SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF THEORY AND PROBLEMS oF FINITE MATHEMATICS ay SEYMOUR LIPSCHUTZ, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Mathematics Temple University SCHAUMWS OUTLINE SERIES ‘McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York, St, Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, SydneyConsriet © 1066 by MeGraw-HiM, Ine, All Righis Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, oF transmitted, in any form or by any means, ‘electronic, mechanical, photocopsig, recording, oF ot ‘written permission of the publisher ast srwise, without the prior 678910 SHSH 7548210Preface Finite mathematics has in recent years become an integral part of the mathematical background necessary for such diverse fields as biology, chemistry, economies, psychology, sociology, education, political science, business and engineering. This book, in presenting the more essential material, is designed for use as a supplement to all current standard texts or as a textbook for a formal course in finite mathematics. ‘The material has been divided into twenty-five chapters, since the logical arrangement: is thereby not disturbed while the usefulness as a text and reference book on any of several levels is greatly increased. ‘The basic areas covered are: logic; set theory; vectors and matrices; counting — permutations, combinations and partitions; probability and Markov chains; linear programming and game theory. ‘The area on vectors and matrices includes a chapter on systems of linear equations; it is in this context that the important concept of linear dependence and independence is introduced. ‘The area on linear programming and game theory includes a chapter on inequalities and one on points, lines and hyper- planes; this is done to make this section self-contained. Furthermore, the simplex method is given for solving linear programming problems with more than two unknowns and for solving relatively large games. In using the book it is possible to change the order of many later chapters or even to omit certain chapters without difficulty and without loss of continuity. ach chapter begins with a clear statement of pertinent definitions, principles and theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by graded sets of solved and supplementary problems, The solved problems serve to illustrate and amplify the theory, bring into sharp focus those fine points without which the student continually feels himself on unsafe ground, and provide the repetition of basie principles 80 vital to effective learning. Proofs of theorems and derivations of basic results are included among the solved problems, The supplementary problems serve as a complete review of the material in each chapter. ‘More material has been included here than can be covered in most first courses. This has been done to make the book more flexible, to provide a more useful book of reference and to stimulate further interest in the topics. T wish to thank many of my friends and colleagues, especially P. Hagis, J. Landman, B, Lide and T. Slook, for invaluable suggestions and eritical review of the manuseript. T also wish to express my gratitude to the staff of the Schaum Publishing Company, particularly to N. Monti, for their unfailing cooperation, 8. Lirscuurz Temple University June, 1966CONTENTS Pare Chapter J PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES. A 1 Statements. Compound statements, Conjunction, p.sa.” Disjunction, pv a Negation, ~p. Propositions and truth tables. Chapter 2 ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 0 ‘autalogies and contradictions. Logical equivalence, Algebra of propositions Chapter 3 = CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 18 Consltionsl, +4. Bicondtiona, p>. Conditional statements and variations. 2% Chapter ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION Arguments, Arguments and statements, Logical implication. Chapter SET THEORY cee . Sets and elements, Finite and infinite sets. Subsets, Universal and null sete Set operations. Arguments and Venn diagrams. Chapter PRODUCT SETS Ordered pairs. Product sets. Product sets in general. Truth sets of propastions. 50 RELATIONS Relations. Relations as sets of ordered pairs. Inverse relation, Equivalence relations. Partitions. Equivalence relations and partitions. Chapter FUNCTION: Definition of a function. Graph of a function. Composition function, One-one ‘and onto functions, Inverse and identity functions. VECTORS . pee eee Column vectors. Vector addition, Scalar multiplication, Row veetors, Multi- plication of a row vector and a column vector. 81 10 MATRICES pl . . 7 . Matrices. Matrix addition. Scalar multiplication. Matrix multiplication, Square matrices, Algebra of square matrices. Transpose,CONTENTS Page Chapter I] LINEAR EQUATIONS tevrereertreeess 104 Linear equation in two unknowns. ‘Two linear equations in two unknowns General linear equation. General system of linear equations. Homogencous systems of linear equations Chapter 12 DETERMINANTS OF ORDER TWO AND THREE. 127 Introduction. Determinants of order one. Determinants of order two. Linear equations in two unknowns and determinants. Determinants of order three. Linear equatians in three unknowns and determinants. Invertible matrices, Invertible matrices and determinants, Chapter 13 THE BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS AND THEOREM.. 11 Factorial notation. Binomial coefficients. Binomial theorem. Pascal's tr ‘angle, Multinomial coefficients. Chapter 14 PERMUTATIONS, ORDERED SAMPLES Pa 152 Fundamental principle of counting. Permutations, Permutations with repe- titions. Ordered samples. Chapter 15 | COMBINATIONS, ORDERED PARTITIONS 161 Combinations. Partitions and cross-partitions, Ordered partitions. Chapter 16 TREE DIAGRAMS 176 ‘Tree diagrams. chapter 17 | PROBABILITY 184 Introduction, Sample space and events, Finite probability spaces. Equi- probable spaces. ‘Theorems on finite probability spaces, Classical birthday problem. Chapter 18 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY. INDEPENDENCE 199 Conditional probability. Multiplation theorem for conditional probabi Finite stochastic processes and tree diagrams, Independence Chapter [9 INDEPENDENT TRIALS, RANDOM VARIABLES. 216 Independent or repeated trials. Repeated trials with two outcomes. Random variables. Probability apace and distribution of a random variable, Expected value. Gambling names. Chapter 20 MARKOV CHAINS 233 Probability vectors. Stochastic and regular slachastie matrices. Fixed points of square matrices. Fixed points and segular stochastic matrices, Markov chains. Higher transition probabilities. Stationary distribution of regular Markov chains. Absorbing states. Chapter 27 INEQUALITIES cepa eens oe Infinite intervals, ‘The real line. Positive numbers, Order. (Finite) Interval Linear inequalities in one unknown. Absolute value.CONTENTS POINTS, LINES AND HYPERPLANES.. . Cartesian plane. Distance between points. Inclination and slope of a line Lines and linear equations. Point-slope form. Slope-intereept form. Parallel Tines. Distance between a point and a line. Euclidean m-space. Bounded sels. Hyperplanes. Parallel hyperplanes. Distence between a point and a hyperplane, CONVEX SETS AND LINEAR INEQUALITIES. Line segments and convex sets. Linear inequalities. Polyhedral convex sets land extreme points. Polygonal convex sets and convex polygons. Linear functions on polyhedral convex sets LINEAR PROGRAMMING . . Linear programming problems. Dual problems. Matrix rotation. Introduction to the simplex method. Initial simplex tableau. Pivot entry of a simplex tableau. Calculating the new simplex tableau. Interpreting the terminal tableau. Algorithm of the simplex metho THEORY OF GAMES Pn Introduction to matrix games. Strategies, Optimum strategies and the value of a game, Strictly determined games, 2X2 matrix games. Recessive rows fand columns. Solution of a matrix game by the simplex method. 2% m and m2 matrix games. Summary. INDEXChapter 1 Propositions and Truth Tables STATEMENTS, A statement (or verbal assertion) is any collection of symbols (or sounds) which is either true or false, but not both. Statements will usually be denoted by the letters rat, ‘The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. Example 11: Consider the following expressions: (i) Paris is in England, (iii) Where are you going? (iy 24254 (iv) Put the homework on the blackboard. ‘The expressions (4) and (ff) are statements; the first is falze and the second is true. ‘The expressions (il) and (iv) are not statements since neither is either true or f COMPOUND STATEMENTS Some statements are composite, that is, composed of substatements and various logical connectives which we discuss subsequently, Such composite statements are called com- pound statements, Example 21: “Roses are red and violets are blue” is a compound statement with substatements “Roses are red” and “Violets are blue”. Example 22: “He is intelligent or studies every night” is, implicitly, a compound statement with substatements “He is intelligent” and “He studies every night”. ‘The fundamental property of a compound statement is that its truth value is completely determined by the truth values of its substatements together with the way in which they are connected to form the compound statement. We begin with a study of some of these connectives. CONJUNCTION, p 9g Any two statements can be combined by the word “and” to form a compound statement called the conjunction of the original statements. Symbolically, pag denotes the conjunction of the statements p and q, read “p and q”. Example 31: Let p be “It is raining” and let q be “The sun is shining”. ‘Then 9 4 q denotes the statement “It is raining and the sun is shining”, ‘The truth value of the compound statement pq satisfies the following property: IT,] If p is true and q is true, then pq is true; otherwise, pq is false. In other words, the conjunction of two statements is true only in the case when each sub- statement is true.2 PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES [CHAP 1 Example 32: Consider the following four statements: 0 w (Gil) Paris in France and 242 = 4 Paria ia in France and 2+2 = 5. in England and 2+2 = 4. (iv) Paris isin England and 2+2 = 5. Paris By property [7], only the first statement is true. Each of the other statements is false since at least one of its substatements is false A convenient way to state property [7] is by means of a table as follows: F F F Here, the first line is a short way of saying that if p is true and q is true then pq is true. ‘The other lines have analogous meaning. We regard this table as defining precisely the truth value of the compound statement pq as a function of the truth values of p and of q. DISJUNCTION, pv a Any two statements can be combined by the word “or” (in the sense of “and/or”) to form a new statement which is called the disjunction of the original two statements. Symbolically, pea denotes the disjunction of the statements p and q and is read “p or Example 41: Let p be “Mare studied Fronch at the university”, and Iet q be “Mare lived in France”, Then pv q is the statement “Mare studied French at the university or (Mare) lived in. France”, ‘The truth value of the compound statement pv q satisfies the following property: IT] If pis true or g is is false. true or both p and q are true, then pq is true; otherwise py q Accordingly, the disjunction of two statements is false only when both substatements are false. ‘The property [T,] can also be written in the form of the table below, which we regard as defining pv a: Example 42: Consider the following four statements: ) Paris is in France or 242 = 4 (ii) Paris isin France or 242 = 5. (Gil) Paris is in England or 2+2 = 4. (iv) Paris is in England or 2+2 By property (Tz], only (iv) is false Hach of the other statements is true since at least one of its substatements is true.CHAP. 1) PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES 3 Remark: The English word “or” is commonly used in two distinet ways. Sometimes it is used in the sense of “p or q or both”, ie. at least one of the two alternates occurs, as above, and sometimes it is used in the sense of “p or q but not both”, ie. exactly one of the two alternatives oceurs. For example, the sentence “He will go to Harvard or to Yale” uses “or” in the latter sense, called the exelusive disjunction. Unless otherwise stated, “or” shall be used in the former sense. This discussion points out the precision we gain from our symbolic language: pvq is defined by its truth table and always means “p and/or q”. NEGATION, ~p Given any statement p, another statement, called the negation of p, can be formed by writing “It is false that...” before p or, if possible, by inserting in p the word “not”, Symbolically, ~p denotes the negation of p (read “not p”). Example 5.1: Consider the following three statements: (Gi) Te is false that Paria is in France, (iii) Paris te not in France, ‘Then (ji) and (ii) are each the negation of (i). Example 52: Consider the following statements: @ 242=5 Gi) Tt is false that 242 = 5, Gi) 24245 ‘Thon (if) and (il) are each the negation of (i). ‘The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the following property: IT,] If 7 is true, then ~p is false; if p is false, then ~p is true: ‘Thus the truth value of the negation of any statement is always the opposite of the truth value of the original statement. ‘The defining property ['T,| of the connective can also be written in the form of a table: Example 53: Consider the statements in Example 5.1. Observe that (i) is true and (ii) and (ii), cach its negation, are false Example 54: Consider the statements in Example 5.2. Observe that (i) is false and (li) and (ii), each its negation, are true. PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES By repetitive use of the logical connectives (1, v, ~ and others discussed subsequently), we can construct compound statements that are more involved. In the case where the substatements p,q,... of & compound statement P(p,q,...) are variables, we call the compound statement a proposition. Now the truth value of a proposition depends exclusively upon the truth values of its variables, that is, the truth value of a proposition is known once the truth values of its variables are known, A simple coneise way to show this relationship is through a truth table. ‘The truth table, for example, of the proposition ~(p .