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Thesis Final Manuscript
Thesis Final Manuscript
by
Erica Taylor Perrier
A THESIS
submitted to
in partial fulfillment of
degree of
Master of Science
Erica Taylor Perrier for the degree of Master of Science in Exercise and Sport Science
presented on May 19, 2009.
Title: The Effects of Static and Dynamic Stretching on Reaction Time and
Performance in a Countermovement Jump
Abstract approved:
________________________________________________________
Mark A. Hoffman
PURPOSE: The purpose of this research was to quantify the effects of a warm-up
muscle onsets for tibialis anterior (TA) and vastus lateralis (VL), and low back/
hamstring flexibility.
METHODS: Twenty one recreationally-active males (24.4 ± 4.5 yrs), recruited from
were regular participation (30 minutes, 3 days per week) in exercise including
the past 6 months. Each session included a 5 minute treadmill jog followed by one of
the stretch treatments: no stretching (NS), static stretching (SS), or dynamic stretching
(DS). After the general warm-up and treatment, the participant performed a sit-and-
reach test to assess low back and hamstring flexibility. Next, the participant
which he was asked to jump as quickly as possible after seeing a visual stimulus
(light). The onset of movement and CMJ height were determined from force plate
data, and muscle onsets (TA and VL) were obtained using surface electromyography
(sEMG). Ground reaction forces were recorded at 2000 Hz using a portable force
plate, and filtered at 25 Hz. Outcome measures included maximal jump height,
reaction time, and muscle onset (TA and VL). A repeated measures 3 (treatment) by 8
(jump) ANOVA was used to assess CMJ height. Additional outcome measures
(reaction time, muscle onsets, flexibility) were assessed using separate repeated-
RESULTS: Results of the 3x8 repeated-measures ANOVA for CMJ height revealed a
significant main effect of treatment (p=.004). Post hoc analysis showed significant
(41.9cm) and DS (p=.0435), but not between NS and SS (p=.4605). Analysis also
revealed a significant main effect of jump (p=.005) on CMJ height: mean jump height
progressively decreased from the early to the late jumps. No significant interaction
between treatment and jump was observed (p=.571). The analysis of reaction time,
TA and VL sEMG onsets showed no significant effects. Treatment also had a main
effect (p<.001) on flexibility. Post hoc analysis revealed improved flexibility after
both SS (p=.002) and DS (p<.001) compared with NS, with no difference in flexibility
reaction time and muscle onsets were not influenced by either stretch technique.
APPROVED:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
I understand that my thesis will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon
State University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any
reader upon request.
_____________________________________________________________________
I would like to express profound appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Mark Hoffman, for
grateful to the members of my committee; Dr. Mike Pavol, Dr. Kim Hannigan-Downs,
and Dr. John Edwards, for their invaluable advice and constructive criticism. Finally,
I would like to thank Leah for her unwavering material and emotional support, as well
as her tireless efforts to get me to spend more time writing when I would rather be
playing outside.
CONTRIBUTION OF AUTHORS
Dr. Mark Hoffman was involved with the writing and editing of the manuscript
(Chapter 3). Drs. Mark Hoffman and Mike Pavol were involved with the data analysis
(Chapter 3). Dr. Heather Barber (University of New Hampshire) was involved with
Page
References ……………………………………………………………… 4
Conclusion …………………………………………………………….. 39
References …………………………………………………………….. 41
Abstract ……………………………………………………………….. 48
Introduction …………………………………………………………… 50
Methods ……………………………………………………………….. 52
Results ………………………………………………………………… 56
Discussion …………………………………………………………….. 57
References …………………………………………………………….. 66
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….. 71
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………. 77
Figure Page
3.1 Mean jump height (cm) after each stretch treatment ………………………. 63
3.4 Mean sit-and-reach score (cm) after each stretch treatment ……………….. 65
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
order to improve performance and decrease the risk of injury. Static stretching, the
most common method (22), involves slowly moving a joint to the endpoint of its range
of motion, just before the onset of pain. The static stretching method is popular for
increasing joint range of motion (13). Static stretching has been thought to improve
Additionally, static stretching has been advocated as a means to prevent injury to the
fibers, resulting in an increased force transmission capacity (10, 18, 19). Despite this
common practice, there is no conclusive evidence supporting the theory that static
of maximal force production (6, 7, 13-15), jump height (4, 21, 25), sprint speed (9,
12), and reaction time and balance (3). Performance reductions following static
As the MTU lengthens and becomes more compliant, contractile elements must
contract over a greater distance, and more forcefully, to “pick up the slack”, resulting
in reduced peak torque and a slower rate of force development (23). A stiffer MTU
would facilitate rapid changes in tension and a faster joint motion response, potentially
activation (1, 5, 13, 15), adversely affecting force production capability. Additionally,
3
studies have shown that static stretching performed on the dominant leg only can
result in decreases in peak torque and motor unit activation in both the stretched and
performance decline.
professionals have began to shift away from static stretching in favor of a functional,
dynamic warm-up before practices and games (2). Dynamic stretching routines
increasing intensity that simulate the movement patterns necessary for success in a
particular sport. Recent reports suggest that dynamic stretching prior to activity may
improve performance by increasing joint range of motion and core body temperature,
resulting in increased blood flow to the muscles and faster nerve-impulse conduction
(20). Dynamic stretches that simulate movement patterns used in a sport may also
sprinting (8), jumping (11), and peak force generating capacity (24). Currently,
multiple exercises (ballistic stretching, bodyweight squats, and movement drills) have
needed to clarify and define the term, as well as to directly compare the effects of both
References
5. Behm, D. G., D. C. Button, and J. C. Butt. Factors affecting force loss with
prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 26:261-272,
2001.
10. Garrett, W. E., Jr. Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 22:436-443, 1990.
14. Papadopoulos, G., T. Siatras, and S. Kellis. The effect of static and dynamic
stretching exercises on the maximal isokinetic strength of the knee extensors
and flexors. Isokinetics and Exercise Science. 13:285-291, 2005.
15. Power, K., D. Behm, F. Cahill, M. Carroll, and W. Young. An acute bout of
static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc. 36:1389-1396, 2004.
17. Shrier, I. Does stretching help prevent injuries? In: Evidence-based Sports
Medicine. D. MacAuley and T. Best (Eds.) Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing, 2007.
20. Thacker, S. B., J. Gilchrist, D. F. Stroup, and C. J. Kimsey, Jr. The impact of
stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 36:371-378, 2004.
23. Witvrouw, E., N. Mahieu, L. Danneels, and P. McNair. Stretching and injury
prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Med. 34:443-449, 2004.
6
For years, coaches and strength and conditioning professionals have advised
athletes to stretch prior to physical activity in order to achieve two aims: first, to
improve performance, and second, to decrease the risk of injury. Stretching has been
thought to improve performance for several reasons, including maximizing joint range
of motion (40). A sprinter, for example, lacking sufficient flexibility in the hamstrings
and hip flexors may not be able to maintain an optimal stride length, thereby reducing
gymnastics, and certain events in track and field, require a large degree of flexibility
about specific joints. Shellock and Prentice (40) also indicate that a lack of flexibility
musculotendinous unit (MTU) (20, 42, 43). The MTU is composed of both active
contractile elements (muscle fibers) and passive elements (tendon). As a joint moves
unit, a more compliant tendon can absorb a greater amount of energy, thereby
protecting the active contractile apparatus and reducing injury to the muscle fibers
(50). Muscle strains occur when a muscle is stretched to a critical tensile force (38),
causing tears within the contractile element of the muscle. It would seem reasonable,
therefore, that a more compliant MTU would be able to withstand a greater tensile
9
supported by the fact that muscle strain injuries tend to occur during the eccentric
phase of muscle contraction, when the forces applied to the MTU can be substantial,
and are most commonly seen in “two-joint” muscles – muscles that cross two joints
and are susceptible to a larger degree of stretch (20). Moreover, strains to the MTU
are most commonly seen in situations involving quick bursts of speed or other
instances where a muscle must generate a large amount of force over a short period of
time (20). Several studies have also indicated that individuals with very little
flexibility are more likely to experience injury in the form of muscle strains (49).
