is ex- ANSAGMA. a tremely slow, most specications only specify 2 ‘minimum case depth requirement. ‘case depth should be determined using 2 microhardness tester. At leas three ardness ess should be made beyond the depth at which core hhardnes is obtained to asute that the case depth tha been reached. ‘A tex bar, for example 1/2. 1 inch (13 10 ‘25 mm) diameter with length 3 X the diameter, ie of pate recon, can be wed for determining ‘ease dopth of nitride pars. The test section must be of the same epecifed chemical analysis and mas be processed inthe same manne ari represents ‘Seconing of an acul part to determine ease epth nea only be performed when the resuls of ‘he test bar are cause for rejection, or the surface hardness of the part) i ot within 3 HRC points ofthe surface hardness ofthe test bar. 5.5.6 Specifications. Pars which are to be nirided should have the following specified: (1) Material grade (@) Preheat treatment (se §.5.5.2) (@) Minimum surface harness (4) Minimum total ease depth (©) Mani shiknese of hive Iyer, i required (6) Areas to be protected from nitriding by masking required (g) Nain temporatare (@) Metaurgieal test coupons 5.6 Other Heat Treatments. Gearing may aso be heat treated by other means inchuding laser ‘heat wealing and electron beam heat eating, ‘Both lier and electron beam surface harden {ng of gears ae sleeve in natre and are gener- ‘lly applied to gear smaller than those routinely hardened by other methods. The production (quantity of any gear mum be sufficient 10 Jusify the cost of capital equipment and set-up to su {ace hardened by ether process, such as quantity production for the automotive industry. These processes are not available from commercial heat ‘Deaters Thermal energy for esting the surface to the auseniing temperature is suplid by ether ‘the later light amplifiation by stimulated emis- sion of radiation) or electron (kinetic energy of ‘lecttons) beam, while the underlying mass pro- ‘ides the heat snk wo quench harden the surface. 2004-589GGear Materials and Heat Treatment Mana! ‘Use of electron beam heat treating for gear teeth fs reseed, however, to fll gear tooth contours, tnd is beter suted for Mat than curved surfaces, ‘This s true beeaute the sream of electrons must have ine of sight acess to the surface tobe hard ned with # beam impingement angle of atleast 25 degree (25-90 degrees Impingement engle range). Dual laser beam optics have been devel ‘Oped, however, for fank and root contour surface Ihardening of gear teth, Reference should be made tothe ASM Metals Handbook, $3 Eaton, Volume 4 on Heat Tre {ng for aGdonal information on laser and elec- ‘aon beam heat treating, st well as oer modlfiea- tions of heat tretments applied to gearing. 5.7 Quenching. Quenching isthe rapid cooling ‘of steel from a sukabe elevated temperature. The ‘quenching process is one of the major operations that influences the microstructure, hardness, me- ‘hanieal proper and residual sess distrbu- tion, assuming the par bas been propery heated before the quench, The prefered microsrucare ther quenching ie primarily martensite. “The designer's or heat treter's responsibilty fs to selec the quench variables to aban the re- {hired properes in te gest. The quench neecs to be fam enough to svold secondary transorma- ‘lon products, but slow enough to reduce dstor- tion and avold cracking, ‘The material har- ‘enability wil determine how severe the quench bas to be for pareular par geometry. ‘Quench cracks usualy originate at sharp cor ‘ners or subnantial section ae changes. However, feven with perfectly unlform sections, pars can fntly crack if made of high-carbon, high-har- Genabliy steels and the quench 1 100 severe Delayed quench cracks ean occur hous oF days ater quenching, especialy f improperly tempered for aves relieved. Ie 6 good practice to immed Stely temper after quenching If quench crack problems are a concer. “The main factors which control the quench fof agtation and quench temperature. The geom try wil affect how quickly and uniformly the (quenchant wil cieute around the part, Pockets ‘which trap vapor bubbles and retet the flow of ‘quenchant should be avoided. ANSAGMA. ‘There are a variety of quenchants 10 choose from such as; oly polymer, molten sal, water, ‘rine and gases. Each variety is avaiable with a wide range of quench characteristics. Table 5-5 fsocines tome material grades and their nor sally used quenchants. Agitation is exzernally produced movement of the quenchant pat the par. The degree and uni formiy of agitation grealy infuences is rate of heat removal. Agiation can be provided by pro- ‘eller or pumps in the quench unk or by moving ‘the pars through the quenchant “The temperaure of the quenchant may atfect st abiy to extract best. Each quenchant should be used within its appropiate range of temp ture, The temperature of & water quenchant is more erica than that ofan ol 5.8 Distortion. Distoion of gearing during heat ‘weaument is inevitable and varies withthe harden- ing process. The par design and manufacturing process mu consider movement during. heat treatment. Tolerancing mutt consider these Changes. Section sive modification may be re (gird alongwith added sock for grinding or ma- ining alter heat treatment. 5.8.1 Causes. Dimensional changes of gear {ng resking from heat weaument occur principally when steel is quenched. These changes occur ia ‘och quenched and tempered and surface hard ned gears. Distortion i due to mechanical and thermal szesses and phase transformation. Proc- fs variables and design considerations have asg- hilar effect upon the amount of distortion. High indaced sess can result in quench cracking. ‘Thermal proceses such as annealing, normaliz- ing, and fusion controlled surface hardening processes such as nitriding, which do not require Iiguld quenching, result in less ditorions than rocestes that require quid quenching. 5.8.2 Quenching and Tempering. ‘Quenched and tempered gearing changes sie and fistons due to mechanical and thermal stresses ‘and mironructural transformations. Quenching ‘the structure to mannste prior to tempering re= sults in steel growing in size. Tempering of the hardened structure reduces the volume, but the combined effects of quenching and tempering ei ‘euk in a volume and sce increase. 2004-589GGear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘Table 5-5 Commonly Used Quenchants for Ferrous Gear Materials ‘Material Grade Quenchant Remarks 1020 ‘Water or Brine Carburized and quenched with good quench agitation. aus on Ccarburzed and quenched in wel agiated conventional 4620 cl at 60-160°F(27-71°C) is monmally required. For 8620 finer pitched gearing, hot ll at 275-37S°F(135-190°C) 8822, tay be uted to minimine dinortion. Some loss in eore 4320 hardest wil alo real from hot oil quench, 3310 on ‘carburized and quenched in hot oll at 275-375°F (4135-190°C). This the preferred quench, 9310 In larger sections, conventional ol can be used. 104s Water, 0 or Type of quenchant depends upon chemisry and section 4130, Polymer size. Large sections normally requte water or low 3630 ‘concentration polymer. Smaller sections can be processed in well apated ol na (0 or Polymer Good response In well agitated conventional oll or isa polymer. Indvtion of flame hardened parts normally ‘quenched in polymer. ano (or Polymer Same a8 above: however shin sections or sharp comers aa ‘an represeat crack hazard. Hot ol should be au Considered in these nics. With proper equipment, ait {quench can be used for fame hardened pars. “These are high hardenabily sees which can be crack tensive in moderate to thin secions. Hot oli often ‘ied. High concentradon polymer sould be used with aso Oil or Polymer ‘If conventons ils used, pats are often removed warm 2340 and tempered promptly alter quench, 4345, 4350 Crack sensitivity applies also to fame oF induction hardened pars wth high coneentrauon polymer being ‘he usul quenchant, Ol is sometimes uted and air ‘quench ean be applled for ame hardening with proper equipment. Gaay or it, Polymer ‘Quench media depends upon alloy content. High alloy ‘Ductile or Ar lzons can be air quenched to moderate hardness levels, Unalloyed of low alloy irons require oll or polymer. In this ection pars and flame or Induction hardened rurfaces canbe erack sense. ANSUAGMA, 8 2004-589Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual Disiorion of quenched and vempered geting coceurs generaly 23 follows () Gears (4) Outside and bore diameters grow larger snd go out of round. (b) Side faces become warped, and exhibit “2) Pinions. Pinions become bowed, wih the amount of bowing increasing with higher length Glameter ratios and smaller journal ciametes “amount of bowing or radial runout is often €00- {ined to journal diameters and shaft exensions for snvegral shaft pions ‘Normally, rough gear blanks (orging, barstock, of carting) have sulicient stock pro ‘ded so dtordon ean be accommodated by ma Chining High L/D ratio pinlons may require fuaightening and a thermal sizes relief prior © finish machining. In some exceptional instances, scrightening, thermal sess relief, rough machin ing and a second sree rele prior to finish ma- thining may all be necesary to keep the pinion ‘dimensionally table during finish machining. So- (quence of manufacture is dependent upon desen Considerations and the wmperature used or sess ele, Stress relief temperature is dependent upon. Specified hardness and temper resistance of the Heel ‘Modifled methods of quench hardening, such as sustempering of ductile ian, reduces distortion nd. forms a modified hardened smucture at higher quenchant temperatures than those con ventional used (refer to 4.8.43), 23 Surtace Hardened Gearing. Distortion Selective surface hardening of gear teeth by fame and indveion hardening resis essentially In only dstortion of the teeth because only the ‘teeth are heated and quenched. Amount of di- orton increase wih ease pater depth and in- teases as more ofthe tooth cross section is hard ted, compared to profile hardened tooth pat= ferns. Distoruon ie not limited to pear teeth, how frets when the emtre gear is heated and (quenched as with carburizing. 5.8.3.1. Carburized Gearing. Distorion of carburned gearing makes i one of the leat r= |ANSUAGMA, peauable of surface hardened process. Lack of Pepeatablity i due tothe greater numberof vari ‘bles which afer aitorion. Close contol i, therefore, required. Distordon resuls from Inlcrosroctaral transformation, and resgual sess (from thermal shock, uneven cooling, ete.) con fideratons.. ‘Transformation in the case results in ‘growth which sts up residual surface compressive ‘from This seas is balanced by coresponcing r= fiGual tensile stress beneath the cate Principal variables affecing the amount of tpowth, ditorion, and residual stress include’ (1) Geometry. (@) Haréenabilty (carbon and alloy content) of the bese material. Higher hardenabiity in- treaes prom and distortion. (3) Foauring techniqu during quenching, (4) Carbon pote of the carburizing atmos phere (G) Catbursingvemperaure and temperature prior to quenching. (© Time between quench and temper for seher alloys. (7) Quenehant type, temperature and amount of aptauon, (&) Resukant metallurpcal characteristics of the ease, puch af eatbon content, case depth, mount of retained austenite, carbides, ete. NOTE: Direct quenching generally results in es dizoron than sow cooled, rehested find quenched gears, providing gxars are ‘properly cooled from che carburizing tem- perature tothe quench temperature before hardening, ‘Once a component is designed to minimize isordon, processing techniques should be opt= mized to make dinorion consistent. At imes,re- ‘esig of components may be required to reduce ‘dxarion. Stock removal by grinding after carburize hardening should be limited to approximately (0,007 inch (0.18 mm) per woth surface or 20 percent of the case depth, whichever is less. Ex- Pepkion may be made for coarser pitch pearing Seth cases 0,080 inches (2 mm) or greater. Sur Thees other than the tooth anks and roots may tolerate greater sock removal