Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Geophysical methods integration for deep aquifer reservoir

characterization and modeling (Sidi Bouzid basin, central Tunisia)
D. Khazri*, H. Gabtni
Georessources Laboratory, Center of Water Researches and Technologies, B.P 273, Borj C

edria, Soliman, 8020, Tunisia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Groundwater resources of the Sidi Bouzid basin (central Tunisia) are hydrogeologically and economically
Received 14 March 2017 important. This importance is restrained by the complex and poorly understood subsurface geometry of
Received in revised form the main basin, the overexploitation of its near-surface aquifers and the lack of deep hydrogeological
16 November 2017
wells in the study area. To overcome these issues a multidisciplinary study was conducted integrating
Accepted 20 November 2017
geological, geophysical, and hydrogeological methods. As the regional structural tendency of the study
Available online 23 November 2017
area is predominated by Atlassic NE-SW trends, gravity anomalies could be defectively interpreted. Thus,
different gravity treatments and filters were processed. A residual gravity response of Sidi Bouzid basin
Keywords:
Central Tunisia
was rationally isolated, the main structural features were then outlined and depths of rooted sources
Aquifer geometry were detected. The obtained results are in a good conformity revealing a newly detected sub-horizontal
Gravity data filters geophysical lineament that seems to be a high zone which may act as a hydrogeological barrier within
Gravity forward modeling the investigated basin.
Depth to basement modeling Forward gravity modeling supported by 2D seismic reflection data over geological and geophysical
Geophysical mapping methods integration, highlighted the Sidi Bouzid basin subsurface extent. It also defined its thick Tertiary
complex substratum and the unknown total thickness and arrangement of its subsurface series. The used
approaches provided a depth to basement modeling of the siliciclastic Tertiary complex estimating its
depth and disclosing its subsurface configuration and its internal preferential water flow directions. A
geophysical basement topography mapping enhancing the subsurface overview was also yielded.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction its hydrogeological basin subsurface geometry, structural frame-

The Sidi Bouzid region is in the eastern side of the central
Tunisian Atlas (Fig. 1) characterized by an arid to semi-arid climate.
The Sidi Bouzid basin is one of the most important and largest
hydrogeological basins in central Tunisia (Smida, 2008; Yangui
et al., 2011; Azaiez et al., 2011). However, near surface water re-
sources in this area are overexploited due to the increase in human
demands (Smida, 2008; Yangui et al., 2011; Azaiez et al., 2011;
Khazri and Gabtni, 2015). This area houses many sedimentary
detrital and carbonated water reservoir levels including the Sidi
Bouzid basin groundwater. The latter was the subject of several
studies investigating its shallow and deep aquifer systems, its
hydro-geophysical and geochemical properties, its vulnerability to
pollution and its recharge mode and mineralization (Yangui et al.,
2011; Aydi et al., 2013; Jellalia et al., 2015). Yet, investigations of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dadou-cosmos@live.fr (D. Khazri).
work and main aquifers extent and deepening are still lacking.
The basin's siliciclastic Tertiary complex is of a big interest. Its
sedimentary series are known for their significant thickness vari-
ation and their vertical and lateral heterogeneity. The geometry and
structural features of this Tertiary package remain unrecognized. Its
substratum is also undefined since it could not be reached by the
neighboring hydrogeological wells (Smida, 2008; Zouaghi, 2008;
Azaiez, 2011; Azaiez et al., 2011; Yangui et al., 2011; Aydi et al.,
2013). A good understanding of the Tertiary complex framework
within Sidi Bouzid basin and a reassessment of deep water re-
sources highly require a multidisciplinary study integrating
geological, geophysical and hydrogeological approaches. Such
integration based on gravity analysis, seismic reflection interpre-
tation and gravity modeling is of a good interest in the geometry
characterization of aquifer reservoir. In fact, the combination of
these geophysical exploration methods helps to depict the target
aquifer geometry with a good reliability and a cost effective manner
(Lachaal et al., 2012; Gabtni et al., 2012; Alam and Ahmad, 2014;

