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1 s2.0 S0007850607001588 Main PDF
1 s2.0 S0007850607001588 Main PDF
Abstract
The scope of this keynote paper is to present the state of the art in the metrology of freeform shapes with
focus on the freeform capabilities of the most important measuring techniques and on related metrological
issues.
Some examples of products are presented, for which the metrology of freeform shapes is important to
guarantee the desired functional performance of the product. A classification of freeform measuring tasks and
the corresponding metrological requirements are presented. A review of the most important measuring
techniques is presented along with their capabilities for freeform measuring tasks. Specification and
verification of freeform surfaces, including data evaluation and comparison to specifications are discussed,
along with the measurement uncertainty and traceability of freeform measurements.
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system, the right measurement strategy and optimised 2.4 Optical parts
data processing [69] [60]. Therefore the metrology system
should provide high quality coordinates in terms of high Aspheric and freeform optics offer significant advantages
data density on structures with high spatial frequencies, over conventional flat and spherical surfaces. Examples
and lower density on flat areas and the ability to detect are found in many important applications, including
sharp edges precisely [50]. computational imaging, compact projection displays,
document security, curing of polymer dental filling
2.3 Turbine blades material, controlled diffusers for lithography, microscopy,
Turbine blades can be found in a wide variety of industrial and many others [26]. The use of freeform shapes in
products. Their field of application ranges from the mass optical design can significantly improve the performances,
production of cooling fan solutions which can be found in in terms of both system size reduction and improved
e.g. personal computers and turbo charger systems as a optical functionality (i.e. lower wavefront error). When
part of combustion engines, up to the high performance conventional optics are used, the optical system usually
requirements of jet engine operation. dictates the mechanical design. By using freeforms, the
number of components can be reduced, the components
The use of blade shaped parts in turbojet engines can be can be placed in mechanically favoured positions while
seen as one of the most challenging areas regarding e.g. the optical quality of the system can still be increased
material selection and blade shape design. Over the last [122]. Their use is advantageous in many industries,
20-30 years, alloy improvement, directional and single- ranging from mass production of consumer products to
crystal solidification as well as the use of coating systems manufacturing of single special components for large
has allowed an increase of gas temperature. This has space projects. In the following, some examples are
increased system strength and thermodynamic efficiency briefly described.
along with reducing environmental pollutants.
One of the first examples in mass production is the
The exposure to high pressure, temperatures up to Polaroid SX-70 folding Single Lens Reflex camera shown
1400 °C as well as the considerable stress caused by in Figure 4, which was on the market in 1972 [135].
rotation at more than 10.000 rpm, gives an impression of Because of its peculiar off-axis viewing optical system,
the boundary conditions during a flight. Since the smallest two freeform optical components were used for distortion
fault during the design or manufacturing process of such correction in its optical design. One large free-form
a turbine blade can lead to a catastrophic system failure, surface, deployed on the eye lens, corrected for field tilt
the implementation of all means of precautions available and localized apparent power and astigmatic errors
is vital to ensure system reliability and blade integrity across the viewed scene, relayed from a textured Fresnel
without compromising economic aspects. field mirror focus screen. The other free-form surface, a
While FEM analysis and following optimization apply small corrector plate located just at the real aperture stop,
during design, five axis milling is state of the art in the mainly corrected the net coma and spherical aberration
production of delicate parts like the axial flow blisk common to all of the field. These two surfaces were
manufactured from a single part (Figure 3). However, the optimized along with an off-axis aspheric concave mirror
need for quality control is indispensable to ensure the to provide a well corrected system [136].
safe and efficient whole-life operation of such parts. Another mass production example is the optics of laser
In addition to the manufacturing, quality control methods printers. Until recently, their optical scanning systems
vary widely depending on part size, weight, feature utilized several optical elements to form a system. By
accessability and measurement task. Since Bladed discs replacing these with a single freeform mirror, the number
or Blisk, as a bunch of blades, are more complex then a of components is reduced with corresponding benefits in
single blade, they also provide more challenges to cost and size reduction. Further benefits include absence
acquire the necessary measurement data. Use of tactile of chromatic aberration and the ability to select any
probing systems is time consuming because of space wavelength of laser. Since the shorter wavelength laser
requirements for the movement between two adjacent results in spot size reduction, the preciseness of printing
blades, which also overlap. Overlapping surfaces also output is improved. Conversely, a long wavelength laser
hamper most optical systems since a clear line of sight can be used in a less expensive mass production printer
and consistent illumination of the part needs to be with the same freeform optical scanning system [29].
established. Also strong curvatures at the leading and
trailing edge can oppose quite a challenge for optical data
acquisition.
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An example of a special project using freeform shapes for directly into the pyramid structures. Every fibre works as a
a unique product is the NASA Infrared Multi-Object miniature interferometric sensor. By applying a force F to
imaging spectrometer IRMOS [192]. The optical design the membrane, the distance between the membrane and
includes four large, fast, off-axis, highly aspheric mirrors the fibre tip changes. The change of distances in the
and one off-axis concave biconic mirror [15] [14] [52] whole sensor array can be used to infer to a haptic
[164]. The freeform mirror was introduced to help reduce behaviour caused by the force F.
the size of the system by an order of magnitude [51]. To allow for touching forces below 500 μN, demands on
Significant reduction in size can dramatically reduce the the accuracy of all parts of the sensor are high [165]. For
use of exotic materials (such as beryllium) and the the setup shown, glass fibres with a diameter of 100 μm
ensuing mass reduction provide enhanced performance have to be positioned into a 400 μm hole with a lateral
for lightweight space systems. Freeform surfaces can tolerance of +/-50 μm. To guarantee a working sensor
also be used to control astigmatism at multiple locations device, also the vertical distance between tip of the fibres
in the field of view and thus reduce wavefront aberration. and the bottom of the pyramid structure must be known .
In general, mirror freeform surfaces are more difficult to To solve this task, the freeform of the bottom of the
manufacture and the inability of a designer to assess their pyramid structure must be evaluated accurately. This
manufacturability has limited their use in optical systems. results in a demand for metrology to offer suitable
Designers prefer to select rotationally symmetric surface solutions to measure the precise geometry tolerances.
shapes for which the manufacturability issues are Furthermore, suitable sensors are necessary that can
understood, rather than specify a design based on the resolve the form of the highly sloped walls of the pyramid
properties of a freeform surface. For this reason, new structure while not deforming the soft silicon during the
optical design tools [51] have been developed to improve measurement [36].
the manufacturability of these complex surfaces, in order
to keep costs under control.