Increasing compliance of the MTU would seem to be a logical way to reduce the
incidence of injury.
the most common type is static stretching (48). Static stretching involves slowly
moving a joint to the endpoint of the range of motion, typically defined as the point
just before the onset of pain. The National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) recommends holding a static stretch for 30 seconds (3). In addition, the most
recent edition of Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, from the American
seconds (1). The static stretching method is advantageous for several reasons: it is
that static stretching reduces the incidence of musculoskeletal injury. In fact, much of
the recent literature suggests that static stretching, performed prior to athletic activity,
performance tests, including measures of force production (6, 12, 13, 15, 19, 25, 27,
29, 33, 36, 52), vertical jumping ability (6, 8, 32, 46, 47, 54, 55), sprint speed (17, 18,
41), and balance, reaction time, and movement time (5). Research on the acute effects
of static stretching on performance has, for the most part, examined maximal force and
power production by large lower-body muscle groups, namely the quadriceps and
increase in muscular power allows a muscle to perform a given workload over less
directions rapidly, to accelerate quickly, and to jump higher than an opponent are all
contingent on an athlete’s ability to generate sufficient explosive power and can all be
ability to generate the greatest amount of force in order to lift the greatest load. Thus,
the ability to generate large muscular power output is relevant to a wide variety of
sports.
isometric muscle contractions or have measured explosive power using jumping tests
(6, 10-15, 19, 24, 25, 29, 32, 33, 36, 45, 47, 54, 55). A wealth of the literature
indicates static stretching can result in acute performance decrements in maximal force
and power. These decrements have been shown to persist up to one hour (19), and
appear to be both neurological (2, 7, 12, 13, 19, 29, 36) and mechanical (15, 19, 47,
gymnastics (32, 41) and rugby (18) have also been reported. Balance and reaction
time (5), as well as sprint speed (16-18, 41), also appear to be negatively affected by a
isokinetic peak torque and mean power output at both slow and fast velocities. Marek
et al. (29) demonstrated that four repetitions each of four stretching exercises targeting
the leg extensor muscles decreased peak torque and mean power output at 60 and
300o·s-1. Similarly, Cramer et al. (12) documented a decrease in peak torque at similar
velocities (60 and 240 o·s-1). Several other studies have reported similar results when
testing peak torque of the knee extensors (13, 33) and knee flexors (33), and of the
12
acute bout of static stretching, Behm et al. (6) reported a mean 6.1% to 8.2% decrease
isometric contraction (MVIC) of the quadriceps (7, 36), plantar flexors (19, 36), and
hand grip strength (25) all yielded similar decreases in strength following a bout of
flexion and knee extension (27) demonstrated significant differences between pre- and
post-stretch values. Finally, a study examining isotonic leg extensions found that
static stretching reduced leg extension power at light to moderately heavy loads (5%,
30%, and 60% of MVIC) (52). The combined results of these studies indicate that
regardless of the method used to measure maximal force, there is a clear trend toward
Jumping Performance
In addition to decreases in peak torque and mean power, static stretching has
also been purported to decrease performance in tests of jumping ability. The results,
various jump types, including the countermovement jump (CMJ), the drop jump (DJ),
and the squat jump (SJ), which involves only a concentric phase of movement. In
comparing the results of studies based on these three jump types, results have varied
decrease in CMJ height after three 30-second stretches of the gastrocnemius muscles.
Similarly, Behm and colleagues (6) reported decreases (-5.5% to -7.5%) in CMJ
height following three 30-second stretches of three lower body muscle groups. Recent
work suggests that even mild stretching can be detrimental to jump performance:
holding static stretches at 50%, 75%, and 100% of the force necessary for the onset of
mild discomfort all yielded significant decreases in CMJ height (2.8%, 3.9%, and
4.2%, respectively) (8). These findings imply that at both mild and moderate
intensities, static stretching causes significant performance decrements that are similar
hinder performance in the drop jump. An investigation by Young and Behm (55)
reported a 3.2% mean decrease in DJ height after static stretching of the quadriceps
and plantar flexors. Additional work by Young and Elliott (54) and Behm and
stretching of the quadriceps, gluteals, hamstrings, and plantar flexors. A fourth study
(6) reported no change in DJ height following static stretching, but observed that DJ
ground contact time had significantly increased following the stretch treatment. The
authors suggested that the increased ground contact time was a compensatory change
in jump strategy in order to combat losses in rate of force production caused by static
stretching. Both a decrease in jump height and an increase in ground contact time
(SJ). Squat jumps incorporate a 2-second pause at peak knee flexion in order to
eliminate the benefits of the stretch reflex on jump height. Three studies with similar
SJ protocols all reported no change in SJ height following static stretching (24, 36,
54), while other studies have reported SJ performance reductions ranging from 3.4%
(55) to 5.7% (8). While the SJ does not rely on the stretch-shortening cycle to
enhance explosive power, jumping activities that involve an eccentric component such
as the drop jump or countermovement jump are adversely affected by prior static
stretching. Many athletic movements, such as running, quick directional shifts, and
jumping, involve both eccentric and concentric muscle action. As such, jump tests
that involve both concentric and eccentric muscle action (CMJ and DJ) might be more
appropriate than the squat jump to gauge the effects of static stretching on actual
athletic performance. The performance reductions in the jumping tests that most
closely reflect specific athletic movements are strong evidence that performance
decrements resulting from static stretching may transfer to more game-like situations.
the focus of most of the research to date. The majority of the results suggest that for
individuals that are not highly trained, static stretching can decrease performance in
tests of lower-body strength and power. The picture of how static stretching affects
focused on trained athletes as the subject pool. Three studies have examined the
15
athletes. Unick et al. (45) reported that static stretching did not affect performance in
output of the leg extensors were observed in a study of NCAA Division-I women’s
basketball players (14). A third study that examined NCAA Division-I athletes in a
variety of sports also found no change in CMJ performance following static stretching,
studies involving athletes in other sports, Knudson et al. (26) observed no change in
tennis serve performance (speed and accuracy) after a bout of static stretching.
Likewise, in a study of competitive athletes from the United States Military Academy
performance on the 5-step jump test, compared to no prior activity (31). Furthermore,
Little and Williams (28) examined the effect of static stretching on professional soccer
players, and concluded that static stretching had no effect on CMJ height or 10 meter
sprint time, and that stretching improved performance on a flying start 20 meter sprint.
There are also an equal number of published studies that have shown static stretch-
induced performance decreases in highly trained athletes. Fletcher and Jones (18), in a
after engaging in static stretching. Similarly, slower 50m sprint times have been
reported in elite sprinters after a warm-up including static stretching (17). Moreover,
in drop jump performance (32) as well as in sprint speed on the approach to the vault
apparatus (41). The mixed results suggest that stretch-induced performance changes
may vary by the sport, experience level, and specific tests used in the different
protocols.
performance decreases due to the fact that static stretching is commonly performed
overall conditioning program confers some protective benefit against the potential
strength deficits. This may also explain why in the study examining both SS and PNF
stretching, the PNF treatment did result in a reduction in vertical jump height, as the
protocol may have been less familiar to the athletes (10). Behm et al. tested the idea
that training status may reduce the effect of static stretching in a study of
a five day per week flexibility program involving the quadriceps, hamstrings and
plantar flexors; this training frequency would be similar to the flexibility training
countermovement jump following a bout of static stretching (6). They concluded that
studies, the aggregate results suggest that static stretching negatively impacts
level performance in many athletic events requires an athlete to display high degrees
strength, peak power output, and vertical jumping ability are all highly correlated with
measures of agility, speed, and acceleration (35). This suggests that if static stretching
can result in decreased performance in explosive power and maximal force output,
there is a strong likelihood that measures of agility, speed and acceleration may also
react to changes in an opponent’s direction may have the potential to impact the
time into account, in addition to the more studied measures of maximal power and
jumping performance.
many sports, few studies have examined the effects of stretching on these measures of
athletic performance. Behm et al. (5) observed that static stretching of the quadriceps,
hamstrings and plantar flexors resulted in impaired balance, increased reaction time,
contrast, McMillan et al. (31) found that static stretching had no effect on T-drill speed
18
Little and Williams (28) also reported that static stretching had no effect on zig-zag
research examining the performance variables of balance, agility, and reaction time is
limited, and the results have been inconsistent. More research is needed in order to
Only a handful of studies have examined the duration and severity of the
measured muscle activation pre-stretch, immediately post-stretch, and at 5, 15, 30, 45,
and 60 minutes post-stretch, and concluded that while decreases in MVIC force were
colleagues measured CMJ height at the same time intervals post-stretch and concluded
that performance decrements seen immediately after stretching (4% decrease in jump
the previous two studies is likely due to the intensity and duration of stretches used.
Fowles and colleagues stretched the plantarflexors with 13 repetitions of 2.25 minutes
each – the most extreme protocol seen in the literature – while the stretch protocol
which does not necessarily reflect current practices in sport. It is common for athletes
little is known about the effects of static stretching following a secondary warm-up. A
recent study by Pearce and colleagues examined the effects of static stretching and a
CMJ height was measured at baseline, following static stretching, and again following
a secondary warm-up at 0, 10, 20, and 30 minutes post-exercise. The authors found a
post-stretch decrease in CMJ height that persisted despite a secondary dynamic warm-
up, and that CMJ height at 30 minutes post-dynamic warm-up was significantly worse
balance, reaction time, sprint speed, and movement time. While these effects have
Moreover, research into the effects of static stretching on reaction time, balance, and
decrements may also persist despite additional dynamic activity after stretching. A
pools, static stretch protocols, and key findings that make up the body of research on
this subject.
21
TABLE 1—Summary of findings: The acute effects of static stretching on various measures of performance.