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.11.024
1464-343X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
290 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 1. Study area location map and the used geophysical data (after Ben Haj Ali et al., 1985).
Jellalia et al., 2015; Khazri and Gabtni, 2015; Djebbi and Gabtni,
2018). The gravity method contributes to the exploration of sedi-
mentary basins groundwater resources and the characterization of
complex aquifer geometry in the subsurface. Thus, the resulting
measured density differences or anomalies in the earth's gravita-
tional field could define the underlying geologic structures, high-
light important structural features and detect subsurface
geophysical lineaments. Applying this method is then crucial to
solve some of the hydrogeological problems by locating potential
zones for exploitation (Mariita, 2007; Gabtni et al., 2012; Khazri
and Gabtni, 2015; Djebbi and Gabtni, 2018). The main character-
istic of the seismic reflection method is its ability to map structures
up to several kilometers in the subsurface and to highlight the
subsurface layers arrangement and the structural framework for a
better understanding of the geological and hydrogeological setting
(Hunter and Hobson, 1977; Martin et al., 2013). In geophysics,
gravity forward modeling is a procedure calculating a response
from a given earth model. It's based on an iterative manipulation
leading to a resulting model, providing an answer to a case study
question and giving the closest subsurface geometry definition. In
this paper, the gravity modeling process is used to valid reflection
seismic interpretations. It's a technique revealing subsurface
geological formations properties, highlighting their geometry and
determining the aquifer reservoirs depths with an acceptable pre-
cision (Bullard and Cooper, 1948; Mundim et al., 1998; Oldenburg
and Jones, 2007). At this level, integration of seismic and gravity
methods is then fundamental in producing gravity forward models
of semi-deep and deep aquifers.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the Sidi Bouzid basin
geometry and structural features to reveal its subsurface layers
arrangement, estimate the depth of its Tertiary siliciclastic complex
and define its substratum. This study is also an attempt to under-
stand the important relation between the detected geophysical
lineaments and the basin's hydrogeological aspect and to carry out
a close to reality image in the subsurface of the main basin in its
geophysical and hydrogeophysical framework.
The present work is divided into four sections. The first is
devoted to several gravity treatments and filters defining the Sidi
Bouzid basin geometry and determining its important structural
features. The second section presents interpreted seismic reflection
sections providing an idea about the distribution of the subsurface
stratigraphic units and a 3D visualization of the basin's siliciclastic
Tertiary complex isochronous mapping. In the third section, a
gravity forward modeling is computed to define the Sidi Bouzid
basin layers arrangement and to propose a depth to basement
modeling of its thick Tertiary complex. A gravity mapping of the
main sedimentary basin is also accomplished. Finally, section four
concludes with a summary.
2. Geological and hydrogeological setting
Central Tunisia including the Sidi Bouzid basin, belongs to the
Atlassic chain exposing a geodynamic and paleogeographic context
controlled by Eustatic, Tectonics, and Halokinetic factors (Boukadi,
1994; Be
dir, 1995; Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011). Such factors were
recorded in the area's sedimentary series. The central Tunisian
Atlas is limited to the North by the Tunisian dorsal, to the South by
the Southern Atlas and to the East by the North-South axis (NOSA)
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
(Pervinquiere, 1903; Zargouni, 1985; Soyer, 1987; Gabtni et al.,
2005). The latter, shows diachronous and local Upper Cretaceous-
Paleocene unconformities identified in the field. Some authors
interpret it as compressive while others are in favor of extensive
events (Burollet, 1956; Gourmelen, 1984; Ouali, 1984).
The study area is controlled by Atlassic directions, an important
fault network and a Mesozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary deposits
(Hlaiem, 1998; Azaiez, 2011). The Sidi Bouzid region is bordered to
the North by Jebel Ezaouia and Es Souda anticline, to the East by
Oued El Hajel syncline and the (NOSA) axis (Burollet, 1956; Rabhi,
1999; Abbe s, 2004), to the West by Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet and
Ouled Asker syncline, and to the South by the Kebar massif (Fig. 1).
The area of interest is characterized by a complex and polyphase
Table 1
Densities, ID number and geologic age of the stratigraphic units (polygons).
Polygon/Body ID Stratigraphic units age Density g/cm3
1 Plio-Quaternary 2.1
2 Miocene 2.1
3 Oligocene 2.48
4 Early Tertiary 2.3
5 Upper Cretaceous 2.5
6 Lower Cretaceous 2.4
7 Jurassic 2.6
8 Trias 2.27
Fig. 2. Bouguer gravity map of the study area.
291
tectonic regime dominated mainly by compressive and extensive
events controlled by megafaults oriented NE-SW, N-S, and NW-SE
(Kadri, 1988; Boukadi, 1994; Bouaziz et al., 2002; Zouaghi, 2008;
Dhahri et al., 2015).
The sedimentary series from Triassic to Quaternary of the Sidi
Bouzid basin could be described as follows: Discordant Triassic
extrusions inducing the tectonic complexity known in central
Tunisia and composed of gypsum, anhydrite, clays or dolomites;
Jurassic deposits are carbonate members separated by marl de-
posits (Soussi, 2002). Early Cretaceous series are detrital and
carbonated to the northern side (Azaiez et al., 2008). Late Creta-
ceous deposits are composed of clay, gypsum, shale and carbonates
(Zouaghi, 2008).
Earlier studies present the Sidi Bouzid basin Tertiary complex as
a thick siliciclastic sedimentary fill of an undefined substratum
(Smida, 2008; Yangui et al., 2011; Aydi et al., 2013). This sedimen-
tary complex, focus of the present study, is also known for its sig-
nificant lateral and vertical deposits heterogeneity essentially
composed of sand, clay, gypsum and gravels intercalations (Yangui
et al., 2011). Such sedimentary fill was always described as lentic-
ular and/or multi-layered without a clear idea about its subsurface
geometry, its series extension and total thickness, its substratum
depth and configuration or about the geophysical framework of the
important hydrogeological basin in which it exists.
292 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308

3. Methods and databases of the gravity filed sources depths by the mean of a power spectrum
process enhanced the choice of the adequate regional gravity
3.1. Gravity survey anomaly.