inthe furnace and 44 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual General design considerations of carburized searing related t0 dstoron include the fllowing (Gelert Fig 5-4): (1) Larger wets (over DP) distor: more. (2) Rim thickness shouldbe the same a both end faces. (6) Ratial web support section under the rim should be centrally loested. Web suppor section thickness under the rim i recommended to be not Tess than 40-50 percent of the fae width for pre= Cision pears, Near slid “pancake” gear blanks, Gesigned with moderate recess on both sides of the web serion, dior les. The recess is pro- ‘vided to enable clean-up grinding of the rim and hub eng faees ater hardening (4) Hote in the web section close to the riz, to reduce the weight or provide holes for iting, ay cause colapaing of the rim section over the holes (6) High length/aiameter ratio pinions distor more. Journals may be required to be masked in ‘order to prevent carburizing and then be finish tnachined afer hardening wih sufficient stock for Clean-up. Masking ean also be used for ease of ‘srighening. (6 Carsseverpinions, with teeth on the end ‘of the shaft, and "bind ended” teeth on pinions, Grhere the adjacent diameter is larger than the Toot diameter, present problems from both dstor- tion and finishing standpoin. ‘Disonon of carburized gearing aio exhibits the following typical characteristics (reer to Fig 5-5) (1) Reduction in sooth heli angle (*helicun- wind"), which often requires on increased helix Single to be machined inco the element prior to ‘arburzing (more prevalens in pions). Teeth on Iarger diameter, smaller face width pears may ex hibit thetic wind-up” after hardening (2) End growth on gear teeth at both ends of the face due to increased case depth (carburizing ftom two dzectons, 90 degrees apart, folowed by ‘improved quench action for the same reson) may appear as reverse toch cromning on narrow face faring, Teeth are often crown cut prior to hard- fring to compensate for reverse crown or are ‘chamfered tthe ends of teeth, Teeth may also be both crown cut and chamfered (9) Becentrcty (adil run-out) of gears and ‘their bores fe dependent upon how thes are f= tured inthe furnace (4) Taper across the face (apered teeth), bore taper and "hour-lasing” of the gear bore fan occur due to non-uniform grow of teeth ferom the faee and non-uniform shrinking of the bores (6) Bowing ofthe integral shat pnions. Inte- yal shaft pinions should, whenever possible, be ‘Fung or fatured inthe vertical postion (exes er teal) to minimize bowing, (CANTILEVER PINION = BUND ENDED TEETH ‘CONCENTRIC BLANKS HIGH LO RATIO Fig 5-4 General Design Guldelines for Blanks for Carburized Gearing ANS/AGMA, 45 2004-389Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Mana! ae ree ‘STRAIGHT HELICAL ZEW nwo | TAPER feos] END GROWTH, (fevense cnown) Wi HOURGLASSING (@) 2s Fig 5-5. Typical Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing Gears may be farured vertically through the bores of web holes on a suppor rod (axes hori= Zonta), oF foxured horizontally (ndvidualy or Stacked) to minimize disorion, depending on size land face width, Larger Hing gears are postioned Ihorzontally with sufficient stock for clean-up of ‘the teeth, Bores and web sections can be masked to prevent carburizing, and enable subsequent machining. ‘Thin section gears, uch as bevel ring ears, may be press quenched to minimize disorion. 5.8.3.2 Flame and Induction Hardened Gearing. Flame and induction hardened gearing teneraly distort less chan carburized gearing be- ‘ause only the teeth are heated and subsequently ‘quenched. Contour induction hardening of tooth Drofles produce less dorion and growth than Spin hardening methods, ‘During both spin flame and spin induction hardening, the entire tooth cross section is often hardened tothe specified depth below the root of eth, For high bending strength application, iis ‘not darrable to have the hardening pattern termi- fate in the roots of the teeth because of residual tensile rest considerations. Distortion inreases fb greater crose-rection of toath is hardened, ‘Spin flame snd spin induction hardening generally produce the following distortion characteristics: |ANSUAGMA 46 (4) Hllcal unwinding of the gear teeth, as wth carburized pinions (@) Increased growth of the teeth (greater ‘than for carburized gearing) because the entire tooth ers rection may be hardened in ier pitch searing. (@) Cromning or reverse crowning ofthe teeth ‘across the face dependent upon the heat pater. ‘Growing is more desrabe fom a tooth loading standpoint. (@) Taper of teth due to varied heat patern and case depth across the fa imortion of the teeth from spin induction hardening i ohen considered more repeatable than with spin flame hardening, because of fewer Jhuman error factors iavelved during machine and inductor et-upe with Induction hardening. Spin flame hardening involves more mancal set-up fac- tors, which inchide postioning of the fame, gas ows, et. However, spin fame hardening can be ‘engineered with special fame heads and fxcures for required conuel CAUTION: Deep spin hardening of gear teeth may cause excessive tooth growth and. may affect bore siz, ing resuks in ess dinorion, compared to car- butize, fame, and induction hardening. Prior ‘quench and temper heat treatment, which resls in disorion, is done before machining and nitid- ing. Pars are ako not heated above the transfor- 2008-589Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘mation temperature or previous tempering te- ‘erature ofthe steel during nitriding, and are not ‘quenched, as occurs during carburizing, flame or Induction hardening. Therefore, nluided gear teeth ate not genraly required to be ground or lapped ater hardening to meet dimensional oer~ ance requirements. Bearing diameters of shaft ex- {ensons are offen ground after nitriding with only minimum stock provided. Surlaces can also be ‘masked for subsequent machining, ‘When close tolerances are required, gearing an be rough machined and sess relieved at 'S0°F(28*C) below the prior tempering temper ture to relieve rough machining residual sess prior to finish machining and nitriding. Ding niiding, outer surfaces grow approx mately 0.0005-0.001 inch (0.013-0.025 mm). Bores size may shrink up to 0.0015 inch (0.04 sm) depending upon 20. 15.9 Shot Peening. Shot pooning i & cold work ing process performed by bombarding the surface fof part with small spherical media Which resuls fn thin layer of hiph magnitude residual com pressve stress a the Surface. Tals stress may im Drove the bending fatigue strengih of gear tooth Ee much ab 25 percent. tis becoming an accepted Practice to specly shot pening on earburized and fther heat treated gears, Because the process in= creases bending fatigue srength, i may be used ter to salvage or upgrade a pear desig. Contact {augue strength may also be improved In some in- stances by shot peening, but quantitative data to ‘ubsanate this condition i limited. Shot pening should nat be confused with gt and shee blastn ‘which are cleaning operations. 5.9-1 Equipment. Machinery wed for shot ‘ening should be automatic and provide means for propeling shot by ar pressure or centiugal force again the work, Mechanical means for ‘moving the work through the shot stream by ether ‘wansaton or roation, or both, should be pro- vided. Machinery must be capable of consitentiy ‘aproducing the shot peeninginensy and cover- age required. Regardless ofthe type of equipment used, the ear must be rotated on it ait while exposed to the thot seam, For optimisavon of shot peening of gears nozale type equipment is generally prefered be- faute of the ably to vary the angle of shot i= ANSUAGMA, pingement and, therefore, achieve more uniform Intensity along the woothform. This type of equip- ‘ment generally used fo hgh performance geat~ {ng though eenurtugal wheel equipment is often ‘used for very high velume production 5.9.2 Process Control. Because itis ciffieuit to direcly measure the effets of shot peening on {pare ahigh degree of process controls esential to assure repeatability. 5.9.2.1 Intensity Control, Inensy refers to the kinetic energy with which the peening me- tia exikes the per. This energy conos the ‘dept ofthe peening effet. Ic is measured by shot ‘peering a lt, hardened sel stp called an Air ‘en Strip, the same manner as the part wil Be peened. The sip i held fit on an Almen block Placed in the representative loeaton during the peening operation. When released from the ‘lock, the sip will bow convendy on the peened surface, The amount of bow is measured in inches ‘with gauge and is called the are height (Gee Fig 5-6). There are three claifictions of Almen Swipe, N, A, and C, which have thicknesses of (0.031 inch (0.8 mam), 0.081 inch (1.3 mm) and 0.0838 inch(2.¢ mm) respectively. Sips are SAB 1070 cold role spring sel, hardened end tem- pered to 40-50 HRC. Flaness tolerance is $O.0015 inch (4 0.04mm). Figure 5-6 also show the dimensions for the Almen strips and holding Sxture, An tensity determinston must bbe made atthe beginning, at imerals of no more than four hourt and atthe end af each production Whenever a processing procedure devel ‘oped for new par, an intensity curve must be developed which esablshes the Ume Fequred (0 reach peening sturaon ofthe Amen sip. This {# accomplished by shot peening several srps at various times of exposure to the shot seam and plotting the resulting are heights. Saaration i de- Fined as that point at which doubling the time of teposure wil resin no more than 210 percent imerense in ate height 5.9.2.2 Shot Control. Shot size and shape ‘ust be carefully controlled during the shot pee Ing process, to minimize the number of ag- mented panicles caused by fracuting of the shot. ‘These fapmented parcles can cause surface damage. Also, as 2 result of lower mass frag- ‘mented shot parce wil lengthen the time to Teach a speciied peering intensity. Periodic ine a 2004-89Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual spection ofthe shots required to control shot sie Sha shape within speciation limits. When these lms afe reached, the shot should be clastified and separated to restore size and shape integrity 6 shown in MIL-S-1516SB, 5.9.2.3 Coverage Control. Coverage refers to the percentage of indentation that occurs on the aurfae ofthe par. One hundred percent cov- ‘erage is defined af uniform dimpling of the org tal par surface a8 determined by elther visual ex- mination uslg © 10X magnifying glass or by us Inga fluorescent racer dye ina scanning process Tn the later process, full coverage has been Achieved when no traces ofthe dye remain when ‘iewed under ukreviolt ight. A minimum of 100 ‘percent coverage is required on any shot peened par. ‘Coverage must be related tothe par, not the ‘Almen sp. The actual part must be examined for complete coverage inal areas specified to be shot peened. The peering time required to obtain 100 percent coverage should be recorded, The time required to obtain multiples of 100 percent ‘coverage is that rule times the time to reach 100 percent coverage (200 percent, 300 percen, ec) 5.9.3 Design Consideration. The following sections deteribe tems that the designer should Include in a shot pening specification. 