Author Subjects Static Stretch Treatment Outcome
reps x time in seconds (rest)
Cramer et al. (2004) (12) 14 females 4 x 30 (20) Decreased peak torque in leg extension
mean 22 yrs 4 leg extensor stretches
Cramer et al. (2005) (13) 7 males, 14 females 4 x 30 (20) Decreased peak torque in leg extension
mean 21.5 yrs 4 leg extensor stretches
Cramer et al. (2006) (11) 13 females 4 x 30 (20) No change in eccentric peak torque
Isokinetic PT and MP
mean 20.8 yrs 4 leg extensor stretches No change in eccentric mean power output
Evetovich et al. (2003) (15) 10 males, 8 females 4 x 30 (15) Decreased peak torque in forearm flexion
mean 22.7 yrs forearm flexor stretch
Papadopoulos et al. (2005) (33) 32 males 3 x 30 (15) Decreased peak torque in knee extension
mean 20.7 yrs quadriceps and hamstring stretch Decreased peak torque in knee flexion
Power et al. (2004) (36) 12 males 3 x 45 (15) 5.4%-9.5% decrease in quadriceps torque
20-44 yrs 6 lower body stretches
Behm et al. (2006) (6) 9 males, 9 females 3 x 30 (30) 6.1%-8.2% decrease in MVIC knee flexion
Isometric Strength
mean 25 yrs 3 lower body stretches 6.6%-10.7% decrease in MVIC knee extension
Fowles et al. (2000) (19) 6 males, 4 females 13 x 135 (5) Decrease in MVIC lasting up to 60 minutes
mean 22.3, 20.3 yrs plantarflexors stretch
33 males, 24
Knudson et al. (2005) (25) females 4 x 10 Decrease in isometric grip strength at
wrist flexors stretch 20-40 seconds of stretching
22
TABLE 1 (cont’d)—The acute effects of static stretching on various measures of performance.
Author Subjects Static Stretch Treatment Outcome
reps x time in seconds (rest)
Behm and Kibele (2007) (8) 7 males, 3 females 4 x 30 (30); 3 lower body stretches Decrease in CMJ, DJ, and SJ height after all
mean 26.5 yrs 50%, 75%, or 100% force to discomfort stretching intensities (range: 3.6% to 5.6% decrease)
Behm et al. (2006) (6) 9 males, 9 females 3 x 30 (30) 5.5%-5.7% decrease CMJ height
mean 25 yrs 3 lower body stretches 5.4%-7.4% increase drop jump contact time
No change in drop jump height
10 males, 10
Knudson et al. (2001) (24) females 3 x 15 55% of subjects decreased jumping velocity
mean 23.7 yrs 3 lower body stretches 35% of subjects increased jumping velocity
Power et al. (2004) (36) 12 males 3 x 45 (15) No change in drop jump height
Jumping Performance
14 males, 12
Vetter (2007) (46) females 2 x 30 (30) Decreased CMJ height after SS compared with
mean 22.0 yrs 4 lower body stretches general warm-up (walk/run) only
Wallmann et al. (2005) (47) 8 males, 6 females 3 x 30 5.6% decrease in CMJ height
18-34 yrs gastrocnemius stretch
Young and Elliott (2001) (54) 14 males 3 x 15 (20) No change in squat jump performance
mean 22 yrs 3 lower body stretches Decrease in drop jump performance
Young and Behm (2003) (55) 13 males, 3 females 2 x 30 Decreased drop jump height
mean 26 yrs 4 lower body stretches Decreased vertical jump height
Decreased peak concentric force
Decreased rate of force development
23
TABLE 1 (cont’d)—The acute effects of static stretching on various measures of performance.
Author Subjects Static Stretch Treatment Outcome
reps x time in seconds (rest)
Isotonic
Yamaguchi et al. (2006) (52) 12 males 4 x 30 (20) Decrease in peak power at light and heavy loads
mean 23.8 yrs 6 leg extensor stretches
15 males, 15
Kokkonen et al. (1998) (27) females 6 x 15 (15) 7.3% decrease in 1RM knee flexion
mean 22 yrs 5 lower body stretches 8.1% decrease in 1RM knee extension
1RM
Yamaguchi and Ishii (2005) (51) 11 males 1 x 30 No change in leg press power
mean 23 yrs 5 lower body stretches
Church et al. (2001) (10) 40 NCAA D-I SS and PNF No change in CMJ for SS
female athletes unspecified lower body stretches Decrease in CMJ for PNF
mean 20.3 yrs
Egan et al. (2006) (14) 11 NCAA D-I 4 x 30 (20) No change in peak torque or mean power
Sport-Specific Performance
Fletcher and Jones (2004) (18) 97 male rugby 1 x 20 Decreased performance in 20m sprint
mean 23 yrs unspecified lower body stretches
Knudson et al. (2004) (26) 83 tennis players 2 x 15 (10) No change in serve speed or accuracy
various skill levels 7 upper/lower body stretches
Little and Williams (2006) (28) 18 pro male soccer 1 x 30 (20) No change in CMJ height
4 lower body stretches No change in 10m sprint time (stationary start)
Decreased 20m sprint time (flying start)
No change in zig-zag drill time (agility)
24
TABLE 1 (cont’d)—The acute effects of static stretching on various measures of performance.
Author Subjects Static Stretch Treatment Outcome
reps x time in seconds (rest)
McMillan et al. (2006) (31) 30 USMA cadets 1 x 20-30 No change in T-drill speed (agility)
rugby, lacrosse, 8 stretches including upper No change in medicine ball throw
strength/conditioning and lower body Increased distance in 5-step jump
16 males, 14
females
Sport-Specific Performance
McNeal and Sands (2003) (32) 13 competitive 1 x 30 9.6% decrease in drop jump performance
female gymnasts 3 lower body stretches
mean 13.3 yrs
Behm et al. (2004) (5) 16 males 3 x 45 (15) 9.2% decrease in balance scores
Other Measures
The exact mechanisms by which static stretching impairs performance are still
not clearly defined. It is clear, however, that a combination of mechanical (15, 19, 47,
50) and neural (2, 7, 12, 13, 19, 29, 36) factors play a role in static stretch-induced
examine both mechanical and neural changes after a bout of static stretching.
emitted by active muscle, and has been associated with muscle stiffness (4). A stiffer
MTU may dampen muscular vibrations, resulting in lower MMG amplitude. A more
compliant muscle would result in greater MMG amplitude, and would suggest that
power output.
Both neural and mechanical factors play a role in decreasing power output
following static stretching. Fowles et al. (19) attempted to quantify the relative
stretch, immediately post-stretch, and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes post-stretch.
The results indicated a 28% mean decrease in MVIC force immediately post-stretch,
with MVIC values remaining 9% below pre-stretch values at a full 60 min post-
min post-stretch, but interestingly, EMG amplitude had recovered to pre-stretch values
by 15 minutes post-stretch. The authors concluded that much of the initial stretch-
induced force decrease was neural in origin, but that lingering decreases in force might
recovered to pre-stretch values. They estimated that immediately post stretch, neural
mechanisms accounted for 60% of the decrease in MVIC, while the remaining 40%
deficits accounted for only approximately 10% of the remaining force deficit, while
90% appeared to be mechanical in origin (19). The results of this study support the
theory that both neural and contractile changes influence stretch-induced force
however, is questionable, as the plantarflexors were stretched for over thirty minutes.
Stretching of a single muscle group for such a long period of time is highly unrealistic
from a competitive perspective – it is unlikely that any sporting event would require
such extensive focus on a particular muscle group. Thus, while their findings are not
Mechanical Factors
bout of static stretching. Static stretching results in increased compliance in the MTU,
energy. Witvrouw et al. argue that in some sporting activities, particularly those
involving movements that transfer considerable force to the MTU, a stiff tendon might
tension and therefore a faster joint motion response. As the MTU lengthens and
becomes more compliant, they argue that contractile elements must contract over a
greater distance to “pick up the slack”, resulting in reduced peak torque and a slower
rate of force development (50). Weerapong et al. support this argument, contending
that increased compliance to the MTU requires increased contractile force to transmit
muscle force to the joint, resulting in a delay in external force generation (48). A
stiffer MTU, therefore, would be more efficient in transmitting contractile force to the
Evetovich et al. (15) and Wallmann et al. (47) have published findings
isokinetic peak torque of the biceps brachii. After static stretching, a decrease in peak
forearm flexion torque was observed along with an increase in MMG amplitude, while
no change was observed in EMG amplitude (15). This suggested that little change in
motor unit activation had occurred, but that the MTU had become more compliant due
to the stretch treatment, resulting in decreased peak torque. Wallmann et al. (47)
28
motor units had been recruited to compensate for changes to the mechanical properties
Neural Factors
Decreases in motor unit activation have been demonstrated on multiple occasions (2,
7, 29, 36) via decreases in EMG amplitude following a bout of static stretching.
Weerapong et al. also suggested that static stretching may increase presynaptic
results collectively suggest that a reduction in motor unit activation can at least
partially explain acute loss of force following static stretching. Moreover, at least one
study has argued that neural changes may be influenced by the degree of stretching.