~q) is constructed as follows:4 PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES (CHAP.1 Observe that the first columns of the table are for the variables p,q, ... and that there are enough rows in the table to allow for all possible combinations of 7 and F for these variables. (For 2 variables, as above, 4 rows are necessary; for 3 variables, 8 rows are necessary; and, in general, for n variables, 2" rows are required.) ‘There is then a column for each “elementary” stage of the construction of the proposition, the truth value at each step being determined from the previous stages by the definitions of the connectives 4, v, ~. Finally we obtain the truth value of the proposition, which appears in the last column, Remark: The truth table of the above proposition consists precisely of the columns under the variables and the column under the proposition: The other columns were merely used in the construction of the truth table. Another way to construct the above truth table for ~(p «~g) is as follows. First construct the following table: plal|~ @ ~~ o oc vie eit FLF Step T Observe that the proposition is written on the top row to the right of its variables, and that there is a column under each variable or connective in the proposition. Truth values are then entered into the truth table in various steps as follows: plal~ @ » ~ o pla|~ @ » ~ o T[? T T 7 |? ? FI]? vl F t F v |e t tT} F Fit F r |r F Fir Fir F F rir F tl F Sep T 1 Step T 24 cy ® e[o|-~ @ » ~~ o plal- © ~ 9 T/[? T)F]F |? ThT/T]T|F FIT tl ti/rir|r tlei[ri[r|r[rlr Fit rlrlr]r e[r}ot)rielr] or FIP rlr[rle Fle|riri[e|rle Step thste tt Sep tati}s}eta © @ ‘The truth table of the proposition then consists of the original columns under the variables and the last column entered into the table, ie. the last step.CHAP. PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES 5 Solved Problems STATEMENTS Li. 12. Let p be “It is cold” and let q be “It is raining. describes each of the following statements: ()~p, 2) pad (@)pva (A)av~p, (5) ~pan~a, (6) ~~4. In each case, translate A, v and ~ to read “and”, “or” and “It is false that” or “not”, respectively, and then simplify the English sentence. Give a simple verbal sentence which (1) Teis not eold, (4) Tes raining or st is not cold. (2) Tis cold and raining. (5) It is not cold and it is not raining. (6) Ieis cold or itis raining. (6) tis not true that it is not raining. Let p be “He is tall” and let q be “He is handsome.” Write each of the following statements in symbolic form using p and 4. (1) He is tall and handsome. (2) He is tall but not handsome, (8) It is false that he is short or handsome. (4) He is neither tall nor handsome. (5) He is tall, or he is short and handsome. (6) It is not true that he is short or not handsome. (Assume that “He is short means “He isnot tall”, te. ~p.) @ pra @ ~-rva © pverag @ pana @) ~pana © ~Cpv~o TRUTH VALUES OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS 13. Md. 15. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. () 8+2=7 and 444=8 (i) 2+1=3 and 742=9, (ill) 6+4= 10 and 141 = 3, By property [Ty], the compound statement “p and q” is true only when p and g are both true. Hence: (i) False, (i) True, (it) False, Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. (i) Paris is in England or 344 (ii) Paris is in France or 241 (iii) London is in France or 5+2 8. By property [Ty], the compound statement “p or q” is false only when p and g are both false, Hence: (i) True, (ii) True, (iil) False Determine the truth value of each of the following statements, (i) It is not true that London is in France. (ii) It is not true that London is in England. By property [Ty], the truth value of the negation of p is the opposite of the truth value of p. Hence: (i) True, (i) False6 PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES [CHAP.1 1.6, Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. (i) It is false that 2+2= 4 and 141=5. (ii) Copenhagen is in Denmark, and 141 = 5 or 242 = 4 (iil) Tt is false that 2+2 4 or London is in France. (i) The conjunctive statement “2+2=4 and 1+1 = 8” is false since one of its substatements “41 = 5” is false, Accordingly its negation, the given statement, is true (i) The disjunctive statement “I +1 = 5 or 2+2= 4" is true since one of its substatements “242 = 4" is true. Hence the given statement is true since it is the conjunction of two true statements, "Copenhagen is in Denmark” and “I+1~= 5 or 2+2 = 4" ill) The disjunetive statement “242 = 4 or London is in France" ig true since one of its sub- statements “2+2= 4" is true. Accordingly its negation, the given statement, is false, TRUTH TABLES OF PROPOSITIONS 17. Find the truth table of ~p aq. p|a|-p| -prq pla|~ ep aa T)PlF | F tT )TTFlT]FI® tlrjr| Fr tirlrirlel| rlr|r| or Flelrlel2| rle[r| F rle[rielele sep [@tatata Method 1 Method 2 18 Find the truth table of ~(p v 4). pal pve | ~ovo rlal~ ov o T{a| 7 F T{/T)F]T] 7]? t\r| 2 F t{r|rlr|r|r rir] or F ririrjelr|e rirl| r 1 riei[rlelr|e Sep beta tela Method 1 Method 2 19, Find the truth table of ~(p v ~9) pla [-o| pve | ~wv~o pla[~ ov ~ o T[t}F| F T TTF | T] 7] FI]? t)r|r| t F tirlelr|rirfe rlrfr| F 1 rl[tirlelele|r rlefo| or F elr[r{r{t[r{r sep fa taletels Method 1 Method 2 1.10. Find the truth table of the following: (i) pa(avr), (ii) (pag)v (par). Since there are three variables, we will necd 2°=8 rows in the truth table,CHAP. 1) PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES 7 P paver pial r|paa| par] wradyvpan Observe that both propositions have the same truth table. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS Lil, Let Apg denote pag and let Np denote ~p. using A and N instead of ~ and ~. Rewrite the following propositions (i) pana Gil) ~pa (maar) (Pa) liv) ~(H A>) A~0~7) @ pana= paNa = ApNa (i) ~(-p.6@) = ~We na) = ~(AND@) = NANG Gi) ~p. A (ann) = NpaiNanr) = Nps (Nan = ANpANar G8) ~@A~a) a (a0 =7) = ~(APNG) 9 (ANGND) = (APNG) 0 (ANGNr) = ANApNGANGNS Observe that there axe no parentheses in the final answer when A and N are used instead of ‘and ~. In fact, it has been proved that parentheses are never needed in any proposition using. A and N. 1.12, Rewrite the following propositions using » and ~ instead of A and N. () Napa (iil) ApNq (vy), NAANpar (ii) ANpq (iv) ApAgr (vi) ANpAgNr () NApa = N@Ag = ~A@ {ih APNG = Apl~a) = Ama (i) Noa = Apa = ~PAg Gv) Apdar = AvaA®) = PATEAD {v) NAANpgr = NAA(~p)qr = NA(~p ag = Ni(~pag ar) = ~(-paaar) (oi) ANpAaNr = ANpAg(~1) = ANpla.s~7) = Al-pMan=”) = ~P A @a~n) [Notice that the propositions involving A and N are unraveled from right to left Supplementary Problems STATEMENTS 118, Let p be “Mare is rich” and let q be “Mare is happy”. Write each of the following in symbolic form. ) Mare is poor but happy. (di) Mare is neither rich nor happy. (itl) Mare fs either rich or unhappy. (iv) Mare is poor or else he i both rich and unhappy.8 PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES (CHAP.1 LM, Lat p be “Erik reads Newoweek”, let q be “Erik reads Life” and let + be “Brik reads Time". Write each of the following in symbolie form. (i) Brik reads Newsweek or Life, but not Time. Gi) Erik reads Newsweek and Life, or he does not read Newsweek and Time, lil) Te is not true that Erik reads Newsweek but not Time. (iv) It is not true that Erik reads Time or Life but not Newsweek. 115, Let p be “Audrey speaks French” and let q be “Audrey speaks Danish”. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following. @ pva Gi) pane (i) pag ti) ~pv~a 116, Determine the truth value of each of the following statements, () B48=6 and 142 Gi) Te is not true that 343 = 6 or 142 (Gil) Te is true that 2424 4 and 142= 8, iv) Te is not true that $4346 or 14245, ‘TRUTH TABLES OF PROPOSITIONS ind the truth table of each of the following, @ py-a (i) ~pa~q Gi) ~—PAd, (iv) ~-Pv~o. nar, LIS, Find the truth table of each of the following. @ WA~OY, GW) ~PYGA=N, (ill) (DY =A) Alay =n, (lV) ~DY ~OA PVP). MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 119, Let Apg denote ps q and let Np denote ~p. using A and N instead of » and ~. (See Problem 111.) Rewrite the following, propositions () ~PAg Gi) ~PA~q (iil) ~@A~a, (iv) Pagan 120, Rewrite the following propositions using ~ and ~ instead of A and N. () NApNa, (i) ANAp@Nr, (ii) AAPNrAGNp, (iv) ANANPANGPNp. Answers to Supplementary Problems LI.) ~PAq (i) ~Pa~a (ill) PY a (iv) ~PY @A~a) LIL (i) DV DAMr, Gi) ADV ~PAr), lit) AHN, (i) ~[rV a) 9 ~P] 115, (i) Audrey speaks French or Danish. (ii) Audrey speaks French and Danish Audrey speaks French but not Danish. (dv) Audrey doos not speak French or she does not speak Danish. (*) It is not true that Audrey does not speak French. It is not true that Audrey speaks neither French nor Danish,CHAP. 1] PROPOSITIONS AND TRUTH TABLES 116.) F, (i) F, (8) Fy Ge) F uate | a | ava | ~pana | ~Ceng | ~rev~o T]T] 7 F T T tlr| or F ? F rir] F F F F Flel ot t T F Lis. pjalr| aly TrtTt TF tit|rile|r tfr|t | tle tlelelrle Fi t|[rjr}t Flr]Frleir eleir{a|t rlelFrlelr 119, (i) ANpa, (ii) ANDNe, (iii) NApNa, (iv) AANpaNr 120, () ~PA~G ( ~WAMA~H Gi) A= AAD (iv) ~[-PA-EAN] AWDChapter 2 Algebra of Propositions TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS Some propositions P(p,q,...) contain only 7’ in the last column of their truth tables, je. are true for any truth values of their variables, Such propositions are called tautologies, Similarly, a proposition P(p,4, ...) is called a contradiction if it contains only F in the last column of its truth table, ie. is false for any truth values of its variables. Example 1.1: The proposition "p or not p”, ie. pv ~p, is a tautology and the proposition “p and not p”, ie. pA ~p, is a contradiction. This is verified by constructing their truth tables: | -p| py p |p| pa~p T)F, T TIF F Flr] oo elo] F Since a tautology is always true, the negation of a tautology is always false, ie. is a contradiction, and vice versa. That is, Theorem 21: If P(p,a,...) is a tautology then ~P(p,q,...) is a contradiction, and conversely. Now let P(p,, ...) be a tautology, and let P,(p,4,.-.), P,(P.4) +.) «++ be any propo- sitions, Since P(p,q, ...) does not depend upon the particular truth values of its variables Dy.» we can substitute P, for p, P, for q, ... in the tautology P(p,q,...) and still have a tautology. In other words: Theorem 2.2 (Principle of Substitution): If P(p,q, ...) is a tautology, then P(P,,P, is a tautology for any propositions P,, P,, .. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE Two propositions P(p,q,...) and Q(p,a,...) are said to be logically equivalent, or simply equivalent or equal, denoted by Pl, 4, if they have identical truth tables. Ql. a.) Example 241: The truth tables of ~(p9) and ~pv ~q follow Accordingly, the propositions ~(pq) and ~pv ~q are logically equivalent: ag = ~py na 10CHAP. 2) ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS n Example 22: The statement “It ie false that roses are red and violets are bive” can be written in the form ~(p..g) where p is “Roses are red” and q is “Violets are blue”. By the preceding example, ~(p 4) is logically equivalent to ~pv ~q; that is, the given statement is equivalent to the statement, “Hither roses are not red or violets are not blue.” ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS Propositions, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws or identities which are listed in Table 2.1 below. In fact, we formally state: ‘Theorem 2.3: Propositions satisty the laws of Table 2.1. LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS Tdempotent Laws la pvp =P 1 pap sp Associative Laws 2a, 2b. (agar = paar) ve Laws Ba pa ave 3. page aap Distributive Laws fa pyaar) = pyaar) 4 PAV = padvipan Identity Laws ba pvf=p 5 pat p fe. pytat 6. pares Complement Laws Ta. py~p=t wh pane fe. ~=p =p Bb. teh, fet De Morgan's Laws 9a. ~(pv aq) = ~pAna 9. Ag) = ~pv~a Table 21 In the above table, ¢ and f denote variables which are restricted to the truth values true and false, respectively.2 ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS jomap. 2 Solved Problems TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS 21. Verify that the proposition pv ~(p.»q) is a tautology. Construct the truth table of py Since the truth value of pv ~(» 4) T for all values of p and a, it 1 tautology, 22. Verify that the proposition (»q)~(pv4) is a contradiction. Construct the truth table of (p09) ~(Pv a): pia wadr~eva tlt Tl F Fit PIF Since the trath value of (pAq)A~(pvq) is F for all values of p and q, it is a contradiction. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE 28. Prove the Associative Law: (pq) ar. Adar. Construct the required truth tables: ‘Since the truth tables are identieal, the propositions are equivalent. 24, Prove that disjunction distributes over conjunction; that is, prove the Distributive Law: py(gar) = (pva)a(pyr). Construct the required truth tables:CHAP. 2} ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 1B 25. 26. 21. platr [evr | ovanovn tir] T | | T titlF r [rife t tra pa fzlt] 3 tle[e;r [or |r| or a ejr{rl rt t 1 | or t e[rie)e | or jt |e P rlept( er | oe |r] t n riejel| re | oF we | F | t t _ Since the truth tables are identical, the propositions are equivalent, Prove that the operation of disjunction can be written in terms of the operations of conjunction and negation. Specifically, pvq = ~(~pa~a)- Construct the required truth tables: ‘Sinco the truth tables are identical, the propositions are equivalent. ‘There are exactly four non-equivalent propositions of one variable; the truth tables of such propositions follow: Find four such propositions. Observe that Hence Py(p) = pv ~p, Palo) = p, Palo Pup) = vamp. Determine the number of non-equivalent propositions of two variables p and q. ‘The truth table of proposition P(p,¢) will contain 22 =4 lines. In each line T or F can appear as follows pial | rl Ps rel es| Pel | Po | Pro| Pre | Pro | Pre Thr}t{/ ry 7{t|tityti|tlFlFlFlFlFelFlFle tlejti[rir{rjelelelelr{rjr)r}erl elie) Flr} tf rjrfel|riei}ele |e lr) ef el] iel el Fle}tilre{rtleirielrielrtelortel rele [ole In other words, there are 2¢= 16 non-equivalent propositions of two variables p and 4.“4 ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS [CHAP. 2 28 Determine the number of non-equi and 7; (ii) n variables Dy Py. .,P, alent propositions of: (i) three variables p, Gi) The truth table of a proposition P(p, 4.7) will contain 2° = 8 lines, Since in each Tine T or F ‘ean appear, there are 2° = 256 non-equivalent propositions of three variables, Gi) The truth table of a proposition P(py,--., 4) will contain 2 lines: hence, as above, there are 2" non-equivalent propositions of » variables. NEGATION 29. Prove De Morgan's Laws: (i) ~(p.9) = ~pv ~ ‘mn each case construct the required truth tables. 