5.9.3.1 Governing Process Specification. A ‘commonly referenced shot peening specification is ‘MIL-S-13165B which idenifes materials, equp- ment requirements, procedures, and quality con- ‘tol requirements for efecaive shot peening. The SAE Manual on Shot Peening, SAE-I6082-SAE HISB6, may also be used, 0,081 £0.01 (0.708 0.02ren) 0.051 £0,001 (1.98 0.2mm) 0.0838 £0.00 (2.38¢ 0.8m) ri 083mm) AEN STRIPS MEASURING DIAL eee ‘sTm ReNovED, RESOUAL rar Mowte ron Penna Test ‘STnested Novcs wacrna (Eber ensonenen ” ° o Fig 5-6 Shot Peening Intensity Control ANSUAGMA, 48 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual 5.9.3.2 Shot Size and Type. Shot spe and size selection depends upon the material, hard- ress and geometry of the part to be peened. ‘Shoe ypes avaliable are cast see! (S),condkioned cut wire (CW), gass bead, and ceramic. Most ‘Shot peening of ferrous materia is accomplished vith east see shor Cas see! shot is avalabe in two hardness ranges: 45-58 HRC, and 55-62 IRC. When peering gests higher in hardness than 40 HIRG, te harder shot should be specified to achive higher mapnizudes of compresive sess (peter to Fig 5-7)- 5.9.3.3 Intensity. The intensity governs the pth ofthe compressive layer and must be spec fied asthe ae height on the A, C, oF N stip (see 5.9.2.1). The range of arc height i generally (0,004 inch (0.10 mm) wide, but can be speck fied to a closer tolerance for more repeatable re- us, Figure $8 dlutates the depth ofthe com- Dresive layer on sel at 31 and 52 HRC hardness According 0 imersiy 5.9.3.4 Coverage. In most eases, 100 per em coverage fr adequate. In some instances, RESIDUAL STRESS, ksi Toor 0.008) may be desirable to specify multiples of 100 per~ ‘ent in an attempt o achieve more blending of 2 ‘poorly machined surface. A typical Ratement in = ‘Blueprint specication 16 "100 percent minimum 5.9.3.5 Masking. At umes, ii desirable to mask fished machined areas of the part from ‘Shot impingemen. Typical masked areas would be finished bores or bearing surfaces. If masking is required, this should be stated inthe shot peening equirements and deGned on the drawing, with tasked ares tolerances given, 5.9.3.6 Drawing Example. A typical exam ple of drawing or blueprint specification for shot peenlng would be as follows: ‘Shot petn area(s) indicated with S170 cast, steel shot 10 an intensity of 0.010-0.014A. per MIL-S-13165B; ‘Mask area(s) indieated (if necessary). Other seas optional. ‘Use 55-62 HRC shot, 100 percent minimam, coverage D0 Dore DEPTH IN INCHES, Fig 5-7 Residual Stress by Peening 1045 Steel at 62 HRC with 330 Shot ANSAGMA 49Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Mana! MILLIMETERS: am el" i: r= 8 010) & E cs : i us oes eo INTENSITY as A Fig 5-8 Depth of Compressive Stress Versus Almen Intensity for Stee! “Table 5-6 giver shot cnn and intensy for various clametral pitches. ‘Table 5-6 ‘Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot Peening Diamerst amet ‘Shot Size Intensity 8-16 S110 0.006 - 0.0108 a7 S170 0,010 - 0.0148 2in-31n $230 (0.014 0.018 15422 $530 0.016 - 0.0208 aa 550 0.006 - 0.0086 (NOTE: The value fr dot size and inten- siyy should be considered typical and not ‘mandatory. Variables such as gear geome- ‘ny, hardness, and surface condition in the root may make other specifications more ‘estab. 5.9.3.7 General Comments. Additional ‘comments for shot peening include the following: (2) Allmagnetic particle or dye penetantin- sections should be performed before shot peen- ANSUAGMA, 3 ng, The plas flow ofthe surface 25a result of peening wil tend to obscure minute cracks, (@) Alt heat treating operations must be per- formed prir to shot peening as high temperatures [over 450°F(232°C)] wil thermally sess relive the peening effects. (2) Generally all machining of areas to be peened are complete prior to shot peening. Its pots to resore surface finish in peened areas (nd retain beneficial effec) by lapping, honing, ‘or polishing, if material removal is Limited to 10 pereent ofthe depth of compressive layer. (&) Compressive residual sess levels pro- ‘duced by shot peening canbe quantiativly meas- ‘ured by Xeray eiffracton, Curently tls must be ‘measured on s owt sample ina Iboratory X-ray ‘fraction wit. Portable units are under develope ment. (5) When there are significant machining ‘marks in the tooth rots, li desirable to achieve tn inten sufficient to produce a depth of come pressive ares to negate the stress riser effect of ‘he machining mark. However, shot diameter thould not exceed 50 percent ofthe fet radus. 0 2004-B89Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual $.10 Residual Stress Efects. Residual sresses pay an important role in the manufacture and performance of gears. Residual stresses created by fachining. and heat weating operations are re- sponsible for much of the dsioion that occurs Goring manufacture. The residual sess disribu- tion in finished gears can determine whether or fot the gears. will ure in sevice, Residual [Sresses (citer favorable or unfavorable) are in- {duced mechanically, chermaly, by phase ransfor~ imation, oF by modification of surface chemisry (Guch ax by néviding). Each of these, singularly and in combination (such as by carburizing), can tfc the depree of in-process dstorion and the Fesidual sess sate predentin te finished pars, ‘The following sections briely discuss the eases of ch type of induced residual sues. $.10.1 Mechanically Induced Residual Stresses. There are wo types of mechanically in~ Guced residual ress, machining svesses and finishing operation stresses. Machining stresses tare crested by the cuing of the gear shape and ‘on be efter benelial or detrimental. Pars given fil eat treatment after fish machining may have the gros residual stresses from ming, curo- fing, and ebbing minimiced by intermediate sess Tellet heat weatments in order wo preveot sigale fant divortion during the final heat treatment ‘Machining ets taken Jus prior to final heat treat- tment must be ight enough 80 a not to create sg fificant residual sresres. Grinding after final heat trestment must be performed very carefully since itcan create residual tense sestes in the surface ‘of the gear which can adversely affect perform: nee, Lapping, honing or careful grinding of gears fer final heat treaument maintains beneficial Compressive residual stresses. Finishing operations sich a8 shot peering (refer to 5.9) and rolerbur~ ‘ishing alo impart beneficial compressive residual ftrestes when properly controled. These opera~ tons are syplealy performed on finshed gears to lmprove the piting and surface bending fatigue re- sssance ‘Use of euble boron nitride (CBN) grinding may fave 4 favorable effect on the residual freee inthe Gnshed gear. Under extreme grind- Ing conditions, however, CBN rnding may also {induce surface tempering residual tensile sreses. ‘Other hard gest fishing methods (eg. skiing) Wil need to be individually evaluated a5 wo elect fon residual sess levels. ANSUAGMA st 5.10.2 Metallurgically Induced Residual Stress, The other pes of residual sess, al though guite diferent, can all be categorized as being. metalurgically induced. ‘Thermal, phase transformation and modification of surface chet= {sty stress result ftom heat treatment of sec. $.10.2.1 Thermal and Phase Transforms tion Streses. Thermal stresses result from the ‘heating and cooling of materials. Quenching, one ‘ype of thermal stress, can also be considered @ pase transformation sess. Quenching. particu: Tory fast quenching to form martenste, generates both thermal and phase transformation siresses For example, two types of residual ses parteras fan form on quenching of round bar. The most fommon type of residual szess patter in small Giometer bars isa tense sess atthe surface and 1 compressive sess a the center. This sess {em real from the sulace ofa bar cooling faster thn the center The phate transformation to mar~ tense creates volume expansion producing tenale Stress at the surface, Ths in turn crates @ om presive sess atthe center. ‘The second and oppotke wpe of residual stress patter occurs during quenching of large dl- Smneter bars. In tis suatlon, the surface hardens ‘bu the center remain a an elevated temperate for some extended period of time. The thermal ontracon exceeds the expansion of the transfor~ ‘ation to martenste, setting up residual tenale Stress atthe center and rela compressive sess atthe surace “These two types of stress patterns ate deter rined by two variables, sz ofthe bar and speed fof the quench. When the sum ofthese two vari- ‘bles is Tage, for example lrpeclameter bar with ‘fast quench, the suress pater wl be ofthe see- fond type wit residual tense sess atthe center fd reeldoal compressive stress at the surface ‘When the cooing rates of the surface and center are sila, the thermal contraction can not over- ‘come the expansion from the martenstic forma- ‘lon and residual tense stress wil form athe sut- face, while the center wil consi of residual com- presive sues. 45.10.2.2 Residual Stresses by Modification fof Surface Chemistry. This type of residual ‘tres must also be coasidered in conjunction with thermal residual stese Because modification of purlace chemisuy requires heating, and heating fan inoduce thermal sresses, which must be 2004-559Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manvial taken into account, Carburizing, the most com- mon type of surface chemistry modification, wil ‘serve a8 & good example of these types of residual ‘tresses, In quenched carburized steels, the trans- formation temperature of austenite to martensite {in the core oceurs at 8 much higher temperature than the cate, and a5 dscused in the previous Section, the austenite to martensite rasformation ‘creates a volume expansion, Therefore, a6 the pent cooling, transformation bepins in the core lind moves outward toward the case seting up ten- ‘Sle stresses in the core. The expansion of the fase is opposed by the previously transformed core imparting beneficial compressive sresses in the cate. Compressive suesses in the case help reduce surface pling cauted by tooth contact ‘tres above and below the pitchline. They help counteract tenale sretes caused by bending in the root. 6. Metallurgical Quality Control ‘Metallurgical information should be avalble regarding: (4) incoonng material grade information (@) incoming material hardness and mechanical tests (2) heat treat process control (@) pan characterises {3 bre eg al rode) (6) microsrctare (7) test coupon considerations Refer to Appendix D on Service Life Cons raion. 6.1 Incoming Material Quality Control, Mate- Fal grade is ceriied by chemical tet. Generally ‘this ies destructive process. The fllonng types of tests are commonly used and are listed in atcend- {ng order of cost for ferrous materials: (2). Sprctrogaphic Analysis (@) XeRay Analysis @) Atomic Absorption @) Wer Chemisuy Ion easing grades are identified by their me~ chanical properdes such as tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation. Hardness may be spect fied but cannos be used to deny grade. Bronze material grades are normally qualiied using chemical analysis and hardness tess. Brass material grades are identified by chem cal analysis. |ANSUAGMA, NOTE: Source certification is commonly accepted for analysis eerafcation, 6.2 Incoming Material Hardness Tests. Mate- ria hardness tet, often specified in accordance tvth ASTM A370, aze normally surface hardness teats made using: (2) Rockwell @) Brine (@) Rebound Tess (Equodp & Shore) Hardness testing, using any method or insru- ment, must be made with callrated instruments tvth daa substantiated and documented 10 insure ‘eliabilty. Staitical process contol (SPC) is an scoepted method of contro ‘Minimum number of hardness tests on both ‘im or edge faces of through hardened cast and forged gear blanks generally based on the out- side diameter and increases with size. Hardness teats are made on the rim edge at mid rim thick- nest afer final heat weatment 6.2.1 Cast Gears. Recommended number of hardness tests are as follows: onside Number of Tests Diameter, "Recommended nce (e (tim Face 9 = 40 (3020) 2 foverdd = 80 (10200 2030) 4 ‘Over 80 = 120 (203010 3050) 8 ‘Over 120 (3050) 16 ‘When two hardness tests are specified, ont shall be on the cope side, preferably over a riser; the other on the drag side, approximately 160° aay. ‘When four hardness tess are specified, two texts shall be on the cope side, (one over a riser tnd the other approximately 180 depree away be- tween rte) and the othe two tess shall be on the drag side 90 degrees away from the tests on the cope side. ‘When eight hardness tests are specified, four tests shall be om the cope sie, (two over risers “pproximately 180 degrees spar, two between ris- ‘es also approximately 160 deprees spar, 90 de- bees away from test over the vsers) and the ‘ther four tests shal also be on the drag side, 90 ogress apart. ‘When sixsen hardness test are specified, ight tens shall be on the cope side (four over risers and four between risers around the gear), 2004-589(Gear Materials and Hest Treatment Manual ‘and the other eght tess shall be on the drag sie ‘Squall spaced around the gear- Large sepmented tears shall be hardness inspeced on the cope and rag vim edge ofeach segment per agreement ber tween the customer and supple. 