The gravity survey was conducted over data obtained from the
3.1.2. Power spectrum analysis
National office of Mines (ONM). The average density was fixed to
Estimating depths of a studied domain and defining deep, in-
2.4 g/cm3 and Bouguer and Free-air corrections were made upon
termediate and shallow sources could be performed by the mean of
sea level.
a power spectrum process (Ravat et al. 2007). It provides sources
depths by measuring the slope of the radial power spectrum using
the following equation (1) (Spector and Grant, 1970):
3.1.1. Bouguer/residual gravity anomaly analysis
For a subsurface imaging of the study zone highlighting its
Log E(k) ¼ 4p hk (1)
major features and structural lineaments, a crucial first step in data
interpretation was made which is a regional-residual gravity
Where h: depth in Km; K: wave number in cycles/Km.
anomaly separation isolating the main basin gravity response.
Associated with extra geophysical procedures, this technique is
A reliable regional-residual gravity anomaly separation could be
the key to an accurate geometric characterization through depths
performed using several techniques such as: upward continuation
estimation of the subsurface geological interfaces (Reid et al., 1990).
filters, polynomial regression trend surfaces and gravity field radial
power spectrum (Bo Holm, 1987; Jacobsen, 1987; Beltrao et al.,
1991; Dubois et al., 2011). In the current study, isolating the Sidi 3.1.3. Edge detection of gravity sources
Bouzid basin residual gravity response was based on the use of To highlight the Sidi Bouzid basin's structural features control-
several upward continuation compared to a computed polynomial ling its geometry setting and to improve sources edges detection
regression of first, second and third order. Furthermore, estimation (Blakely and Simpson, 1986), the authors used enhanced gravity

Fig. 3. Upward continuation map of the Bouguer gravity field to 6 km

D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308 293

Fig. 4. Third order polynomial regression map of the study area.

Fig. 5. Power spectrum analysis of the study area gravity field.

294 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
treatments as vertical and horizontal gradient and filters based on
them (tilt angle and source edge detector). By these means, new
geophysical lineaments relevant to an accurate structural and
hydrogeological overview of the studied basin could be detected.
In fact, the tilt angle filter is the ratio between the first vertical
derivative and the field's horizontal gradient (Fairhead et al., 2010).
It varies between 90 and þ90 estimating shallow and deep
sources (Miller et al., 1994). The tilt angle equation (2), is defined as
(Verduzco et al., 2004):
TA ¼ arctan (VGD/THD)
Where: VGD ¼ dG/dz is the vertical gravity derivative;
THD ¼ SQRT((dG/dx)2 þ (dG/dy)2) is the total horizontal de-
rivative and G is the gravity field.
3.1.4. Euler deconvolution analysis
A geophysical Euler deconvolution process was computed
determining the depths and the subsurface distribution of density
Fig. 6. Moho trend map of the study area.
sources (Reid et al., 1990; Reid and Thruston, 2014). This method
calculates Euler depth solutions based on tow relevant parameters,
the structural index relative to the geometry of the subsurface
geological structures and the window size depending on the orig-
inal gravity data spacing (Reid et al., 2012). In our case of study, to
detect faults contacts the structural index was fixed to (1) and the
window size was of (10*10). Euler solutions were classified in
accordance with depths ranges.
3.2. Seismic survey
(2)
Forward gravity modeling of the Sidi Bouzid hydrogeological
basin and its subsurface series depend on field knowledge plus
both gravity and seismic analysis. Hence, four 2D seismic reflection
profiles (P1; P2; P3; P4 in Fig. 1) were calibrated and interpreted