3 (ii) ~(pva) = ~pamd © pal eag| ra | =p | a | -pv-a Tt) = | peyFl e tir] re | ot tele] oo r[r] e | or [rle] 2 Fle} er | or [rir] o wy aaaale ssa3le 210. Verify: ~~p 211. Use the results of the preceding problems to simplify each of the following propo- sitions: (i) ~(pyv ~a), (i) ~(~p ag), (iii) ~(~pv ~a). @ ~@v~g = ~pa~na (i) ~ep ag = ~~pvnd (i) ~~-pv ~@) = ~ pAn~~d = pag 2.12, Simplify each of the following statements. (i) It is not true that his mother is English or his father is French. (ii) It is not true that he studies physies but not mathematics. (iii) It is not true that sales are decreasing and prices are rising. (iv) It is not true that it is not cold or it is raining. |i) Let p denote “His mother is English” and let q denote “His father is French”. Then the siven statement is ~(pv g). But ~(vvq) = ~pa~g. Hence the given statement is logically equivalent to the statement “Hig mother is not English and his father is not French”.CHAP. 2) ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 16 (ii) Let p denote “He studies physics” and let g denote “He studies mathem: ‘Then the ssiven statement is ~(p=q). But ~(p~q) = ~pv~~q = ~pvg. Hence the given state- ment is logically equivalent to the statement “He does not study physics or he studies mathematics” (iil) Since ~(p9) = ~pv~g, the given statement is logically equivalent to the statement ‘ales are increasing or prices are falling”. liv) Since ~(~pvq) = pana, the given statement is logically equivalent to the statement tis cold and it is not raining”, ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 2.13. Simplify the proposition (pv q)1~p by using the laws of the algebra of propositions listed on Page 11, Statement Reason ©) wvga~p = ~prova (1) Commutative law @ = Papiv(mpng) (2) Distributive law @ fvpaa (8) Complement law o ~pag Ua) Tdentity tow 2.14. Simplify the proposition pv (pq) by using the laws of the algebra of propositions listed on Page 11. Statement Reason W pvipng = @ANviPrd 2) Tdentity law @ pattva (2) Distributive law ® pat (8) entity taw a =? (1) entity lew 2.15. Simplify the proposition ~(pvq)v(~p»a) by using the laws of the algebra of propositions listed on Page 11. Statement Reason 1) ~@vav Pag = CPamaveprg (1) De Morgans law @ ~patmava) (2), Distributive law @ pat (8) Complement law “ ~» (4) entity awe MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 216. ‘The propositional connective y is called the exclusive disjunction; pyq is read “p or q but not both". (i) Construct a truth table for py 4. (ii) Prove: pyq = (pvag)a~(paq). Accordingly y can be written in terms of the original three connectives », v and ~. (Now py is true if p true but not if both are true: hence the truth table of py is as follows: tove or if16 ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS [cHAP.2 (Gi) We construct the truth table of (pv q)~(p4), by the second method, us follows: | y | » va)n~(pg) are identical; hence @ vo a ~ aaeale aaasle w)eaaal> elses elpaaa aja eluaas alesse -[ssae elisa Step Observe that the truth tables of pyg and Pya = (Pv Ma~(rah 217. The propositional connective | is called the joint denial; p|q is read “Neither p nor q”. (i) Construct a truth table for pa. (ii) Prove: ‘The three connectives v, « and ~ may be expressed in terms of the connective | as follows: (a) ~p = Pip, (b) Pad (Pip)iaia) (c) pva = (playl(pda). (Now pq is true only in the case that p is not true and q is not true; hence the truth table of Bq is the following: pia as Gi) Construct the appropriate truth tables: @ op pip w ela [ere] ele} ele] @lmiale T F T)T] @ | F | F T F Tr rle| or | or jor F tof Flt} rf] or | F P a ce F | @ ela] rva | rte | elololo T/T/ Tt | F T rle| | F r Flr] or | F Tr rle| or |r FCHAP. 2} ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 7 Supplementary Problems LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE, 218. Prove the associative law for disjunction: (pv g)vr = pv (av). 218, Prove that conjunction distributes over disjunction: pAtave) = (Pagy (aan) 220, Prove (pv q)A~p = ~p.Aq by constructing the appropriate truth tables (ee Problem 2.18) 221, Prove pv ipa) = p by constructing the appropriate truth tables (see Problem 2.14). 222, Phove ~(pv q)v(-p.4) = ~p by constoucting the appropriate truth tables (see Problem 2.18) 223, (1) Express v in terms of © and ~. (i) Express « in terms of v and ~ NEGATION 224, Simplify: (i) ~@r~O, A) “pve (ii) ~-PA~0. 235, Write the negation of each of the following statements as simply as possible. () He is tall but handsome. (Gi) He has blond hair or blue eyes, (iil) He is neither rich nor happy. (lv) He lost his job or he did not go to work today. (W) Neither Mare nor Erik is unhappy. (vib Audrey speaks Spanish or French, but not German, ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS 223, 224, 2.25, 226, Prove the following equivalences by us @ parva = > Gi) Wr@v~p wg the laws of the algebra of propositions listed on Page 11: meaner ena Answers to Supplementary Problems (i) pvg = ~(-pa~q) (il) pAg = ~(~py ~4). @~pva GW PA=a WH pve. lil) He is rich or happy. (vi) Audrey speaks German but neither Spanish nor French. () PA@YA = @YNADYA = pvifad = PyT =pChapter 3 Conditional Statements CONDITIONAL, p> Many statements, particularly in mathematics, are of the form “If p then q”. Such statements are called conditional statements and are denoted by Pog ‘The conditional pq can also be read: (i) pimplies ¢ (iii) p is sufficient for q (ii) ponly if @ (iv) is necessary for p. ‘The truth value of p> q satisfies: IT,] The conditional p> is true except in the case that p is true and q is false. ‘The truth table of the conditional statement follows: Bxample 11: Consider the following statements: (If Paris isin France, then 242 = Gi) Lf Paris is in France, then 242 = (iii) If Paris is in England, then 242 (jv) If Paris is in England, then 242 = 5, By the property [Ty], only (ii) ie a false statement; the others are true. We em- phasize that, by definition, (iv) is a true statement even though its substatements "Paris is in’ England” and “2+2— 5" are false, It is a statement of the type If monkeys are human, then the earth is flat Now consider the truth table of the proposition ~p v «: Observe that the above truth table is identical to the truth table of pg. Hence p>q is logically equivalent to the proposition ~pv 4: prq=~pva In other words, the conditional statement “If p then q” is logically equivalent to the state- ment “Not p or q” which only involves the connectives v and ~ and thus was already a part of our language. We may regard p~q as an abbreviation for an oft-recurring statement. 18CHAP. 3] CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 19 BICONDITIONAL, po Another common statement is of the form “p if and only if q” or, simply, “p iff 9”. ‘Such statements, denoted by pea are called biconditional statements. The truth value of the bicondit satisfies the following property: [T,] If p and q have the same truth value, then p<+q is true; if p and q have opposite truth values, then pq is false, ‘The truth table of the biconditional follows: nal statement pq 1 Example 21: Consider the following statements: Paris is in France if and only if 242 i) Paris ie in France if and only if 2+2 = 5. Gil) Paris is in England if and only if 2-42 (iv) Paris is in England if and only if 242 = By property [7], the statements (i) and (iv) are true, and (ji) and (ii) are false. Recall that propositions P(p,q,...) and Q(p,4,...) are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth table; but then, by property (Tl, the composite proposi- tion P(P,4,...) > Q(P.d,..+) is always true, i.e is a tautology. In other words, Theorem 3.1: P(p,4, ...) = Q?,4,-..) if and only if the proposition PU. -+-) © DG ---) is a tautology. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS AND VARIATIONS Consider the conditional proposition p>q and the other simple conditional proposi- tions which contain p and 4: a>p, ~p>~q and ~9>~p called respectively the converse, inverse, and contrapositive propositions. ‘The truth tables of these four propositions follow: Conditional pog Inverse een Contrapositive Pe Converse ap Observe first that a conditional statement and its converse or inverse are not logically equivalent. On the other hand, the above truth table establishes ‘Theorem 3.2: A conditional statement p~ q and its contrapositive ~q > ~p are logically equivalent.20 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS (cHar.s Consider the following statements about a triangle A: pa eral, then A is isosceles, 47: HEA ia isosceles, then A is equilateral. Note that pg is true, but q~ p is fatse Example 82: Prove: (p~ 4) If is odd then ¢ is We show that the contrapositive ~q->~p, “If x is even then 2? is even", fs true, Let x be even; then x= 2n where nis an integer, Hence 2? = (2n)(2n) 2212) is also even. Since the contrapositive statement ~q—~p is true, the original conditional statement p~q is also true Solved Problems CONDITIONAL 3.1. Let p denote “It is cold” and let q denote “It rains”, Write the following statements in symbolic form. (i) Tt rains only if it is cold. (ii) A necessary condition for it to be cold is that it rain. (iii) A sufficient condition for it to be cold is that it rain. (iv) Whenever it rains it is cold. (v) It never rains when it is cold. Recall that pq can be read “p only if a”, “p is sufficient for g” or “g is necessary for p". ( a~p Gi) p=a Ui) am (iv) Now the statement “Whenever it rains it is cold” is equivalent to “If it rains then itis cold”. That is, ap, (©) The statement “It never rains when itis cold” is equivalent to “If it is cold then it does not rain". That is, p> ~a 32. Rewrite the following statements without using the conditional. (i) If it is cold, he wears a hat. (ii) If produetivity increases, then wages rise. Recall that “If p then q” is equivalent to “Not p or 4” (]) Tes not cold oF he wears a hat. i) Productivity does not increase or wages rise 33. Determine the truth table of (p> a) (pa). pag | @-a>eraCHAP. 8 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 21 34. Determine the truth table of ~p> (q~ p). ~p> (a>) T aaa 3.5. Verify that (p «q)> (pv q) is a tautology. pla ene| pve] ona-ove aes aa aaa3 mana sass 36. Prove that the conditional operation distributes over conjunction: Pr (dar) = (Pa (prr) + fear [eotan »le| ona |p-r | w-one~n TTryt] ot 7 7 >? 7 tirlr| r P t | F P tlr{tl F F rf ot P tlrlr| re | oF rf oF P rilr|t| t t t | ot t ritje| F t 1 |r t rle{t| t 1 |r r rlele| e | or tir ? to BICONDITIONAL 347. Show that “p implies q and q implies p” is logically equivalent to the biconditional “p if and only if q”; that is, (p> 4) (a pod @-aaa-9) pial vee | ora a T tyr} re |r foo F rle| er | ot | F F rle| tla foo t Lt 38. Determine the truth value of each statement. () 24+2=4 if B4+6=9 (i) 2+2= 7 ifandomlyif 5+1 = 2 (ii) 141 =2 if s+2=8 (iv) 142 =5 ifandonlyit 8+1=4 Now pooq is true whenever p and q have the same truth value; hence (i) and (ii) are true statements, but (ii) and (iv) are false. (Observe that (ji) is a true statement by definition of the conditional, even though both substatements 2+2= 7 and 5+1=2 are false) 022, CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS (oar. 89. Show that the biconditional pesq can be written in terms of the original three connectives v, » and ~. Now p—q = ~pva and q~p = ~qv pi hence by Problem 37, Poa = praaap) = (py aaave 3.10. Determine the truth value of (p> 4)v~(p 2 ~a)- rlel@ - av ~ + - @ Tht }T] 7] 7] 7] 7] 7] FI] FIP tir{rjrlefejrl{r|rfrle r/rfr{ri|rirfelelr]e| viele|{r{e|rl{rlelelole sep Tatetitstetrteteta plal@ eo ~ 9 © @ > tTit|tyef e[rfeir[r]r tye)r|r}rje|rjpe|r)t ri(r{ef/o|e{rfel jel rielelelrlelel|el ele Se titatetileliteds Method 2 NEGATION 3.12. Verify by truth tables that the negation of the conditional and biconditional are as follows: () ~(> 4) = PA~G Ul) ~WOO = Pond = DOG @ pla [ora | oro | a | pane a tle] re ]or fr] or alc] rie ea rir| t | or [|r| F tt «i saals amals Remark; Since pq = ~pvq, we could have used De Morgan’s law to verify (j) as follows: 970) © ~ pv @) & ~~PAWa = PAWGCHAP. a CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 2B 313, Simplify: (i) ~(» > ~4), (ii) ~(~p 0), (iii) ~(~P > ~0). ~DO-0 = po~n~a = Oa iy = in) Dog) = ~—pOq = peg Doma) = ~PA~mq = ~pag 4. Write the negation of each statement as simply as possible. (i) If he studies, he will pass the exam. (ii) He swims if and only if the water is warm (iii) If it snows, then he does not drive the ear. (By Problem $12, ~(>q) = p~ai hence the negation of (i) is He studies and he will not pass the exam, (ii) By Problem 2.12, ~(yOq) = permq = pera; hence the negation of (ii) is either of the following: He swims if and only if the water is not watm, Hee does not awim if and only if the water is warm, (iil) Note that ~(p> ~a) = pa ~~q = pag. Hence the negation of (i) is It snows and he drives the ear. 3.15. Write the negation of each statement in as simple a sentence as possible, (i) eit (ii) If he studies, then he will go to college or to art school. cold, then he wears a coat but no sweater. (i) Let p be “It is cold”, q be “He wears a coat” and r be “He wears a sweater”. Then the given statement can be written as p= (q~r). Now Hip (ga~n] = Panam) = patavey Hence the negation of (1) is It is cold and he wears a sweater or no coat, Gi) The given statement is of the form po (evr). But ~bpav nl) = pana) & panqa-r ‘Thus the negation of (li) is He studies and he does not go to college or to art schoo CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS AND VARIATIONS 3.16. Determine the contrapositive of each statement. (i) If John is a poet, then he is poor. (ii) Only if Mare studies will he pass the test. (iii) It is necessary to have snow in order for Erie to ski. (iv) If & is less than zero, then 2 is not positive. () The contrapositive of p-+q is ~q+~p. Hence the eontrapositive of (i) is If John is not poor, then he is not a poet (ii) The given statement is equivalent to “If Mare passes the test, then he studied”. Hence the contrapositive of (i) is If Mare does not study, then he will not pass the test24 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS [cHAP. 3 (ii) The given statement is equivalent to “If Bric skis, then it snowed". Hence the contrapositive oF Ds If it did not snow, then Erie will not ski (iv) The contrapositive of p> ~q is ~~q~>~p = q~~p. Hence the contrapositive of (iv) is If 2 is positive, then 2 is not less than zero. 217. Find and simplify: (i) Contrapositive of the contrapositive of pq. (ii) Contra- positive of the converse of p>. (iii) Contrapositive of the inverse of p> 4. (i) The contrapositive of pq is ~q~~p. The contrapositive of ~¢>~p is ~~p>~~a = pq, which is the original conditional proposition. Gi) The converse of pa is q~p. ‘The contrapositive of q~> p is ~p-+~g, which is the inverse of p> a (ii) The inverse of p>q is ~p-~q. The contrapositive of ~p>~q is ~~a-~~p = a> Which is the converse of p~+q- In other words, the Inverse and converse are contrapositives of each other, and the conditional and contrapositive are contrapositives of each other! Supplementary Problems STATEMENTS RIB, Let p denote “He is rich” and let q denote “He is happy”, Write each statement in symbolic form 319, 320 using p and q. () If he is tieh then he is unhappy. 8) He is neither rich nor happy. (iil) It is necessary to be poor in order to be happy. To be poor is to be unhappy. (¥) Being rich is a sufficient condition to being happy. (vi) Being rich is a necessary condition to being happy. (vil) One is never happy when one is rich. (viii) He is poor only if he is happy. (Gx) To be rich means the same as to be happy. (x) He is poor or else he is both rich and happy. ‘equivalent to ~p. Note. Assume “He is poor” Determine the truth value of each statement. (16 5<3, then —3.