6.2.2. Forged Pinions and Gears. Forged pinions and gears inchide cylindrical shapes, dlse Shapes and rings. (6.2.2.1. Cplindrieal Shaped Forgings (2) A minimuen of four hardness tess shall be taken on the major (oth) diameter of forgings ‘op to fifteen inches. Two readings, 180 degrees pore, shall be taken at the center of he length of the major diameter (center of tooth secon at mid face). One reading shal be taken approximately 1 inch (25 mm) from each end ofthe major dlame~ ter, 180 deprees apart (2) A minisoum of fve hardness es shal be taken on the major lameter of forgings over 15 {nghes (380 mm) in diameter. Three readings, 4120 degrees spar, shall be taken atthe center of the lenph of the major alameter (center of the tooth section at mid face), One reading shall be taken approximately 2 inches (50 mm) ffom each fd of the major diameter, 180 degrees apart. 6.2.2.2 Die Shape Ford (4) A minimum oftwo hardness tess, 180 de- reer apart with one on each sie, shall be taken St the mid radius on forgings of upto 18.0 inches (437 mm) fa dameter, incisive (@A minimum of four hardness tts, two on ach sde 180 degres apart, shall be taken a the ‘nid radius on forgings over 18.0 inches (457 mm) in diameter. 6.2.3 Forged Rings (Reference ASTM A200), Recommended number of hardness tests fas follows: Diameset of Number of Tess in faye ‘Recommended Up 40 7 (180"apar) Goi over Ow 80 4 (180 span) (Gots to 2052) over 801 120 6 (120° span) {Gos2 w 3048) ower 120 & 0° spar) 048) (1) When a tol of to hardness tests are spelled, they shall be made 180 degrees apart, ANSVAGMA cone on the ring edge and the other on the oppo- se ring ede, (@) When 2 total of four hardness tests are specified, they al shall be made 180 degrees apart fn each ring edge, 90 degrees apart from one ledge tothe ater. (@) When & total of sie hardness cess are specified, they shall be 120 degrees apart on each rim edge. (@) When a total of eight hardness tess are specified, they shall be made 90 degrees apart on cach rim edge 6.3 Incoming Material Mechanical Tests. Me- chanleal property test bars, for tensile testing and Jes ffequenty impact tesing, are only required ‘when specified. Rete to 6.8 for merits and limia- tons of mechanical test bars, “Test bar sock for gearing manufactured from forgings and bar stock are normaly obsained from 2 prolongation or exension of the ough stock, in the axial or longitudinal direction with respect to the component and the direcion of metal Now ‘during forging, Refer to ASTM A291 for me- chanical tex cerdcation of forged gearing ‘Tes bar sock, approximately 1.5 x $ x 6.0 lnch (@8 3 127 3152 mm) long. are normally ‘tached to the drag (Dotiom) fim edge of the fasting or are cast as separate test blocks from the Same hea of eel, Refer to ASTM ALAS for me- chanical tes ceaiication of eas pearing ‘Tes bar mack should remain atached t0 oF compe the rough stock unl ll thermal treat- rent is completed, ‘Minimum tensle properties for stel gearing are shown in Tables 4-2, 4-3 and 4-7, and also In ASTM A290, A291 and A148. 6.4 Heat Treat Process Control. The many vari ses involved in the heat weatment of gear mate- Fins makes proces control complex. Process var- fables include: time, temperature, rate of heating tnd cooling, heating media, coding media, pes ff controle, bate mitral competion, condition fof process equipment, evaluation techniques, and part geometry. Heat treat processes change the microstruc ture and mechanleal properties ofthe gear mate- Fl, Any dimensional change, rich a6 distortion for pat growth, and any cosmetic change, such at Coloration or surface texture, are characteristics of 3 2004-89Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manvsl specific heat treat process, but ae not primary factors for process control. Process parameters ‘sed to contol the heat weatment of gear mater als are a follows: 6.4.1 Temperature, Temperature selection nd control san important parameter in the heat ‘reatment of geur materials. In carburizing and iBtriding. the rte of eifsion into steel is depend- tnt on temperature. The carbon concentration in the furnace atmorphere i also temperature de pendent. Specific temperature ranges are required fo harden the various grades of steel. Hardness land mechanical properes of a material grade ave Gependent on the tempering temperature afer hardening. 64.1.1 Temperature Uniformity. Sine the properee obuained in gear materials are de- pendent on the temperatres at which they are ‘ested, the uniformity of the temperature wihin the working dimensions ofthe furnace equipment thould be measured. ‘The amount of variation al- Towed is dependent on the type of heat treatment and dhe material properties desired. 64.1.2 Thermal History. 18 advisable to sake a time temperature plot of the heat teat processes as 2 monitoring device and as procest Eocamenaton. Th i wualy accompliaied wits Bip char recorders. 6.4.2, Time, The duration of each segment ‘ofthe heat eat proces is rtal to achieving the Seared material properties. For example, the Sep of carbon penetration during carburizing is ‘ependent on how long the part was held at the ‘catburningtemperatre ‘When the furnace temperature instrument in- cates that the formace chamber bas recovered is heat, the par in the chamber may not be up 10 temperature. Is mmporant that the part be held a temperature long enough for the entire part to be at temperature. Time at temperature for ‘through hardening is generally 0.75 hour per inch (@5.4'm) of secon. 6.4.3 Rate, The rate of heating and cooling ‘are important considerations. For example, if an induction hardened partis heated too slowly the ‘ore material wil get too hot and loe its mechan- xl properties. I sel gears cooled too quicky, It wil have bigh intemal stresses and posbly crack. ANSAGMA. 6.4.4 Atmosphere Control. The composi- tion of the furnace atmosphere is an imporant part of process control. Control of carbon poten- {alin the furnace atmosphere Is crkial to ext During andthe protection of surfaces from eat ‘bon pickup oF depletion uring the hardening process. There are tree commonly used methods {or measuring and controling carbon potenial in a furnace atmospher (1) Water Vapor Concentration. For a given temperature, the carbon concenration onthe sur face ofthe partie related to the water vapor con entation (dew point) in a furnace atmosphere ‘The water vapor concentration Is measured using {dew cell or dew pointer. The water vapor con- ‘enation & expressed as the atmosphere dew point measured in degrees fahrenhel. (2) Carbon Dione Concentration. The con cantratons of carbon dioxide and earbon monox- {de im a furnace atmosphere at a given tampera= ture are related to the extbon concentration on the surface of the part ‘The carbon dioxide concentration is meas- ‘ured with an extemal infared gas analyzer and fenpreated as 2 percentage. (@) Oxygen Concentration. The concentration ‘ot carbon on tha pat murlace is relted tothe OXY fen concentration inthe fumace atmosphere st 8 (Gven temperature and carbon monoxide level. ‘The caygen concentration is measured with an ‘nyeen, probe postioned in the furnace eat chamber 6.4.$ Quench Control. Control of the quenching operation involves monitoring the vari- ‘bier which affect the rate an uniformity of part ‘Cooling. ‘This incdes inspecting the condition, Cleanliness and concentration (i applicable) of the quenchant the proper operation of any device teed for agitation; and ensuring, thatthe ‘quenchant says a the proper temperature (refer 5.7) “There are several methods avalabe wo moni tor and quantify the cooling rate of the quenching ‘process. ‘These inclode the standard nickel ball fest magnetic test, hot wire test and interval tex. ‘Sample pars or text coupons can also be used as Jong as the tem piece hardenablty is accounted for (refer to 5.7 on quenching) 6.4.6 Tempering Temperatures. I is impor- tant thatthe tempering temperature be controled 4 2004-589Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual to achieve the desired hardness. It prudent to Selec an inal tempering temperature which ison the low sie of the tempering range. It is easer land more cos effective to fetemper a par thats too hard than reharden and retemper 2 sot part 6.5 Part Characteristic. ar characterises such as hardness, microm “sructure and test coupon results ean provide vax tle information. 6.5.1 Hardness. Hardnes isthe most com ‘mon characteristic used t9 measure results ofthe feat treat process. There are numerous types of hardness testing devices which ean be used, but tach type ha its own application limits and must bbe ured correcly-Stasteal process contol (GPC) isan accepted method to insure reliably sing hardnes testing. 65.1.1 AS Quenched Hardness. AS quenched hardness ofa parti good Indicator of the beat teat process. Many factors determine the as quenched hardness suchas decarburization fang retained austen, High as quenched hard- fea I the res of good heat treatment. Low ‘quenched hardness usualy resus from one or Siw of any factors much as deteriorating (quenchant, malfunctioning quench aplatrs, oF too low an aumentsng veperau 6.5.1.2 Decarburlstion. Ifa surlace has ‘been decarburized, hardness wil be low. Ifthe surface hardness if low, it is advisable that two ‘hardness checks be made on a qualifying test par ‘insure thatthe hardness below the decarbuteed one meets blue print requiremens. The two hardness checks should be made using the follow- Ing sequence: grind surface for hardness measure- sent, eprind surface unt the hardness indenta- tion is removed, and then make another hardness ‘measurement near the original locaton. If both ‘measurements are the Same, there is no decar- burizaton, Ifthe hardness increases, there is pos- ‘Sie decarburisaon. To determine the depth of Aecarburiration, 2 test coupon or part that was run with the load should be sectioned, mounted, polished and etched. I should be noted, however, that in most cases decarburzation s not permiss- be, 6.5.1.3 Post Temper Hardness Examina- tion, Tempering pars reduces hardness, AS tem ering temperatre increases, hardness decreases. ANSUAGMA 55 ‘Tempering temperature is determined by many factors, mainly type of steel and as quenched hhardnes. A hardness measurement technique can bbe used to monitor furnace soak time and uni- formic. I the part hardness greater ina heavy section compared toa light section, ofthe barde ress increases as surface metal is removed, these fre good indleators of insffiient Soak time. If the part hardness varies from the specified range between pleces in a fornace lead, this i 2 good {ndieaton ofa procesing problem 65.14 Carburize and Harden Examina- ‘ton. Surlace hardness and core hardness mess- ‘urements are used to monitor the carburizing process. Ifthe core hardness of pat is within the expected range regardless ofthe other harde fess measurements, the part was satisfactorily (quenched, If the par harness slow, ths isan {leation of decarburizaton, inadequate quench ing, excessive retained auseite, undissolved ear bides, to high tempering temperature, inade- ‘quate case dep, or low surface carbon, 6.5.1.5 Case Depth Examination. Car Drive ease depth is ypiealy mewured by make ing a microhardness traverse across sectioned ‘art of text coupon to find the depth rom the ur~ face where the hardness equivalent to Rockwell 0. (65.1.6 Retained Austenite Examination. the surface hardness ofa carburized paris ow, ik may be due to the presence of retained ss- tenite in the carburiaed cate. Retained austenite fan be transformed to martensite by freezing the ‘atburized pat. I the surlace haréness improves Ser freezing, there was retained austenite in the ‘arburied ease which is an indicator of high sur face carbon concentration or too high ofa quench temperature. 