Even with advanced design tools and ultra precision Pyramid structure
manufacturing technologies, the required accuracy of
Micro membrane
optical surfaces can often not be achieved in a
deterministic manufacturing process. Besides the
statistical variation of the machining process the least
changes in the boundary conditions lead to noticeable
form deviations. Therefore the manufacturing is Light fibre Basic plane
performed iteratively. Hence the accurate measuring of
the absolute shape of the surface is the missing key
factor in the value chain of freeform optics manufacturing Figure 5: Setup of a tactile sensor system (left), photo of
[122]. Even with efforts to establish machine integrated the micro membrane (right).
ultra precise form testing, to enable an adaptive
manufacturing process [124] [155], the fundamental
metrology specific challenges for optical surfaces remain, 2.6 Classification of freeform shape applications
since the functional surfaces with their macroscopic The above mentioned examples illustrate the range of
dimensions demand a very high accuracy in the freeform applications and show, depending on the
nanometre range. The dynamic range of the test industry, the function, the material and the manufacturing
equipment is the crucial point in measuring optical process, the variety of measurement tasks and their
freeform shapes. Another important demand is that the specific challenges. These characteristics define the
often delicate optical surface must not be damaged by the requirements for the technical properties of freeform
inspection. surface metrology.
2.5 Haptic sensor surfaces
The term haptic can be distinguished between tactile 10 -3
perception and proprioception. While tactile perception airplane
addresses the sensitivity for surfaces, proprioception
turbine
stands for perception of depths i.e. movements or mm blades 10 -5
Profile tolerance
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(moderate to large curvature changes, multi-facet inspection are very basic: accuracy, speed and the need
surfaces) and high (with undercuts, access/visibility for dedicated equipment.
limitations, internal features). Concerning tolerances, the With indirect comparison, the physical master template is
classification is based on the relative profile tolerance replaced by a computerised 3D geometrical model of the
defined as the ratio: part. The basic principle is to evaluate the degree of
tolerance / main part dimension. deviation between the measured surface and the
The proposed criteria for classification are applied to the computerised model, for instance the 3D CAD model of
above presented examples in Table 1, while Figure 6 the part. In the following, only measuring techniques
shows a graphical representation of typical application based on the indirect comparison approach will be further
ranges for dimensions and related tolerances. analysed.
Depending on the application requirements, the most
suitable and cost effective measuring technique can be
selected among several available. The measuring
fuselage / wings
Turbine blades / techniques that have been identified for discussion are
Haptic sensor
Optical parts
classified in the following categories:
Automotive
body parts
surfaces
Airplane
medium
high
Material, surface
hard, not sensitive
deformable
specular
transparent
opaque
Relative tolerance
medium (10-4 -10-3)
fine (10-5 -10-4)
ultra fine (< 10-5)
Legend: typical
less frequent
3 MEASURING SYSTEMS
Two general approaches can be identified for the
measurement of freeform shaped parts: direct and
indirect comparison [71]. The basic principle of direct
comparison is to check the degree of deviation between
the surface and master templates. In some cases, these
masters represent two-dimensional cross sections of the
surface to be inspected. The measurement of the gaps
between the surface and the template can be done with a
measuring microscope, or by bluing the surface to check
the untouched area visually, or using a concentrated
source of light. Figure 7 illustrates this approach applied
to the inspection of a turbine blade. While the results Figure 7: The inspection process of a turbine blade based
achieved through direct inspection methods are on direct comparison with master templates
acceptable for some applications, they are clearly not (Courtesy of Pietro Rosa TBM srl, Italy).
optimal. The problems common to many types of direct
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3.1 Systems for large scale metrology contact and non-contact; automatic measurements of
thousands of points are easily performed, even on
The measurement of large parts requires techniques complex surfaces. When the geometrical accuracy of
capable of recording point coordinates with measuring freeform surfaces is critical for the functional
ranges of several meters; the most common techniques performance, or for the appearance of a product, the
are laser tracking interferometry, photogrammetry and inspection process is typically conducted on CMMs.
laser radar. Measuring principles, capabilities, limitations Figure 9 shows a classical example: a CMM equipped
and application examples can be found in a CIRP keynote with a contact measuring probe while scanning a freeform
paper dedicated to large scale metrology [41]. profile on a mould.
The laser tracker measures the position of an In freeform metrology it is fundamental to measure a large
independent portable target that is manually positioned on number of points distributed on the surface to be
the surface of interest by an operator. Measurements can inspected. Scanning probing systems are today preferred
be performed at rates as high as 3000 points/s while to touch trigger probes. Contact measuring probing
moving the target, therefore high density profiles can systems have been discussed in a recent keynote paper
easily be scanned over large freeform surfaces. The [179]; they can measure up to 200 points/s at speeds as
target is typically spherical with a diameter in the range high as 150 mm/s. Faster measurements are possible
from 13 mm to 38 mm; special targets consisting of with non-contact probing systems based on optical
portable probing systems, both contact and non-contact, principles like autofocus, triangulation and conoscopic
are also available [100]. An example of laser tracker holograpy among others. Their advantages are, in
system with an integrated handheld laser scanner is general, the non-contact nature of the measurement
shown in Figure 8. The measuring process involves the principle, fast acquisition of a large number of points and
use of a high-speed camera, installed on the laser tracker high degree of flexibility in measurement settings [22].
in conjunction with a laser scanner, containing a diode Details of the measuring principles can be found in [159]
array and a reflector; while the laser tracker determines [66]. High-reflective surfaces may be measured on CMMs
the exact position of the reflector, the camera determines using e.g. a special triangulation optical probe [196] that
the position of the diode array in the photogram and, from uses three incident beams, passing through polarizing
that, computes the spatial orientation of the laser scanner. plates, so that specular light is eliminated to a large
Photogrammetry is a technique in which the position of degree and only the diffused light can reach the CCD
points of interest is calculated via optical triangulation camera. Different practical solutions are available (see
from two or more two-dimensional images taken from [194] for a list of commercial products), with an increasing
different locations. In industrial photogrammetry, the market share of optical probing systems on CMMs
measured surface is usually provided with physical compared to tactile ones. Optical probing systems are
markers; the number of points measured on a freeform distance sensors that can be classified into three basic
surface is therefore intrinsically limited. types, depending on the number and position of points
The laser radar is a measuring system in which a that are measured at the same time: point sensors, line
broadband frequency modulated infrared laser (100 GHz (or stripe) sensors and area sensor. An example is shown
modulation) provides a robust and eye-safe signal for a in Figure 10.
non-contact measurement capability up to 60 meters
radius. The main advantage is the complete automation
of the measurements process [41] [118].