Guissard et al. (22) suggested that following moderate static stretching of the soleus,
there was a reduction in presynaptic neural input to the motoneuron pool. However,
with more intense stretching (stretching involving a greater increase in muscle length),
(12, 13). In two separate studies, one performed on a mixed-gender group of subjects
and one performed exclusively on separate female subjects, the leg extensor muscles
of the dominant limb only were stretched using one unassisted and 3 assisted static
stretches. Peak torque, mean power, EMG and MMG data were recorded pre- and
limb. In both studies, after stretching the dominant leg only, a decrease in peak torque
was observed in both the stretched and unstretched limb. Moreover, EMG amplitude
for the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris decreased post-stretch for both the stretched
and unstretched limbs, indicating that motor unit activation had decreased in both
limbs, even though only one had been physically stretched. MMG amplitude for both
the stretched and unstretched limb was unchanged pre- to post-stretch, suggesting that
unstretched leg. Cramer and colleagues concluded that since decreases in maximal
force production were observed in both the stretched and the unstretched limb, a
central nervous system inhibitory mechanism must have been at least partially
responsible for decreasing motor unit activation and/or firing frequency (13).
suggested that neural deficits appear to recover within 15 minutes post-stretch (2, 19),
30
but that force decrements can persist up to an hour post-stretch (19), again supporting
Despite the common perception that stretching prior to activity will reduce an
individual’s risk of injury, little concrete evidence supports this contention. Most
muscle injuries occur within normal limits of range of motion, and occur during the
bear a greater risk of injury (49). Static stretching is effective at increasing the range
of motion about a particular joint (44, 48-50), increasing static flexibility. This is
contrasted with dynamic flexibility, which involves active muscle contraction to move
a joint through its range of motion (3, 48). To date, there has not been any convincing
literature fails to credibly establish any direct link between pre-activity stretching and
injury risk.
The literature reviewing the role of static stretching in injury prevention covers
al. (50) argue that much of the confusion surrounding the role of stretching in injury
prevention stems from the fact that the body of literature examines sports with vastly
different movement patterns. In their extensive review, they argue that different sports
require varying levels of compliance in the MTU. Specifically, they divide sports
31
cycling or swimming might benefit from a stiffer MTU unit. A stiffer MTU would
have the ability to transmit force more quickly across a joint, resulting in a quicker
movement with less energy wasted in picking up the “slack” of a more compliant
tensile stress on the MTU, it is unlikely that static stretching would greatly impact
direction, rebounding, and other higher intensity movements might benefit from a
more compliant MTU in order to store and release adequate elastic energy to produce
amount of energy that the MTU can absorb without rupturing (50). It is important to
plyometric, proprioceptive, and strength training (44). Several reasons exist to justify
this shift. Most muscle strain injuries occur during the eccentric phase of muscle
suggest that the general aerobic component of the warm-up is more effective than
32
stretching at increasing blood flow to the muscles, increasing the efficiency of delivery
of energy substrate and oxygen to working muscles, removing waste products, and
increasing the speed of nerve impulses (44). In terms of oxygen supply to muscle
tissue, the Bohr shift dictates that as muscle temperature increases, the amount of
oxygen released from hemoglobin into the working muscles increases (30). A more
active warm-up may not only be beneficial for performance, but may also be
beneficial from an injury standpoint as this gradual progression of activity prepares the
delivery of oxygen and energy substrate, increasing nerve impulse velocity, and
removing metabolic waste products (44). A study by Behm and colleagues reported
time and decreased movement time, when compared to measurements taken prior to
engaging in any physical activity (5). These findings are supported by the results of
jogging), dynamic stretching, practice jumps, and static stretching. Both studies found
a general tendency for reduced jump height when the warm-up included static
stretching (either alone or in combination with other exercises), and for improved
33
jump height when the exercises included a general warm-up, dynamic stretching or
practice jumps (46, 55). These studies support the importance of including a general
component to the warm-up that increases heart rate and muscle temperature in order to
prepare the body for more intense exercise. Following the general warm-up, several
authors have suggested performing exercises that would function to increase range of
motion without the performance decrements associated with static stretching, and that
might potentially serve to improve performance (18, 21, 28, 31, 51). Dynamic
stretching, which involves actively moving a joint through its range of motion without
holding the movement at its endpoint, may increase flexibility without reducing
neuromuscular activity (48). Exercises such as a walking lunge, high knee pulls,
skipping, carioca, various bounds and jumping exercises, and gradual accelerations are
and coordination and enhancing neuromuscular function (16, 42). Several studies
performance. Fletcher and Jones’ study of 20m sprint performance in rugby union
players compared the effects of static and dynamic stretch treatments. Players were
tested after completing a 10 minute moderate intensity jog, and then once again after
discussed previously, the players who underwent the static stretch treatment exhibited
significantly slower sprint times. In contrast, the players in the dynamic stretch group
significantly decreased their sprint time (18). A later study found similar results in a
34
group of trained sprinters, whose 50m sprint times improved after a warm-up that
included both a general component and dynamic stretching (17). The authors
suggested that the improvements seen after dynamic stretching may be due to the
rehearsal of specific movement patterns in the dynamic stretching exercises, and also
hypothesized that dynamic stretching may allow for a more optimal switch from
in athletes was published by Little and Williams (28). In their study of professional
soccer players, they concluded that 4 lower body dynamic stretches, performed for 60
drill measuring agility. McMillan et al. (31) also found that a dynamic warm-up
consisting of callisthenic exercises (such as bend and reach, squats, lunges, pushups)
and movement drills (such as shuffling, high-knee jogging, carioca, and gradual
medicine ball throw (whole body power), and 5-step jump (lower body explosive
of performance variables.
Yamaguchi and Ishii (51) reported a significant increase in power in a leg press test
Gourgoulis et al. (21) tested subjects before and after engaging in a gradual
progression of submaximal half squats, ranging from 20% to 90% of 1RM. They
found that after the half squats, subjects demonstrated a significant (+2.4%) increase
in CMJ height. After dividing their subject pool into two groups based on pre-squat
jumping ability, the authors also found that the stronger group (those with greater
jumping ability) increased their CMJ height by an average of 4.01%, compared with
the lower-ability jumping group, which only increased CMJ height by an average of
0.42%. This would suggest that for stronger, potentially better-trained individuals, a
production, jumping performance, sprint speed, and agility drills. Table 2 summarizes
the subject pools, dynamic stretch protocols, and key findings that make up the body
McMillan et al. (2006) (31) 30 USMA cadets 1 x 10 various calisthenics Decrease in T-drill completion time (agility)
rugby, lacrosse, (bend and reach, lunge, Increased distance in medicine ball throw
strength/conditioning push-up, squat jump, etc) (whole body power)
16 males, 14 females plus 20-25 m movement Increased distance in 5 step jump
mean 20.2, 20.4 yrs drills (carioca, shuffle,
gradual accelerations, etc)
Vetter (2007) (46) 14 males, 12 females 4 warm-up components, 6 combinations CMJ height best after walk/run, DS, practice jumps
mean 22.0 yrs Walk/run; dynamic stretch; practice jumps; static stretch CMJ height worst after SS or SS + practice jumps
temperature (44), movement rehearsal (17, 18, 28), and postactivation potentiation
(PAP) (5, 16, 31, 39, 51). The nature of a dynamic stretching protocol is inherently
comparison, when an athlete sits down to complete a static stretch protocol, muscle
stretching may be reduced. The elevated muscle temperature from dynamic stretching
results in increased substrate delivery, waste product removal, and nerve impulse
motor units (55) and by increasing the rate at which crossbridges form within the
muscle (5). A quicker rate of crossbridge formation would affect the rate of force
39
development, which may in turn affect performance (5, 16). In addition, Behm et al.
speculated that PAP would benefit balance and reaction time by decreasing response
time to shifts in body posture (5). PAP occurs following submaximal or maximal
stretching activate this beneficial mechanism. Thus, PAP may partially explain
Taken together, studies examining the role of both a general, aerobic warm-up
and of dynamic stretching suggest the following: first, a general, aerobic component to
the pre-activity warm-up is beneficial for increasing muscle temperature, for efficient
substrate delivery and utilization within the muscle tissue, for enhanced neural
impulse conduction, and may also directly improve performance. Second, a dynamic
stretching preserves this elevated muscle temperature, may increase range of motion
without reducing neural input to working muscles, may enhance coordination, and
Conclusion
pre-game warm-up routine, current evidence suggests that static stretching can be
isometric measures of force, as well as in sprint speed and jump height. Additionally,
little evidence exists to support the notion that static stretching is helpful in reducing
training (44). Dynamic stretching exercises can increase muscle temperature and
blood flow while improving nerve conduction velocity and waste product removal.
rehearsal, further improving performance. To date, little is known about the effects of
time. In competitive sports where the difference between winning and losing may be a
professionals have the knowledge to design the best warm-up routine to maximize
performance.
41
References
7. Behm, D. G., D. C. Button, and J. C. Butt. Factors affecting force loss with
prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 26:261-272,
2001.
9. Bradley, P. S., P. D. Olsen, and M. D. Portas. The effect of static, ballistic, and
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on vertical jump
performance. J. Strength Cond. Res.. 21:223-226, 2007.