65.2 Microstructure. The composiion of the various phases i the mlcrosructre ofa pear wil tll a ot about the heat eat proces. Tis recommended that a tained metallogapher or ‘metalurgit perform the microsructre analysis 6.5.2.1 Tempered Martensie. If hardened sar has been correctly hardened and tempered, the micrortucre willbe compoted primarily of tempered martenste proved that the. hat- Aenabiity of the steel was adequate. 6.5.2.2 Balnite, If a gear has been improp- ely quenched, the mierouctre might be inter- 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Mansa! spersed with baie, which is characterized by a feathery appearance if severely under quenched, ‘ora darker acieular pater for marginal quench- ine 6.5.23 Retained Austenite, All carburized ase microstructures wil contain some retained fustenie, usualy less than 5 to 30 percent by vol= time, However, Ifthe carbon content ofthe car- Durized ease is high, 2 larger percentage of re- tained austente willbe presen and wil reduce the tise hardness, Retained austenite is characterized by 8 white Background in a matric of other sruc= tres (20 6.5.1.6) 6.5.2.4 Undissolved Carbides. If a car burised part has an excessively high carbon con- centration, the microructae wil contain undis- Solved carbides usally populating the case. Un- dissolved carbides are characerized by blocky white regions in e maurx of martensite and re {ined austenke, A normal srutire wil consist of gh, catered pinpoint carbides, while a structure cof excessively high carbon concentration wil have farbider contained in a network at the grain boundary. Continuous intergranular carbide net- work is Not desieable for gearing. 6.5.3 Test Coupons, Test coupons of repre- senunive gooey ate frequently ted for de- ‘aructive tering in Heu of desvoying. searing Microsiruchire and hardness ting of tes cou pons can be correlated to gearing characteristics 6.46 Metallurgical, Mechanical and Non-De- structive Tests and Inspections. Tess and in- spections which may be made onthe final or near final product are faig testing, hardness testing. surface temper inspection, magnetic particle in section, and ukratonic inspection. 6.6.1. Fatigue Testing. Fatigue (ile) vesing ‘of the final product isthe proof of the sutabiy ‘of the design forthe intended purpose. 1 is desirable to expedite this texting while rainaining validity of the tes data, This can be done by running the test at some overload ratio. snd evaluating the damage with time forthe test ondlons. Damage can be compared with that for the product design conditions. This compari- son mu be made for both the beam suenghs and ‘the surface durabilty ofthe teeth. Miner's Rule s 2 widely aceepeed method of making these com parisons. ANSUAGMA, ‘When damage value accumulated on the test ‘equals the damage valse of the design, the tet Specimen survived the minimum specified product Me. Due tothe staitical nature of fatigue faire there ia wide dstibution of data, In low cycle fatigue where most high overload and damage fractures occur, this seauzr band from the lower threshold tothe upper threshold is approximately 100 to 1 wide. Since the disubution may be con- sidered a log function, it i necessary for about Dalfthe est nls wo run atten times the threshold Ife to validate the product design. This would constitute a Miner's Rule damage of ten. 6.6.2 Hardness Testing on the Gear Prod- uct. Through hardened finish machine gearing can be conventonaly hardness teste by standard fnd portable Brinell and Rockwell test machines provided that the following are met (1). Surface to be inspected provides access and has the required surface finish, generally 64 Imlerlaches ($ microns, or: (2) the sizeof the hardness impression on the tom surlae is permited, of (2) Mass ofthe test surface will suppor the test load. ‘Torough hardened gearing is commonly ine pected of the faces of gear rims, top lands of feeth where size permis, gap of heringbone (Gouble helical) gesting and on adjacent diame- ter of pinions other than bearing journal. ‘Through hardened gearing is rarely inspected for hardness on the Danks of teeth or in root ral because hardenabilty ofthe ste! selected should {sure obtaining the specified hardness at these o- ‘ations, When hardness tnters are not avalable for accurate measurement a root of teeth, de> structive seedoning and testing may be required. ‘Omer portable hardness testing instruments are avalable (ASTM A833). One tester uses 2 hhammer to simultaneously impact a known hard- ness tax bar and the unknown workpiece with a ‘hardened ball between the wo tes surfaces. Com parton i made of the ball diameter on each to ‘determine hardness ofthe unknown. Other por able instrumenss measure the recoll or rebound Ihelaht oF velocity ofa dropped hardened bal, or tse a high ultrasonic frequency sctvated indenter to measure hardness. 2008-389Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual Its desired that surace hardened pearing be hardness inpected, non-destuctvely, 50 a8 not to leave an objectionable impression. Porable testes whieh measure the rebound helght or ve- locity of @ dropped hardened ball or use 2 high Ulsasonic frequency activated hardness indenter, say be used ‘Conventional Rockwell est machines can be cused to harness inspect surface hardened gearing when size ofthe gearing permits and where a vis- ible impresion ls permited. Hardened tes, in- ‘luting those tempered 10 lover hardness than 60-64 HRC, can also be used to approximate Inardness by the seratch test (Reference SAE {-864).Inepecion of dhe hardness on the Hanks Of surface hardened coarse gearing with non-de- ‘nuctive portable hardness testers can be i= proved when the insrumentcan be fixed for per- Dendiculary to the test surface, Hardness meas ‘brement inthe roots of teeth may not be reliable {due to accessibity inthe radius of curvature and surface roughness. For improved accuracy and where permitted, ‘rough ardened steel and cas iron gearing ‘Should be hardness inspected directly in Brnell (not converted). Hardness of surface hardened fering should be directly measured in Rockwell {Cor A seals) or convened to Rockwell with sit- se portable instruments, ‘Porabe instruments vary in aecuracy and ree tii. Uses, therefore, should take precations to insure accurate calibration and test resus. Hoardness testing equipment manulacerers should be contacted and Iterature searched for ‘dtiional(aformation on principles of hardnest Inspection, avaliable test equlpment and their e3- pabliies,Statsial process contro is useful tool fo be used with hardness testing. 6.6.3. Surface Temper Inspection. Surface temper inspecon is ured to detect and clasity localized overheating on ground surfaces by use of 2 chemical etch method. Details of the process fre covered in AGMA 230.01, Surface Temper Inspection Proce. Inspection criteria Includes 2 cass designation {or eel and non-erkial areas. To evaluate the every of surface temper, grinding bums ae cla sited by intensity of colar fom igh ray to brown to black. Severe burning of re-hardening is ind- tated by patches of white ln the darkened areas. ANSUAGMA 7 Cracking may alto be present. Re-hardening or cracking are cause for rejection. ‘Tables {and Tl in AGMA 230.01 cover tem per clases ranging from Class A (Light temper) to Ciass D (Heavy temper). Clas C (Moderate tem per) for a himied area and hardness reduction ‘may be permitted. Rework for excessive temper is generally per= rmited by mutual agreement between customer and spp. ‘case depth shall be determined on & normal tooth section. Hardness testers which produce ‘small shallow impressions should be used in order thatthe hardnes values obtained will be represen tauve of the surface area being tested Microhardness tester which produce Diamond Pyramid ot Knoop Hardness number are recom ‘mended, although other textes such as Rockwell fuperfial A or 15 N sales can be used in some instances, Caution should be exercised if the heavier load C seale is usd. 6.6.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection. -Mag- netic particle inspection is a non-destructive tes ng method for leating surface and near surface ddscomtinuites in ferromagnetic material. When a magnetic Held itroduces imo he par, dicen tines laying approximately transverse to the ‘magnetic fleld will cause # leakage fel. Finely ‘ivided ferromagnetic particles, ry of in. an ol bose or water base suspension, are applied over the surface ofthe material under test. ‘These par ticles wil gather snd hold at the leakage field taking the dicontnuies vse to the naked oe. ‘Use of electric current iy by far, the best means for magntiaig pars for magnetic panicle Inspection. ther longitudinal or circular fields ‘may be introduced inte pars. ‘There are basically two types of eleczic current in common use, and ‘both ae suitable fr magnetizing purpose in mag- ‘ete particle wsting. The two types of current are iret curent and aerating current. The mage ‘etc fields produced by direct and by akernating ‘carens differ in many characteristics. The main difference, whlch is of prime importance in mag- ‘ete particle testing. i that elds produced by d- rect current generally penetrate the enti cross section ofthe part, whereas the fils produced by tkeratng curent are confined tothe metal a or pear the surface ofthe part under tes, From this, 2008 89Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual ‘tis evident chat when deep penetration of fied ‘vo the partis required, direct current must be ‘sed as the source of magnetizing force. BY far, the most satisfactory source of D.C. is te reci- ‘ation of alternating curent. Both single phase land three phase A.C. are furnished commercial. By the use of recurs, reversing A.C. i rectified ‘and the dolvered direct current is entirely the ‘equivalent of sright D.C. for magnetic panicle testing purposes. Source of alternating curent are singe phase ‘nepped down t0 115, 250, oF 460 vols. Ths is ‘sccomplished by means of transformer othe low wottages required. At these low voltages, magnetie~ fing currents up to saveral thousand amperes are foflen wed. The tend in Europe isto use A.C. furrent for magneue particle temng because the {intent oftheir texing is Ieaton of surface discon tinuies only. Subsurlace discontinuities are best fetected by radiography or ultrasonic non-de- ‘Rructive west methods. A.C. currents tends to give beuer panicle mobility, and demagnetization is sore complete than with a B.C. fil ‘There ate two essential components of mag- netic particle testing, each of equal imporance for reliable resus. The frst isthe proper magnetza- Won of the part to be tested, with proper feld ‘erengi in the appropriate direcon forthe dtec- ton of defect ‘The rocond & the use of the proper magnetic parles type t secure the best porsble defect indleaions under prevaling condi- 6.6.4.1 General Principles. Some general principles and rules on magnetizing means, feld ‘Brength, correnteisubution and stenghh requre- menth are listed below (refer to Figs 6-1 and 2). (1) Fields should be at 90 degrees to the die reedon of defects. This may require magnetizing in two directions (@) Fields generated by electric curents are at 90 depres tothe direction of current flow. (@) When magnetisng with elecic curens, pase the curent in a direction parallel t the d- Feetion of expected discontiniis. () Cweular magnetization has the advantage ‘over longitudinal magnetization in that there are few, if any, loal pole to cause confusion in pare cle pauerns, and iis preferred when a choice of ‘methods is permissbie. ANS/AGMA (6) Circular magnetization specications gen rally require from 100 to 1000 amps per Inch of par dlameter. Amperage requirements should be {ncorporated into the magnetic paricl procedure. (6) For coll magnetization, a widely used for- mula for amperage ealeulations is 45.000 50 (Ba 6.) Me where NI = ampere sus required, LID. = length to dimeter ratio. NOTE: The 45 000 constant