dir, 1995; Zouaghi,
using earlier studies (Doglioni et al., 1990; Be
2008; Azaiez, 2011; Khazri and Gabtni, 2015). Seismic reflection
data collection was conducted by the General Geophysical Com-
pany (GGC) for the “Union Texas Tunisia” company in the region of
Kasserine from May to September 1981 and provided by the
Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities (ETAP). Earlier studies,
outcropping data and field geology were also used. In this section,
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
an isochronous mapping of the Sidi Bouzid Tertiary complex
basement (Cretaceous/Tertiary major limit) was also performed.
3.3. Forward gravity modeling
As mentioned above, integration of gravity and seismic data is
fundamental to the forward gravity modeling process. This tech-
nique can provide an accurate subsurface geometry characteriza-
tion of the target hydrogeological basin. It also can afford and define
the extension of its semi-deep and deep aquifer stratigraphic units.
To initiate the modeling procedure, forward gravity models were
performed upon the Bouguer-Residual gravity grid in superposition
with the interpreted seismic reflection sections (Fig. 1). Final
models were constrained by bodies (polygons) referring to sub-
surface stratigraphic units deduced from the seismic reflection in-
terpretations. Average density values (Table 1) were attributed to
each elementary body according to its lithology identified from the
area's outcropping rocks, well data and anterior works (Doglioni
et al., 1990; Smida, 2008; Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011; Khazri and
Gabtni, 2015). During the forward modeling process, estimated
densities (Table 1) were subtracted from the regional density value
(2.4 g/cm3) given by the Tunisian National Office of Mines (ONM).
The iterative manipulation of the modeled bodies (stratigraphic
units) during the forward modeling process was stopped once an
acceptable matching between the calculated and observed field
Fig. 7. Residual gravity anomaly map of the study area.
295
curves is reached. The resulting gravity model is then considered
geologically and geophysically valid.
Further investigations were conducted based on conjoined re-
sults and interpretations from six forward gravity models, of which
four are presented in the current paper. A depth to basement
modeling was computed tracking the depth and configuration of
the Sidi Bouzid basin Tertiary complex substratum (Oldow and
Sprenke, 2006). Furthermore, based on the forward gravity
models a basement topography mapping of the main basin ac-
cording to its observed and theoretical calculated residual gravity
signatures was implemented.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Gravity data analysis
4.1.1. Bouguer/residual gravity analysis
Using the available gravity data, a Bouguer gravity map was
produced (Fig. 2) in which gravity anomaly varies between 44.7
mGal and 25.7 mGal. Fig. 2 exposes heterogeneities of the sub-
surface density distribution with positive and negative gravity
anomaly axes. As proven by the deep seismic refraction company
Geotraverse EGT85 (Buness et al., 1989), the Bouguer gravity
anomaly increases from the west to the east due to the thinning of
the earth's crust in Tunisia. The study area shows a structural
296 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
complexity illustrated through gravity gradients and variable
gravity anomaly distribution. Low gravity anomaly axes oriented
NE-SW, reached 44 mGal highlighting subsident domain that
represents potential zone for hydrogeological exploration. High
gravity anomaly axes oriented N-S to NE-SW reached 25 mGal
and correlated with the area's outcroppings.
As previously mentioned, choosing the adequate regional
gravity field is crucial to elaborate the area's residual gravity
anomaly map and to minimize the effect of noise and shallow
sources. A regional-residual gravity anomaly separation was then
conducted over different gravity analyses. Several upward contin-
uation filters were computed based on the Bouguer gravity data. At
6 km (Fig. 3), a persistence of the resulting gravity field regional
response was noticed reflecting the deepest and most rooted
sources of the study zone. At this level, isogal curves were clearly
depicted and identified a transition domain, expressed by an
important gravity gradient, separating a positive gravity anomaly to
the east and a negative gravity anomaly to the west.
In addition to the upward continuation process, a polynomial
regression of first, second and third order was performed. In fact, a
close matching was distinguished between the regional gravity
anomaly response filtered at six kilometers (Fig. 3) and the pro-
cessed third order polynomial regression (Fig. 4). A reliable geo-
metric characterization of geological and hydrogeological
structures at the subsurface requires detailed geophysical analysis
Fig. 8. Superimposition of (HGGM) and detected Source Edge (SED) of the study area.
and depths estimation. A radial power spectrum technique was
used to estimate first-order sources depths since they are related to
the density and magnetic susceptibility interfaces (Blakely, 1988;
Dorman and Lewis, 1970; Shuey et al., 1977; Tselentis et al., 1988).
Fig. 5 shows the radial power spectrum analysis of the gravity field.
It revealed, from three tangent segments, that deep basement
sources are located at a depth of 3 km; intermediate sources are at
2 km and shallow sources depths at 1 km. According to these
estimated depths and the sandwich theory of Jacobsen (1987), the
area's regional gravity field could then be estimated at 6 km. With
reference to these results, the polynomial regression of a third or-
der was chosen as the appropriate expression of the regional
gravity response of the study area as it clearly correlates with the
6 km upward continuation filter in terms of amplitude and shape
(Fig. 4). Moreover, a Moho gravity anomaly map of the study zone
was elaborated (Fig. 6). It reflected similar anomaly distribution
tendency to that exposed by the used gravity filters (Figs. 3 and 4).
These multiple processes guided the rationality in computing
the residual gravity anomaly map (Fig. 7). As shown in Fig. 7, re-
sidual gravity anomalies range between 5.1 and 4.2 mGal. A
pronounced WNW-ESE negative gravity anomaly outlined a sub-
siding basin under the wide plain of Sidi Bouzid. Within the target
basin, residual gravity anomalies vary in terms of amplitude,
extension and trend (NA1; NA3; NA4; NA5 and NA6). High gravity
anomaly axes were also observed with a NE-SW and NS tendency
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
reaching 4.2 mGal in a good correlation with the area's bordering
uplifted structures (Jebel Es Souda, Jebel Kebar and Jebel Hamra-Er
Rakhmet) (Fig. 7).
4.1.2. Edge detection of gravity sources
The performance of the horizontal gravity gradient magnitude
map (HGGM) allowed tracing of the emplacement of the different
anomaly sources and causative bodies (Blakely and Simpson, 1986)
(Fig. 8). In fact, this survey highlighted the different geophysical
lineaments within the study area and individualized its tectonic
features.
The detected source edges (SED) overlaid to the (HGGM),
highlighted a significant buried new sub-horizontal geophysical
lineament compartmentalizing Sidi Bouzid basin into two major
domains of variable subsidence rate (Fig. 8). The final interpreted
fault network also indicated two major fault patterns known as
Atlassic directions: (1) NEeSW to NNEeSSW trends associated with
Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet and Jebel Kebar; (2) NeS directions