17. Fletcher, I. M. and R. Anness. The acute effects of combined static and
dynamic stretch protocols on fifty-meter sprint performance in track-and-field
athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. / National Strength & Conditioning
Association. 21:784-787, 2007.
18. Fletcher, I. M. and B. Jones. The effect of different warmup stretch protocols
on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 18:885-888, 2004.
20. Garrett, W. E., Jr. Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 22:436-443, 1990.
24. Knudson, D., K. Bennett, R. Corn, D. Leick, and C. Smith. Acute effects of
stretching are not evident in kinematics of the vertical jump. J. Strength Cond.
Res. 15:98-101, 2001.
27. Kokkonen, J., A. G. Nelson, and A. Cornwell. Acute muscle stretching inhibits
maximal strength performance. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport. 69:411-415, 1998.
33. Papadopoulos, G., T. Siatras, and S. Kellis. The effect of static and dynamic
stretching exercises on the maximal isokinetic strength of the knee extensors
and flexors. Isokinetics and Exercise Science. 13:285-291, 2005.
34. Pearce, A., D. Kidgell, J. Zois, and J. Carlson. Effects of secondary warm up
following stretching. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 105:175-183,
2009.
36. Power, K., D. Behm, F. Cahill, M. Carroll, and W. Young. An acute bout of
static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc. 36:1389-1396, 2004.
38. Safran, M. R., A. V. Seaber, and W. E. Garrett, Jr. Warm-up and muscular
injury prevention: an update. Sports Med. 8:239-249, 1989.
44. Thacker, S. B., J. Gilchrist, D. F. Stroup, and C. J. Kimsey, Jr. The impact of
stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 36:371-378, 2004.
45. Unick, J., H. S. Kieffer, W. Cheesman, and A. Feeney. The acute effects of
static and ballistic stretching on vertical jump performance in trained women.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 19:206-212, 2005.
46. Vetter, R. E. Effects of six warm-up protocols on sprint and jump performance.
J. Strength Cond. Res.. 21:819-823, 2007.
49. Weldon, S. and R. Hill. The efficacy of stretching for prevention of exercise-
related injury: a systematic review of the literature. Man. Ther. 8:141-150,
2003.
50. Witvrouw, E., N. Mahieu, L. Danneels, and P. McNair. Stretching and injury
prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Med. 34:443-449, 2004.
51. Yamaguchi, T. and K. Ishii. Effects of static stretching for 30 seconds and
dynamic stretching on leg extension power. J. Strength Cond. Res.. 19:677-
683, 2005.
52. Yamaguchi, T., K. Ishii, M. Yamanaka, and K. Yasuda. Acute effect of static
stretching on power output during concentric dynamic constant external
resistance leg extension. J. Strength Cond. Res.. 20:804-810, 2006.
Erica T. Perrier
Corvallis, OR 97331
(541) 737-6899
perriere@onid.orst.edu
Sports Medicine and Disabilities Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
97331
ABSTRACT
PURPOSE: The purpose of this research was to quantify the effects of a warm-up
muscle onsets for tibialis anterior (TA) and vastus lateralis (VL), and low back/
hamstring flexibility.
METHODS: Twenty one recreationally-active males (24.4 ± 4.5 yrs), recruited from
were regular participation (30 minutes, 3 days per week) in exercise including
the past 6 months. Each session included a 5 minute treadmill jog followed by one of
the stretch treatments: no stretching (NS), static stretching (SS), or dynamic stretching
(DS). After the general warm-up and treatment, the participant performed a sit-and-
reach test to assess low back and hamstring flexibility. Next, the participant
which he was asked to jump as quickly as possible after seeing a visual stimulus
(light). The onset of movement and CMJ height were determined from force plate
data, and muscle onsets (TA and VL) were obtained using surface electromyography
(sEMG). Ground reaction forces were recorded at 2000 Hz using a portable force
plate, and filtered at 25 Hz. Outcome measures included maximal jump height,
reaction time, and muscle onset (TA and VL). A repeated measures 3 (treatment) by 8
(jump) ANOVA was used to assess CMJ height. Additional outcome measures
(reaction time, muscle onsets, flexibility) were assessed using separate repeated-
RESULTS: Results of the 3x8 repeated-measures ANOVA for CMJ height revealed a
significant main effect of treatment (p=.004). Post hoc analysis showed significant
(41.9cm) and DS (p=.0435), but not between NS and SS (p=.4605). Analysis also
revealed a significant main effect of jump (p=.005) on CMJ height: mean jump height
progressively decreased from the early to the late jumps. No significant interaction
between treatment and jump was observed (p=.571). The analysis of reaction time,
TA and VL sEMG onsets showed no significant effects. Treatment also had a main
effect (p<.001) on flexibility. Post hoc analysis revealed improved flexibility after
both SS (p=.002) and DS (p<.001) compared with NS, with no difference in flexibility
reaction time and muscle onsets were not influenced by either stretch technique.
INTRODUCTION
in order to improve performance and decrease the risk of injury. Despite this common
practice, no conclusive evidence exists supporting the theory that static stretching
prior to exercise reduces injury risk (23). Additionally, static stretching has recently
been purported to decrease maximal force production (9, 10, 17, 18, 20), jump height
(5, 27, 32), and sprint speed (12, 16), while increasing reaction time and impairing
balance (4). As a result, strength and conditioning professionals have begun to shift
(2). Dynamic stretching theoretically provides the same flexibility benefits as static
compliant tendon capable of absorbing increased energy (28). As the MTU lengthens
and becomes more compliant, contractile elements must contract over a greater
distance, and more forcefully, to “pick up the slack”, resulting in reduced peak torque
and a slower rate of force development (28). A stiffer MTU would therefore be
motor unit activation (1, 6, 17, 20). Cramer and colleagues reported that static
stretching performed on the dominant leg resulted in decreases in peak torque and
51
stretched and unstretched limbs (9, 10). Their research suggests that since deficits in
maximal force production were observed in both the stretched and the unstretched
Recent studies suggest that dynamic stretching prior to activity may improve
performance by increasing joint range of motion and core body temperature, resulting
in increased blood flow to the muscles and faster nerve-impulse conduction (24).
Dynamic stretches that simulate movement patterns used in a sport may also “prime”
stretching have been documented in sprinting (11), jumping (15), and peak force
reaction time. In elite competition, where success may be affected by incredibly small
from the warm-up. The purpose of this research was to quantify the effects of a warm-
time, muscle onsets – tibialis anterior (TA) and vastus lateralis (VL) – and low back/
would reduce jump height and delay reaction time, while a warm-up with dynamic
flexibility.
METHODS
The purpose was to quantify the effects of a warm-up with static or dynamic
stretching on countermovement jump height, reaction time, muscle onsets (TA and
VL), and low back/ hamstring flexibility. Participants completed three testing
stretching (NS), static stretching (SS), or dynamic stretching (DS). After the general
warm-up and treatment, the participant was measured on each of the outcome
variables. First the participant performed a sit-and-reach test to assess low back and
after seeing a visual stimulus (light). The onset of movement and CMJ height were
determined from force plate data. Muscle onsets (tibialis anterior and vastus lateralis)
Subjects
Twenty-one male university students (24.4 ± 4.5 yrs; 1.80 ± .06 m; 81.1 ± 14.0
kg) volunteered for this study. Inclusion criteria included regular participation
(minimum of 30 minutes per day, 3 days per week) in physical activity that included
reported low-back or lower extremity injury (strain, sprain, or fracture) in the past 6
months were excluded. Participants were asked to abstain from resistance training for
at least 24 hours prior to testing. The study was approved by an institutional review
board for the protection of human subjects, and all participants gave their informed
consent.
Protocol
performed at the start of each testing session. The general warm-up consisted of a 5
minute treadmill jog at self-selected pace (8.6 ± 1.4 km·h-1) that was kept constant for
treatments (NS, SS, DS) during each visit. During the No Stretching (NS) treatment,
subjects sat quietly for 15 minutes. The Static Stretching (SS) treatment consisted of 7
the lower extremity (3). Each stretch was held for 30 seconds and was performed
twice (3). Mean time to complete the SS protocol was 14.8 ± 0.4 minutes. The
54
complete the DS treatment was 13.8 ± 1.7 minutes. Subjects rated the intensity of the
dynamic warm-up as a 5.2 ± 1.2 on the modified Borg RPE scale (1-10).
After completing the treatment, flexibility was assessed using a sit and reach
box, following a standard protocol (3, 8, 29) Participants removed their shoes and
placed their heels 12 inches apart, with feet flat against the measurement device (Flex
Tester ®, Novel Products, Inc., Rockton, IL). Bending at the waist, and keeping knees
fully extended, participants reached forward with overlapping fingertips, sliding the
indicator forward with their fingertips. The best of three trials was retained.
After the sit-and-reach test, leg dominance was determined using three
functional tests: the ball kick test, step-up test, and balance recovery test (14). Next,
electrodes (Ag/AgCl) were affixed over the vastus lateralis (VL) and tibialis anterior
electrogoniometer (BioPac Systems, Goleta, CA) was affixed to the lateral aspect of
the participant’s dominant knee to monitor knee joint angle during the CMJs.