<~5, (i) Weis not true that 14+1=2 if 844565. il) A necessary condition that 142 = 3 is that (+4 = iv) Ibis not true that 141=5 if 343 (e) If 8<5, then -3-<-8. (vi) A sumeient condition that 142 8 is that 444 = 4 Determine the truth value of each statement (i) Te is not true that if 2+2=4, then 8+8= 5 or 141 =2. Gi) If 2+2=4, then it ie not true that 241 = 3 and 545 = 10, Gi) 1 242=4, then B43=7 i 141CHAP. 3] CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS. 25 8.21. Write the negation of each statement in as simple a sentence as possible. (i) If stock prices fall, then unemployment rises. (ii) He has blond hair if and only if he has blue eves. (ii) Tf Mare is rich, then both Erie and Audrey are happy. (lv) Betty smokes Kent or Salem only if she doesn’t smoke Camels. (©) Mary speaks Spanish or French if and only if she speaks Italian, (vi) If John reads Neweweck then he reada neither Life nor Time. TRUTH TABLES 322, Find the truth table of each proposition: (i) (~pv)>p, (i) ¢@>(~aap). 3.28, Find the truth table of each proposition: WD De~d~ (Pa, (ii) (av 9) > (a> ~P) 324, Find the truth table of exch proposition: ( [pa (a> pi] A ~(9 =a) > (ay ~Pll. i) [a0 ~PI]v [a= PO) 325, Prove: (i) (DAg>r = P=nVa>n, Ui PoE) = DA~N>~a CONDITIONAL AND VARIATIONS 826, Determine the contrapositive of each statement. (@) If he has courage he will win. Gi) Te is necessary to be strong in order to be a sailor. Gil) Only if he dovs not tire will he win. (iv) It is sufficient for it to be a square in order to be a rectangle, 321, Find: (i) Contrapositive of p> ~g. (ii) Contrapositive of the converse of p-* ~a. (ii) Contrspositive of ~p—¢. {iv} Converse of the eontrapositive of ~p ~~. Answers to Supplementary Problems @ pomg (it) a> ~p Ww) pra (i) po~a i) pod Gi) ~panq (i) ~pOn~q (wi) a> (wit) ~p>q &) ~Pv Ad au. (aT, T 7, GF, OF, OF, ( 320. OF, GF, Gi) T 3.21, (3) Stock prices fall and unemployment does not rise (ii) He has blond hair but does not have blue eyes. (iil) Mare ig rich and Erie or Audrey is unhappy. (iv) Betty amokes Kent or Salem, and Camels. (¥) Mary speaks Spanish or French, but not Italian. (wi) John reads Newsweek, and Life or Time. 322, () TTF, (i FFFT. 323, @) TPTT, Gi) FTP 32, @) PIFF, Gi) PTTPTTFT 325, Hint, Construct the appropriate truth tables. 3.28, (8) If he does not win, then he does not have courage. (Gi) If he is not strong, then he is not a sailor. (isl) If he tines, then he will not win, iv) If it is not a rectangle, then it ig not square. Bat. fl) a> =p, (i) ~a>p, iil) ~P> a Gv) PoaChapter 4 Arguments, Logical Implication ARGUMENTS An argument is an assertion that a given set of propositions P,,P,,...,P,, called premises, yields (has as a consequence) another proposition Q, called the conclusion. Such an argument is denoted by Py Py ir Py FQ ‘The truth value of an argument is determined as follows: IT,] An argument P,,P,,...,P, — @ is true if @ is true whenever all the premises P,P,,...,P, are true; otherwise the argument is false ‘Thus an argument is a statement, ie, has a truth value. If an argument is true it is called a valid argument; if an argument is false it is called a fallacy. Example 11: The following argument is valid Ppa © a (Law of Detachment) ‘The proof of this rule follows from the following truth table, pial ra For p is true in Cases (lines) 1 and 2, and p~q is true in Cases 1, 8 and 4; hence p and pq are true simultaneously in Case 1, Since in this Case q is truc, the argument is valid. Example 12: ‘The following argument is a fallacy’ Praarp For pq and q are both true in Case (line) 8 in the above truth table, but in this Case p is false, Now the propositions P,,P,,...,P, are true simultaneously if and only if the propo- sition P,P,a-+sP, is ttue. Thus the argument P,,P,,...,P, - Q is valid if and only if @ is true whenever P,»P,---sP, is true or, equivalently, if the proposition (PAP,0+++sP,)>Q isa tautology. We state this result formally. ‘Theorem 4.1: The argument P,,P,,...,P, + @ is valid if and only if the proposition (PysPyavesP,) > Q is a tautology. Example 13: A fundamental principle of logical reasoning states: “Gf p implies q and q implies y, then p implies +” that is, the following argument is valid praarr © pr (Law of Syllogism) ‘This fact is verified by the following truth table which shows that the proposition [waar > or) is a tautology: 26CHAP. 4) ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION 27 plalr|w - 9 » w@ > my = @ = 9 T)T|)T T/T] T]T|T|T|T|T|)T|)T]T tlrieirf{rfrlelrlrlel| ri} ele le vt)Fi/vi rie} eielel eo T/T T\|T|T ti/efejrlrlelrlelrf{e| |r| ele F)/T/T) Fi) Tri}ririrti rt) rl) rier} rie rirjejelr{rle|ciele|rlel| oc] e rlr{tl/elrle{rfejrf{r| cle rte rlre|elelri[elrlel{rle| | ej ole Seep T ryatrletilatiteta Example 14: The following argument is a fallacy: pra ~a For the proposition [(p-r9)\~p] > ~q is not s tautology, as seen in the truth table below. ip) 9 ~P1>~a T T T T F F F T Equivalently, the argument ie a fallacy since, in Case (line) 8 of the truth table, oq and ~p are true but ~q is false, An argument can also be shown to be valid by using previous results as illustrated in the next example. Example 15: We prove that the argument p>—g,q + ~p_ ia valid Statement, Reason () q is tree. (@) po~q is true. @) (8) a>~p is true, a (®) ~p is true, (4) Law of Detachment (Example 1.1) using (1) and (3) ARGUMENTS AND STATEMENTS We now apply the theory of the preceding section to arguments involving specific statements. We emphasize that the validity of an argument does not depend upon the truth values nor the content of the statements appearing in the argument, but upon the particular form of the argument. This is illustrated in the following examples. Example 21: Consider the following: argument: ‘Sy: If a man is a bachelor, he is unhappy. Sy: If a man is unhappy, he dies young. Bachelors die young. Here the statement § below the line denotes the conclusion of the argument, and the statements S, and Sp above the line denote the premises. We claim that the argument S,,S;>S is valid. For the argument is of the form poqasr por where p is “He is a bachelor”, g is “He is unhappy" and r is “He dies young”; and by Example 1.8 this argument (Law of Syllogism) is valid.28 ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION (CHAP. 4 Example 22: We claim that the following: argument is not valid Sy: If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the opposite angles are equal Sq: Two aides of a triangle are not equal. S: The opposite angles are not equal For the argument is of the form pq,~p + ~q, where p is “Two sides of a triangle are equal” and q is “The opposite angles are equal”; and by Example 14 this argument is a fallacy. “Although the conclusion S does follow from S_ and axioms of Euclidean sgeom- etry, the above argument does not constitute such a proof since the argument is a fallacy. Example 23: We claim that the following argument is valid Sq: If 5 ie a prime number, then 5 does not divide 16. S: 6 is not a prime number. For the argument is of the form p->~qq } ~p where p number” and q is “6 divides 15"; and we proved this argument is ample 1.5. ‘We remark that although the conclusion here is obviously a false statement, the argument as given is still valid. It is because of the false premise S, that wwe can logically arrive at the false conclusion, 5 is a prime valid in Ex: Example 24: Determine the validity of the following argument: Sy: If 7 is less than 4, then 7 is not a prime number. Sy. Tis not less than 4, S: Tis a prime number. We translate the argument into symbolic form. Let p be “7 is less than 4" and g be “7 ig'a prime number”. Then the argument is of the form na | po~a| ~p prune ea aaaals » T T F F aaas nasa sas ‘The argument i a fallacy since in Case (line) 4 of the adjacent truth table, p> ~g and ~p are true but q is false. ‘The fact that the conclusion of the argument happens to be a true statement fs irrelevant to the fact that the argument is a fallacy, LOGICAL IMPLICATION A proposition P(p,q, . 0,4, .-.) is true whenever P(r. 4 ) is said to logically imply a proposition Q(p,4,...) if ) is true, Example 31: We claim that p logically implies pv q. For consider the truth tables of p and pv q in the adjacent table. Observe that p is true in Cases (Lines) 1 and 2, and in these Cases, pvq is also true. In other words, p logically implies va. aaals maaale > T T F FP ) is true, then the argument Now if Q(p,4, -..) is true whenever P(p, 4, P(p, 4...) + QPG -.-) is valid; and conversely. Furthermore, the argument P+ Q is valid if and only if the conditional statement PQ is always true, i.e, a tautology. We state this result formally.CHAP. 4] ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION 29 Theorem 42: ‘The proposition P(p,q,-..) logically implies the proposition Q(p, 4, ...) if and only if (i) the argument P(p,q,...) }- Q(0a,.--) is valid or, equivalently, (i) the propos ion P(p,a,--.) > Q(p,4,-.-) is a tautology. Remark: The reader should be warned that logicians and many texts use the word “implies” in the same sense as we use “logically implies”, and so they dis- tinguish between “implies” and “if ... then”. ‘These two distinct concepts are, of course, intimately related as seen in the above Theorem 4.2, Solved Problems ARGUMENTS: 4.1. Show that the following argument is valid: pod. + p. Method 1. Construct the truth table on the right. Now pq is true in Cases (Uinea) 1 and 4, and q is true in Cases 1 and 3; hence p> q and q ave true ultaneously’ only in Case 1 where p is algo true, Thus the argument pega bp is valid Method 2. Construct the truth table of ipa) a] -> p lwodaad>p 7 ? t t Since [(p42q)04) > p is tautology, the argument 4.2. Determine the validity of the argument pq, bm Construct the truth table of (p= a) A~<] = ~P alajie ~ 9 » ~ a ~~ » TITIT]T]7]F [TTF] P tfejtlelel|el|olefrle|e rirfe|ritirlel|rfr|r| sr rle[e|rlel[o[rle leit se [i betatsteli le feds ince the proposition [(p— 4) ~9] > ~p is a tautology, the given argument is valid. 43. Determine the validity of the argument ~pq,p + ~ Construct the truth table of [(~p> a) p] > ~a!30 4A. ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION (CHAP. 4 sl a|->| re Sh [pra a> na tlrjr| t ryrit| t leit] F Since the proposition [(~p- 4) Ap] > ~@ is not a tautology, the argument ~p-9, pH ~a is a fallacy, Observe that ~p— 9 and p are both true in Case (line) 1 but in this Case ~g is false, Prove that the following argument is valid: p>~q,r>q.r + ~i ‘Method 1. Construct the following truth tables: r | pone | roa sass eer naaase58 aeenaaan asas5sas | | | Method 2. Construct the truth table for the proposition [7-0 Argan) > ~P Tt will be @ tautology, and so the given argument is valid. Method 8. Statement Reason () p>~a is true, 2) Given (2) rq is true, (2) Given (8) ~9>r is true, (8) Contrapositive of (2) () pomr is true (4) Law of Syllogism, using (1) and (8) (8) ro~p is true. (5) Contrapositive of (4) (6) 9 is trae, (6) Given (1) Hence ~p is true, (1) Law of Detachment, using (5) and (6) ARGUMENTS AND STATEMENTS 45, Test the validity of each argument: (i) If it rains, Erik will be sick. (ii) ‘If it rains, Erik will be sick. It did not rain, Erik was not sick. ick. It did not rain, Erik was not translate the arguments into symbolie form: @ pranp ema (i) poanae He ick”, By Example 1.4, the argument (i) is a fallacy; by where p is “It rains” and q is “Erik Problem 4.2, the argument (ji) is valid.CHAP. 4] ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION 31 46. Test the validity of the following argument: If 6 is not even, then 5 is not prime. But 6 is even. ‘Therefore 5 is prime. ‘Translate the argument into symbolic form. Let p be p. “6 is even” and let q be “5 is prime.” Then the argument, of the form ~po~up ra T Now in the adjacent truth table, ~p->~q and p are both F true in Case (line) 2; but in this Case q Is false. Hence the oF | F |v | argument is a fallacy. ‘The argument can also be shown to be a fallacy by constructing the truth table of the proposition [(~p-> ~a) Ap] ~ q and observing that the proposition is not @ tautology. 4 T F T F ‘The fact that the conclusion is a true statement docs not affect the fact that the argument is a fallacy. 4.7. Test the validity of the following argument: If I like mathematies, then I will study. Either I study or I fail. If I fail, then I do not like mathematics. First translate the argument into symbolic form. Let p be “I like mathematics”, q be “T study” and r be “fail”, Then the given argument is of the form prqavr bh ramp To test the validity of the argument, construct the truth tables of the propositions p> q avr and r+ ~p Recall that an argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the premises are true Now in Case (line) 1 of the above truth table, the premises p= and qv r are both true but the conclusion r>~p is false; hence the argument is a fallacy. 48. ‘Test the validity of the following argument: If I study, then I will not fail mathematies. If I do not play basketball, then I will study, But I failed mathematics. ‘Therefore, I played basketball.32. ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION [CHAP. 4 First translate the argument into symbolic form, Let p be “I study”, q be “I fail mathematics” and r be “I play basketball”. Then the given angument is as follows: prmqnrrspg er ‘To test the validity of the argument, construct the truth tables of the given propositions pom arpa and F alr T(T{T|P ry)? tir|F|r t| 7 tyr|rlr| or fr] or tiefr[r] or |r] oo ntl "| tT J)F] ot rlrir/r| tr |r] r ryels| voor] ot rlrjrit] 7 ir | P yeously only in Case (line) 5, and a, Now the premises p> ~g, ~r-+ p and q are true simult Jn that ease the conclusion 7 is also true: hence the argument is vi LOGICAL IMPLICATION 49. Show that pq logically implies p 4. Construct the truth table for (pa) > (pa): Since (pa) (9 9) is a tautology, pg logically implies p> 4. 4.10. Show that pq logically implies p~ 4. Consider the truth tables of pq and pg Now pq iis true in lines 1 and 4, and in these cases pq is also true. Hence p+ logically implies p> 4. AJL Prove: Let P(v,q,...) logically imply Q(»,4, ‘Then for any propositions PyPy oy P(PyP...) logically implies Q(P,,P,,..). By Theorem 42, if P(o.9, ..) logically implies Q(psq, ..) then the proposition P(p, y+.) > Qip.4,.-.) is a tautology. By the Principle of Substitution (Theorem 2.2), the proposition POPy,Pa ss) © QIPy.Pas ss) is also a tautology. Accordingly, P(P,,Ps,...) logically implies QP Pas)CHAP. 4] ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION 33, 4.12, Determine the number of nonequivalent propositions P(p,q) which logically imply the proposition p<>4. [vee pia Consider the adjacent truth table of ~q does not logically imply p> 4. Method 1. Construct the truth tables of p+ ~q and p= Recall that pe+—q logically implies pq if p->g is true whenever po>~q is true, But po>~q is true in Case (line) 2 in the above table, and in that Case pq is false. Hence <> ~g does not Togically imply 2-4 Method 2. Construct the truth table of the proposition (p<*~g)—+ (pq). It will not be a tantology; hence, by Theorem 4.2, p+ ~q does not logically imply p= 4. Supplementary Problems ARGUMENTS, Aud, Test the vi ty of each argument: (i) ~p+q.p + ~a (i) ~P>~ag ep 415, ‘Test the validity of each argument: () p> gr ~q erp; Gi) p> ~% rong bh paar. 416, Test the validity of each argument: (i) p> ~qr pg H =r Gi) Pa ry~qear emp. ARGUMENTS AND STATEMENTS AIT, Test the validity of the argument: If London is not in Denmark, then Paris is not in France But Paris is in France ‘Therefore, London is in Denmark 418, Test the validity of the argument: If 1 study, then 1 will not fail mathem 1 did not study. 