Fig. 9. Tilt angle map from gravity data of the study area.
297
associated with southern Jebel Es Souda-Hmaeima. These source
edges (Fig. 8), maxima of the horizontal gravity gradient, located
rooted edges and highlighted the important tectonic framework
that is necessarily controlling groundwater flow directions of the
study area. These results were confirmed by further gravity in-
vestigations including the tilt angle process and Euler deconvolu-
tion analysis.
Since the lateral location of the area's contributing sources
edges is an essential component in interpreting potential field data,
edge detection filters are often used to emphasize and visualize the
anomalies edges (Oruç and Selim, 2011; Hosseini et al., 2013). In
such a case, a tilt angle process is highly required. This edge
detection filter is positive by the source, negative outside it and
passes over zero by the edge. In Fig. 9, the computed tilt angle map
of the study area is positive by the sources with values attaining 1.5
Rad and corresponding to the area's outcroppings. It is negative
outside the sources highlighting the Sidi Bouzid basin subsiding
domain with values reaching 1.6 Rad (NA1.1; NA1.2; NA1.3 …). By
298 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
the sources edges, the tilt angle values pass over zero. The previ-
ously detected sub-horizontal geophysical lineament within Sidi
Bouzid basin was once more identified by this filter technique
validating its deepening and its role as a hydrogeological barrier
(Fig. 9).
4.1.3. Euler deconvolution analysis
In order to enhance the estimation of sources depths, an Euler
deconvolution technique was processed in addition to the radial
power spectrum analysis. Such qualitative and quantitative analysis
of gravity data was performed to detect the subsurface contact
zones (Reid et al., 1990). The detected sources were overlaid to the
residual gravity anomaly contours and to the area's geological map
(Fig. 10). Euler solutions highlighted the structural scheme of the
studied hydrogeological basin. The deepest detected accidents are
of NE-SW and N-S directions with depth values reaching 3000 m.
These rooted sources delineate the area's outcroppings such as
Jebel Es Souda, Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet and Jebel Kebar (Fig. 10).
The predominant Euler solutions corresponding to the Sidi Bouzid
basin's main structural lineaments indicate density sources depths
varying between 500 m and 2000 m. The important sub-horizontal
geophysical lineament revealed by the sources edges detection and
the tilt angle process (Figs. 8 and 9) was also identified by the Euler
deconvolution technique (Fig. 10). It divides the Sidi Bouzid basin
Fig. 10. Superimposition of the study area geological map, Euler deconvolution solutions and residual gravity anomaly contours.
into two zones with the northern one significantly more affected by
rooted density sources that reach 2500 m.
It is then obvious, that the gravity techniques conducted during
the current study accurately provide a valid and appropriate sub-
surface geometry characterization and structural features defini-
tion of the Sidi Bouzid hydrogeological basin.
4.2. Seismic and gravity data integration
4.2.1. 2D interpretation of seismic reflection sections
- The first seismic line (P1)
As shown in Fig. 1, the chosen NW-SE seismic profile crosses Sidi
Bouzid basin and links Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet in the NW side and
Jebel Kebar on the SE side. It shows parallel to sub-parallel reflec-
tion configurations. Mesozoic and Cenozoic horizons appear as
reflector packages limited by doublets of strong amplitude (Fig. 11).
These packages, show thickness variations and pinch outs towards
the borders marking the transition from a collapsed domain
occupied by Sidi Bouzid basin, to folded and uplifted structures
upon the seismic section limits. The gutter structure separating
Jebel Kebar and Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet underwent a sedimentary
instability during the lower Cretaceous, the upper Cretaceous and
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 11. (A) Interpreted seismic reflection profile (P1.Fig. 1) and (A0 ) Residual gravity profile corresponding to the used seismic line.
the Cenozoic. As shown in Fig. 11, such instability caused a lateral
migration of the basin depocenter resulting from a subsidence
inversion in the area (Azaiez, 2011). These stratigraphic and
structural characteristics adequately correlate with the major fea-
tures of the central Tunisian domain represented by the Triassic-
Jurassic extension and the Tertiary compression (Kadri, 1988;
Doglioni et al., 1990; Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011). The (P1)
seismic line provided a good imaging of the subsurface strati-
graphic series geometry and extent owing to its location crossing
the central part of the Sidi Bouzid plain (Fig. 11A). The interpreted
high zones against subsiding gutter structures, were approved by a
residual gravity profile (A0 ) carried out upon the P1 seismic section
(Fig. 11A').
- The second seismic line (P2)
It is a NW-SE seismic line parallel to the previously interpreted
seismic line (P1). It crosses the Sidi Bouzid basin from the SE side
near Jebel Kebar to the NW side near Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet
(Fig. 1). Interpretation of the (P2) seismic profile (Fig. 12B) revealed
a gradual thinning of Lower Cretaceous deposits to the SE. Upper
Cretaceous series show thickness variation, pinch outs towards the
eastern flank of Jebel Hamra and also many unconformities and
aggradation onlaps. Tertiary deposits show a reduced thickness
towards Jebel Kebar caused by the reactivation of bordering faults
(Fig. 12B). As confirmed by the previous cross section (P1), the study
area's framework is divided into high and uplifted domain con-
structed by Jebel Kebar and Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet and a
299
depression recognizing the Sidi Bouzid basin. The latter was iden-
tified by previous studies as a rim syncline depression because of
the halokinetic movements spotted on the collapsed structure
edges (Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011).
A Root-mean Square (rms) velocity section variation of the (P2)
seismic line was established revealing a perfect conformity with
the interpreted subsurface stratigraphic units. Interval velocities
shown in (Fig. 12B') were deduced from the Root-mean square
velocity (rms) developed by the DIX formula (Lavergne, 1986). The
mainly siliciclastic Tertiary package registered a velocity variation
ranging between 1400 m S1 and 2200 m S1 from 0 s to 1 s of a
two-way travel time (Fig. 12B').
The transition from Tertiary deposits to Cretaceous carbonates
was highlighted by a steep increase in velocity values up to
2900 m S1. As previously interpreted, lower Cretaceous series
show a thickening towards the NW which is also valid by the mean
of (rms) variable velocities. This velocity ascension continues down
to the Triassic levels at a two-way time of 3 s reaching 3900 m S1.
- The third seismic line (P3)
The third seismic line (P3) was chosen for its intersection with
the two previously interpreted seismic lines. It crosses the wide
plain of Sidi Bouzid passing by southern Jebel Es Souda-Hamaeima
towards the NE and Jebel Kebar to the SW.
Interpreting this NE-SW seismic line (P3) detected a major
normal fault with an important throw to the south of Jebel Es
Souda. This North-South tendency was also revealed by gravity
300 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308