may vary with specications. (1) For prod magnetization with dect cur- (0f 20 oermede atthe midpoint ofthe prod line for Plate 3/4 inch thick or les. safer Higare to use, Fowever, 200 amps per inc, unless this curent strength produces an interfering surface power ‘pater, Prod spacing for practical inspetion pur- ‘poses is Limited to about eight (8) foches max ‘um, excep in specal eases. (6) Al parte should be demagnetzed after smagneue paracieinspecion, coipcutan Seegrturtes oocusmna <3 Beagecs To THe DIRECTION OF THE Pate. inspecr ron pannece moicarons Siiimtoscowmunes. I? Fig 6-1 Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic Particle Inspection 2004-589‘Gear Material and Heat Treatment Manus] 6.6.42 Magnetic Particles. The parictes used are finely civded ferromagnetic material Properties vary over a wide range fr different ap- plicaions including. magnetic propercs, size, Shape, density, moblity and visbilty or contrast. ‘Varying requiremens Tor varying conditions of test and varying properties of sukable materials have led to the development of 2 large number of Gtferent types of svalable materials. The choice fof which one toute an important one, since the Appearance of the particle paters at isconina- ‘ies wil be affected, even to the point of whether for nota pattern Is formed. cou shor Inspec FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS ‘Shovia TRARQvERGE OISCONTINUTES. EACECTIVE LENGTH MAGNETZED BY on SHOT SA PEW ments OW EITHER SSE Sr con Twdawcw LeyaTe OF Arricke Soviaab ay one shot 1S ‘Tings ts cal, OW LONG ARTICLE. EPERT suoTs AN xTHS COWN THE GEvatl OF ARTICLE. PLACE ARTICLES Lose To THe COL BODY. Fig 6-2, Coll Shot Magnetic Particle Inspection (2) Dry Powders, Tels evident tha sie pays an important pare in the behavior of magnetic par~ ‘idles large, heavy parle isnot Ukely 10 be frre and held by a weak fed when such par- ‘les are moving over the surface ofthe part. On the other hand, very fine powders wil be held by ory weak fede, since their mass is very small Butemely fine particles may ako adhere 10 he furface where there are no dScontinuiies, espe- ally i ie rouph, and form confusing back- ‘Most dry ferromagnetic powders used {or detecing discontinuities are careful mixtures ANSUAGMA of paris of al sizes. The smaller ones add sen sity and mobil, while the lager ones not ony tid in loeaing large defects, but bya sweeping ac~ ‘ion, counteract the tendency of fine powders 10 eave a duny background. Thus, by inching the tote size range, a balanced power with sensitv= fy over mont of te range of ses of dscontinui- tie is produced. (@) Wet Method Materials. When the fero- ‘magnetic particles are applied as 2 suspension in Some liguld medium, much finer particles can be ‘sed, The upper limit of pail size in most com= rmersial wet methods in the range of 60 to 40 fhlcrone. Particles larger than this tend to seule ‘ut of suspension rapidly. In general, wet method tnaterals exhibit a gester Senssvty than dry powders. Fluorescent parucls have the greatest Conia of the wet method materials. Although ‘uoresent wet particles have the greatest sensitive fy and contrag, they can provide # confusing ‘background on surfaces witha finish grester than 250 BMS. 6.6.4.3 Documented Procedures. Writen procedures for magnetic particle testing should as minimum Include: (1). Which ASTM, ASNT or ageney speci ‘atlont the procedure meets (2) Qualifcations- (@) Indicate thatthe operators are quall- fied and tested to ASNT-TC-1A Level Il, MIL- STD-271F, ee () Indicate type of equipment used for inspection, A.C. and D.C. ful wave rectified, et. (©) Indicate type of particles used for in spection, Buoreseent of black visible, wet or dry ‘arile. For the wet method, particle concentra- ton should alo be indicated (@) Generat~ (@) State when inspection is to be done: ater heat teat, finish machining, ee. () State what the surtace wll be: for ex ample, 250 RMS, back fore, ete. (© Seate amps per inch of diameter for circular magnetization and the formula wsed for ‘aleulation of longitudinal magnetization (@) State what mothod will be used for termining field maga; suc as ple gage, et. (@) Ste demameticain, if required, and lovel of demagnetization required. 39 2004-89Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual (4) Standard of Acceptance (@) Indicate maximum sie and deny of Indications permited. (indicate reporting procedures if needed, For further information on magnetic particle testing, refer to: Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing, CE. Bex Metals Handbook Volume If Eighth Edition [ondesiructve Ingpection and Qualty Control [Nondesructive Testing Handbook, Bated by Robert C. MeMastere for the Society for Non= desactve Testing 66.5. Ultrazonie Inspection. Utrasonicin- spection is a nondesrucuve test method to deter fine the internal foundness and ceanlines of eanng by pasting sound (orasound) through the Toten. Very short sound waves of frequency (pester than 20,000 eycles per second (audible fil) are vokage generated and transmit into the part by a tranedvcer. In the method most fften used, resuming sound waves are trans: formed inte voltage and monitored on an osilo- scope sereen. ‘There are two test methods wsed, depending upon the media, for coupling. the uranic TUnnsducer to the est treated work piece. Un tested coarse grained structures do not lend ‘themselves to ubvatonie testing. Surfaces to be ‘Scanned, such as the outlde damecer and ends or td faces of cylindrical or disc shaped rough stock tre generally machined to 125-250 micro-inch ‘acimum surface roughness. This provides im- proved contact forthe transducer with the work piece. One method uses » coupant ol giyeerin fr a commercial pase spread evenly on the sur fees to be inspected. The second method uses water as the couplant, with the transducer and ‘work plece submerged in 2 tank. ‘With the most common technique of ulra- tonle inpeedion, namely, the pulie echo tech- rigue, the transducer both emis sound waves and receives the returning signals from the back sur~ face and posble defects. The returning signals are subsequently monitored on an oselloscope fren as shown i Fig 6-3, The indcation tothe left ofthe oscloseope screen in Fig 6-3 is caused by the sound wave entering the sel and is called “Tait! pulse” oF “contact interference.” The in- ation tothe right is caused by sound reflecting |ANSVAGMA, off of the back surface and in che middle isthe Signal reflecting from any defects shown. The horizontal line, called the “sweep line," provides 2 measue of distance or depth inthe work pec fs related to the rate of travel of sound in the ma {eral The eveep line ean be calorated by use of 1 test block o section of known thikres in the trork pice in order that each marker shown on the sweep ine reprevents sundard distance ot epi. Depth of the defect from the transducer ‘contact point on the scanning surface can, there- fore, be determined. Before testing, the instrument must be call brated according tothe test specification. Sean- ring sensitivity i often esablshed as ether the esl to just obuain a specified back reflection bela, oat the Sensi to obtain an indation ff specfed height from a fat botom hole drilled {nto est blocks Seanning sensitivity and indication Limitations are often deermined using txt blocks by esab- Iishing a diance-amplinde reference line on the telloscope screen a ilstrated in Fig 6-4. AS fn example, sensiviy may be adjusted to esab- Ish the specified indication height (2.1/2 inch (63 mn] from the fat botiam hole (FBH) in the Sach (102 mm) blo, and atthe same senive iy the Indication from the same size FBH in the 12 inch (305 mm) block is noted onthe osclo~ scope screen. A staght ine is drawn between the two points, Any indiaton noted must not exceed the determined disance-ampltude reerence line. “also, indications are often specified not to ‘exceed certain magnitude and length on the Scanning surface or result i loss in back reflection height exceeding specified limits, both expresed in a percent of the back reflection height exab- Tshed during calibration for seanning sensitiv Reference can be made to the equipment manufacturers Utrature, o to the American So- ‘ety for Meals (ASM) Metals Handboot, Vor tome 11 on “Non-Destructive Testing’ (SNDT), {or additional Information. Important considera: tions include appropriate transducer frequency, ‘operator requirements and qualifeation, applcay on limitations, work plece requirements (gain Size), instrument callration, test block requie- tents, tem specifications and interpretation of test result 2004-889Gear Materials and Hest Treaument Manual “The American Society for Testing Materials sand AGMA specifications which follow may be ‘sed for ulzasonie inspection of wrought and cast peering. Forgings snd bar stock: “() AGMA 6033-A88, Secon 10. @) ASTM A386, Ulasonic Examination of Heavy Steel Forgings. sings: 'Q) AGMA 6033-86, Section 11. (@) ASTM A608, Steel Castings, Carbon and Low Ailey, Ultrasone Examination There. 6.7 Microstructure. The major function of the raterial election and beat treating process isto fchieve the desired mlcrosructure at the ertcal ca iS SS locations f0 that the part wil have the desired contact and bending strength capaciy. Hardened feel gearing microsrucure should be tempered Imarenste at the entire tooth sulace “The microstructure wil vary around the gear tooth fae nd throughout the tooth eros see- tion. The tooth mass vl havea significant effect fon the resting microsrcure and hardness ‘throughout the toth section. The heat treatment ‘variables wil sgnfcanl effec the micosiucture Achieved. Gear tooth quality control must include Imlcrosrucrue considerations as well as hardness contol. // MLA SY RSS Fig 6-3 Ultrasonic Inspection with Oscilloscope Seren ANSUAOMA, a 2004-Bs9Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual | INDICATION FROM FBH IV in (102 mm) BLOCK. | INDICATION FROM Soa nerenence une Pom N12 OE rm) BLOCK, ‘TEST BLOCKS: 12 AND 4 in (908 AND 102 mm) TEST BLOCKS CONTAINING SAME SZE FLAT BOTTOM HOLE DAILLED TO A DEPTH OF 1 in Fig 6-4 Distance - Amplitude Reference Line for Ultrasonic Inspection Control of the microsructures in fame and ‘nduetion hardened mel gears must also consider the width and location of heat effected zones ‘which wil avays exis atthe ends ofthe hardened patter. Microstructure evaluation must include the ‘exisence of structures other than tempered mar- tense atthe gear tooth surface and at core posh ‘ons. In catburlaed and hardened stel gears, re- tained autenite will ext inthe case afer the heat tueating operations. Data and opinions vay a8 10 the allowable limits for retained austenite. Sub zero testment is specified for some applications ANSV/AGMA. to reduce retained austenite. Some research has ‘Shown that microcracks are produced by subztro ‘renting. In carburized and hardened sel gears, car- bide forme and diswibution are an area of microstructure concern. Continuous network car bide is generally considered to be unacceptable Imierosctare, Ditcontinuoes carbide network i fenerally allowed within is ‘Bain, peat, and ferrite are undesirable at the gear tooth surlace of surface hardened gear- lng. These srucures will exit in core microstruc: tures of coaree tooth pearing. 2004-Bs9Gear Materials and Heat Trestment Manual 6.8 Mechanical Property Test Bar Considera- tons. Test coupons are specie by company and industry xandards for evaluating mechanical proper of wrought and east ste! and non-er~ our materials Used for gearing. NOTE: i should be realize, however, that mechanical properties obsained fom test coupons for wrought and cas see, cast iron and non-ferrous alloys sre not equiva ent tothe actual properties of gearing fom ‘which the tex coupons were obtained or a ocated. Smaller seeion test coupons are ‘ypleally specified for economic consider ons and instrument testing liiatons. 