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connected segments with encoders, called “articulated In this case, the projector of the pattern takes up the role
arm”. Measuring volume can reach some meters in of one camera. See [159] [32] [149] [148] [20] [186] for
radius. The device is manually operated and is portable; it additional details. Fringe projection has been also
can be useful for the measurement of freeform shapes implemented by different authors in combination with
with accessibility difficulties on-site, such as die cavities, other more accurate sensors; for example, the additional
heavy equipment or simply parts that cannot be moved. sensor may provide a higher resolution measurement on
Both contact and non-contact probing systems are some region of interest [184]. Furthermore adaptive fringe
available on commercial products [194]. projection methods are currently researched in order to
Machine tools can also act as position systems for optical widen the range of measurable surfaces conditions and
sensors [146]. Industrial robots are another possible fully- surface angles [33].
automated solution for the positioning of optical A typical measurement volume of a fringe projection
measuring systems, as an alternative to CMMs, for system is in the range of side between 0.1 m and 1 m,
repetitive inspection tasks on production lines where the with relative accuracy of up to 10-4. An example of a fringe
need of accuracy is limited, i.e. for sheet metal projection system is shown in Figure 11.
applications.
Other systems are available on the market for specific
tasks. Automated laser scanners with positioning and
rotating stages are common examples [194].
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technique are available on [7] [9] [8] [10] [53]. Figure 12 and null-lenses is the loss of universality in the metrology
shows an example of horizontal setup while measuring a tool. A new surface geometry will generally require a new
freeform mirror. null-lens [90]. Furthermore, null optics introduce
Deflectometric methods are suitable for the measurement challenging calibration issues, and the accuracy of the
of high precision optics, and fast inspection of larger resulting measurements is notoriously difficult to validate.
parts, such as painted car bodies. Other methods under Interferometric tests are also relatively expensive for large
investigation by several research groups are Moiré parts, especially for non-concave parts because the
deflectometry or the ‘Reflection Grating Method’ [85] [134] reference optics must then also be large [37].
[176] [143] [127] [128] [137] [94]. Deflectometry is also The cost of null-lenses and the time needed to fabricate
advantageous for the measurement of surface curvature, are therefore not acceptable for most applications. This is
since only the first derivative has to be calculated. As even more evident for true freeform shapes, which
every derivation increases the noise, the deflectometric obviously cannot be measured when the departure from a
methods have an unbeatable advantage compared to sphere is not within the dynamic range of the
other methods that capture shape data. interferometer. Alternative solutions are presented in the
following, which extend the measurement of complex
surfaces to the sub-millimetre vertical range.
Computer Generated Holograms (CGH) Interferometry
Complex shapes including aspheres and true freeforms
can be measured using Computer Generated Holograms
(CGH) [112] [129]. CGH interferometry is based on the
use of a surface specific diffractive element added to an
interferometer, which changes a spherical wavefront into
a more complex wavefront, as illustrated in Figure 13.
The principle was first described by Lohmann and Paris in
1967 [107] and then used for testing complex optical
geometry [110] [17]. CGH masks consist of a planar
substrate covered with a diffractive microstructure
produced by lithography. Due to the recent progress in
lithography, it is possible to produce these diffractive
microstructures with very high accuracy [159]. CGH
(a) masks are today commercially available [35] [3].
Interferometer
camera
CGH
Reference
sphere
Screen
Figure 13: The basic principle of CGH Interferometry.
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means that fiducials must be applied to the sample to be The technique has been successfully applied to different
measured [164]. measurement tasks, including local radius of curvature for
high precision spheres [59], thickness of wafers [82] and
aspherical surfaces [106] [116] [43] [42] [61] [47] [59]
Reference mirror [121]. As a result, it is possible to extend the measuring
range of aspheric departures from a few micrometres up
BS CGH
to several tens of micrometres, with measurement
Laser uncertainty better than 0.2 m [42]. The general
light disadvantages of stitching are that measurements can be
time consuming and data analysis is cumbersome and
uncertainty may be difficult to estimate.
Test
Interferometers as curvature sensors
Spatial filter shape Differential geometry offers curvature as a way to
measure form or profile. Measuring systems based on
interferometers as curvature sensors are being developed
Image plane at PTB [189] [40] [157] [158] and at NIST [90] [58] [111] to
measure complex optical surfaces up to one meter in
Figure 14: Example of a common interferometric setup for diameter, for which the form has to be known with
using a CGH as a null lens (adapted from [17]). nanometre uncertainty and lateral resolution smaller than
one millimetre.
While CGH metrology has been recently improved and
extended for the measurement of true freeform shapes,
the techniques for doing so expediently and economically
are not yet mature. CGH reference masks may take
weeks to design and fabricate; they are also specific for a
single shape, therefore the technique is quite expensive.
Typical applications reported in literature are
measurements of ultraprecision freeform mirrors for
space telescopes [192] [164] [17] [3].
Sub-aperture Interferometry Figure 16: Principle of the system developed at PTB,
Another method that has been used for many years is based on a interferometer (IF) as multiple distance sensor
sub-aperture interferometry [169] [25] [106] [116] [43] head, scanned along the surface under test by the linear
[42] [61] [47] [59]. Several commercially available stage (S). A mirror (M) is mounted to the side of the
instruments can automatically stitch flat surfaces, sensor head and an autocollimator (AC) measures the tilt
although stitching complex surfaces is inherently more angle of the sensor head [157].
complicated. The surface is measured in several
overlapping parts, or sub-apertures, that are within the
dynamic range of the interferometer. Accurate positioning
with multiple axes is required. Subsequently, the sub-
aperture measurements are combined, or “stitched”
together, to give a form error map for the entire surface of
the part [90]. Stitching algorithms have been developed to
compensate for several types of error introduced by the
interferometer optics and stage mechanics. These include
positioning errors, viewing system distortion, and the
system reference wave [47].
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scanning stage errors (see also Figure 16). The Scanning Force Microscopy is another important set of
interferometer is modelled as an array of distance techniques for micro- and nano dimensional metrology
sensors with constant spacing; it was shown in [40] that [28]. Investigations on an Atomic Force Microscope in
the surface profile can be reconstructed with very high measuring curved surfaces are available in [115] [113].
accuracy in the presence of scanning stage position and
tilt errors and systematic offset errors of the measuring 3.7 Other techniques
head. X-ray tomography
A similar project at NIST is developing the “Geometry X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) is emerging as a
Measuring Machine” (GEMM), a 3D shape-measuring powerful dimensional measuring technique. As no
instrument [90] [58] [111]. GEMM uses a commercial competitive measuring systems exist in many cases, e.g.
