Clarifying inspirational motivation and its
relationship to extra effort
Keywords
Motivation, Leadership
Abstract
This study investigated the validity
of inspirational motivation as
measured by the multifactor
leadership questionnaire (MLQ).
Two new factors were identified,
namely image-based and
concept-based inspirational
motivation, and their relationships
with the leadership outcome of
extra effort were investigated.
Implications for research and
practice are presented.
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
23/1 [2002] 40±44
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0143-7739]
[DOI 10.1108/01437730210414553]
[ 40 ]
Iain L. Densten
University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
Background
Inspirational motivation, a transformational
leadership behavior, is measured by the
multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ)
and represents the use of vision by leaders
(Bass and Avolio, 1990). Vision is a key
leadership behavior for gaining workforce
support when organizations need to seize
opportunities for growth and development
(Conger, 1991). Inspirational motivation
measures vision by recording the frequency
with which leaders use symbols, metaphors,
and simplified emotional appeals to increase
awareness and understanding of mutually
desired goals. Leaders use vision to
encourage their followers to exert effort
beyond the ordinary.
Bass (1985) identified inspirational
motivation in his investigations of
charismatic leadership. Several concepts
were used to assist the theoretical
development of inspirational motivation, and
two key concepts were the management of
meaning (i.e. sense making) and action
orientation (i.e. strategic direction). These
concepts explain how leaders use mental
images to evoke and portray an idealized
future, and communicate challenging
standards and positions on controversial
issues. Leaders use mental images to focus
the attention of their followers and thereby
heighten follower motivation for the
attainment of designated outcomes.
Inspirational motivation has been
empirically linked to a range of outcomes
such as extra effort, ethical behavior,
learning orientation, and project success
(Banerji and Krishnan, 2000; Coad and Berry,
1998; Thite, 1999). Extra effort has important
significance for the discriminant validity of
inspirational motivation because this
outcome has been used to confirm the
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``augmentation effect'' of inspirational
motivation (Waldman et al., 1990). This effect
represents the unique variance in the ratings
of performance, which are above and beyond
that accounted for by transactional
leadership. Several studies have also
identified a high correlation between
inspirational motivation and extra effort
(Bass and Avolio, 1990; Hater and Bass, 1988;
Howell and Avolio, 1993). Despite the
importance of vision for understanding
leadership (Conger, 1991), several
researchers have eliminated inspirational
motivation from factor analysis of the MLQ
or have combined inspirational motivation
with idealized influence to improve the
construct validity of the MLQ. Therefore,
further clarification of the contribution of
inspirational motivation to extra effort is
required.
Emrich et al. (in press) recently examined
presidential speeches in terms of rhetoric,
charisma, and greatness, and identified two
types of wording, namely image-based and
concept-based by using the Martindale's
Regressive Imagery Dictionary (Martindale,
1969; 1975). Image-based wording is concrete
and vivid (e.g. sweat, heart, and explore)
while concept-based wording is abstract and
pallid (e.g. alternative, commitment, and
work). Specifically, image-based items use
words such as ``important purposes'',
``develops way'', ``encouraging talks'', and
``symbols and images''. These words suggest
leaders are creating vivid ideas, visions or
images in the minds of followers.
Concept-based items use words such as
``standard'', ``vision'', and ``expectations''.
These words suggest leaders are
communicating bottom-line goals or
standards to followers.
Inspirational motivation is measured as
an uni-dimensional concept. However, the
Emrich et al.'s (in press) study and the
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Iain L. Densten
Clarifying inspirational
motivation and its relationship
to extra effort
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
23/1 [2002] 40±44
multi-dimensional background of
inspirational motivation may explain why
demonstrating the construct validity of this
MLQ factor has been difficult. A study by
Hinkin and Tracey (1999) has raised concerns
about whether inspirational motivation is
uni-dimensional. However, no specific
investigation of inspirational motivation has
been published. The current study
investigates the content, construct, and
discriminant validity of inspirational
motivation.
Method
The current study examines inspirational
motivation and extra effort items as
measured by the self-administered MLQ 5R
(Bass and Avolio, 1990). Schriesheim et al.
(1993) recommend assessing the validity of
each item in relation to its underlying factor.
Establishing content validity is a necessary
and basic foundation on which to build
construct validity and substantive research.