6.8.1 Reasons for Mechanical Property Variance. The reatons for mechanical properties ‘btained from test coupons not being eguvalent to those of gearing inchide the following consd- erations: (2) Wrought Forgings and Bar stock (#) Test coupon orientation and locaton ‘Mechanieal properties of forgings and bar stock fre anisouropi (reer to 49) which means that Droperties vary in the longitudinal and transverse (or tangential) dections. These directions are de~ fined with respect to direction of metal Oow and inclusion orientation induced by. mechanical ‘working. Unless otherwise specified, tes results {fom shaft extensions in the longudinal direction are. thore typically repored by forging manufac- turers for solid on shaft gearing, The longcudinal ‘rection, however, provides optimum properties compared to properues fom the transverse (or tangential) direcson. "The wansverse (or tangen- tial) direction is more representative of gear teeth ‘depending upon helix angle Location or depth ofthe test coupon from the forged section (e4. from the ouside diameter, ‘mid-eection or from the conta) and its effect with respect to the degree of mechanical working and feqrepaton, causes variance in mechanical prop- rien. Segregation is increased and degree of me- chanical working is reduced towards the eenter of ‘hot worked or wrought sections () Mass effect. Small secon ofthe test ‘bar being tested, and the sulle section of the fearing from which the tes coupon may have been obuained(e.. shalt extension), hasan effect ANSUAGMA fon mechanical properties. This valance Is due tainly 19 the increased depree of mechanical ‘working and increased response to heat treating. ts compared to larger forged sections, Generally ‘aller section test bars and sections show im- proved mechanical properties. @) Casings () Mass effect, Small sectlon of the test ‘bar being tested, such as standard impact test ‘ars, reels in improved properties compared to larger east seedons. Also, the smaller section of the standard inepal or Separate cast test cot pons, and its effect related to improved solfcay ‘ion mechanism (reduced micro-segregnion and ‘icro-untoundness) and increased response 10 heat treating, causes mechanical propery variance compared to larger cast sections. (@) Location of the est coupon, Test cou pon may be better located during het treatment, rosin increased response to heat eaing and limproved mechanical properdes. 6.8.2 Mechanical Properties Affected. Me> chanical propenies obtained from test coupons, ‘pecially conse ductility (percent elongation and ‘eduston of afes mearured afer tente testing) lmpoctarength and fatigue sveagth, are generally higher fortes coupons than for acual forged or cast gearing. Tensile and yield strengths of test ‘coupons, however, beter represent acual eorre- sponding properties of gearing, provided hardness fof the test coupons is within the specified range 6.8.3 Interpretation. Mechanical properties ‘obtained from test coupons should be considered 15 an indication of the quality of gear materials, ‘but should not be iterpreted a representing the precise mechanical properties of gearing forthe feasont cked In 6.8.1 and 6.8.2. Specified me- chanical properes for test coupons should be ‘minimum properies, not typical properties. De- signers should incorporate appropriate faciors of safety based on experienc fr design of gearing to ‘ecommodate variance between measured end ac- ‘ual propenes of gearing. In addition totes cou ‘Pont providing indications as to the metallurgieal talty of gear materials, west coupons provide a comparison of steel quality etwoen diferent of- ere and can often help identify problems in steel making and heat weating. 63 2004-389Gear Material and Hest Treatment Manual Bibliography [ASTM A148-83, Specification for Steel Castings for High Strength Strctaral Purposes ‘ASTM A291-82, Spectication for Carbon and Ally Stel Forgings for Pinions and Gears for Reduction Gears ASTM A3S6-83, Specification for Stee! Casings, Carbon and Low Alloy, Heavy-Walled, fr Steams Turbines ‘ASTM £125-63 (1980), Reference Phorographs for Magnet Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings ‘ASTM E186-80, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (2 104 1/2 nch)(S1 0 114 mm) Steet Casings Standard Reference Radiographs for Heaty Walled (4 1/2 10 12 Inch)(114t0 305 mm) Steel Castings ASTM E446-81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Upto 2 inch (51 mm) in Thickness [ASTM E609-83, Ukrazonic Examination of Carbon and Low Alloy Stee! Casings ‘ASTM E709-80, Magnetic Particle Examination (MIL-H-6875G (Feb 86), Process for Heat Treatment of Stel ASTM E2604! Reference Addre American Society for Metals ‘American Iron and Stel Insite Metals Park, OH 44073 1000 16th Street, NW (216) 338-5151 Wathingon, D.C. 20036 ‘Metals Handbooks (G42) 452-7100 Heat Tresters Guide “AISI Stel Products Manuals ‘Metals Reference Book Naval Publications and Forms Center ‘American Society for Testing and Materials ‘5801 Tabor Avenue 1916 Race Steet Philadelphia, PA 19120 Philadephia, PA 19103 (215) 697-3321 (21s) 299-5400 Mary Standards ‘ASTM Standards Metal Power Industries Federation ciety aoa o 108 College Road Eam\Princeton, NJ 080540 {Go'Comenreatt dae (59 542-770 ‘Warrendale, PA. 15056 -MPIF Standard 35 (412) 77624841 one ‘SAE Handbook Cray and Ductile Iron Casings Handbook AMS Standards (Cast Steel Handbook ‘Modern Piases Encyclopedia ANSIIAOMA, 6 2004-89Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual Appendix A Plastic Gear Materials [This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of [AGMA Standard 2004-B89, Gear Materials and Heat Trecrment Manual.) [At Purpose. The purpote of thls Appendix is te provide information on plac materials which have been wed for gearing. For physical proper- ties refer to appropiate product standards, |A2, Tolerances. Under cerin operating condi- fons, the tolerances for plastic gears may be less ‘real than for metal gears for smooth and quiet performance, Ordinal, however, the stme care fm manufacturing, testing, measuring, nd quality level specifications should be utlized in plastic fearing as ln metal gearing. The inherent resl- feney of some of the plastic wed may result in Detter conjugate action. The resliency of many plasic. pears gives them the abllry to beter Gampen moderate shock or impact ype loads trthin the capabilities of the panicular plastics ‘atari ‘AS. Operating Characteristics, Generally, plas tic paring materials are noted for low conficient of fiction, high efficiency performance, and quiet operation. ‘Many plarue gearing materials have inherent Iubrity ao that gars requle ile or no external lubrication, They ean petform satisfactory when ‘expored to many chemicals which have a coro- ‘Sve effect on meta gears Plasic gearing, when operating at low stress devel in certain envionment, have been known to outwear equivalent metal gar ‘Ad. Load Carrying Capacity. |The maximum Toad carrying capacty of mos plasic gears de- creases ab the temperatare increases more than trith metal gears, The upper temperate limit of Tnost thermoplastic ears Is 250°F(I21°C) at ‘thc point they lose spproximaely 50 percent of thelr rated strength. The upper operating tem limit of thermosesing gears now exceeds 00"F(250°C). Very litle degradation of me- ‘chaneal properies in cenaln thermoseting mate- Fils occurs at temperatures Up wo &80°F(252°C), |AS, Plastic Materials. Many diferent plastics fre now used for gearing. Both thermoseting and |ANSUAGMA. ‘thermoplastic material are used, withthe later be- ing by far the mest prevalent. [AS.1 Phenolic(F/S ~ indicates thermoset- ting), Phenclice are invariably compounded with ‘alous filers such a8 woodour, mineral, las, Sisal, chopped cloth, and such ibrcants as PTFE (olvetrafuorathylene) and graphite. Phenolics tre generally used in applications requiring stabi- fy, and when higher temperatures are encoun tered, |AS.2 Polyimide (T/8). Polyimide is usually 40-65 percent Ser gas reinfrcad and has yooe Sirength retention when Used at high operating temperatures. {AS.3 Nylon(T/P - indicates thermoplastl), ‘ylon is family of thermoplasi polymers. The most widely wed of any malded gearing material 18 nylon 6/6, but aylon 6 and nylon 12 are also ‘sed. Some nylons absorb moisture which may ‘ruse dimensional inability. Nylon may be com pounded with various types and amount of ga Feinforcng materials, mineral ers, and such Ii- brieants a PTFE and MoS (molybdenum disa- fe). ‘ASA Acetal CIP). Acetal has 2 lower water sbvorpion rate than nylon and, therefore, s more stable after molding or machining. Acetal poly- fers are used nfl or fled, with gast and minerals with and without lubricants, such as PIPE and MoS, a5 wel as one version with f- brous PTFE. ‘AS.S Polyearbonate (I/F). Polycarbonate ts generally uted withthe addon of glass fiber andlor PTFE Wbrieant and is «fine, low shrink- ‘ge material for producing constertly accurate smolded pears, AS.6 Polyester (T/P). Polyester are both ‘unlled and wih las fiber, and are finding thelr ‘way into more markets as a molded gearing mate- ‘al in competion with nylon and acetal AS.7 Polyurethane (I/P). Polyurethane is enerally noted for fs Hexbilty and, therefore, 2004-589Gear Materials and has the ability to absorb shock and deaden sound. AS8 SAN (Styreneacrylonitrile) (TP). SAN i& a sable, ow shrinkage material and ‘used in some lily loaded gear applications. ‘AS.9 Polyphenylene Sulfid (I/P). When compounded with 40 percent glass ber with of trout internal Iubricants, It Bas been found in Certain gear applications to have such greater ftrength, even at elevated temperatures, than ‘most material previously availabe ‘AS.10 Polymer Elastomer (TIP). Polymer ‘lasomer is # newcomer tothe gearing fel, and hha excelent sound deadening qualities and resi tance to flex fatigue, impact, and creep, among fther advantageous characteris. [A6. Part Combinations. Sever! plastic pears ‘an be molded together as a gear chster. Combl- rations of gears, pulley, sprockets, and cams can alzo be produced asa singe part. |A7. Gear Blanks. Many of these plastic matei- fal, notably unflled nylon and acetal, are avall- ‘ble in standard entuded shapes, such as rounds, ‘Squares, and rectandles of various sizes from Which gears can be machined. Gears ean be Inolded at less cos if large quanthy warrants the com of the mold. AB. Machined Plastics Gears. The quality of ‘machined geae may be general better than thelr ‘molded counterpas, but the molded tooth sur- face Js superior to the machined surface in ‘smoothness and toughnest. Pinal tooth srengh is ‘generally beter in a molded gear, than an equiva- lent machined gear, because of the fow of the material ito the woth eavity of the mold. Gear ‘cating i done on standard machines and with ‘eandard tools The following considerations wil Asse in obtaining higher quality machined pars. AB.1 Inspection. ‘The modulus of elasticity is fo low in plastics tat errors in measurements are very dlifcut w contr. The use of controled Joad checking equipment is almos mandatory to avoid errors in measurement. ANSUAGMA. He Treaument Manual AB.2 Tools. Sharp cutting tools are neces- sary to avoid tooth profile and size variation due to deflecdon. |A8.3 Burst, Feather edge burs if not elimi- nated by back up diss or subsequent removal by ‘ther means, wl impair igpecton of gearing and possibly contribute to noise during operation. AS. Laminated Phenolics Plastic. 9.1 Industrial Laminated Thermosetting Products. These products, whether in sheet ot rod form, contain laminations or plies of fibrous ‘Sheet mateis such a8 caulse, paper, asbestos, ‘cotton fabri, glass fabre, or mat. These mater iis are impregnated or coated with 2 phenolic zesin and consolidnted under high pressures and Temperatures imo varios grades which have prop- res usefl for gearing Fabric bate grades are chosen to wititand se- vere shock loads and repeated bending wresss, tnd co resist wear. Fabric bate grades are tougher ‘and less ride than paper base grades. The linen ‘rades made with finer vexured lightweight fabrics well machine with es wouble. Gears of linen base phenolic sre abrasve, and thus may require Frdened sel mate and adequate lubrication, ‘Asbesios-penolc grades have eneclen ther smal and dimensional stabil. “The gla fabric base grades have good heat reditance and very high tensile and. impact strengh. 