Twyman-Green interferometer as a curvature sensor. To for non-destructive inspection of interior surfaces or
move the sensor along the scan line, and position it parting surfaces of assembled parts, the field of
normal to the surface, a commercial Stewart platform is application of CT in industry is expanding from mere
used. Profile measurements of an elliptical mirror were defect analysis to dimensional and geometrical
compared with measurements using a long-trace profiler, measurement of products. On today’s market, many
a coordinate measuring machine, and sub-aperture different industrial CT systems are available: from large
stitching interferometry; differences were within 20 nm. scanners with linear accelerators that can easily
3.5 Profilometry penetrate 300 mm of steel and handling objects weighting
several tons, to portable systems with resolutions better
In stylus profilometry, a stylus is drawn over the surface than 1 m for inspection of micro parts. Recently, new
and a transducer measures the vertical displacement with metrological CT systems have been developed to be
resolutions that can be nanometric over a range of 10 used in substitution to classical CMMs or integrated on
millimetres or even more [31] [168]. The technique is very multisensor CMMs [101] [6]. Fundamentally, a CT
common in industry for testing of rotationally symmetric scanner consists of an X-ray emitting source, an object
aspheric shapes for optical applications. Contact stylus manipulator, a detector, electronics and computational
instruments with sufficient range to resolution that could devices for data acquisition and elaboration. On scanners
measure and analyze aspheric surfaces first appeared in with a line detector, 3D data acquisition is a time
the 1980s [161]. consuming task: in order to get a full 3D data set one has
The technique is well known and the wide acceptance of to scan a stack of single 2D slices (up to thousands of
calibration procedures for measurement traceability is one slices). This task can take several hours to days. A much
of the main merits. Limitations are the measuring force faster acquisition can be accomplished if a 2D array
that can be unacceptable for delicate surfaces, the detector is used. A weak-point of CT is that, due to its
maximum detectable slope and the difficulties related to complexity, measurement uncertainties have not yet been
the exact location of profiles measured on a freeform completely quantified. A brief overview on the main error
shape. Optical profilers can measure without physical sources influencing the measurement accuracy was given
contact; however, the maximum detectable slope is within a recent keynote [159]. Recent studies have been
reduced. conducted to assess some measurement uncertainty
An example of measuring device dedicated to the optics contributions and to quantify the dimensional
industry is the Panasonic UA3P machine; it has a measurement performances of CT systems [4] [19].
measurement volume up to 400 x 400 x 90 mm, probing However, further work is needed to ensure full traceability
force of 0.3 mN and laser interferometers for measuring of CT dimensional and geometrical measurements.
the displacement in 3 axis [166]. An example of on-going Ultrasonic sensor
development is the NANOMEFOS project, which aims at
developing a non-contact measuring device for freeform Measuring with ultrasound is a method which is widely
optical surfaces up to 500mm diameter by 100mm height, used to characterise the interior texture and detect
both convex and concave (slope max 45°) with a target imperfections of manifold materials, especially of complex
measuring uncertainty of 30 nm [64] [65] [122]. or safety-relevant components. Ultrasound inspection
systems use high frequency mechanical waves with a
3.6 Systems for micro/nano scale metrology frequency of some MHz to several GHz. Basically two
The measurement of form on small parts is really a different techniques are commonly used: the through-
challenge. On-going efforts for the development of CMMs transmission method, which relies on separate transmitter
suitable for these tasks are documented in [62]; and receiver probes for sending and receiving the
miniaturised probing systems are described in [178] [176]. ultrasound pulses, and the impulse-echo method which
In connection to form measurements, the main practical only requires one switchable transceiver.
problems to be solved is the relatively lower accuracy of Ultrasonic measurement results can be displayed as two
microprobes when scanning curved shapes. dimensional images which show plane cross sections of
At the micro and nano scale, freeform shapes can also be the workpiece. Most commonly used for the visualisation
inspected using surface topography measuring of scanned ultrasonic measurements are the so-called
instruments. Presentation of the measuring principles, B- and C-scans. The B-scan shows a vertical cut view of
typical instruments and related general metrology aspects the part, whereas the C-scan displays the interior texture
is available in keynote papers on surface metrology [66] in a certain depth parallel to the scanning plane (see
[31] [30] and micro/nano dimensional metrology [62] [28]. Figure 18). When applied to a manipulator or a five axis
General limitations are to be found for measuring range machine tool it is possible to save the ultrasonic
and maximum detectable slope, the latter being quite measuring data of the whole volume of even freeform
important for highly curved surfaces. parts when the ultrasonic signals of the single parts are
put to a stack of B-Scans bitmaps without data loss [156].
Confocal Microscopy is an interesting tool for form testing Standard computer tomography (CT) software can be
at microscale, since the maximum detectable slope is used to visualise the scanned volume in three
higher that other instruments, and can reach 75°. dimensions, whereas the gray value of the voxels (volume
Methods for the improvement of this feature on standard pixel) shows the intensity of the ultrasonic echos. By
optical profilers have been described [114]. saving all measuring data it is possible to generate and
evaluate offline any desired cross section of the part. The
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3D model can also be scaled according to the sonic measuring tasks, and the underlying manufacturing
speed of material and the measuring point density. technology relies to a large extend on the capabilities of
Depending on the used CT software various geometric the metrological set-up that will deliver data from the
measurements can be performed virtually within the part’s product or process to stabilize production.
volume. Measuring systems for freeform surfaces are using a wide
range of physical phenomena to match the needs of
Fluid-jet ultrasonic probe
specific measuring tasks. The above mentioned
measuring examples may be compared to the
requirements which can be derived from the categories of
B-scan part dimension, shape complexity, surface conditions and
material properties such as hardness and transparency
(Table 2). Some techniques are better understood than
others in terms of traceability and this reflects in the last
row of Table 2; an indication of typical measuring
Delamination uncertainty is given in Figure 19, even though a general
C-scan reference for all measuring tasks cannot be derived, due
to the different fields of application. In fact more important
than just to understand the underlying physical
phenomena during the measuring process is to
comprehend the restrictions and boundary condition for
Figure 18. Ultrasonic scan methods [156].
evaluating a geometric feature and the interaction of the
specimens’ properties with the measuring instrument, e.g.