1 failed mathematics.34 42s, ARGUMENTS, LOGICAL IMPLICATION ‘Translate into symbolic form and test the validity of the argument: (a) If 6 is even, then 2 does not divide 7. Hither 6 is not prime or 2 divides 7. But 6 is prime, ‘Therefore, 6 is odd (not even). () On my wife's birthday, I bring her flowers. Either it’s my wife's birthday or I work Inte, did not bring my wife flowers today. (©) If 1 work, 1 cannot study. Either 1 work, or I pass mathematics 1 passed mathematics, ‘Therefore, 1 studied. (@) 1 1 work, 1 cannot atudy. Either I study, or I pass mathematics. T worked. ‘Therefore, I passed mathematies. LOGICAL IMPLICATION 20, 42 sa san 42 44 Show that (i) pg logically implies p, (i) pvq does not logically imply p. Show that () q logically implies p~ 4, (ii) ~p logically implies p=. Show that p.0(qvr) logically implies (p09) vr. Determine those propositions whieh logically imply (i) a tautology, (ii) a contradiction (CHAP. 4 Determine the number of nonequivalent propositions Pip,q) which logically imply the proposition pa Answers to Supplementary Problems (i) fallacy, (i) valid (i) valid, (i) fallacy valid, (i) vatia id construct truth tables for such propositions (see Problem 4.12). valid fallacy (a) p>~qarvacr =p; valid, (0) p>~apy rir Hg; fallacy. () pra pyr ~a rr valid (0 pomqavesy bm valid i) Every proposition logically implies a tautology. (ii) Only a contradiction logically implies a contradiction. ‘There are eight such propositions:Chapter 5 Set Theory SETS AND ELEMENTS ‘The concept of a set appears in all branches of mathematics. Intuitively, a set is any well-defined list or collection of objects, and will be denoted by capital letters A, B,X, Y, ‘The objects comprising the set are called its elements or members and will be denoted by lower case letters a,b,2,y,.... The statement “p is an element of A” or, equivalently, “p belongs to A” is written pea ‘The negation of pEA is written p EA. There are essentially two ways to specify a particular set. One way, if it is possible, is to list its members. For example, A = (a, 6,1, 0,0) denotes the set A whose elements are the letters a,¢,i,0,u. Note that the elements are separated by commas and enclosed in braces { }. The second way is to state those proper- ties which characterize the elements in the set. For example, B = (x: cisaninteger, «> 0) which reads “B is the set of 2 such that « is an integer and z is greater than zero,” denotes the set B whose elements are the positive integers. A letter, usually 2, is used to denote a typical member of the set; the colon is read as “such that” and the comma as “and”. Example 11: The set B above ean also be written as B Observe that 62 B, 3€B and = @B. 1,2,8) +2). Example 12: The set A above can also be written as A = (e: 2 is a letter in the English alphabet, « is a vowel} Observe that bE A, CEA and PEA. Example 18: Let E = (x: 2!—e+2=0). In other words, E consists of those numbers ‘which are solutions of the equation 2°~ 82 +2=0, sometimes called the solution rot of the given equation. Since the solutions of the equation are 1 and 2, we could also write E = (3,2) ‘Two sets A and B are equal, written A=B, if they consist of the same elements, ie. if each member of A belongs to B and each member of B belongs to A. The negation of A=B is written AB. Example Ld: Let E = (2: t= 32+2=0), F=(21} and G = (1,2,2,1,6/9) ‘Then E=F=G. Observe that a set does not depend on the way in which its clements are displayed. A set remains the same if its elements are repeated or rearranged, 8536 SET THEORY (CHAP. 5 FINITE AND INFINITE SETS Sets can be finite or infinite, A set is finite if it consists of exactly n different elements, where n is some positive integer; otherwise it is infinite. Example 21: Let Af be the sot of the days of the week, In other words, M = (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday} Then Bf is finite, Example 22: Let ¥ (2,4,6,8 2.) ‘Then ¥ is infinite, Example 23: Let P = (e: + is a river on the earth). Although it may be difficult to count the number of rivers on the earth, P is a finite set. SUBSETS A set A is a subset of a set B or, equivalently, B is a superset of A, written ACB or BOA iff each element in A also belongs to B; that is, >€A implies 2€B. We also say that A is contained in B or B contains A, The negation of ACB is written A ¢ B or BDA and states that there is an 2A such that «@B. Example $1: Consider the sets A= 048,57. B= (6,10, 15,20, ...} © = (e: win prime, 2>2) = 85,71...) ‘Then CC A since every prime number greater than 2 is odd, On the other hand, BGA since WEB hut WEA. Example 22: Let N denote the set of positive integers, Z denote the sot of integers, Q denote the set of rational numbers and denote the set of real numbers. Then NozZcQcR Example 23: The set F = (2,4,6} is a subset of the set F = (6,2,4}, since each number 2, 4 and 6 belonging to H also belongs to F. In fact, #=F, In a similar manner it can be shown that every set is a subset of itself. As noted in the preceding example, A C B does not exclude the possibility that A= B. In fact, we may restate the definition of equality of sets as follows Defini ‘Two sets A and B are equal if ACB and BCA. In the case that A C B but A~B, we say that A is a proper subset of B or B contains A properly. The reader should be warned that some authors use the symbol C for a subset and the symbol C only for a proper subset, ‘The following theorem is a consequence of the preceding definitions: Theorem 5.1: Let A, B and C be sets. Then: (i) ACA; (ii) if ACB and BCA, then A=B; and (iii) if ACB and BCC, then ACC. UNIVERSAL AND NULL SETS In any application of the theory of sets, all sets under investigation are regarded as subsets of a fixed set. We call this set the universal set or universe of discourse and denote it (in this chapter) by U. Example 4. In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane. Example 42: In human population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world,CHAP. 5] SET THEORY 87 It is also convenient to introduce the concept of the empty or null set, that is, a set which contains no elements. This set, denoted by @, is considered finite and a subset of every other set. Thus, for any set A, @C ACU. Example 43: Let A = (2: is odd). Then A is empty, ie. A= 0. Example 44: Let B he the set of people in the world who are older than 200 years, According ‘to known statistics, B is the mull set. CLASS, COLLECTION, FAMILY Frequently, the members of a set are sets themselves. For example, each line in a set of lines is a set of points. To help clarify these situations, other words, such as “class”, “collection” and “family” are used. Usually we use class or collection for a set of sets, and family for a set of classes. ‘The words subelass, subcollection and subfamily have meanings analogous to subset. Example 51: The members of the class ({2,3}, (2), (5,6)} are the sets (2,3), (2) and (5,6). Example 52: Consider any set A. The power sot of A, denoted by (A) or 24, is the class of all subsets of A. In particular, if A= (a,b,c), then A) = (A, (0,0), Cae}, (0,0), (0), 0), {6}, OF Im general if A is finite and has m elements, then P(A) will have 2" elements. SET OPERATIONS The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AUB, is the set of all elements which belong to A or to B: AUB = (x:26A or EB) Here “or” is used in the sense of and/or. The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by AN B, is the set of elements which belong to both A and B: ANB = (x:2€A and 2€B) If ANB = Q, that is, if A and B do not have any elements in common, then A and B are said to be disjoint or non-intersecting. The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A or, simply, the difference of A and B, denoted by A\B, is the set of elements which belong to A but which do not belong to B: ANB = (@:2€4, cB) Observe that A\ B and B are disjoint, ie. (A\B) NB = @. ‘The absolute complement or, simply, complement of a set A, denoted by A‘, is the set of elements which do not belong to A: Ao = (e:2€U, re A) That is, A° is the difference of the universal set U and A. Example 61: The following diagrams, called Venn diagrams, illustrate the above set operations. Here sete are represented by simple plane arcas and U, the universal set, by the area in the entire rectangle,38 SET THEORY [cwar. 5 () AUB is shaded, A” B is shaded. ANB is shaded. AS ig shaded, Example 62: Let A= (1,2,3,4) and B= (8,4,5,6) where U=(1,2,3,...). Then: AUB = {1,2,8,4,5,6) ANB = (8,4) ANB = (1,2) AS = (56,7, 0.) Sets under the above operations satisfy various laws or identities which are listed in Table 5.1 below. In fact we state: ‘Theorem 52: Sets satisfy the laws in Table 5.1. LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF SETS Tdempotent Laws 1a, AUA =A ib Ana = A ‘Associative Laws 2a, (AUB)UC = AUIBUO) 2b. (ANB)AC = AN\BNO) ‘Commutative Laws Sa, AUB = BUA ab, ANB = Bod istributive Laws 4a, AUBNC) = (AUB)NIALC) 4b, AN(BUC) = (ANB)UIANC) entity Laws 5a, AUD = A bb. ANU =A 6a, AU =U 6. And = 9 ‘Complement Laws qa. AUAS =U 1 Ande = 9 fa, (Aye = A 8b. U=9, =U De Morgan's Laws (AUB) = Aen Be 9b. (ANB) = AcUBe ‘Table 5 Remark: Each of the above laws follows from the analogous logical law in Table 2.1, Page 11. For example, ANB = (e:2€A and c€B) = (e:2€B and z€A) = BNACHAP. 5) SET THEORY 39 Here we use the fact that if p is r€A and q is 7GB, then pag is logically equivalent to gap: Dad = aap. Lastly we state the relationship between set inclusion and the above set oper: Theorem 53: Each of the following conditions is equivalent to A cB: () AnB=A (iii) BEC AS () Bua=0 (i) AUB=B (iv) ANB =O ARGUMENTS AND VENN DIAGRAMS. ‘Many verbal statements can be translated into equivalent statements about sets which can be described by Venn diagrams, Hence Venn diagrams are very often used to determine the validity of an argument. Example 74: Consider the following argument: Sy: Babies are illogical. ‘Sq: Nobody is despised who ean manage a crocodile. ‘Sz: Mlogical people are despised. S: Babies cannot manage crocodiles (The above argument is adapted from Lewis Carroll, Symbolic Logie: he is also the author of Alice in Wonderland.) Now by Sy, the set of babies is a subset of the set of illogical people: Towa pone By Sq, the sot of iMlogical people is contained in the set of despised people: Furthermore, by Sz, the set of despised people and the set of people who ean ‘manage a crocodile are disjoint: But by the above Venn diagram, the set of babies is disjoint from the sot of people ‘who ean manage crocodiles, or “Babies cannot manage crocodiles” is a consequence of Si, Sy and Ss. Thus the above argument, ie vali Sy Sy 8s r 840 SET THEORY (CHAP. 5 Solved Problems SETS, ELEMENTS SA. Let A = (2:82 = 6). Does A A is the set which consists of the single clement 2, that is, A= {2). ‘The number 2 belongs to A; it does not equal A. There is @ basic difference between an clement p and the singleton sot (p). 52. Which of these sets are equal: (r,t), (st.r8}, (Latrh (5730)? ‘They are all equal. Order and repetition do not change a set. 53. Which of the following sets are finite? (i) The months of the year. (iv) (x: ais an even number} (i) ,2,8, ...,. 99, 100) Ww) (1,28...) (ii) The number of people living on the earth. ‘The first three sets are finite; the last two sets are infinite, 5.4, Determine which of the following sets are equal: 9, {0}, (D}. Each is different from the other. The set {0} contains one element, the number zero. The set @ contains no elements; it is the empty set. The set (9)} also contains one element, the null set. 55. Determine whether or not each set is the null set: () X= (ere =9, Be = 4}, (il) Y= (ie 4 x}, (iit) Z = (2:2 +8 = 8). (i) There is no number which satisfies both 2?=9 and 24; hence X is empty, ie. X=. (i) We assume that any object is itaelf, so ¥ is also empty. In fact, some texts define the mull set as follows: O = rete) (Gi) "The number zero satisfies 2+8 = 8 henco Z= (0). Accordingly, Z is not the empty set since tt contains 0, That is, Z+0. SUBSETS 56, Prove that A = (2,3,4,5} is not a subset of B = {w:iseven). It is necessary to show that at Ieast one element in A docs not belong to B. Now 3€A and, since B consists of even numbers, 3B; hence A is not a subset of B. 5.1. Prove Theorem 5.1(iii): If ACB and BCC, then ACC. ‘We must show that each element in A also belongs to C. Let #€ A, Now ACB implies 2EB. But BCC; henee #EC. We have shown that 2A implies 2, that is, that ACC. 58, Find the power set 7(S) of the set S = (1,2,8). ‘The power set P(S) of S is the class of all subsets of (1), (2), (8) and the empty set @, Hence IS) = 4S, {1,8}, 2,3), (1,2), (2), (8), 9) ; these are (1,2,8}, (1,2), (1,8), (2,3), Note that there are 28 = 8 subsets of S.CHAP. 5) SET THEORY 41 59. 5.10, Let V=(d), W = (cd), X= (a,b,c), ¥ = (ab) and Z = (a,b,d). Determine whether each statement is true or false YC, Gi) WZ, (il) ZIV, (iv) VCX, () X=W, wi) WY. Since each clement in ¥ is a member of X, Vc X is true, (i) Now a2 but « W; hence WZ is true, (Gi) The only element in V is d and it also belongs to 2; hence Z>V is true. liv) V is not a subset of X since J V but d@ Xs hence VEX is false, (W) Now @eX but @€W; hence 4 (vi) W is not a subset of Y since e€ W but © ¥; hence WCY is false W is falee Prove: If A is a subset of the empty set @, then A=, ‘The null set @ is a subset of every set; in particular, @C A. But, by hypothesis, A CO; hence A= 9. SET OPERATIONS Sal. 52. Let U=(1,2,...,8,9), A= (1,2,8,4), B= (2,4,6,8) and C = (8,4,5,6). Find: i) As, (ii) ANC, (iii) (ANG, Gv) AUB, (vy) B\C. (i) A® consists of the elements in U that are not in A; hence AS = (6,6,7,8,9). 