'A9.2 Performance Characteristics, ‘Phenolles are used for fine pitch gears due to ‘economy, high resiliency, and high wear resi tance, Lower density dhun metals often provides higher strength to weight rats, It should be noted ‘that ll grades have some dimensional change due to humidity. ‘A9.3 Chopped Fabrie Molding Compound. Chopped fabri impregnated with phenolic resins capable of being molded asa gear ut may require finsh machining to meet most commercial quality requirements. A1O, Plastic Gearing References. AGMA 141.01, Plastics Gearing - Molded, Mar chined and Other Methods. 66Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manval Appendix B ‘Approximate Maximum Controlling Section Size Considerations for Through Hardened Gearing This Appendic Is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed at part of ‘AGMA Standard 2004-99, Gear Materials and Heat Treasment Manual] BL, Purpose. This Append presents ap- proximate maximum controling section size con- Sderations for through hardened (quench and empered) gearing. Ali presensed are factors thigh allect maximum controling sie, Ohusra- ons as to how maximum controling secon size {2 determined for gearing, and recommended ‘maximum controling section sies for several low Sly sees from AGMA 6033-88, Marine Fro- Dulsion Gear Units, Part 1, Macrial 'B2, Definition. The controling secon of par is defined as that section which has the great fn effect in determining the rate of cooling during Guenching at the location (section) where the Specified mechanical properties (hardnes) are re- Qulted, The maximum controling ection size for steel fs based principally on hardenabiliy, speci fed hardness, depth of destted hardness, quench ing and tempering temperate considerations. elerence should be made t0 4.6 ofthe Standard {or hardenabiliy considerations. BBS, ustraions. Figure B-1 thusrates con trolling sections for quenched gear configurations tehoae teeth are machined after heat trestment. ‘NOTE: Evaluation ofthe conalingsee~ tion sige forthe selection ofan appropiate type. of see! and/or specified. hardness feed not inclade considerauon of candard Tough stock machining alowances.. Other feria tock allowances suc as those wed to minimize distortion during heat eat- tent must be considered. ‘Table BA Approximate Maximum Recommended Controlling Section Size Specined cenoaiia foaion Se, 9 rine) Hardness AIS! 4140 ‘AISI 4340 2550 pet 2328 “To 8.0(208) incuded No restriction $ No revretion # 248-293 To S.S(240) ineaded No restriction [No reseton 262-311 ‘To 4.5(115) included No restriction [No resiton 2es-311 ‘To 4.0(102) incided To 25.0 (640) inclded No restriction 302-382 ‘To 3.0 (96) chided To 15.0 (380) included No restriction 321-363 Not recommended To 12.0 0S) included No restriction 341-388 § Not recommended To 8.0 (203) incded No resriton a6eas § * [Not recommended To 3.75 (98) incuded __ To 23.0 (585) inl Se a NOTES: Pea at oeamuned conrcing section ses for nirded gearing are less than those above forthe ‘Same hardness range because of higher tempering temperature required for nitriding gearing (efer 10 ‘Maximum recommended sizes Above, dependent upon specified core hardness. for fame or induction hardening gearing would be same a5 sere ee Sect is gency considered equivalent to AISI 4340 for chemical analyst, excep that ‘atbon I 0-48-0.58 percent for conventional sze gearing fection sae isnot anticipated 0 provide any So0r#(482¢C) minimum temper may be required to mest these hardness specifications, + ++ "Novrestieton® indiates maximum controling, 4 + Higher speciied hardness (c ‘Srbais HB, 986-321 HB and 401-408 HB) are used fr special ‘eirig, bur cons should be evaiuated due to redveed machinabily. ANSUAGMA o 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treament Manual 1B4, Recommendations. ‘Table B-1 provides ap- proximate recommended maximum controling ‘section ses for oll quenched and tempered gear ing GH = 0.5) of several low alloy steels based on specified hardness range, normal stock allowance before hardening, minimum tempering tempera- ture of 900°F(482°C) and obtaining minimum hardness atthe roots of eth. BS. General Comments. Maximum controling section sizes vers speciied hardness for secon sizes to 8.0 inch (203 mim) dlameter rounds can flso be approximated by use of the "Chart Pre- Gicting Approximate Cross Section Hardness of ‘Quenched Round Bars from Jominy Test Rests” published in Practical Data for Meturiss by ‘ooe) Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm) Wall ‘Thickness (If the bore diameter is less than 20% of the length of the bore, then the outside diameter) “Tmin Steel Co., and published tempering re- sponsefhardenablty data ‘Maximum controlling section sizes for rounds gener than 8.0 inch (208 mm) O.D. generally eure in-houve heat teat experiments of larger fections followed by secdoning and wansverse hhardnes testing. Normalized and vempered heavy section pear ing may aio require maximum controling section size considerations ifthe design does not permit liquid quenching. Specified hardnesses able to be cbuined with the same type stel (hardenabily) {s considerably lower, however, and higher har denabty sel may be required. In-hovse nor malized and tempered/hardness testing experi- mens are required Controlling Section: 2 in (0 mm) 1@ S SOc} Bal Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm) Rim Thickness gcreerh Fig B-1 Dlustrations of Controlling Section Size ANSVAGMA, 68 2004-389Gear Materials and Heat Treaument Manual Appendix C Case Hardenability of Carburizing Steels {mis Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should nat be construed as part of [AGMA Standard 200 C1. Purpose. ‘This Appendix assis in the slee~ tion of grade of carburizing see 1 inure that the carburized case has sufficient hardenabilty to bbe capable of hardening roots of teth fo meet speciied surface hardness requirments, The fhethod used is based on steel hardenabilty con- flderations and sandard hardening procedures ‘sed for carburied gearing. It may be used in onjunetion with design and other considerations to select the appropriate grade of see. (C2. Method. The controling section size of 3t- buried gearing can be determined using the same feneral Principles described in Appendix B for ‘hrough hardened gearing. Figure B-1 in Appen- dix B deseribes examples of how the controling Section sie in determined for through bardened fearing when the goth are cut after heat treating. ‘The sme examples can be used for carburized 139, Gear Materials and Heat Trearment Manual.) ‘earng considerations without regard to the fact that gear teeth are machined prior to carburize hardening, The controling section sive In both instances isthe tection related tothe location of feat teth which governs the rate of heat removed uring quench hardening (C3, Selection of Steel. To ensure thatthe see! under ‘consideration has sufficient case har- ‘Senay tobe eapube of satsfacorly hardening the casein the r00% of teth, Fig C=i should be used, Figure C-1 is bated on hardenabilty and ‘Contoling section sre considerations. Steels are presented in order of hardenabity on the ord- fae of Fig C-1._ Steels not shown on Fig C-1, therefore, can be evaluated by comparing har- fdenaily to those steels presented to determine the appronimate maximum recommended con trolling secion sie (a indicated bythe soli Line in FigC-1). ‘AvrosinalsConaing Seton Si, eh es ss 60 Fig C-1. Effect of Controlling Section on the Case Hardenability of Carburizing Grades of Steel ANSUAGMA eoGear Meterials and Hest Treatment Manual ‘Appendix D Service Life Considerations {This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be consed as pat of [AGMA Standard 2004-389, Gear Materials and Heat Treaiment Manual.) D1. Purpose. Gears are generally removed from service du to wear, ping, plastic flow, or break- Soe. ifthe service Me less than expected, an fmedepth invesgation should be inkated. This ‘Append deals riety wit the causes of gear fa ‘ues and the types of faures encountered. D2. Causes of Lower than Expected Life. When Shomer than expected fe is obtained, 2 number of faciors should be reviewed. These factors are feat design, manufacture, beat treatment, assem fy and snsallation, maintenance, service condl- Slons and material causes, 21 Gear Design. Failures related to gear sign tay be due to improper geometry or toer~ fees; ue, pressure angle, tooth thickness, gear lass or pe, et ‘2.2. Manufacture. Manufacturing pracices which could shorten service life include grinding ‘Dams, insulticent or excessive uch rexaoral afer hea westment, saightening, cracks, sess riers (Goo! marks and surface fash), poor radi, et. 2.3. Heat Treatment. Heat treat factors which could affect service fe include under or ‘over heating, secondary transformation produc, Surface decarburzaon, inadequate quench. ime Droper hardness, microsructure, case depth, ‘ecarburization, and quench cracks 2.4 Assembly and Installation. Improper assembly and insalation are major contributors Dremavute flies and manifest themselves in ex: ‘essve loading, wear, and misalignment 2.5 Maintenance, Falures related to in- adequate maintenance inchde: contamination of the epsom; improper lubrication; vibration due to Inadequate rig, faulty gaskets, seals, and bea Ings and corrosion. 2.6 Service Conditions. Service condi tions which could adversely effect gear life are ex: ‘cesrve temperature, overload, shock or impact Tooding, contaminants, loss of lubrication, corro- ‘Son, vibration erteals In the system causing v= bration, inadequate grounding, ee |ANSUAGMA. 1 2.7 Material Causes. Although materials rarely are the principal cause of failure, they can ‘Contribute to failure if material selection ress in fess than the requred combination of properties Compatible wih te design and application. Im proper selection of material can result in inade- [uste hardness (erface or subsurface) and tough- fess or improper mierosuucure after heat teat- fen.” Wroughe materials such as hot rolled bers {an have serious banding, which is alloy and ca ‘Don segregation in banded form. Banding ean af fect properties, pardcalarly in a carburized case and core. 'D2.7.1 Forging Defects. Forging defects which can contrbutet0 premature failure ince Urcessive forging temperaue, inadequate reduc- tion, improper gain ow, flakes, and bursts from, ‘nsuffeentforing temperature. 2.7.2 Casting Defects. Casting defecs wnicn can conve to premavure fare ince Shrinkage, porosiy, slag, chemical deviation, tracks, sand, improper weld repair, core shif, old shuts, et, 12.7.3. Inclusions. An infrequent cause of racer ination is inernal non-metal ines- Sons which relate to melting practices: Steels ean be spected to varying cleanliness level. Inade- (gate sock removal can leave undesirable surface Sefees D3, Types of Geer Fatlures. Types of gear file ‘ure are pictured in AGMA 110, Nomenclature of (Gear Tooth Fallure Modes. 3.1 Wear. The most common wear failure modes are adhesion, abrasive scoring, corrosion, ‘and flaking, These usually occur at or above the pitch line Wear ie infuenced by surface hardness nd microszucure 3.2 Pitting. iting modes are inital pt- ting, destructive pti, and spaling. and res from excesive siding and rolling contact stresses. Ping resizance is influenced by surface finish, surface ardness, surface residual stress, Imicrosructre, ease depth, and core hardness 2004-889Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual 3.3 Plastic Flow. Platic flow modes are 3.4 Breakage, ‘The majority of breakage rolling, peering, rippling, and riding. Bending, falures (90 percent) are due to low and high cycle Taste flow occu when the load exceeds the fatigue. Brite fairs may oecur in low tempera~ (eld strength ofthe materia ture service, in heat affected zones of wes or in potch seniive materials, Overload fares resuk from misapplication, misalignment, and impact loading ANSUAGMA, n 2004-889