3.8 Classification of measuring equipment for bandwidth-limiting and thus resolution decreasing effects
freeform geometry whilst scanning a feature with a high shape complexity.
Freeform surfaces are still representing challenging
Confocal Microscopy
Direct Comparison
X-ray tomography
Fringe reflection /
Fringe projection
Photogrammetry
Scanning Force
Optical Surface
Tactile Surface
Interferometry
Deflectometry
Laser tracker
Optical CMM
Tactile CMM
Microscopy
Part dimensions
large
medium
small
micro
Shape complexity
low
medium
high
Material and surface
hard, not sensitive
deformable
specular
transparent
opaque
Traceability
Table 2: Evaluation of some measuring techniques with respect to the classification proposed in Table 1.
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Coordinate Measuring Machines 10 -3 nu nv
Profilometry
¦¦ B u B v w
ui vj ij
10 -7 i 1 j 1
μm where
Systems for
large scale x p is a point on the surface and u and v its location
metrology parameters identifying the location of a point p within
Interferometric techniques the surface
nm
Systems for micro/nano scale metrology
x nu and nv are the number of control points in the u
and v direction
mm cm dm m dam
x Bui(u) and Bvj(v) are the normalised B-spline functions
Part dimension in the u and v direction. Bui(u) is uniquely defined by
the order ku and knot sequence tu with ku + tu u-knots.
Similarly, Bvj(v) is uniquely defined by the order kv
Figure 19: Typical range of measuring uncertainty vs. part and knot sequence tv with kv + tv v-knots
dimension for different categories of measuring systems.
x cij are the control points controlling the shape of the
surface and wij their respective weights. When all the
4 SPECIFICATION AND VERIFICATION OF weights are set to 1, a NURBS surface becomes a B-
FREEFORM SURFACES spline surface.
4.1 Definition of nominal shape
Curves and surface geometry is the underlying theory for
the description of complex shapes. Traditionally, curves
and surfaces have been represented by multiple
orthographic projections. With the advent of computer
graphics and the rapid developments in the area of
computational geometry, surface modelling has become a
common feature of computer-aided design (CAD)
systems. Today, the nominal geometry of a freeform
shape is typically defined by a CAD model.
Mathematical representation of surfaces
Freeform shapes are typically described using parametric
surface representations [44]. Commonly used parametric
surfaces are Bézier, B-spline and Non Uniform Rational Figure 20: Example of NURBS representation; u and v
B-spline (NURBS) surfaces. Parametric equations have represent the location parameters of a point on the
many advantages over non-parametric forms: surface [97].
x they are much more convenient to define and control 4.2 Tolerancing
the shape of a curve or a surface; The specification of tolerances on a freeform shape may
x their mathematical description is easy to express in be given on the basis of the profile tolerances defined for
term of matrices and this allows the use of standard surfaces, with or without reference to a datum, available
computation subroutines; from ISO 1101 [72].
x curves and surfaces descriptions are independent of Form tolerances restrict the deviations of the real surface
any coordinate system, therefore the choice of a from the nominal shape only and have no datum; the
coordinate system does not affect the shape of definition is as follows (see also Figure 21): “The
surfaces; tolerance zone is limited by two surfaces enveloping
spheres of diameter t, the centres of which are situated
x they are convenient for computer graphics software on a surface having the theoretically exact geometrical
and hardware in terms of speed, since the form.” This definition of tolerance zone allows the
computation of offset curves and surfaces can be specification of form tolerances for any complex surface;
simplified. it is the least restrictive type of tolerance, since there are
Modern CAD systems describe complex geometry using no restrictions for location and orientation of the surface.
NURBS that represent the industry standard for geometry When the functionality of the part is dependent also on
description in CAD and Computer Graphics applications, the orientation and location of the surface, specifications
even though B-spline surfaces are also popular in including datums are used; in this case the tolerance
commercial modelling software due to their simpler zone definition is more restrictive, since it controls
mathematics [190]. NURBS surfaces are a generalisation simultaneously location, orientation and form deviations.
of Bézier and B-spline surfaces. They are widely used for
the representation of freeform surfaces due to their Other international standards of relevance are ISO 1660
interesting properties such as the ability to handle large (drawing indications) [74] and ISO/TR 5460 [78]
surface patches, local controllability and the ability to (verification principles and traditional inspection methods).
represent also simple analytical shapes such as planes, However, modern specification and verification concepts
spheres, cylinders, cones, tori, etc. A NURBS surface is are not yet supported for freeform surfaces by a well
shown in Figure 20 and it is defined as [44] [190] [97]: defined normative basis nor a universally accepted
common praxis [117].
-821-
may be acceptable for slow measuring techniques. An
example is the measurement strategy for the inspection of
turbine blades on CMMs, based on high density contact
scanning of a limited number of cross sections.
-822-
incrementally as sample points are acquired; therefore, measured points. The point cloud is first divided into
with appropriate stopping criteria the number of points to several subsets with a process called segmentation [175],
be probed is defined. consisting of the identification of the various component
Adaptive techniques for scanning probing systems have surfaces which meet along sharp or smooth edges; each
also been developed. An example of adaptive scanning subset is then used as reference for the fitting process.
described in [46] is related to the use of a laser scanner Fitting of a freeform surface to a point cloud can be
for fully automated measurement of complex anatomic formulated as the creation of a NURBS surface in Eq. (1)
shapes (like ear and dental impressions [1]); their that approximates a cloud of m measured points within a
measurement is affected by the problem of uncovered given tolerance [97]. The surface parameters to be
areas due to occlusion. Adaptive scanning is used to determined from the points are the B-spline functions Bu
perform additional measurements that scan the missing and Bv, uniquely defined by their order ku and kv and
areas until full coverage is obtained with no need for knots tu and tv respectively, the n = nu · nv control points cij
expert knowledge for the creation of complex scan and their weights wij. In the case of grid distributed points,
sequences, tuning of scanning parameters or manual an interpolating surface can be obtained by choosing the
stitching/merging of different scans. The first step in number of control points n to be equal to the number of
adaptive scanning is to determine which areas are not measured points m. However, in most applications an
properly covered in the initial scan. Preferably this is done interpolating surface is not desired, since it may not be
by creating the surface model (e.g. by triangulation or stable, due to the random errors contained in the
fitting of parametric surfaces) or determined directly from measured points. The number of control points will thus
the point cloud. Dependent on the application some be less than the number of measurement points and least
holes, such as the bottom of the object, might be ignored. squares techniques are used to minimise the resulting
The full coverage stop criteria might be modified to error between the NURBS surface and the m measured
express other priorities, e.g.: holes under a certain points.