3,4) (ii) (AMO¥ consists of the elements in U that are not in ANC. Now by (ii), ANC = (8,4) and s0 (ANC) = (1,2,5,6,7,8,9}- (Gv) AUB consists of the elements in A or B (or both): hence AUB = (1,2,3,4,6,8), (©) B\C consists of the elements in B which are not in C; hence B\C = (2,8). () ANC consists of the elements in both A and C; hence ANC In each Venn diagram below, shade: (i) AUB, (ii) ANB. CO) AUB consists of those elements which belong: to A or B (or both); hence shade the area in A land in Bas follows: AUB is shaded, (ii) AB consists of the area that is common to both A and B. To compute An B, first shade ‘A with strokes slanting upward to the right (////) and then shade B with strokes slanting o® ‘Then A 0 B consists of the cross-hatched area which is shaded below:42, SET THEORY [cHap. 5 oO © ANB is shaded Observe the following (a) ANB is empty if A and Bare disjoint. () ADB=B if BCA. () ADB=A if ACB. 5.13. In the Venn diagram below, shade: (i) BY, (ii) (AUBY, (iii) (B\.A)s, (iv) ASB. (3) Be consists of the elements which do not belong to B: hence shade the area outside B as follows Bis shaded, (ii) inst shade AUB; then (AUB) is the aren outside AUB: AUB is shaded, (AUB) ia shaded, (Gil) First shade B\.A, the area in B which does not lie in A; then (B\.Aje is the area outside Ry (Will) BNA is shaded. (BNA) is shaded. (iv) First shade A®, the area outside of A, with strokes slanting upward to the right (////), and then shade B° with strokes. slanting downward to the right (\\\\l; then ACMBe is the cross-hatched area:CHAP. 5] SET THEORY 43, A® and Be are shaded. AcnBe is shaded. Observe that (AUB) = Aen Bs, as expected by De Morgan's law, 5.14, In the Venn diagram below, shade (i) AN(BUC), (ii) (AMB)U(ANC). LX (i) First shade A with upward slanted strokes, and then shade BUC with downward slanted strokes; naw AM(BUC) is the eross-hatehed ares: A and BUC are shaded. AN(BUC) is shaded, Gi) First shade ANB with upward slanted strokes, and then shade AOC with downward slanted strokes; now (A0B)U(AN0) is the total area shaded ANB and ANC are shaded. (ANB)U(ANC) is shaded. Notice that AM(BUC) = (ANB)U(ANC), as expected by the distributive 5.15, Prove: B\.A = BN As, Thus the set operation of difference can be written in terms of the operations of intersection and complementation, B\A = (2: 2€B,2€A) = (2: 2€B,2€A9 = BNAC44 SET THEORY (CHAP. 5 5.16, Prove the Distributive Law: AN(BUC) = (ANB)U(ANC). An(BUQ) = (2: eA; xe BUC) (a: EA; 2ER or 2EC) = (2: 2A, EB; or EA, 2 EC) = (e: 2€ANB or 2€An0} = (AnByuAnG Observe that in the third step above we used the analogous logical Taw PAYA = WADV@AN 57. Prove: (A\B)NB = —. (A\B)OB = (@: 2EANB, 2EB) = fe: 2EA, 2@B; 2EB) ° "The last step follows from the fact that there is no clement x satisfying #€B and 2¢B. 5.18. Prove De Morgan's Law: (AUB)' = A°nBY. (AuBy = {e: #@ AUB} fe: GA, 2@B) = (e: re Ay EB) Aco Be Observe that in the second step above we used the analogous logical law ~@vQ) = ~a~d 5.19. Prove: For any sets A and B, ANBCACAUB. Let 2EANB; then x€A and 2€B. In particular, r@A. Since x ANB implies 2€A, AMBCA. Furthermore, if 264, then s€A or 2€B, ie, rE AUB. Hence AC AUB. In other words, ANBCAC AUB. 5.20, Prove Theorem 5.3(i): ACB if and only if ANB = A. Suppose ACK. Let #€A; then by hypothesis, #€B, Hence x€A and 2€B, ie. xe A0B. Accordingly, ACANB. On the other hand, it is always true (Problem 5.19) that ANB CA. ‘Thue ANB =A, Now suppose that ANB =A, Then in particular, A CAMB. But it is always true that AOBCB. Thus ACAOBCB and so, by Theorem 6.1, ACB. ARGUMENTS AND VENN DIAGRAMS 521. Show that the following argument is not valid by constructing a Venn diagram in which the premises hold but the conclusion does not hold: ‘Some students are lazy. All males are lazy. Some students are males. Consider the following Venn diagram:CHAP. 5) SET THEORY texy peo Notice that both premises hold, but the conclusion does not hold. For an argument to be valid, the conclusion must always be true whenever the premises are true. Since the diagram represents a cease in which the conclusion is false, even though the premises are true, the argument is false. Tt is possible to construct a Venn diagram in which the premises and conclusion hold, such as Show that the following argument is not va All students are lazy. Nobody who is wealthy is a student, Lazy people are not wealthy. Consider the following Venn diagram: Q n the above diagram, but the conclusion docs not hold; hence the argument Now the premises hold is not valid 5.28, For the following set of premises, find a conelusion such that the argument is valid S, Alllawyers are wealthy. S,: Poets are temperamental. S,: No temperamental person is wealthy. s: By Sj, the set of lawyers is a subset of the sat of wealthy people; and by Sy, the set of wealthy people and the set of temperamental people are disjoint. Thus wealthy pov D>46 SET THEORY (CHAP. 5 By Sp, the set of poets is a subset of the set of temperamental people; hence — => ‘Thus the statement “No poet is a lawyer” or equivalently “No lawyer is a poet” is a valid conclusion, ‘The statements “No poct is wealthy” and “No lawyer is temperament conclusions which do not make use of all the premises. I" are also valid MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 524, Let A = {2, (4,5),4). Which statements are incorrect and why? (i) (4,5) CA, (ii) (4,5) EA, (iii) (14,5) CA. ‘The elements of A aro 2, 4 and the set {4,5}. Therefore (il) is correct, but (i) is an incorrect statement. Furthermore, (if) ia also a correct statement since the set consisting of the single element (4,5) which belongs to A is a subset of A. 525. Let A = (2, (4,5},4}. Which statements are incorrect and why? ()5EA, (it) (5) EA, (iit) (5) CA Each statement is incorrect, The elements of A are 2, 4 and the set (4,5); hence (i) and (ii) are incorrect, ‘There are eight subsets of A and (5) is not one of them; 80 {ill} is also incorrect. 526. Find the power set P(S) of the set S = (8, (1,4}}. Note first that S contains two elements, 3 and the set {1,4}, ‘Therefore P(S) contains lements: $ itself, the empty set , and the two singleton sets which contain the elements (3) and ((1,4}}. In other words, PS) = 48, (8), {(1,4)}, OF 2 8 and (1,4) respectively, Supplementary Problems SETS, SUBSETS Bal, Let A = (1,2,...,8,9}, B = (24,68), © = {1,8,5,7,9), D = (84,5) and B= (3,5). Which sets ean equal if we are given the following information? ( X and B are disjoint. (i) XCD but KER, (ill) XCA but XEC. liv) XCC but XGA. 528. State whether each statement ie true or false: ( Every subset of a finite set is finite. (ii) Every subset of an infinite set is infinite 529. Find the power set (A) of A = {(1,2,3,4) and the power set PB) of B= (1, (2,3), 4)CHAP. 5] SET THEORY 40 580, State whether each set is fnite or infinite (i) The set of tines parallel to the axis, (Gi) The set of letters in the English alphabet. (Git) The set of numbers which are multiples of 5. (iv) The set of animals living on the earth. (e) The set of numbers which are solutions of the equation 27+ 26x18 (vi) The set of circles through the origin (0,0). Well+ 723-10 = 0. 531. State whether each statement is true or false: (14,3) = 8,4,1) oy) hE () Gi) (2,3,1,2,3,2) ¢ 2,3) @ cto) Git) 4,2) = (2,1,1,2,1) wi) Oc Ky SET OPERATIONS 582 Let U = {ab,o,defoh A= labode), B= {aceg} and C= (befg) Find @ Ave Gi) C\B we (i) (A\ B9 (i) BOA iw) BUC) ANG i) (Anne 533. In the Venn diagrams below, shade) W\V (i) VEU Gi) VaWe tie) VEN Te @ © 531, Draw a Venn diagram of three non-empty sets A, B and C so that A, B and C have the following: ropertes: preps () ACB, CcB, Anc=0 Gi) Ace, AC, Boe (i) ACB, C¢B, ANC #9 (iv) AC(BNO), BCC, C#B, AxC 535, The formula A\B = ANBe defines the difference operation in terms of the operations of intersection and complement. Find a formula that defines the union of two sets, AUB, in terms of the operations of intersection and complement. 536, Prove Theorem 6.a(i: ACB if and only if AUB = B. Sat, Prove: If ANB=@, then AcBY. 538, Prove: AC\ Be = BVA. 538, Prove: ACB implies AU(B\ A) 540, (i) Prove: AN(B\O) = (ANBI\ (ANC) (ii) Give an example to show that AU(B\.C) # (4UB)\(AU0), MENTS AND VENN DIAGRAMS Determine the validity of each argument for each proposed conclusion. ‘No college professor is wealthy. Some pocts are wealthy. (Some poets are college professors. (i) Some poets are not callege professors.48. 5.2, 5.44, 521 5.28, 5.28, 5.20, sat, 532, 538, SET THEORY [owap. 5 Determine the validity of each argument for each proposed conclusion, AIL poets are interesting: people. Audrey is an interesting: person. (Audrey is a poet. (ii) Audrey is not @ poet Determine the validity of the argument for each proposed conclusion. All poets are poor. In order to be a teacher, one must graduate from college No college graduate is poor. (Teachers are not poor (3) Poets are not teachers (ii) If Mare is a college graduate, then he is not a poet. Determine the validity of the argument for each proposed conclusion. All mathematicians are interesting people. Some teachers sell, Only uninteresting people become insurance salesmen. (Insurance salesmen are not mathematicians. (ii) Some interesting people are not teachers (Gil) Some teachers are not interesting: people. (iv) Some mathematicians are teachers. (¥) Some teachers ave not mathematicians. (vi) If Erie is a mathematician, then he does not sell Insurance. Answers to Supplementary Problems () C and E, (ii) D and B, (iii) A, B and D, (iv) None OT, GF PUB) = {B, (1, (2,89), (1s 4d, (12,8), A, Dy 12,30), (0), OD ) infinite, (ji) finite, (ii) infinite, (iv) finite, (0) finite, (vi) infinite @T, GT, GT, Ge) T, WF, WT @ ave=u @) CNA= feed) = BOA = (a,¢) WW) AN OF = thefat (i) C\B= 6A, (i) ANB = Bd fod (iv) BUC= 6, 4e,f.0) (wit) (Ange =U @ CE WN veuw Vawe NWCHAP. 5 SET THEORY 49 ay Ww: W WAV veuw vawe ve\ We Observe that VOUW =U and VoWe=@ in case (b) where VCW. © @9 . “&H 535, AUB = (Aen Bs) AU(BX O) is shaded. (AUB)\ (AUC) is shaded, 5a) 5.40 541, (fallacy, (1) valid 5.42, (i) fallacy, (i) fallacy 5.43, valld, (i) valid, (if) vatia 5.44. (i) valid, (i) fallacy, (Gi) valid, (iv) fallacy, (v) valid, (vi) valid ‘The following Venn diagrams show why (ii) and (Iv) are fallacies: an Ge)Chapter 6 Product Sets ORDERED PAIRS ‘An ordered pair consists of two elements, say a and b, in which one of them, say a, is designated as the first element and the other as the second element, Such an ordered pair is written (0,0) Two ordered pairs (2,0) and (c,d) are equal if and only if a=e and b=d. Bxample 1.1: The ordered pairs (2,8) and (8,2) are different, Example 12: The points in the Cartesian plane in Pig. 6-1 below represent ordered pairs of real numbers. ‘The set {2,8} is not an ordered pair since the clements 2 and 3 are not dis- tinguished. Example 13: Example 14: Ordered pairs can have the same first and second elements, such as (1,1), (44) and 6,8) Remark: An ordered pair (¢,) ean be defined rigorously as follows: (a,b) = (a), (4,6)} the key here being that (a} C (a,b} which we use to first element. From this definition, the fundamental property of ordered pairs can be proven: inguish a as the (a,5) = (ed) itandonly if a=c and b=d PRODUCT SETS Lot A and B be two sets. ‘The product set (or Cartesian product) of A and B, written AB, consists of all ordered pairs (a,b) where a€ A and b EB: AXB = (a,b): a€4, DEB ‘The product of a set with itself, say Ax A, is sometimes denoted by A*, Example 21: ‘The reader is familiar with the Cartesian plane R! = RXR (Fig. 6-1 below). Here each point P represents an ordered pair (o,b) of real numbers and vice versa; the vertical line through P meets the 2 axis st ¢, and the horizontal line through P meets the y axis at 8 La Fig. 6-1 Fig. 62 50CHAP. 6) PRODUCT SETS 51 Example 22: Let A= (1,2,3) and B= (a,b). ‘Then AX B = (ya, (1,8), Ba, 0), Ba), (8,0)} Since A and do not contain many elements, it is possible to represent: Ax B by coordinate diagram as shown in Fig, 6-2 above, Here the vertical lines through the points of A and the horizontal lines through the points of Z meet in 6 points which represent AB in the obvious way. The polnt P is the ordered pair (2, b) In general, if a finite set A has s elements and a finite set B has t elements, then AX B has s times ¢ elements. If either A or B is empty, then A B is empty. Lastly, if either A or B is infinite, and the other is not empty, then A x B is also infinite. PRODUCT SETS IN GENERAL ‘The concept of a product set can be extended to more than two sets in a natural way. ‘The Cartesian product of sets A,B,C, denoted by A x Bx C, consists of all ordered triplets (a,b,c) where @€ A, DEB and ceC: AXBXC = {(a,b,c): 2€ 4, DEB, cEC} Analogously, the Cartesian product of n sets A,,A,,...,4,, denoted by A,X A,X +++ XA, consists of all ordered n-tuples (a,,a,,...,,) where @,€A,...,4,€A,: ALKA KA = (peer)? CAy oe GEA) Here an ordered n-tuple has the obvious intuitive meaning, that is, it consists of n elements, not necessarily distinet, in which one of them is designated as the first element, another as the second element, ete. Furthermore, yen) = Oy errb) i a Example 81: In three dimensional Buclidean geometry each point represents an ordered triplet: its e-component, its y-component and its ¢-component. Example 32: Let A= (0,5), B= (1,2,8) and C= (2,y). Them: AXBXC = (la,1,2), (61,4), (42,2), (02,9), (0,3,2), (0,3, 0) (bs Le2h eben), (6,22, 6,21), 6, 9,2% 6, 8.00) TRUTH SETS OF PROPOSITIONS Recall that any proposition P containing, say, three variables p, q and r, assigns a truth value to each of the eight cases below: Let U denote the set consisting of the eight 3-tuples appearing in the table above: U = (PTT, TPF, TFT, TFF, PTT, PTF, FFT, FFF) (Por notational convenience we have written, say, TTT for (T,T,T).)52 PRODUCT SETS [cHaP.6 Definition: | ‘The truth set of a proposition P, written T(P), consists of those elements of U for which the proposition P is true, Example 4.1: Following is the truth table of (~ 4) A (gh: w>onarn T T T T r T F F T F T F Tr F r F F T T r F T F F F T T r F T T Tr Accordingly, the truth set of (p>) A(g>) is Tip A(q>r) = ATT, PT, FFT, FFF) ‘The next theorem shows the intimate relationship between the set operations and the logical connectives. ‘Theorem 6.1: Let P and Q be propositions. Then: (i) TPQ) = TIP)N TQ) (i) TIP Q) = TIP)U TQ) (iii) T(~P) = (TIP) (iv) P logically implies @ if and only if T(P) ¢ T(Q) ‘The proof of this theorem follows directly from the definitions of the logical connectives and the set operations. Solved Problems ORDERED PAIRS G1. Let W = (John, Jim, Tom) and let V = (Betty, Mary). Find Wx. WV consists of all ordered pairs (a,6) where a€W and bE. Hence, WV = (Vohn, Betty), (John, Mary), (Jim, Betty), (Jim, Mary), (Tom, Betty), (Tom, Mary)} 62. Suppose (x+y, 1) = (8,2~y). Find « and y. If (e+y,1) =(8e—y) then, by the fundamental property of ordered pairs, ety =3 and 1seny ‘The solution of these simultaneous equations is givemby #=2, y=1.CHAP. 6] PRODUCT SETS 63, Let A= (a,b, 0,d,¢,f} and B= {a,¢,i,0,u). Determine the ordered pairs corresponding to the points P,, P,, P. and P, which appear in the coordinate diagram of Ax B on the right. The vertical line through Py erosses the A axis at 6 and the horizontal line through P crosses the axis at; hence Py corre- sponds to the ordered pair (5,()- Similarly, Pz = (aa), Py = (ds) and Py = (ee) PRODUCT SETS Let A= (1,23), B= (2,4) and © = (3,45). Find AxBxC. A convenient method of finding A x BC ia through the so-called “tree diagram” shown below: 6A, 65. 