Fig. 12. (B) Interpreted seismic reflection profile (P2.Fig. 1) and (B0 ) Root-mean Square (rms) velocity variation related to the (P2) seismic section. Interval velocity .

analysis. The central part of this seismic section is occupied by a
half-graben bounded by the south Jebel Es Souda major fault. Tilted
blocks towards the east with an important thickening of the
Cretaceous series were also identified with sub-parallel configu-
rations of continuous and high amplitude indicating an ordinary
sedimentary series layering (Fig. 13). Toward the SW, the inter-
preted seismic reflectors were oblique and parallel to sub-parallel.
Towards Jebel Kebar, the Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary
series show aggradation onlaps and pinch outs noticing the series
thinning. A chaotic facies injected within major faults was also
identified referring to Triassic salt deposits which rise through the
adjacent series without reaching the surface (Doglioni et al., 1990;
Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011).
the study area is affected by major normal faults. This fault system
guided the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary series disposal and
structuring (Fig. 14). The Lower Cretaceous unit displays a thick-
ening towards El Hafey platform gradually reduced to the NE.
Oligocene deposits show a notable thickening from the SW to the
Sidi Bouzid basin central part. This important thickness gradually
decreases towards the extreme NE. It is also important to notice
that the Mio-Plio-Quaternary materials feature thickening in the
Sidi Bouzid basin's central part, moderately reduced to the basin
borders (Fig. 14). As shown in Fig. 14, (P4) seismic section high-
lighted the depocenter of the Sidi Bouzid basin, which is the site of
maximum deposit of sedimentary materials mainly filled with
Tertiary series.

- The fourth seismic line (P4) - Isochronous seismic mapping

Interpreting the NE-SW fourth seismic line (P4) confirmed that An isochronous mapping of the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) major
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308 301

Fig. 13. Interpreted seismic reflection profile (P3).

Fig. 14. Interpreted seismic reflection profile (P4).