threshold are ignored, only a certain number of iterations When fitting NURBS surfaces, a large number of
are allowed, maximal scan time or a certain overall unknown definition parameters are to be identified. The
coverage is reached. identification of all parameters at the same time would
yield a non-linear least squares problem. The fitting
Probe path planning procedure usually includes the following steps [108]:
Probe path planning for the measurement of freeform 1. Parameterisation of measured points.
surfaces has also been investigated. In [67] [2] [34] and
other papers the focus is on a general framework for 2. Parameterisation of knots.
probe path planning for CMMs equipped with touch 3. Applying least-squares fitting to identify control
trigger probes; the authors describe algorithms for the points.
extension to freeform shape of typical functionalities For general least squares surface fitting without
available in computer-aided path planning systems, constraints, the knots can be set uniformly or by using an
including measurement simulation, collision detection and average method [109]; automatic smoothing procedures
optimisation of the probing sequence. are also available [141].
4.5 Measurement execution Surface fitting, subject to boundary geometric constraints,
When measurement strategy and planning have been is required when the created surface has to be
defined, the measurement of the freeform shaped part incorporated into a CAD model consisting of several
can be performed using the selected equipment. surface patches that join with positional, tangential or
curvature continuity. Positional continuity, sufficient for
The basic result delivered by any measuring device is a Computer Graphics, is clearly not enough for some
set of points that represent the measured surface. These engineering applications, due to functional or aesthetical
data, in some applications, may be used for the reasons. Higher order continuity between adjacent
reconstruction of a model of the part; in the next section a patches can be obtained by advanced modelling of local
summary of this optional procedure is given. parameters, as described in [97] [140].
4.6 Reverse engineering Many other efforts on the improvement of surface
The design and prototyping of freeform shaped parts may modelling have been reported, including integration of
involve the use of physical models at some stages of the surface representations in more general product
design process. In the automotive industry, for example, modelling frameworks [91] [170] [84], advanced surface
the initial conceptual design of a car body is often done by fitting techniques [190], efficient computation of curves on
stylists who formalise their ideas by making a clay or surfaces [142], techniques based on neural networks [96]
wooden model. Similar examples can also be found in the [49], interactive modelling [102], adaptive measurement
ship-building industry, aircraft industry and industries for procedures and integrated modelling [23] and
mould and die making where freeform shapes are combination of data from different measuring systems to
concerned [109]. In order to start or continue the improve the efficiency of the reconstruction process [18].
production process from these physical models, the
shape information must be transferred to a CAD system 5 DATA EVALUATION AND COMPARISON TO
as a CAD model. Since this process aims at the creation NOMINAL GEOMETRY
of a CAD model from a physical part, it is called reverse
engineering in mechanical engineering, as opposed to In the following section, the focus is on the post-
conventional engineering. While the latter transforms processing operations of the measured data and, finally,
engineering concepts and models into real parts, in tolerance verification.
reverse engineering real parts are transformed into 5.1 Registration of multiple measured data
engineering models [175].
Some measuring systems are not able to measure the
Most of the proposed solutions for reverse engineering complete freeform shape of interest in one single setup,
are realised in two steps. During the first step, the surface due to intrinsic limitations of the measuring principle or
of the physical model is measured and typically a relevant practical and economical reasons. Examples are fringe
number of points, often called “point cloud”, is obtained. In projection systems and laser scanners with limited
the second step, a CAD model is reconstructed from the
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positioning and orientation possibilities with respect to the should stop when the objects of interest have been
part being measured. When a single setup is not isolated.
sufficient, multiple measurement views are taken with the There are practical problems using many linear filters
part placed in different orientations in front of the (e.g. Gaussian) on freeform surfaces, since the weighting
measuring system, or vice versa. The relative alignment function depends on the local geometry. Actually, the
of data points measured in multiple orientations is a definition of those filters on a freeform surface is still
process called registration [175]. unclear; using filtering, only e.g. on the projection to a
Registration of multiple views is based on overlapping of plane, will introduce distortions. The general use of linear
measured information and different approaches have filters on a freeform surface is an unsolved problem and
been proposed. Hardware solutions based on multiple part of current research. There are no similar problems
sensors or accurate rotating/ positioning systems is one using Morphological and Segmentation filters [83].
possibility, although the cost increase may not be
acceptable for some applications. An alternative simple 5.3 Alignment of measured data to nominal
solution is to add some reference objects (e.g. spheres or geometry
other targets) in such a way that at least some of them The alignment procedure consists of finding the
are measured in each view; the registration in then based correspondence between the measurement coordinate
on the measured position of the added reference objects. system and the nominal coordinate system of the part,
Many software solutions have been proposed for the taking into account the type of tolerance to be verified.
registration of the multiple views on the basis of In the case of profile tolerance related to datums with
overlapping measured data only, with and without use of simple geometry, the procedure is straightforward and
the nominal geometry as a reference. This approach is similar to common tolerance verification. Datums are
very popular in computer graphics literature, where measured with an appropriate strategy and the alignment
accuracy is not critically restricted. The preferred is obtained using simple software operations for
technique is based on the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) coordinate transformation. In some applications, the
algorithm and its modifications [24] [197] [175] [103] alignment of a freeform shaped part is achieved at the
[178]. measurement stage by presenting the part at a desired
position and orientation, using special tools, fixtures or
5.2 Filtering other physical alignment devices, totally dedicated for
Measured surface data require filtering operations for a specific products, on which datums may be established.
proper separation of form from other surface geometrical These devices are common in industry even though they
features and for the treatment of measurement noise. are not an optimal solution; they normally require
This applies also to freeform metrology, even though the precision manufacturing for both the mating surfaces and
level of implementation of filtering operations is limited if the reference features used to align the part located by a
compared to other form measurements (i.e. roundness). precision fixture. This procedure is usually costly, due to
Today, most software tools for the analysis of freeform time and effort required to design and manufacture new
measured data perform very basic filtering operations, fixtures [197] [103].
mainly for the elimination of outliers based on threshold or When no datums with simple geometry are specified for
statistical detection, and for the reduction of the number the profile tolerance, the alignment procedure is based on
of points in case of too large data sets. the freeform shape itself. Software procedures are then
Four classes of filters have been proposed by the recent required for mathematically aligning the measured data to
ISO 16610 series of standards [80]: the nominal model.
x Linear Filters replace every point of the measured In general, two alignment steps are needed and may be
data with a weighted average of points in its identified as coarse and fine alignment.
neighbourhoods. An example is the Gaussian filter,
which provides a suppression of higher order
frequencies exploiting a smoothing function. Another
example is the Spline filter, which overcomes some
limitations of the Gaussian filter when measuring
curved surfaces [99].
x Morphological Filters are based on mathematical
Minkowski operations, in which a structuring element
(e.g. rolling ball or sliding straight-line segment)
interacts in a given data set and modifies its shape.