Martindale's Regressive Imagery Dictionary
(Martindale, 1969; 1975) was used to examine
the wording of each item to ensure content
validity. Two specific types of wording
were examined, namely image-based and
concept-based of each item of inspirational
motivation.
The construct validity of each factor was
then tested and assessed using both one
factor congeneric measurement models and a
higher-order confirmatory factor analysis to
ensure that each factor was a valid and
unidimensional measure. This approach
should yield increased rigor in the testing of
hypotheses regarding the dimensionality and
content of factors (Schriesheim et al., 1993).
According to Finch and West (1997), a
minimum of three items per factor are
needed to identify a one factor model. The
new grouping of items was compared with
Bass and Avolio's (1990) original groups. The
relationships between the factors of
inspirational motivation and extra effort
were assessed using a structural equation
model (SEM) to examine the discriminant
validity of inspirational motivation. The
sample for the one factor congeneric
measurement model, higher-order
confirmatory factor analysis, and the SEM
was randomly split, and the results were
compared to ensure consistent findings.
Sample
The population consisted of 958 senior
managers within an Australian law
enforcement organisation. Proportional
representation was achieved by using a
stratified sample. A total of 585
questionnaires were mailed and 480 were
returned, giving a response rate of 82 per
cent. The chi-square value and associated
level of significance (2 = 6.56; d.f. = 4; p > 0.05)
indicates that the achieved sample was not
significantly different from the population.
Results
An examination of the wording for each
inspirational motivation item identified two
new groups of items, namely image-based
and concept-based inspirational motivation.
These two new item groupings were tested
within a one factor congeneric measurement
model and produced acceptable fits, namely
(2 = 6.86, d.f. = 2, p = 0.03; GFI = 0.99,
AGFI = 0.93, RMR = 0.038 for image-based
inspirational motivation and 2 = 5.60, d.f. = 1,
p = 0.01; GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.92, RMR = 0.04)
for concept-based inspirational motivation.
The original grouping of items produced an
inferior fit to the new groupings of items
(2 = 77.15, d.f. = 14, p = 0.00; GFI = 0.94,
AGFI = 0.85, RMR = 0.06) and was further
assessed as inadequate because two items
had squared multiple correlations below 0.30,
the modification index for the covariance of
ten item pairs was over 5.4, and four factor
score regressions were less than 0.08.
The two new factors of inspirational
motivation were classified as first-order
factors and examined using a HCFA which
involved both factors being loaded on an
overall factor of inspirational motivation
within a single model. The HCFA is more
robust than one factor congeneric
measurement models because the unique
variances of each factor and the overall fit of
the model can be evaluated (MacDonald,
1999). An acceptable fit for the HCFA was
achieved (2 = 39.80, d.f. = 11, p = 0.00;
GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.94, RMR = 0.04) with
all comparative fit indices above 0.90
(i.e. NFI = 0.98, RFI = 0.95, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.97,
CFI = 0.98). The HCFA fit indices were
superior to the original grouping of items.
The standardized loading for items were all
above 0.57 which according to MacDonald
(1999) indicates that each item is salient,
i.e. an effective indicator of a factor. The
Cronbach alphas for the image-based and
concept-based inspirational motivation were
0.74 and 0.82 respectively. Consequently,
one-factor congeneric measurement models
and an HCFA empirically supported the
splitting of inspirational motivation, as
identified by the examination of wording.
The items for extra effort were also examined
and found to have an acceptable fit (2 = 35.7,
[ 41 ]
Iain L. Densten
Clarifying inspirational
motivation and its relationship
to extra effort
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
23/1 [2002] 40±44
d.f. = 1, p = 0.00; GFI =0 .96, AGFI = 0.93,
SRMR = 0.05) and had a Cronbach alpha
of 0.81.
Structural equation model
The new inspirational motivation factors
were examined in a structural equation
model (SEM) to assess their relationship to
extra effort. The fit indicated an acceptable
fit with a GFI of 0.96 (2 = 45.71, d.f. = 28,
p = 0.00), AGFI of 0.92, a SRMS of 0.04 and
all comparative fit indices above 0.90
(i.e. NFI = 0.96, RFI = 0.95, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98,
CFI = 0.99). The SEM (see Figure 1) illustrates
positive but different relationships that both
image-based and concept-based inspirational
motivation have with extra effort. These
findings are consistent with previous studies
which also identified a positive correlation
between inspirational motivation and extra
effort (e.g. Bass, 1985). The resulting model
represents a parsimonious model that does
not require further items to establish an
acceptable fit. In detail, the image-based
inspirational motivation had twice the
motivation is consistent with ``sense making
communication'' and ``meaning making
language'', and concept-based inspirational
motivation is consistent with ``strategic
vision'' and ``direction giving language''
(Conger, 1991; Mayfield et al., 1988). However,
a third aspect of visioning behaviors was not
identified by this study, namely empathetic
language, which, according to Shamir et al.