53. Hite t (1,2, 3) 4,3) oS EB << “SES 3 2,28) <4 a 5 25) —— @49) rT 5 48) 8 B23) ae) a 5 8) 3 (84,8) G40) 4 5 45) ‘The “tree” is constructed from the left to the right, AXBXC consists of the ordered triples listed to the right of the “tree”. Let A= {a,b}, B= (2,3) and C () Ax BUC), (ii) (AX B)U(AXxO), 3,4). Find: Ax (BNO), First compute BUC = (2, 4). Then (iv) (Ax B) (A x 0). AX (BUC) = {(0,2), (a, 8), (0,4, (0,2), (6,8), (5,89) (i) Fivet find Ax B and Ax C: AXB = (0,2), (4,3), (6,2), (6.8)) AXC = (0,8), (0,8, (6,8), 6,9) ‘Then compute the union of the two sets: (AXB) (AKC) = {ley2), (3), (0,2), (0.8), (8,4), (049) Observe, from (i) and (ii), that AX (BUC) = (AXB)U(AXO) (iil) First compute BOC = {3}. Then AX (BNC) = (0,3), (0,3)54 68, 64. PRODUCT SETS (CHAP. 6 (iv) Now A xB and AC were computed above. The intersection of Ax B and Ax C consists of ‘those ordered pairs which belong to both sets (AX BY (AX C) = {a,8),(6,3)) Observe from (ji) and (iv) that AX(BNO) = (AXB)(AxC) Prove: Ax (BNC) = (AX B)N(AXxC). AX(BNQ = (evi #EA, ¥EBNC (ev): 2EA, vEB, VEC} {(2.0) + ( EAXB, (ey) EAXC} = xB) naxo Let S = {a,b}, W = (1,2;8,4;5,6) and V = {3,5,7,9}. Find (Sx W)n(SxV). ‘The product set (SX W). (SV) can be found by first computing SX W and SXV, and then computing the intersection of these sets. On the other hand, by the preceding problem, (SX WIN (SXV) = SxUWAV). Now WaV = (8,5), and so (SXW) 0 (SXV) = SXWNV) = {a,9), (a5), (6,8), (6,5)) Prove: Let ACB and CCD; then (Ax C)c(BXD). Let (2,9) be any arbitrary clement in A XC; then 2€A and y&C. By hypothesis, ACB and CCD; hence 2€B and yED. Accordingly, (ey) belongs to BXD. We have shown that GWEAXC implies (2, EBXD; hence (AXC)c(BXD). TRUTH SETS OF PROPOSITIONS 69. Find the truth set of p »~4. First construct the truth table of pa ~4 pla l-al pang tlt|Fl F tlel|r] or ritir| F rleit| F Note that p»~q is true only in the case that p is true and q is false; hence Tea~ = (TF) 6.10. Find the truth set of ~p> 4. First construct the trath table of ~p-> 4: pla |-r| ~r>9 tlt || @ tilri{Fr| ¢ Fi[t|r] or rleiv| F Now ~p~4q is true in the first three eases; hence T(-p>q) = (TT, TR, FT)CHAP. 6) PRODUCT SETS 3B 6.1. 6.12. 6.13, 6.4. 6.15. Find the truth set of the proposition (pv q) 4": First construct the truth table of (pv q) ar: Now the proposition (pvq)Ar is true only in the first, third and fifth eases. Hence Tipv gar) = (TTT, TPT, PTT) Suppose the proposition P = P(p,”,...) is a tautology. Determine the truth set ‘T(P) of the proposition P. If P is a tautology, then P is true for any truth values of its variables, Hence the truth set of P is the universal set: T(P) = U, Suppose the proposition P = P(p,9,...) is & contradiction. Determine the truth set T(P) of the proposition P. If P is conteadition, then there is no case in which P is true, Le. P is false for any truth values of its variables, Hence the truth set of P is empty: T() = Let P = P(p.q,...) and Q = Q(p,q,--.) be propositions such that Pa@ is a contradiction. Show that the truth sets T(P) and T(Q) are disjoint. ). Hence, by Theorem 6.11), If PQ is a contradiction, then its truth set is empty: T(P.0.@) = TPO TQ) = THA = Suppose that the proposition P = P(p,q,...) logically implies the proposition Q = Qp,a,...). Show that the truth sets T(P) and T(~Q) are disjoint. Since P logically implies Q, TIP) is @ subset of T(Q). But by Theorem 5.3, TIP)C TQ) isequivalentto TW) N(TIQN® = Furthermore, by Theorem 6.1(I), (T(Q))° = T(~@). Hence TIP) T~Q) = 956 PRODUCT SETS (CHAP. 6 Supplementary Problems ORDERED PAIS, PRODUCT SETS 616, Suppose (y= 2,241) = (e=1,yt2) Find 2 and y. G17, Find the ordered pairs corresponding to the points Py, P2, Py and Py which appear below in the coordinate diagram of (1,2,8,4) % (2,4,6,8), 3h 4 P 618. Let W = (Mark, Eric, Paul) and Jet V = (Brie, David). Find: @ Wx¥, Gi) VXW, Gi) VE = V XY. G19, Let A= (2,3), B= (1,3,5) and C in Problem 6.4,'and then find Ax BC. (8,4). Construct the “tree diagram” of Ax BX, 62, Let S= (a,b,0), 7 then find STW. esd} and W = (ad). Construct the tree diagram of Sx Tx W and 6.21. Suppose that the sets V, W and Z have 3, 4 and 5 elements respectively. Determine the number cof elements in () VxWXZ, (hi) 2xVXW, (ii) WEY, 622, Let A= BNC. Determine if either statement is true: Wi) AXA = (BXB)ACXO), (i) AXA = (BKO)N(CXB), 623. Prove: Ax (BUC) = (Ax B)U(AXO) TRUTH SETS OF PROPOSITIONS 621, Find the truth set of po ~a. 625. Find the truth set of ~py ~q. 626, Pind the truth set of (pv q)~ G22, Find the truth set of (p> @) 4 (vn). 628, Let P= Plp,q,-..) and Q = Q(p.qr--.) be propositions such that Pv @ is a tautology. Show that the union of the truth sets TIP) and T(Q) is the universal set: T(P) UT(Q) = U. 629, Lat the proposition P = P(p. a...) logically imply the proposition @ = Qip.a....}. Show that the union of the truth aets T(~P) and T(Q) is the universal set: 7(~P) UT(Q) = U. Answers to Supplementary Problems 616, 67. (4), P= 28), Py = (4,6) and Py = 6,2). 618.) WV = (Mark, Erie), (Mark, David), (Erie, Brie), (Eric, David), (Paul, Erie), (Paul, David) vxw Gin) VX. {(Brie, Mark), (David, Mark), (Erie, Erie), (David, Bric), (Exie, Paul), (David, Paull} ((Bric, Erie), (Bric, David), (David, Eric), (David, David)}CHAP. 6) PRODUCT SETS 519, 52 ea. 622, 62 62. 62. 6a == OE sae SS sD in A, he, (@ HER Mac’ and (ER arb Example 82: The inverses of the relations defined by “e is the husband of y” and “sz is taller than y” are respectively “p ie the wife of y” and “se is shorter than y” EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS A relation R in a set A is called reflexive if aRa, (a,a)ER, for every ae A. Example 41; (i) Let R be the relation of similarity in the set of triangles in the plane. ‘Then Bis reflexive since every triangle is similar to itself. (ii) Let R be the relation < in any set of real numbers, ie. (a,b) € Riff a, ie. defined by “r is sereater than ”. Let 2° be the relation from H = (2,8,4,5) to F = (8,6,7,10} defined by “x divides y”. (i) Write 2 as a set of ordered pairs (ii) Plot R on a coordinate diagram of EX F. (iii) Find the inverse relation R~*, Choose from the sixteen ordered pairs in Ex F those in which the first element divides the second; then wl + B= (2,6), (2,10), (8,3), (8,6), (,10)) 1 (ii) Bis sketched on the coordinate diagram of EXF as ‘ shown in the figure, (iii) To find the inverse of R, write the elements of R but in reverse onder 2s Ret = ((6,2), (10,2), (3,3), (6,3), (10,5)) Let M = {a,b,¢,d} and let R be the relation in Mt consisting of those points which are displayed on the al coordinate diagram of Mx M on the right. (i) Find all the elements in M which are related to b, that is, (a: (x,b) € R). oe 4 (i) Find all hose elments in to which is re tate that ea) 2 Cer (iii) Find the inverse relation R-*. a be @ i) The horizontal line through & contains all points of R in which b appears as the second clement: (4,0), (6,0) and (d,b). Hence the desired set is (a, , ii) ‘The vertical line through « contains all the points of F in which appears as the first element; (ya) and (db). Hence (a,b) is the desired set (lil) First write R as a set of ordered pairs, and then write the pairs in reverse order: B= (0,8), (By), (bP), (Dy (6,0), (A) (BD) Ro¥ = (bya, (a8), (5, By (dy), (6s) (2, dy (by)62 RELATIONS (CHAP. 7 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 1A. 18. 78. 1. Let R be the relation = in whether R is (i) reflexive, relation. (12,8). .), symmetric, (ii . (4,0) ER iff a=b, Determine transitive, (iv) an equivalence (i) B is reflexive since a=a for every @€N. di) B is not symmetric since, for example, 3=5 but 5#3, ie. (8,5)ER but (6,3) ¢R. (ill) B is transitive since a=b and b=e implies a=e. (iv) B is not an equivalence relation since it is not symmetric. Let R be the relation || (parallel) in the set of lines in the plane. Determine whether R is (i) reflexive, (ii) symmetric, (iii) transitive, (iv) an equivalence relation. (Assume that every line is parallel to itself.) @) Ris reflexive since, by assumption, «lla for every line a Gi) B is symmetric since if «|i then f [ay ic. If the Tine « i parallel to the line f then is parallel to « (68) Big transitive since if «|| and yy then aly. liv) 2 is an equivalence relation since it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, Let W = (1,2,3,4}. Consider the following relations in W: R, = ((1,2), (4,8), 22), 21), (8, 1)} Ry = {(2,2), (23), (8,2)} R, = (3) Determine whether each relation is (i) symmetric, (ii) transitive. (@ Now a relation R is not symmetric if there exists an ordered pair (a,0)€2R such that (ba) ER, Hence: Ry is not symmet ce (4,8) Ry but 8,4) Ry ce (1,8) € Ry but (8,1) € Ry. yi not eymme (On the other hand, Ry is symmetric. (i) A relation R is not transitive if there exist elements a, b and ¢, not necessarily distinct, such inet GER and WER but WOR Hence R, is not transitive since 9ER, and GER, dot YER, Furthermore, Ry is not transitive since (G.2)ER, and 2,9) Ry but 9) eRy On the other hand, Ry is transitive, Let R be a relation in A. Show that: (i) B is reflexive iff 4 CR; (ii) R is symmetric iff R= Ro, (i) Recall that 4 = {(aa): @E A), Thus R is reflexive iff (@,0)€R for every aA iff ack. (Gi) Suppose 2 is symmetric. Let (a,) €R, then (b,a) ER by symmetry. Hence (a,4) © R1, and so RCR-1, On the other hand, let (a,b) Rt; then (b,a)€R and, by symmetry, (@d)ER. Thus R-'CR, and so R=R-. Now suppose R=R-1 Let (a,b)ER; then (6,0) €R~ symmetric R. Accordingly RisCHAP. 7] RELATIONS 63 78, Consider the relation R = {(1,1), (2,3), (8,2)} in X = (1,2,8). Determine whether or not R is (i) reflexive, (ii) symmetric, (iii) transitive, (i) Ris not reflexive sine 2€X but (2,2)¢R. (ii) is symmetsie since R-# = (1,1), 8,2), 2,8 = B. (ii) R is not transitive since (8,2)€R and (2,8)ER but (8,3) ER. Let N= (1,2,8,...}, and let R be the relation = in Nx N defined by (a0) = (ed) iff ad = be Prove that 2 is an equivalence relation, For every (a,b) ENXN, (@,b) = (@,8) since ab= ba; hence is reflexive. Suppose (a,0) = (ed). Then ad = be, which implies that cb =da, Hence (ed) = (a,b) and so R is symmetric. Now suppose (a,b) = (esd) and (e,d) = (ef). ‘Then ad=be and ef =de. Thus (aalef) = (beyee) de. Accordingly, (@,8) = (e,f) and so B is transitive. and, by cancelling from both sides, a Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, R Is an equivalence relation, Coverve that ifthe ordered pair (8) i writen asa fraction, then the above relation Bs $= § it ad be. in fact, the usual definition of equality between fractions, i. 7.10. Prove Theorem 7.1: Let R be an equivalence relation in a set A. Then the quotient set A/R isa partition of A. Specifically, (i) GE (a), for every ae A; Gi) {a] = (0) if and only if (a,b) ER; (iii) if [a] * [b), then (a) and [b) are dit Proof of (i), Since R ia reflexive, (c,)ER for every aE A and therefore a€ [4]. Proof of (i. Suppose (@,0)ER. We want to show that [a)=[0]. Lat 2€/0]; then (ER. But by hypothesis («,0)ER and so, by transitivity, (a.2)€R. Accordingly Ela). ‘Thus (6]C[al. To prove that (a) |], we observe that (a,8)€ R implies, by symmetry, that (b,a)€R. ‘Then by & similar argument, we obtain [a]C(b]. Consequently, [a] = [8 On the other hand, if [a] =[b], then, by (i), 6 € [0] =[a]; hence (a,b) ER. Proof of (ii). We prove the equivalent contrapositive statement: if [aln{0] #O then {a} = (6) IE [a}n[b|~O, then there exists an clement 2@A with x€[aln(i]. Hence (a,2)€R and (@,x)ER, By symmetry, (2,2)ER and by transitivity, (a,b) ER. Consequently by (ii), [a] = 0). PARTITIONS {a,b,¢,d,e,f,g}, and let: {a,¢,e}, A,= (b), A= (d.9}; (0,60), By = (6d), By= (6.15 (a,b, €,9}, C= {e}, C,= (hf (a,b, ¢,d,¢,f,9}- Which of (A, A,A,), (B,,B,,B,}, (C,CyC,}, (D,} are partitions of X? 0) (AyAgyAgh is hot a partion of X since /EX but f does not belong to ether Ay, Ap, oF Ay Ui (Bu 2a By) is not partition of X since ¢ X belongs to both By and By Gi) {CrsCp4) is a partition of X since cach element in XX belongs to exactly one call, te Bo opus and the tia ae pairwise dijon (i) {Dp is'a partion of X.64 RELATIONS 712, Find all the partitions of X = (a,b, c,d}. Note first that each partition of X contains either 1 are as follows: (cHar.7 , 2, 8, oF 4 distinct sets. The partitions 0) Hasd,erd 2) (Ea), Beerd], (Os leserd]o [C0 fasb,di], (8h (0,b,e)}, (C00), ford), [laveh, ,d}), (lad, 1,0] €) 0h, , Led, (Ca, (0, BD], (a), (2, ede (C0 Ed, CA], 109, (4), Cede [Keds (@ C0,09] 4) [Go), fe, CA] ‘There ave figteen different partitions of X. Supplementary Problems RELATIONS TAR Let R be the relation in_A = (2,8,4,5) defined by “s and y are relatively prime", ie, “the only common divisor of = and y is T (0 Write R as a set of ordered pairs, (i) Plot R on a coordinate diagram of AXA. (ii) Find R~ LIL Let N= (1,2,8,...3 and let R be the relation in N defined by 2+ 2y = 8 ie, R= (ew: m¥eN, 242928) (© Write Ras a set of ordered pairs, (i) Find 2-1, TAB Let C = (1,2,8,4,5) and let R he the relation in C consisting of the points displayed in the following coordinate diagram ef CX C: I A : a oC (i) State whether each is true or false: (a) 184, (6) 2R5, (c) 3K1, (@) 5 BS. (id) Find the elements of exch of the following subsets of C: (o) @:3Rz), ©) HER, © Ce: ,2ER), ( fe: 2RS). 146. Consider the relations < and = in N = {0,2,3,...). Show that , ere and dob define a function f from A into B. Here fla) = 6, (0) =, fle) = ¢ and fld) = b. ‘The range of f is (b,c), that is, f(A] = {bye}. Let R be the set of real numbers, and let /:~ R assign to each rational number ‘the number 1, and to each irrational number the number —1, Thus { 1 if zis rational $0) = 14 iv is invational ‘The range of f consists of 1 and —1: f[R] = (1,—1). Let A= (a,b,ed) and B= (2,y,2}. The following diagram defines a function FAB. = [> Here fla) = y, (0) =, fle) = 2 and fd) and the co-domain are identical. Also f(A) = B, that is, the range 66CHAP. 5) FUNCTIONS 67 GRAPH OF A FUNCTION To each function f:A>B there corresponds the relation in AB given by {(a, f(a): @E AY We call this set the graph of f. ‘Two functions f:A>B and g:A~B are defined to be equal, written /=9, if f(a) = g(a) for every aA, that is, if they have the same graph. Accordingly, we do not distinguish between a function and its graph. The negation of #=9 is written f*g and is the statement: there exists an a A for which f(a) + g(a) A subset f of A x B, ie. a relation from A to B, is a function if it possesses the following, property: IF] Bach aA appears as the first coordinate in exactly one ordered pair (a,b) in f. Accordingly, if (a,b) €f, then f(a) Example 21: Let f:A~B be the function defined by the diagram in Example 1.5. ‘Then the graph of f is the relation Mash (0,2, (62), sv)? Example 22: Consider the following relations in A = (12,3) F = (11,9), 2,9), 8,0) 9 = AU1,2), 8,0) f= (0,8), 2,0, 0,2), 8,1) fis a function from A into A since each member of A appears as the first coordi- ‘nate in exactly one ordered pair in f; here f(1)=3 f(2)=8 and f(8)=1. 9 is not ‘function from A into A since 2€A is not the first coordinate of any pair in g fand $0 g does not assign any image to 2, Also h is not @ function from A into A since 1€A appests as the first coordinate of two distinct ordered pairs inh, (1,3) and (1,2), If his to be a function it eannot assign both 8 and 2 to the element 1€4, Example 23: A real-valued function :R— of the form fa) = ae +b — (or: defined by y= az+b) is called a linear fusion: its graph isa line in the Cartesian plane R. ‘The graph of a linear function can be obtained by plotting (at least) tivo of its points, For example, to obtain the graph of f(s) = 2e~1, set up a table with at least two values of « and the corresponding Values of f(z) as in the adjoining table. The line through these points, (-2,—5), (0,1) and (2,3), is the graph of f as shown in the diagram. Graph of f(x) = 22-168. FUNCTIONS [CHAP. 8 A real-valued funetion /:R +R of the form fla) = age ayeh-h be hay get ay 2 is called a polynomial function. ‘The raph of such a funetion is -1| 0 sketched by plotting various points and drawing a smooth continuous 9) | —3 curve through them, aia Consider, for example, the function f(x) = 2?