Dilation and erosion are two fundamental
morphological operations. Dilation is the expansion of
the input set by the structuring element, while erosion
is obtained by shrinking the input set by the
structuring element [120].
x Robust filters are tolerant to outliers, i.e. they are
insensitive to extreme points. These are effective in
particular when measurements are affected by Figure 23: An example of software based alignment
localized disturbances, or when external features procedure: initial stage, before coarse alignment [193].
interfere with measurement operations. Forthcoming
standards on robust filters are going to encompass in
particular Gaussian regression and Spline filters. Coarse alignment
x Segmentation filters are useful for dividing a A coarse alignment is necessary for the practical
surface into its constituent homogeneous sub- feasibility of those measurement processes based on
regions. The subdivision level depends on the computer-controlled measuring devices, and/or for
problem being solved: the segmenting operation providing an initial good approximation for fine alignment
algorithms. The coarse alignment is commonly provided
-824-
by fixturing devices with a certain degree of positioning Other alignment methods may be closer to application
repeatability or by software operations assisted by an specific requirements. For example, a “weighted” least-
operator, depending of the measuring principle and squares procedure may be more cost effective for the
software in use. Figure 23 shows an example of initial alignment of a freeform shaped part that has to be
state for a software based alignment procedure, in which repaired; different weightings are given to the measured
a point cloud originated by an optical system is aligned to points, depending on the cost needed to eventually fix or
the CAD model. repair the associated actual points [96]; for parts to be
A general review of the literature related to alignment machined, another criteria for alignment could be the
procedures is available in [103] [68]. Methods for the maximisation of the minimum positive deviation, in order
alignment of measured data to nominal geometry for both to have enough material in all regions of the part.
contact and non-contact measuring technology are Another alignment method is based the use of “virtual
discussed. In most of the published approaches, the gauges” for aligning specific points as required by the
alignment is based on an iterative process; the ICP application. Figure 25 shows an example.
algorithm is widely used also for this purpose.
A feature-based approach has been proposed [105] [104]
as an automatic alignment procedure of measured data
presenting no initial coarse alignment to the nominal
model. In the first step, both the measured data and the
nominal geometry are analysed and surface features are
extracted by an automatic segmentation process. Based
on curvature, points are classified in four basic shape
categories: concave, convex, saddle and flat. Extracted
surface features are defined as a group of neighbouring
points having the same shape classification. An example
is shown in Figure 24. In the second step, the extracted
features are evaluated to find possible corresponding
features. After further classification and evaluation, from
identified corresponding features, a set of feature centre
points is calculated for both measured and nominal data.
These two sets are then used to calculate the
transformation matrix for the coarse alignment of the
measured data to the nominal model.
-825-
An approach based on the separation of topography into
three global form deviations in proposed in [132], where
0th, 1st and 2nd order form deviations and related
parameters have been derived mathematically.
An example focused on local thickness measurements on
sheet metal parts is reported in [187]. The evaluation of
local thickness may be inaccurate, due to incorrect
calculation of surface normals as represented in Figure
28. The proposed Medial Axis Transformation method
allows the identification of the medial surface, on which
normals the local thickness may be calculated with
reduced uncertainty. The calculation method is meeting
the definition of the extracted median surface given by
ISO 14660-1 and ISO 14660-2 [73]. Figure 28: Error introduced by thickness measurements
based on surface normals [187].
probing direction
-826-
An alternative approach is not to compensate probe
radius during CMM measurements but only after the
rough data have been collected and the coordinate
system has been well defined during data evaluation; in
this way the cosine-errors are minimized [95]. A possible
implementation is to calculate offset surfaces in the CAD
model and use the probe centre points for fine alignment
and eventually data evaluation.
Error sources with optical systems
Additional error sources may appear when using an
optical measuring system on a freeform object. The
surface characteristic itself dominates the uncertainty of
measurement, therefore its variation in terms e.g. of local
curvature may add uncertainty. Other common errors are
also induced by: the slope of the surface (which may
produce direct reflections to the detector), volume
Figure 31: Example of virtual distortion compensation
scattering (e.g. for plastic material), or an inhomogeneous
using a FEM model with boundary conditions [180]
surface texture. Secondary reflections, specular
reflections, volumetric scattering, colour transitions, or
ridges left by machining, may lead to gross systematic Software errors
measuring errors [147] [21] [20].
The measuring and analysis software may be a significant
Deformation effects source of errors. The procedures for the registration of
The effect of forces due to gravity, measuring principle or multiple measured data, for example, quickly propagate
clamping operations on a deformable object may lead to a the measuring uncertainty found in a single measurement
significantly higher measuring uncertainty in freeform view; a practical example is reported in [147], where the
metrology [183]. The deformation introduced by clamping measurement uncertainty after the registration of a few
is more significant for freeform shapes, due to their multiple views is three times higher than the uncertainty
complexity. evaluated for a single view on a fringe projection system.
Other errors may arise from the procedures for the
Different approaches have been proposed for the
alignment of measured data to nominal geometry, or in
reduction of these effects. A functional approach is to use
the calculation of local or global evaluation parameters.
a fixture that simulates the assembly of the part, as
shown in Figure 30. The limitations of this approach are Data exchange is another potential error source.
time and costs for the preparation of the fixture. An Geometric data are frequently exchanged between
alternative approach is to rely on rapid prototyping different modelling, manufacturing and inspection
systems for the preparation of a freeform dedicated fixture systems. For example a sphere can be represented as a
with the same external geometry of the part being quadratic NURBS surface, where in another system it
inspected. may be represented as a procedural type in terms of its
centre and radius. In a third system, the same sphere
may be described as a surface of revolution, specifying
the axis of revolution and a half circle as the cross
section. Some CMM measuring software systems are still
based on Bezier mathematics and they might not be fully
compatible with the current CAD systems. Translation
between Bezier and NURBS based systems can be
problematic and the continuity between the surfaces may
not be maintained. These error sources are particularly
significant for ultraprecision manufacturing processes [11]
[48].