(1993), involves the reinforcement of collective
identity. This aspect of vision also represents
an expression of sharing and humane
consideration, directed at building rapport,
and interpersonal bonding by leaders
(Sullivan, 1988).
A high correlation between the factors of
inspirational motivation was evident, which
indicates a degree of empirical overlapping
and is common among most transformational
leadership factors (Lowe et al., 1996). Further
clarification of the inspirational motivation
sub-factors is required to clearly differentiate
between the two factors by integrating the
ideas of Conger (1991), Mayfield et al. (1998),
and Sullivan (1988).
loading ( = 0.64) on extra effort, than the The current study also examined the
concept-based inspirational motivation relationships among the two factors of
( = 0.31). The relatively high correlation
between the two different inspirational
motivation factors (r = 0.81) indicates that
both are being used at a similar frequency.
Discussion
This study provides support for two factors of
inspirational motivation, namely image-based
and concept-based inspirational motivation.
Both factors are consistent with Bass's (1985)
original conceptualization and other
independently identified aspects of vision. For
example, image-based inspirational
Figure 1
Inspirational motivation and its relationship to extra effort
[ 42 ]
inspirational motivation and extra effort
using a SEM. While the model identified both
factors of inspirational motivation had
positive relationships to extra effort,
differences between the magnitude of direct
effects were evident. Image-based
inspirational motivation had double the
direct effect on extra effort than
concept-based inspirational motivation. This
finding is consistent with Emrich et al.'s (in
press) conclusion that image-based vision
has greater impact than concept-based vision
on followers. The higher direct effect of
image-based inspirational motivation on
extra effort may result from the capacity of
Iain L. Densten
Clarifying inspirational
motivation and its relationship
to extra effort
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
23/1 [2002] 40±44
this dimension of vision to address the
motives, needs, and values of followers while
further building on their self-concept (Bass
and Avolio, 1993; Shamir et al., 1993). In
practical terms, these findings indicate that
leaders should differentiate between
image-based and concept-based inspirational
motivation factors. For example, leaders
should consider using the image-based
inspirational motivation more frequently to
encourage extra effort from followers.
Leaders can achieve this effect by painting
verbal pictures for their followers which
involve using image-laced words such as
sweat, heart, frontier, imagine, and explore.
Previous MLQ research has identified
consistent loadings among all
transformational leadership factors on a
range of outcomes (see Lowe et al., 1996)
which commonly result in a combined single
transformational factor investigating
outcomes and thus reduces depth of analysis
for understanding the influence process. The
identification of different direct effects by
inspirational motivation on extra enables
greater insight into how the processes of
vision and transformational leadership
influence followers. Consequently,
future research needs to examine the
multi-dimensional aspects of vision to
advance our understanding of how leader
communications influence follower
behaviors.
Limitation
This study was delimited to a single
population and may not be fully
representative of all senior managers. A
single quantitative instrument (i.e. the MLQ)
was used to record perceptions of behaviors.
Therefore, the findings should be viewed
with some degree of caution in terms of their
generalizability.
Conclusion
The new inspirational motivation factors
assist in further clarifying this type of
leadership behavior from idealized influence
(or charisma). Inspirational motivation
should be considered as a vital component of
transformational leadership to enable
researchers to study the language of leaders
(Conger, 1991). The identification of two
inspirational motivation factors raises the
possibility that each may play a different
role. For example, concept-based
inspirational motivation may influence more
long term outcomes while image-based
inspirational motivation may be more short
term in its effects. The difference in the
direct effects of both inspirational motivation
factors on extra effort raises questions about
the augmentation capacity of inspirational
motivation. For example, does the lower
direct effect of concept-based inspirational
motivation mean a lower or reduced
augmentation capacity? The current study
provides foundations for future research to
validate and advance the examination of
inspirational motivation.
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