limit was made using rigorous interpretations of seismic reflection
data. This procedure marks the bottom boundary of the Sidi Bouzid
basin siliciclastic Tertiary complex. It is a mapping that tracks the
allocation of this target stratigraphic boundary at a given time
(Fig. 15). The 3D visualization of the mapped limit was accom-
plished and presented together with the area's residual gravity
anomaly and geological maps (Fig. 15). It provides a subsurface
overview of the mapped area showing folded and uplifted struc-
tures against a collapsed basin relevant to Sidi Bouzid subsiding
basin. The latter is then interpreted as a potential area of ground-
water convergence and accumulation. On the one hand, the map-
ping of the (K/T) limit revealed a notable isochronous variation with
values up to 100 ms towards the basin's borders corresponding to
the area's outcroppings. On the other hand, a collapsed zone in
perfect correlation with the area's residual gravity anomaly
response was highlighted reaching 2000 ms and referring to the
Sidi Bouzid basin's Tertiary complex substratum (Fig. 15). It is also
clear that the mapped thick sedimentary package is of a variable
subsurface geometry and subsidence.
4.2.2. Forward gravity modeling
Since an efficient subsurface image of the study area and mainly
of the Sidi Bouzid basin's Tertiary complex and its aquifers is highly
required, a forward gravity modeling approach was adopted. It is
based not only on the modeled gravity data that follows the linear
trajectory of the chosen profile, but it also uses all of the available
gravity data spread on both profile sides. Integration of geological
and geophysical methods, such as field knowledge to identify the
different stratigraphic units in addition to seismic reflection sec-
tions interpretations and approximate estimate of depths from the
interval velocities, led to the construction of forward gravity
models.
- The first forward gravity model (SB1)
A forward gravity model trending NWeSE was performed upon
302 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 15. 3D visualization of the Tertiary complex isochronous mapping in Sidi Bouzid basin and it Cretaceous/Tertiary major limit.
the (P1) seismic section crossing the Sidi Bouzid basin. It offered an
imaging of the subsurface sedimentary series and structural fea-
tures. Fig. 16 displays the resulting forward gravity model (SB1) in
which each body (polygon) is characterized by an extent, a depth
and a given density. Geometric and height calibrations were suc-
cessively made to these bodies, until practically no difference or a
close matching with an adequate error rate was reached between
the field's calculated and observed gravity anomaly curves. Thus,
final geometries of the modeled bodies (stratigraphic units) with
specific densities (Table 1) were approved and the (SB1) forward
gravity model was adopted (Fig. 16).
The resulting observed profile shows a negative anomaly that
reaches - 6 mGal and tends to decrease gradually toward the profile
borders highlighting the gutter structure of Sidi Bouzid basin
enclosing the target aquifer. The gravity model illustrates thickness
variance of the subsurface series conform to previous (P1) seismic
interpretations. At a depth of 900 m, the Mio-Plio-Quaternary
aquifer (body1; 2) reaches its maximum thickening (Fig. 16). The
third body follows the same trend as the precedent, while the 4th
and 5th bodies show a strong pinch out and a significant thinning
towards the NW due to a tectonic inversion expressed by a negative
anomaly (7.5 mGal). The Upper Cretaceous body deepening rea-
ches 3000 m. Towards the NW, the 6th body (Lower Cretaceous)
shows a notable thickening of about 4000 m confirming the sig-
nificant depocenter migration within Sidi Bouzid basin. The 7th
body shows minor thickness variation while the 8th body of
Triassic deposits, displays a thickening towards the NW (Fig. 16).
- The Second forward gravity model (SB2)
A NW-SE residual gravity profile was made corresponding to the
previous interpreted (P2) seismic section. This gravity model shows
an increase of gravity anomaly values to the edges of the profile
associated to Jebel Hamra-Er Rakhmet in the NW and Jebel Kebar to
the SE. Conversely, a decrease in gravity values is recorded along
the profile's central part (Fig. 17). This important anomaly variation
is caused by a notable subsidence in Sidi Bouzid basin confirmed by
Cretaceous series thickening towards the NW. An important thin-
ning of the overlying Upper Cretaceous series to the NW is noticed
and materialized by a significant stratigraphic series pinch out. The
resulting NW-SE forward gravity model exposes the gutter struc-
ture of the main basin and attributes concrete depth values for its
stratigraphic units. Tertiary deposits reach 1800 m to the NW
against 500 m to the SE. The (SB2) gravity model highlighted the
variation of the Sidi Bouzid basin subsidence and enhanced the
accuracy of seismic interpretation (Fig. 17).
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 16. Forward gravity model of Sidi Bouzid basin (SB1).
- The third forward gravity model (SB3)
The (SB3) gravity model was made upon the third interpreted
seismic line. It trends NE-SW and is limited by south Jebel Es Souda
to the NE and by Jebel Kebar to the SW (Fig. 18). This model was
performed in accordance with the previous profiles keeping the
same density values for each stratigraphic unit (body). After
consecutive iterative manipulations of the causative bodies' ge-
ometry and extent, an ideal match between the observed and
calculated gravity anomaly curves was achieved. The model is then
considered geologically and geophysically valid. Intense fracturing
distinguishes this modeled section dominated by a major normal
fault system. An increasing negative gravity anomaly is detected to
the SW. It abruptly decreases in favor of a positive anomaly to the
extreme NE reaching (4 mGal). The positive anomaly is conform to
South Jebel Es Souda (Fig. 18). The wide and important detected
negative anomaly ideally correlates with the large hydrogeological
Sidi Bouzid basin. A significant thickening of the sedimentary series
is noticed from the Lower Cretaceous to the Quaternary filling the
important throw of Jebel Es Souda major fault (Fig. 18). The Mio-
303
Plio-Quaternary multilayer aquifer undergoes a substantial thick-
ness variation from NE to SW with a maximum deposit near south
Jebel Es Souda translated by a negative anomaly peak.
- The fourth forward gravity model (SB4)
The (SB4) gravity model was made upon the NE-SW fourth
seismic reflection profile and validated its resulting interpretation.
It describes the study field as an intensely fractured area with
uplifted and collapsed series. The arrangement and distribution of
the modeled Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphic series were
strongly guided by a normal fault system. The resulting forward
gravity model proves the important thickness of the target Tertiary
deposits and tracks their subsurface variation along the investi-
gated area. Towards the previously identified depocenter of the
subsiding Sidi Bouzid gutter, thick Tertiary layers of low-density
deposits are materialized reaching important depths (1500 m).
This modeled stratigraphic unit overlays Upper and Lower Creta-
ceous high-density deposits. Thus, the detected negative gravity