55
Participants stood on a portable force plate (Kistler USA, Amherst, NY) with hands
after seeing a visual stimulus (light) that was at eye level approximately 2m in front of
the participant. A total of 10 CMJs were performed with 60 seconds rest between
jumps. Ground reaction forces were recorded at 2000 Hz, low-pass filtered at 25 Hz
and processed using a custom program (LabVIEW 8.5, National Instruments, Austin
TX). Recorded ground reaction forces were used to calculate CMJ height and
movement onset. CMJ height was calculated by integrating the area under the force-
time curve from the onset of movement to the instant of take-off, in order to obtain
vertical velocity at take-off, and by integrating velocity to find vertical height of the
participant’s center of mass at take-off. Projectile motion equations were then used to
calculate jump height. The onset of movement, which was used to determine reaction
time in addition to the jump height calculation, was determined to be the point when
vertical ground reaction force fell 3 standard deviations below its baseline value. For
each CMJ, muscle onsets for the TA and VL with respect to the stimulus display were
determined using sEMG collected at 2000 Hz (BioPac Systems, Goleta, CA). EMG
tracings were rectified and smoothed using 10 sample averaging. VL and TA onsets
were defined to be the points when rectified EMG amplitude remained 3 standard
deviations above baseline for 10ms (TA) or 20ms (VL). Onsets selected by a custom
program (LabVIEW version 8.5) were visually confirmed and adjusted if necessary
Statistical Analysis
The purpose of this experiment was to quantify the effects of a warm-up with
jump height, reaction time, muscle onsets (TA and VL), and low back/ hamstring
flexibility. Data from jumps 1 and 10 of each testing session was discarded due to
inconsistency with other jumps. Data from two subjects were excluded due to missing
data points and extreme variation between testing sessions. CMJ height was analyzed
(SPSS version 15 for Windows, Chicago, IL). Based on the finding of the initial 3 X 8
ANOVA, the data were collapsed across jumps and a single factor (treatment)
repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze the remaining dependent variables.
Since flexibility was measured only after each treatment, 1x3 ANOVA was used. All
RESULTS
Results of the 3x8 repeated-measures ANOVA for CMJ height revealed a main
effect of stretch treatment (p=.004) (Fig. 1). Analysis also revealed a significant main
effect of jump on CMJ height: a linear trend of decreasing performance across jumps
existed in all groups (p=.005) (Fig. 2). No significant interaction between treatment
and jump was observed (p=.571). Post-hoc comparisons between the treatments
revealed that mean CMJ height was significantly higher after DS compared to NS and
SS (one-tailed t-tests: p=.0045 and p=.0435). The difference in mean jump height
57
between NS and SS was not significant (p=.4605). The analysis of reaction time, TA
and VL sEMG onsets showed no significant effects (Fig. 3). Means and p-values for
and-reach flexibility (p<.001) (Fig. 4). Post-hoc analyses revealed that both SS and
suggesting that both stretch techniques were equally effective in enhancing lower back
DISCUSSION
measures design, the results revealed that CMJ height was significantly higher after
results are consistent with previous research that reported increases in CMJ height
studies have revealed that warm-up treatments including jogging and/or dynamic
stretching and practice jumps resulted in higher CMJ height than warm-ups that
included static stretching (26, 32). Dynamic stretching has also been shown to
58
improve sprint times and agility drill performance. Little and Williams (16) reported
that lower-body dynamic exercises resulted in reduced 10 and 20m sprint times as well
as zig-zag drill time, but reported no change in CMJ performance. Additional research
suggests that dynamic exercise performed at a jogging pace can improve sprint
exercises were performed while stationary (12). These studies collectively suggest
Our results suggest that static stretching has no effect on jump height, when
compared with no stretching. While many studies investigating the effects of static
stretching on performance have reported decreases in peak torque (9, 10, 17, 18, 20)
and jump height (5, 7, 27, 32), there is still disagreement as to what extent static
stretching reduces performance. Several authors (8, 16, 20, 25) have reported no
In our study, the static stretch protocol consisted of a moderate amount of stretching (2
in CMJ height when compared with no stretching (NS). It is possible that the 15-
minute waiting period between the general warm-up and jump testing in the NS
condition eliminated any potential differences between general warm-up only and
warm-up with static stretching. It is also possible that 2 sets of 30 seconds was not a
and Scheuermann (22) reported that squat jump performance was affected by 6 sets of
quadriceps, hamstring, and plantarflexor stretches, but that jump height was unaffected
squat jump, which does not rely on the stretch-shortening cycle to enhance lower-
participants’ peak performance would be expected to occur during the last several
jumps in the series, as the earlier jumps might provide more opportunity for skill-
specific rehearsal. Contrary to this, our results showed a progressive decrease in CMJ
height from the early jumps to the later jumps. This gradual decrease in jump height is
particularly interesting after static stretching. We expected to see mean jump height
increase progressively during the jump series, since the first few jumps had the
potential to function as a secondary warm-up that might gradually increase mean CMJ
height up to the level reached after dynamic stretching. Pearce and colleagues
impact of a secondary dynamic warm-up after static stretching (19). The authors
found that performance deficits observed after static stretching continued to worsen
after static stretching are not easily reversed through additional activity.
60
PAP increases the efficiency of muscular contraction by lowering the threshold for
recruitment of motor units (32) and by increasing the rate of crossbridge formation (4).
Behm and colleagues speculated that PAP may also benefit reaction time by
decreasing response time to shifts in body posture (4). In contrast, our results did not
treatments. Large inter- and intra- subject variability in muscle onsets and insufficient
power in our study may have resulted in an inability to detect possible subtle
improvements.
warm-up design, however, is whether the chosen stretching method produces the
desired increase in flexibility. Our results suggest that static and dynamic stretching
are equally effective at improving sit and reach performance. Thus, dynamic
There were some limitations to our study design. First, all subjects were
activity, most days of the week). Additionally, some reported stretching regularly
after every work-out, while others reported no regular stretching practice. Some
61
participants also reported that the dynamic stretch treatment, designed based on a
Participant’s rating of their level of exertion during dynamic stretching ranged from a
Given these subject characteristics, it is not possible to infer whether static and
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
stretching prior to exercise can provide a performance advantage in jump height, sprint
speed, and agility. In designing effective warm-up routines for athletes requiring
stretching that increases muscle temperature and blood flow, while providing the
whenever possible, mimic the movement patterns most closely associated with success
serve the dual purposes of enhancing acute flexibility while also priming the athlete
TABLE 1 – Static stretch protocol. Stretches were held for 2 repetitions of 30 seconds each.
Stretch Description
Standing quadriceps while standing, participants flexed one knee and grasped heel,
stretch: bringing heel as close as possible to the buttocks, eliciting a
stretch in the quadriceps.
Supine hamstring while supine with both legs fully extended, participants raised
stretch: one leg, using hands to support both above and below the
knee. Participants were allowed a small amount of knee
flexion.
Hip flexor stretch: from a lunge position, participants slowly lowered hips until
o
front knee was flexed to 90 and back leg was extended,
eliciting a stretch in the iliopsoas and rectus femoris muscles.
Butterfly (groin) stretch: from a seated position, participants brought the soles of their
feet together and allowed their knees to hang to the sides.
Gentle pressure was exerted by the elbows to lower knees
toward the ground.
Piriformis stretch: while supine, participants crossed one ankle above the
opposite knee and brought the bottom leg towards the chest.
Single-knee lower back while supine with both legs slightly bent, participants brought
stretch: one knee up to the chest.
Standing calf stretch: from a lunge position, participants pressed their back heel
down towards the ground.
TABLE 2 – Dynamic stretch protocol. Each exercise was performed twice over a distance of
18m. Participants walked back to the starting line between repetitions.
Easy skip with arm swings
Skip for distance using arms to drive forward
Skip for height using arms to drive upward
Backward run (extend heel backwards during stride)
Lateral low shuffle (back and forth- no walk - rest 20 seconds between reps)
Step into single leg Romanian dead lift
Walking diagonal lunges
High Knee Pulls (knee to chest, on toe)
Carioca (back and forth - no walk - rest 20 seconds between reps)
Straight leg strides (back and forth - no walk - rest 20 seconds between reps)
Gradual accelerations (1 x 50%, 75%, 90%, walk back between reps)
63
TABLE 3 – Results
Stretch Condition
General Warm- General Warm-Up
General Warm-Up Up and Static and Dynamic
Only (NS) Stretch (SS) Stretch (DS) p-value
Mean Jump
†
Height (cm) 41.4(6.8) 41.9(6.6) 43.0(6.3)* 0.004
Reaction
Time (s) .307(.039) .304(.051) .304(.037) 0.413
TA sEMG
Onset (s) 0.238(.043) 0.235(.035) 0.227(.033) 0.383
VL sEMG
Onset (s) .509(.079) .497(.059) .475(.077) 0.352
Sit-and-
† †
reach (cm) 30.0(8.3) 32.8(7.8) 33.2(7.4) < 0.001
†
denotes significance (p<.05) compared with NS mean.