Therefore, the verification of measuring software is very
important and some organisations are concentrating their
efforts on this part of the measurement process. Some
National Metrology Institutes are active in providing
reference data sets and services for the verification of
measuring and analysis software.
6.2 Performance verification of measuring systems
Performance verification is an important documentation of
the measurement capability of any measuring device;
Figure 30: Example of functional fixture for the simulation standards and guidelines are available for the practical
of the assembly constraints on a flexible part [119]. implementation of performance verification tests on some
measuring instruments (e.g. the ISO 10360 series of
standards for CMMs) or will be available in the future (e.g.
A software based approach for the compensation of national and international standards on optical coordinate
deformation has also been described [180]. The freeform measuring systems, laser trackers, articulated arms, etc.).
workpiece is placed in the measuring volume of the In general, performance verification is based on the use
selected instrument with no special fixture; measurement of calibrated artefacts, for which geometry is usually very
data is then corrected using a compensation method simple and restricted to simple shapes, i.e. planes or
based on a FEM model in which the forces acting on the spheres in different configurations. Such procedures are
part are added as boundary conditions. Figure 31 shows therefore quite different from the typical use on the
an example. measuring device when dealing with freeform shaped
-827-
parts. Some examples of procedures and artefacts “closer freeform surfaces, complexity is also increased by the
to application” found in literature will be briefly described measurand itself.
in the following. The general model described by the Guide to the
Investigations on contact scanning are described in [151], expression of uncertainty in measurement [75] is difficult
where calibrated cylinders and spheres have been to apply to complex measurement processes, and more
measured according to procedures called Cylinder test specific evaluation procedures have been developed,
and Spiral test; measuring conditions were similar to especially for coordinate metrology [191]. Methods for
those of freeform measurements, in terms of measuring industrial level uncertainty estimation for almost any kind
speed, point density and complexity of scanning path. of measurements using CMMs, and therefore for the
The use of cylindrical geometry has also been proposed establishment of traceability of measurements in general,
in the micro range; in [115], the cylindrical surface of two are suggested in a new series of standards currently
optical fibers has been used for the vertical calibration of under preparation (ISO/TS 15530); the only one
AFMs. Sinusoidal artefacts, shown in Figure 32, have published, Part 3 [79], deals with the substitution by
also been proposed to evaluate the scanning calibrated workpieces. A new procedure, proposed as
performances of different CMMs as a function of speed Part 2 [76], describes how to evaluate measurement
and direction of the scan [45]. uncertainty by performing measurements on the work
pieces, involving different orientations and measurement
strategies. Part 4 [77] will specify common rules for the
uncertainty estimation by computer simulation of the
measurement process [173] [171], while Part 5 will
provide guidance for the use of expertise in uncertainty
statements. In the following, a review of implementations
of these methods to the calibration of freeform shaped
parts is presented.
-828-
proposed for the calibration of CMMs measuring bevel
gears [133], for which a “synthetic” gauge was built up
with basic geometric elements representing the freeform
functional surfaces of tooth flanks. The declared
limitations of the Substitution method are related to the
availability of artefacts with sufficient precision, stability,
reasonable cost and sufficiently small calibration
uncertainty.
To overcome these limitations, the Modular Freeform
Gauge (MFG) concept has been proposed [152], in which
the freeform surface is substituted by the surfaces of
simple objects, assembled in such a way that the shape
of interest is simulated as closely as possible. The MFG
concept has practical limitations with respect to feasible
configurations and similarity requirements; however, it
can help in establishing traceability as shown in Figure
34. An example of application to a turbine blade (see
Figure 35) [154], in which geometry has been substituted
by an assembly of a cylinder and two flat surfaces, was
used to evaluate freeform measuring uncertainty in the
order of 2-3 μm for high accuracy CMM inspecting profile
tolerances using contact scanning.
Unit “METRE”
Figure 35: Example of MFG configuration (left) for the
uncertainty assessment related to the measurement of a
calibration of form calibration and
turbine blade (right) [154].
and dimensions verification of CMMs
Computer simulation
Single objects with Length-measuring
regular geometry capability of CMMs A modern solution for the assessment of uncertainty is
represented by the Computer Simulation approach [173],
but currently it has been implemented for simple features
form and relative position only. In principle, the method may be extended to
dimensions of objects of objects freeform features, since the CAD model of the object and
the CNC measurement program well represent the
geometrical model of the measurement process. The
Modular interaction of tip geometry, form errors, positioning
Freeform Gauge accuracy and misalignment should be taken into account
(MFG) for extension of the method to freeform geometry.
6.4 Classification of freeform calibrated artefacts
Experimental uncertainty Some of the mentioned methods for performance
assessment procedure evaluation of measuring systems and for the evaluation of
(ISO TS 15530-3) measurement uncertainty rely on calibrated artefacts
having freeform geometry. Figure 36 shows an evaluation
Actual freeform object of the examples described in the previous paragraphs, in
measured on the CMM terms of dimensions and calibration uncertainty.
10 -3
Figure 34: Traceability of CMM freeform measurements
using Modular Freeform Gauges [154].
mm 10 -5
Calibration uncertainty
Application
Use of multiple measurement strategies
specific artefacts
The draft ISO/TS 15530-2 [76] describes an experimental
10 -7
procedure for the evaluation of uncertainty; the principle
is to randomly vary the uncertainty contributors from μm Modular
Freeform
measurement to measurement, changing measurement
Fiber Gauge
point distribution and object position. The feasibility of the artefact
method was also demonstrated for complex freeform
geometries, by calibration of local deviations from a CAD
model [172]. Experiments on various freeform parts nm
evaluated an uncertainty of 2-3 μm for a high accuracy
CMM and 4-8 μm for a medium accuracy CMM [153] mm cm dm m dam
[154]. The evaluation procedure may be time consuming Part dimension
and deliver overestimated uncertainty, but it does not
require freeform calibrated artefacts, special software or
expertise [172]. Figure 36: Dimensions and calibration uncertainty of
some examples of freeform calibration artefacts.
-829-
NURBS Based Ultra-Precision Free-Form
7 CONCLUSIONS Machining, Annals of the CIRP, 55/1:547-550.
Freeform shaped parts are of increasing interest in many [12] Brennan, J. K., Crampton, A., Jiang, X., Leach, R.,
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machines, laser trackers, stand still optical systems, milling of free-form surfaces for optical mold inserts,
interferometric systems and others including X-ray Proc. 19th Ann. Meeting ASPE.
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