304 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 17. Forward gravity model of Sidi Bouzid basin (SB2).
anomaly down to 6 mGal turned out to be the result of an
important gravity contrast between Tertiary and Cretaceous series
of different density value and thickness variation.
The obtained gravity model outlined the basin's geostructural
schema by highlighting the geometry and complexity of its frac-
turing network; its layers arrangement in the subsurface and their
lithologic nature. The conducted investigations necessarily improve
the reservoir aspect and flow conditions within the main basin
target aquifers (Fig. 19).
4.3. Depth to basement modeling
Previous studies (Smida, 2008; Zouaghi, 2008; Azaiez, 2011;
Yangui et al., 2011) described the Tertiary deposits of Sidi Bouzid
basin as a complex sedimentary package of an unknown subsurface
thickness variation, an undefined depth to basement and unrec-
ognized geometry. At this level, the conducted forward gravity
modeling resolved a significant part of the mentioned problems; it
supported seismic interpretations, characterized the studied basin
geometry, defined its Tertiary series lateral and vertical extent and
provided improved and precise depths. The exploitation of the
newly detected depths is then highly required.
Easting (X); Northing (Y) and Depth (Z) data, of the Tertiary
series basement (Cretaceous/Tertiary major limit) were extracted
from the performed forward gravity models (SB1; SB2; SB3 and
SB4). Finally, they were assembled in a common grid to obtain the
Tertiary complex depth to basement within the Sidi Bouzid gutter,
overlaid in this case to the shaded relief map and vector directions
derived from the residual gravity anomaly of the study area
(Fig. 20). This depth to basement revealed depth values reaching
2500 m on the central and southwestern part of the Sidi Bouzid
basin. It confirms previous residual gravity anomaly and seismic
mapping results and outlines maximum subsiding areas. Vector
direction highlighted the possible schema of the study area's water
flow (Fig. 20). The integration of geological, hydrogeological and
geophysical data yielded substantial and considerable results that
grant a rationalized future exploitation of Sidi Bouzid groundwater.
4.4. Gravity basement topography mapping
In the present study, forward gravity modeling offered valuable
insight over integrated geological and geophysical approaches and
knowledge. Six gravity models were elaborated and interpreted.
Only four of them were described in the present paper. Forward
gravity modeling provided basement topography mapping and
accurate and realistic subsurface images (gravity models). This will
enhance prospection, focus drill targets, model the depth to base-
ment, track subsidence variance within the main basin and
improve depth detection.
The latter was accomplished when a perfect match was deduced
between the calculated theoretical signature of the geometry of
bodies from gravity models and the observed residual gravity map
(Fig. 21). The elaborated gravity mapping of the study area's base-
ment topography revealed a central and southwestern domain
characterized by elongated and spaced isogals while its eastern and
northern sides were marked by important gravity gradients
(Fig. 21). Furthermore, the resulting maps correlate with the char-
acterized Sidi Bouzid basin subsurface geometry and with the area's
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 18. Forward gravity model of Sidi Bouzid basin (SB3).
main structural features as its uplifted structures correspond to the
field's outcroppings. These structures could be of an important
hydrogeological impact as they represent the area's recharge zones.
Hence, generated observations from the several geophysical
approaches conducted in this case of study strongly validating the
forward gravity modeling process and attesting to the reliability of
our results.
5. Conclusion
Investigation of Sidi Bouzid hydrogeological basin was based on
the application of different gravity treatments. A combination of
processed Upward continuation, polynomial regression and power
spectrum analysis estimated the study area regional gravity
anomaly at 6 km. A rational removal of extraneous geological fea-
tures gravitational effects helped isolate the residual gravity
response. An important negative residual gravity anomaly trending
WNW-ESE identified the Sidi Bouzid basin as a gutter structure of
varying subsidence.
A subsurface geometry overview of the study area and its
structural framework and densities distribution were highlighted.
Primary depths estimations were computed by spectrum analysis
revealing deepest sources at 3 km. These estimations were proven
by an Euler deconvolution technique detecting depths up to
3000 m. Several gravity filters underlined a significant sub-
305
horizontal geophysical lineament compartmentalizing the Sidi
Bouzid basin and acting as a hydrogeological barrier.
Integrating geophysical, geological and hydrogeological
methods and prior information; investigating the study area;
allowed a rigorous geometric characterization of the Sidi Bouzid
basin. Gravity data supported by the available interpreted seismic
sections generated a gravity forward modeling. Such process
greatly improved over the traditional methods as it identified the
Sidi Bouzid basin's stratigraphic series, their continuity, their ge-
ometry and especially their depths. It also provided a good un-
derstanding of the thick Tertiary sedimentary series disposal in
which reside the most important aquifers in Sidi Bouzid region.
Moreover, a major Cretaceous/Tertiary limit was isochronously
mapped and gravimetrically modeled. This limit was finally iden-
tified as the target Tertiary series substratum, for which geophysical
techniques highlighted the subsurface setting, tracked the subsi-
dence variance and detected relevant depths. Owing to these re-
sults, one gravity measure can be considered as a borehole data
reaching considerable depths.
Thus, it became possible to conclude that geophysics target is
not the groundwater itself but rather it is the geological environ-
ment where the water is located. For an improved management of
groundwater resources exploitation and a better understanding of
semi-deep and deep reservoirs, additional technologies could be
applied such as Electrical Resistivity Tomography inversion as well
306 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308

Fig. 19. Forward gravity model of Sidi Bouzid basin (SB4).

Fig. 20. Tertiary complex Depth to basement (m) beneath the Sidi Bouzid gutter, overlaid to the area shaded relief map, and a vector direction derived from the residual gravity
anomaly of the study area.
 D. Khazri, H. Gabtni / Journal of African Earth Sciences 138 (2018) 289e308
Fig. 21. A. Sidi Bouzid basin observed residual gravity map; B. Sidi Bouzid basin calculated theoretical signature over six forward gravity models.
as 4D microgravity monitoring. Hence, identification of valuable
hydrogeological prospect zones would grant a wiser, more sus-
tainable, efficient and cost-effective future exploitation of water
resources.
Acknowledgments
The authors are very grateful to the CERTE (Center of Water
Researches and Technologies, Tunisia) where this project was
conducted and funded, to ONM and ETAP for the provided scientific
supports and to the reviewers of this journal.
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