* denotes significance (p<.05) compared with SS mean.
47 *
*
45
43
cm
41
39
37
35
NS SS DS
Figure 1 -- Mean jump height (cm) after each stretch treatment. Mean height after DS was
significantly higher than after NS and SS (p=.0045; p=.0435).
64
Linear (DS)
0.430
0.425
0.420
0.415
0.410
0.405
0.400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Jump
Figure 2 -- Jump height progression for jumps 2 through 9.
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
ms
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
NS SS DS NS SS DS NS SS DS
Reaction Time TA EMG VL EMG
Figure 3 – Mean onsets for movement time, TA EMG, and VL EMG after each stretch
treatment.
65
34
32
30
cm
28
26
24
22
20
NS SS DS
Figure 4 – Mean sit-and-reach score (cm) after each stretch treatment. Mean flexibility after
SS and DS were significantly higher than after NS (p<.001).
66
REFERENCES
6. Behm, D. G., D. C. Button, and J. C. Butt. Factors affecting force loss with
prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 26:261-272,
2001.
11. Fletcher, I. M. and R. Anness. The acute effects of combined static and
dynamic stretch protocols on fifty-meter sprint performance in track-and-field
athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 21:784-787, 2007.
67
12. Fletcher, I. M. and B. Jones. The effect of different warmup stretch protocols
on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 18:885-888, 2004.
18. Papadopoulos, G., T. Siatras, and S. Kellis. The effect of static and dynamic
stretching exercises on the maximal isokinetic strength of the knee extensors
and flexors. Isokinetics and Exercise Science. 13:285-291, 2005.
19. Pearce, A., D. Kidgell, J. Zois, and J. Carlson. Effects of secondary warm up
following stretching. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 105:175-183,
2009.
20. Power, K., D. Behm, F. Cahill, M. Carroll, and W. Young. An acute bout of
static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc. 36:1389-1396, 2004.
21. Rainoldi, A., G. Melchiorri, and I. Caruso. A method for positioning electrodes
during surface EMG recordings in lower limb muscles. Journal of
Neuroscience Methods. 134:37-43, 2004.
23. Shrier, I. Does stretching help prevent injuries? In: Evidence-based Sports
Medicine. D. MacAuley and T. Best (Eds.) Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing, 2007.
68
24. Thacker, S. B., J. Gilchrist, D. F. Stroup, and C. J. Kimsey, Jr. The impact of
stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 36:371-378, 2004.
25. Unick, J., H. S. Kieffer, W. Cheesman, and A. Feeney. The acute effects of
static and ballistic stretching on vertical jump performance in trained women.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 19:206-212, 2005.
26. Vetter, R. E. Effects of six warm-up protocols on sprint and jump performance.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 21:819-823, 2007.
28. Witvrouw, E., N. Mahieu, L. Danneels, and P. McNair. Stretching and injury
prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Med. 34:443-449, 2004.
Chapter 4: Conclusion
70
(NS), static stretching (SS), or dynamic stretching (DS). Our results revealed that
CMJ height was significantly higher after DS compared with NS and SS. Stretch
treatment did not appear to influence reaction time or muscle onsets. Sit-and-reach
scores were improved after both SS and DS, suggesting that both treatments are
sprint speed, and agility. In designing effective warm-up routines for athletes
15 minutes of dynamic stretching that increases muscle temperature and blood flow,
possible, mimic the movement patterns most closely associated with success in the
the dual purposes of enhancing acute flexibility while also priming the athlete for
peak performance.
71
BIBLIOGRAPHY
8. Behm, D. G., D. C. Button, and J. C. Butt. Factors affecting force loss with
prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 26:261-272,
2001.
10. Bradley, P. S., P. D. Olsen, and M. D. Portas. The effect of static, ballistic,
and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on vertical jump
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Strength & Conditioning Association. 21:223-226, 2007.
18. Fletcher, I. M. and R. Anness. The acute effects of combined static and
dynamic stretch protocols on fifty-meter sprint performance in track-and-
field athletes. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research / National
Strength & Conditioning Association. 21:784-787, 2007.
19. Fletcher, I. M. and B. Jones. The effect of different warmup stretch protocols
on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 18:885-888, 2004.
21. Garrett, W. E., Jr. Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 22:436-443, 1990.
26. Knudson, D., K. Bennett, R. Corn, D. Leick, and C. Smith. Acute effects of
stretching are not evident in kinematics of the vertical jump. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 15:98-101, 2001.
35. Papadopoulos, G., T. Siatras, and S. Kellis. The effect of static and dynamic
stretching exercises on the maximal isokinetic strength of the knee extensors
and flexors. Isokinetics and Exercise Science. 13:285-291, 2005.
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36. Pearce, A., D. Kidgell, J. Zois, and J. Carlson. Effects of secondary warm up
following stretching. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 105:175-183,
2009.
38. Power, K., D. Behm, F. Cahill, M. Carroll, and W. Young. An acute bout of
static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc. 36:1389-1396, 2004.
41. Safran, M. R., A. V. Seaber, and W. E. Garrett, Jr. Warm-up and muscular
injury prevention: an update. Sports Med. 8:239-249, 1989.
44. Shrier, I. Does stretching help prevent injuries? In: Evidence-based Sports
Medicine. D. MacAuley and T. Best (Eds.) Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing, 2007.
48. Thacker, S. B., J. Gilchrist, D. F. Stroup, and C. J. Kimsey, Jr. The impact of
stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med.
Sci. Sports Exerc. 36:371-378, 2004.
75
49. Unick, J., H. S. Kieffer, W. Cheesman, and A. Feeney. The acute effects of
static and ballistic stretching on vertical jump performance in trained women.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 19:206-212, 2005.
53. Weldon, S. and R. Hill. The efficacy of stretching for prevention of exercise-
related injury: a systematic review of the literature. Man. Ther. 8:141-150,
2003.
54. Witvrouw, E., N. Mahieu, L. Danneels, and P. McNair. Stretching and injury
prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Med. 34:443-449, 2004.
56. Yamaguchi, T. and K. Ishii. Effects of static stretching for 30 seconds and
dynamic stretching on leg extension power. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research. 19:677-683, 2005.
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20:804-810, 2006.
Appendices
78
1. Brief Description:
The objective of this study is to compare the effects of static and dynamic stretching
on reaction time and performance in countermovement jump (CMJ). Data collected in
this research will fulfill the research requirement for a MS in Sports Medicine at
Oregon State University, with the intent of submitting a manuscript for publication at
a later date. Specific study aims are to determine the effects of static and dynamic
stretching on the following measures:
Subject Recruitment: Male subjects, aged 18-35 years, will be recruited. Eligible
participants will: 1) exercise regularly (a minimum of 30 minutes, three days per week), 2)
be free of leg and lower-back injury (strain, sprain or fracture) for at least 6 months prior
to testing, and 3) current exercise regimen includes include resistance training and/or
exercise that involves jumping, sprinting, or quick changes in direction. Subjects will be
recruited through word of mouth and through flyers posted on campus.
80
Protocol:
- Read and sign consent form (visit 1 only) (~ 5 minutes)
- Determination of height and weight (~ 2 minutes)
- Electrode placement (~ 5 minutes)
- Warm-up, specified below (~ 20 minutes)
- Electrogoniometer placement (~ 5 minutes)
- Sit-and-Reach (~ 5 minutes)
- Countermovement Jumps (~ 15 minutes)
- Clean Up (~ 5 minutes)
- Total Time: ~ 62 minutes
Protocol Specifics:
- Lab visits: Subjects will complete three testing sessions: one for each warm-up
treatment (see Figure 1). Each testing session will last approximately one
hour. Total time commitment for the study will be approximately 3 hours and
total participation will occur over a maximum of 21 days.
- Sit-and-Reach: Subject is instructed to remove shoes and sit on the floor with
the soles of the feet 12 inches apart and flat against the testing apparatus
(Novel Products, Inc., Rockton, IL). Subject will then slowly exhale and
slowly reach forward with both hands to push the metal indicator as far as
possible. The score will be the position of the indicator following three trials.
level. The subject will be instructed to keep hands resting lightly on hips
throughout the jump. This procedure will be repeated a total of ten times with
60 seconds rest between jumps.
4. Risks/Benefit Assessment
Risks: The minimal risks to participants in this study include the possibility of injury
while completing the warm-up and stretch treatments, or during jump testing.
Subjects will be instructed as to the proper technique to perform all activities in order
to minimize the risk of injury.
Benefits: There are no direct benefits to subjects participating in this study.
5. Participant Population:
21 healthy male subjects, aged 18-35 will be recruited from the general university
population. Conditions for participation include 1) Recreationally active at least three
days per week, 30 minutes per session, 2) Free of lower extremity injury (strain, sprain or
fracture) for 6 months prior to testing, and 3) Current exercise regimen includes include
resistance training and/or exercise that involves jumping, sprinting, or quick changes in
direction. Participants will initially be screened either via phone or email.
7. Compensation:
No compensation is provided for participation in this study.
9. Anonymity or Confidentiality
All forms and files will be coded without any identifiable participant information.
Forms and files will be stored in a locked cabinet in the office of the researcher. All
electronic files will be coded without any identifiable participant information.
Attachments
- Recruitment Materials
- Institutional Review Board Approval Letter
- Informed Consent Document
82
“We are enrolling subjects for a study examining the effects of stretching on reaction
time and jumping performance. If you meet our screening criteria, we would like to
give you the opportunity to participate in the study. If you are eligible, and if you
choose to participate, you would attend three one-hour testing sessions over a
maximum period of 21 days. Would you like to see if you are eligible to participate?”
Screening Tool
Question Yes No
1. Are you male, between the ages of 18 and 35? □ □
2. In the past 6 months, have you had any injuries to your legs or □ □
lower back?
3. Do you currently exercise? □ □
If yes, how many times per week? __________________________
How long do you exercise for? ____________________________
4. Does your current exercise regimen include resistance training or
exercise that involves jumping, sprinting, or quick changes in
direction? □ □
If yes, what type of exercise?
_______________________________
-
83
84
85
86
87
DS 04 36 02/11/08 02/18/08 02/04/08 7.0 1.76 86.5 28.1 R 4.5 39 15.0 17.5 41 14.75 32.5 41 12.75 25 5
SS 05 27 02/13/08 02/05/08 02/08/08 4.0 1.87 119.0 34.0 R 4 41 15 31 46 15.25 32.5 43 14.25 30 6
SS 06 32 02/22/08 02/11/08 02/18/08 5.5 1.89 76.5 21.4 R 6.7 41 15.0 19 41 14.75 21.5 40 13.75 23.5 7
DS 07 27 02/18/08 02/21/08 02/15/08 3.0 1.89 98.0 27.4 R 6 41 15 40 41 15.25 42 43 11 42 5
NS 08 22 02/07/08 02/14/08 02/21/08 7.0 1.77 78.0 24.9 L 5.5 42 15 26 40 15 30 43 13.5 32.5 5
NS 09 22 02/14/08 02/21/08 02/28/08 7.0 1.79 65.5 20.4 R 4.9 42 15.0 33 40 15 30 46 16.75 36.5 6
SS 10 23 02/22/08 02/11/08 02/14/08 5.5 1.84 95.0 28.2 R 6.2 43 15 28 42 14 32 40 12.25 34.5 5.5
DS 11 29 03/04/08 03/07/08 02/29/08 3.5 1.83 81.5 24.5 L 4.5 41 15 40.5 42 14.8 41.5 45 13.5 39 5
NS 12 19 03/03/08 03/06/08 03/10/08 3.5 1.71 73.5 25.1 R 5.3 41 15 27.5 42 14.8 29.5 42 13 32 6
SS 13 25 04/18/08 04/11/08 04/15/08 3.5 1.70 61.0 21.1 R 4.4 44 15 13.5 42 14.5 11.5 47 15 15.5 6
DS 14 21 04/16/08 04/22/08 04/11/08 5.5 1.75 86.0 28.1 R 6 39 15 41.5 41 14.5 42.5 42 12.25 42.5 7
NS 15 31 04/11/08 04/16/08 04/19/08 4.0 1.84 78.0 23.2 R 8 42 15 27.5 43 15 30.5 43 15.5 32.5 3
SS 16 20 04/23/08 04/16/08 04/30/08 7.0 1.76 75.0 24.4 R 5 42 15 40.5 42 14 43 42 14.75 44.5 3
DS 17 23 04/30/08 05/02/08 04/25/08 4.0 1.86 105.0 30.4 R 4.5 43 15 32.5 42 14.75 38.5 43 13.75 41.5 6
NS 18 19 04/30/08 05/02/08 05/13/08 7.0 1.82 71.5 21.6 R 5.9 43 15 27 43 15.25 33 43 14.75 31.5 4
SS 19 24 06/04/08 05/28/08 05/30/08 3.5 1.79 69.5 21.7 R 5 42 15 43 40 15 42 44 16.75 41 5
DS 20 21 05/30/08 06/04/08 05/28/08 3.5 1.82 87.0 26.3 L 4.8 42 15 33.5 42 14.25 36.5 42 15.5 35.5 6
NS 21 23 05/28/08 05/30/08 06/04/08 3.5 1.76 68.0 22.0 R 5 43 15 26 38 14.5 26 43 14 26 5
SS 22 24 06/11/08 06/02/08 06/04/08 4.5 1.79 77.0 24.0 L 6 42 15 19 42 15 24.5 42 14.25 24.5 5
88
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Jump Data
Subject_ID Test_Order Condition 1_t_onset 1_height 1_TA_emg 1_VL_emg
1 2 1 0.155 0.430 0.238 0.295
1 3 2 0.189 0.460 0.230 0.417
1 1 3 0.121 0.478 0.235 0.341
3 1 1 0.345 0.300 0.337 0.469
3 2 2 0.213 0.460 0.205 0.430
3 3 3 -- -- 0.221 0.575
4 3 1 0.225 0.282 0.189 0.213
4 1 2 0.208 0.456 0.191 0.350
4 2 3 0.131 0.326 0.203 0.409
5 2 1 0.235 0.401 0.258 0.495
5 3 2 0.223 0.450 0.196 0.625
5 1 3 0.276 0.452 0.296 --
6 2 1 0.208 0.345 0.220 0.491
6 3 2 0.249 0.339 0.320 0.593
6 1 3 0.176 0.346 0.202 0.567
7 3 1 0.212 0.411 0.176 0.622
7 1 2 0.246 0.385 0.272 0.244
7 2 3 0.261 0.484 0.269 0.190
8 1 1 0.285 0.362 0.325 0.602
8 2 2 0.191 0.384 0.259 0.608
8 3 3 0.327 0.431 0.242 0.228
9 1 1 0.267 0.318 0.185 0.707
9 2 2 0.229 0.486 0.130 0.506
9 3 3 0.191 0.411 0.185 0.525
10 2 1 0.206 0.455 0.171 0.233
10 3 2 0.179 0.407 0.276 0.500
10 1 3 0.211 0.450 -- 0.254
11 3 1 0.261 0.329 0.231 0.504
11 1 2 -- -- 0.251 0.328
11 2 3 0.258 0.384 0.278 0.353
12 1 1 0.158 0.508 0.217 0.425
12 2 2 0.260 0.524 0.208 0.443
12 3 3 0.179 0.503 0.217 0.463
13 2 1 0.218 0.329 -- --
13 3 2 0.267 0.480 0.182 0.711
13 1 3 0.217 0.380 0.193 0.475
14 3 1 0.221 0.466 0.173 0.614
14 1 2 0.174 0.467 0.171 0.663
14 2 3 0.348 0.489 -- --
15 1 1 0.337 0.303 0.235 0.918
15 2 2 0.284 0.319 0.278 0.603
15 3 3 0.251 0.354 0.244 0.774
16 2 1 0.263 0.481 0.342 0.732
16 1 2 0.379 0.378 0.211 0.674
16 3 3 0.221 0.402 0.184 0.531
17 3 1 0.131 0.477 0.186 0.644
17 1 2 0.253 0.468 0.217 0.583
17 2 3 0.100 0.581 0.209 0.544
18 1 1 0.172 0.371 0.195 0.512
18 2 2 0.281 0.482 0.191 0.637
18 3 3 -- -- 0.173 0.538
19 2 1 0.234 0.347 0.266 0.518
19 3 2 0.376 0.315 0.241 0.525
19 1 3 0.222 0.434 0.195 0.502
20 3 1 0.122 0.476 0.197 0.451
20 1 2 0.140 0.482 0.196 0.421
20 2 3 0.161 0.494 0.206 0.542
21 1 1 0.312 0.440 0.193 0.650
21 2 2 0.156 0.459 0.200 0.500
21 3 3 0.101 0.633 0.181 0.507
22 2 1 0.356 0.411 0.260 0.596
22 3 2 0.155 0.270 0.197 0.575
22 1 3 0.410 0.503 0.190 0.633
90
Subject_ID 10_VL_emg
1 0.473
1 0.363
1 0.460
3 0.686
3 0.548
3 0.377
4 0.455
4 0.616
4 0.531
5 0.443
5 0.620
5 --
6 0.464
6 0.604
6 0.552
7 0.564
7 0.243
7 0.220
8 0.393
8 0.476
8 0.201
9 0.600
9 0.436
9 0.351
10 0.232
10 0.356
10 0.479
11 0.560
11 0.529
11 0.440
12 0.459
12 0.481
12 0.484
13 --
13 0.326
13 0.516
14 0.587
14 0.606
14 0.339
15 0.746
15 0.556
15 0.372
16 0.468
16 0.335
16 0.469
17 0.481
17 0.598
17 0.621
18 0.499
18 0.485
18 0.569
19 0.342
19 0.477
19 0.452
20 0.484
20 0.394
20 0.429
21 0.525
21 0.550
21 0.479
22 0.500
22 0.499
22 0.680
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105