—2x—3. Setup 2 | —3 fa table of values for «and then find the corresponding values for 5 |g Ka) as in the adjoining table. ‘The diagram shows these points and =] the sketch of the sraph, Graph of f(x) = 22-22-38 COMPOSITION FUNCTION Consider now functions f:A>B and g: BC illustrated below: HO Let a € A; then its image f(a) is in B, the domain of g. Hence we can find the image of f(a) under the function g, i.e. g(f(a)). The function from A into C which assigns to each EA the element gif(a)) EC is called the composition or product of f and g and is (gefia) = a(f(a)) Bxample 41 Let f:A~B and g:B~C be defined by the following diagrams: A f joe We compute (g2°/):A~C by its definition: (eAla) = afta) = oy) = t (ef) = a0) = a2) =r WeAle) = ale) = gw) = ¢ Notice that the composition function g°/ is equivalent to “following the arrows’ from A to C in the diagrams of the functions / and g.CHAP. 8 FUNCTIONS 69 Example 22: Let R be the set of real numbers, and let f:R-R and g:R~R be defined as follows: He) = 2% and ge) = 248 ‘Then Yoo2) = Kote) = A) = 25 (oe A\2) = o(ft2)) = gd) = 7 Observe that the product functions fog and gof are not the same fun We compute a general formula for these functions: (Fea\e) = flgla)) = fle+3) = @43% = oth orto (92 fMe) = alfa) = get) = 848 ONE-ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS A function f:A > B_ is said to be one-to-one (or: one-one or 1-1) if different elements in the domain have distinct images. Equivalently, f:A > B is one-one if f(a) = f(a’) implies Example 44: Consider the functions /:A-~B, g:B—C and h:C-D defined by the fotlow- ing diagram: 4 B ° c a D L<{ ES Now f is not one-one since the two elements a and ¢ in its domain have the same image 1, Also, g is not one-one since 1 and 8 have the same image y. On the other hhand, h is one-one since the elements in the domain, 2, y and z, have distinet images. A funetion /:A ~ B is said to be onto (or: f is a function from A onto B or f maps A onto B) if every b EB is the image of somea€A. Hence f:A~B is onto iff the range of f is the entire co-domain, ie. f[A] =B. Example 42: Consider the functions f, g and ke in the preceding example. ‘Then f is not onto since 2€B is not the image of any element in the domain A. On the other hand, both g and A are onto funetions. Example 43: Let R be the set of real numbers and let /:R—R, giR>R and h:R>R be defined as follows fla) = 2%, g(a) = B— 2 and Ma) = ot ‘The graphs of these functions follow: tre ya) = Slo) = 2° ote) =70 FUNCTIONS (CHAP. 8 ‘The function f is one-one: geometrically, this means that each horizontal line does not contain more than one point of f. ‘The function g is onto; geometrically, this ‘means that each horizontal line contains at least one point of g. The function is neither one-one or onto; for (2) = h(-2) = 4, i.e. the two elements 2 and -2 Ihave the same image 4, and h[R] is a proper subset of R; for example, ~16 € HR]. INVERSE AND IDENTITY FUNCTIONS In general, the inverse relation f- of a function f C AXB need not be a function. However, if f is both one-one and onto, then f-' is a function from B onto A and is called the inverse function. Let A= (a,b,c) and B= {7,9,0). ‘Then 1 = a8), (6,0, (e, {is a function from A into Z which is both one-one and onto. ‘This can seen by the following diagram of f: Example Hence the inverse relation Ft = {(o,0),(t,) red} in a function from B into A. "The diagram of f-t follows: Observe that the diagram of f—! can be obtained from the diagram of f by revers- ing the arrows. For any set A, the funetion f:A~>A defined by f(e)= 2, i.e, which assigns to each element in A itself, is called the identity function on A and is usually denoted by 1, oF simply 1. Note that the identity function 1, is the same as the diagonal relation: 1, = 4, The identity function satisfies the following properties: Theorem 81: For any function f:A > B, hel == fol, ‘Theorem 82: If f:A~B is both one-one and onto, and so has an inverse function srB> A, then F feof = ‘The converse of the previous theorem is also true: 1, and fof! Theorem 83: Let f:A>B and g:B>A satisfy gef=1, and fog ‘Then f is both one-one and onto, and g = f-'.CHAP. 8] FUNCTIONS a Solved Problems 8.1. State whether or not each diagram defines a function from A = {a,b,c} into > aI a) (ii) 82. 83. (No. ‘There is nothing assigned to the clement BEA. Gi) No. ‘Two elements, 2 and 2, are assigned to ¢€ A. Gi) Yes, Rewrite each of the following functions using a formula: (i) To each number let f assign its cube, ) To each number let g assign the number 5. (iii) To each positive number let / assign its square, and to each non-positive number let ht assign the number 4. Since f assigns to any number « its cube 2°, f ean be defined by fle) = =, Gi) Since g assigns 5 to any number 2, we can define g by g(2) = 5. ‘Two diferent rules are used to define h as follows: _ fat ite>0 WO Va weno Let f,g and h be the functions of the preceding problem. Find: (i) 4), 2), HO (A) 914), (2), 10}, it) MA), M(B), HO). (Now fle) = a8 for every number hence (4) = = 64, f(-2) = (2) (i) Since gfe) = 6 for every number 2 9) =5, g1-2)=B and o(0) (i) IE > 0, then he) =2% hence h(a) = ‘the other hand, if #=0, then Bay = 45 thus M=2)=4 ‘and 0) = Let A = (1,2,8,4,5) and let f:A->A be the function defined in the diagram: Py pe (i) Find the range of f. (Gi) Find the graph of f, ie. write f as a set of ordered pairs, (The range [A} of the function f consists of all the image points, Now only 2, 8 and 6 appear as the image of any elements of A: hence /iA] = (23,5). (ii) The ordered pairs (a, f(a)), where aA, form the graph of f. Now (1) f(8) = 5, fl) = 2 and f(5) = 3 hence f = 41,8), (2,5), 8,5), (4,2), (6,3). 12)72 86, FUNCTIONS [cHAP. & Let X = (1,2,8,4}. Determine whether or not each relation is a function from X into X, (f= (12,8), (1,4), 21), 8,2), (4.4)} (i) 9 = (18,1), (4,2), (1,1) (iii) = (12,1), 8,4), (1,4), (2), (4,49) Recall that a subset f of XxX is a function /:X—+X if and only if each a€X appears fas the first coordinate in exactly one ordered pair in j. (i) No, Two different ordered pairs (2,8) and (2,1) in f have the same number 2 as their frst coordinate (i) No, ‘The element 2X does not appear as the first coordinate in any ordered pair in 9. (ii) Yes. Although 26.4 appears as the first coordinate in two ordered pairs in h, these two ondered pairs are equal Find the geometric conditions under which a set f of points on the coordinate diagram of Ax B defines a function f:A>B. "The requirement that each aA appear as the first coordinate in exactly one ordered pair in f is equivalent to the geometric condition that each vertical line contains exactly one point in f. Let W = (a,b,c,d}. Determine whether the set of points in each coordinate diagram of WX IW is a function from W into W. coer Heth shy 4 4 fee Le be 0 cc ci li) No. The vertical line through b contains two points of the set, Le. two different ordered pairs (,) and (6, contain the same first clement , Gi) No. ‘The vertical line through ¢ contains no point of the set, ie. e€W does not appear as ‘the first clement in any ordered pair (iil) Yes. Bach vertieal line contains exactly one point of the set. GRAPHS OF REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS 88. Sketch the graph of f(s) = 82-2. ‘This is a linear function; only two points (three as a check) are needed to sketch its graph. Sot up a table with three values of x, say, x= 2, 0,2 and find the corresponding values of f(x) J-2) = H-2)—2 = -8, M0) = 30)~2 = -2, f@) = B2)-2 = 4 Draw the line through these points as in the diagram. y (2,8)CHAP. 8 FUNCTIONS 738 89. Sketch the graph of (i) f(z) = 2?+2-6, (ii) g(2) = 2 -8e*-2 +8, Graph of f. Graph of g COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS 8.10. Let the functions f:A>B and g:B>C be defined by the diagram 7 pe (i) Find the composition function gof:A>C. (ii) Find the ranges of f, and gof. (i) We use the definition of the composition function to compute: (a2 fla) = gif(e)) = oly) = t (920) = a) = ole) = = (a2 fhe) = afte) = oly) = Note that we arrive at the same answer if we “follow the arrows” in the diagram: any>t, bree coyat (08) By the diagram, the images under the function f are « and y, and the images under g are nr, eand t: hence 5 range of f Ga By (i), the images under the composition function are ¢ and s; hence range of gf = {a,¢) fey) and range of g Note that the ranges of g and yf are different. 8.11. Consider the functions ((1,8), 2,5), (8,8), (4,1), (5,2)} 9 = ((1,4), 21), (8,1), (4,2), (5,8)) from X = (1,2,8,4,5) into X. (i) Determine the range of f and of g. (ii) Find the composition functions g of and fog.4 FUNCTIONS [cHaP. 8 (i) ‘The range of a function is the eet of image values, ie. the sot of second coordinates; hence range of f = (8,5,1,2) and range of g = (4,1,2,3) (ii) Use the definition of the composition function and compute: (wed) = gf) = 9%) = 1 (Fegt) = flott) = Hd) = (2A) = gf) = 96) = 3 (oaN2) = flol®) = fA) = 8 (92.18) = g1f(8) = 013) = 1 (roaNs) = flg(®) = fl) = 8 (aed) = afl) = ot) = 4 (FooNs) = flgld) = fl = 6 (a2 fX8) = of) = (2) = 1 F99N8) = Hla) = f18) = 8 In other words, g°f = (1, (2,3), B,2), (4,4), 6,1) Feo = (ly, 2, (8,8), (4,5), 6,99) Observe that gos # fou. 8.12. Let the functions f and g be defined by f(x) = 2e+1 and g(x) = a*—2, Find formulas defining the composition functions (i) gef and (ii) fog. (Compute gf as follows: (gfx) = ola) = o(@e +3) = Bet 18-2 = dat +ax— 1. Observe that the same answer ean be found by writing y= fle) = 241 and = oy) = P-2 and then eliminating: y from both equations p= f-2 = Beta aot aed (ii) Compute fog as follows: Foge) = folx)) = flet—2) = 2at—2+1 = 2x23, Note that fog + gf. 8.13, Prove the associative law for composition of functions: if ASBSO>D then (hog)of = he(gof). For every @€ 4, (hep)efie) = hepa) = Moe) (koopa) = Migefia)) = Malay) Hence (ho9)2f = ho(gef), since they each assign the same image to every aA. Accordingly, ‘we may simply write the composition funetion without parentheses: hog. ONE-ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS 814. Let A = (a,b,¢,d,e}, and let B be the set of letters in the alphabet. Let the functions j, g and k from A into B be defined as follows: ar ase oe boa boy boe ewe coe eve dor doy aor eve e>e @ (i) Are any of these functions one-one?CHAP. 8) FUNCTIONS 5 Recall that a function is one-one if it assigns distinet image values to distinct elements in the domain. No. For f assigns r to both a and d. i) No. For g assigns 2 to both a and «. (Gil) Yes. For h assigns distinct images to different elements in the domain. 8.15. Determine if each function is one-one. (i) To each person on the earth assign the number which corresponds to his age. (ii) To each country in the world assign the latitude and longitude of its capital. (iii) To each book written by only one author assign the author. (iv) To each country in the world which has a prime minister assign its prime minister. (No. Many people in the world have the same age. (i) Yes, ii) No, There are different books with the same author. liv) Yes. Different countries in the world have different prime ministers. 816. Prove: If f:4>B and g:B>C are one-one functions, then the composition function gef:A>C is also one-one, Let (92a) = (gefla’hs ie. g(f(a)) = g(fla). ‘Then fla) = fa) since 9 is one-one Furthermore, aa’ since j is one-one. Accordingly, gf is also one-one, 8.17. Let the functions f:A~B, g:B>C and h:C~D be defined by the diagram. (i) Determine if each function is onto. (ii) Find the composition function hege (The function f:A > B is not onto since 8€B is not the image of any element in A. ‘The function 9:2 C is not onto since #€ C is not the Image of any element in B. ‘The function h:C+D is onto since each element in D is the image of some clement of C. (i) Now a> 27274, bol + y +6, co2+e>4, Hence hogef = {(a,4),(6,6),(6,8)}- 818. Prove: If f:A>B and g:B->C are onto functions, then the composition function gef:A>C is also onto. Let c be any arbitrary clement of C. Since g is onto, there exists a BEB such that 9() Since’ is onto, there existe an @@A such that fa)~. But then (ofa) = aia) = 96) = © Hence each 6€ is the image of some clement @€ A. Accordingly, gf is an onto funeton16 FUNCTIONS (CHAP. 8 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 819. 8.20. 821, Let W = (1,2,8,4,5) and let f:W>W, g:W>W and kh: WW be defined by the following diagrams: , o A Determine whether each function has an inverse function. In order for a function to have an inverse, the function must be both one-one and onto. Only A is one-one and onto; hence h, and only h, has an inverse function, Let /:R>R be defined by f(c) = 2e~8. Now f is one-one and onto; hence f has an inverse function f~', Find a formula for f~*. Let y be the image of # under the function f: y = fla) = 2-8 Consequently, # will be the image of y under the inverse function f-!. Solve for + in terms of y in the above equation on ‘Then Pw) = wae is @ formula defining the inverse function. Let A= (a,b,¢,d). Then f = (a,b), (0,@), from A into A. Find the inverse function f To find the inverse function -1, which is the inverse rel in reverse order: a), (d,e)) is a one-one, onto function ion, simply write each ordered pair F¥ = (0,0), (2,8), (0), (0) MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 822. Let the function f:R> R be defined by f(z) = 2*-8x+2. Find: (a) f(-8) (e) fle) () f@—3) (m) f(f( +1) (0) £2) ~f-4) —() Flu~2)—G) RnB) + He+8) (mle +h) - He) © tw (9) fle+h) (k) f(a? 82 +2) (0) [fle +h) = f(x) (@) fla’) (h) f(z@+8) (UFC) ‘The function assigns to any clement the square of the clement minus 3 times the element plus 2. (@) f(-8) = (3-8-3) +2 = 94942 = 20 () #2) = @—32)+2 = 0, fH = (4-8-4 42 = 80. Then 42) —(-4) = 0-90 = -80 © fy = WR 3) +2 = vay +2 (@) flo) = (a2? — (a2) +2 = at — Ba +2 (©) fe) = G2 Blet) +2 = at — ate fly 2) = (v2 = By 2) +2 = y= Dye +B By + Be 42 o (ehh Beth) +2 = a4 Beh + Be Bh4ecuar.s) FUNCTIONS 1 8.23. (0) fle+3) = (+88 — Me +8) 42 = WH Ge+9)—Se—942 = ate HE (0 f@e—8) = (2x—3)8—8(2e~8) +2 = de? — De +962 +942 = ba — 18 +20 () Using (A) and (i), we have KQa—3) + fle+3) = (det — 182 +20) + (2243442) = Sat — 16 + 22 (&) fat 3242) = (at 32 +2) ~ Set ax +2) +2 = at Oa + 102% — 32 (0 Afle)) = fet 82+2) = xt ~ 62% + 1024 Be (om) fUle+D) = Mle+ 1 ~ Ae +1) +2) = flet+ 2x41 3e—3+2) = Metz) = (ota) Slat —2) +2 = at Bet Bat 4 Bete () By (0), Heth) = a4 Qch+ Mt Be—3h+2, Hence Ket hy ~ flo) = (a+ 2eh-+ Wt S2—3h+2) — et 3242) = Beh + he (0) Using (n), we have (e+) = fe)/h = (axk-+ht—Shy/h = 20 +h 8 Prove Theorem 8.1: For any function f:A+B, 1,0f Let a be any arbitrary element in A: then Gn 2fla) = Iga) = fla) and (Fo 14Na) = fULala)) = folk. a) Hence tne/ == fol, snce they each aatgn le) every clement 6A Supplementary Problems Fuctions 824 Stale whether each diagram define a funtion from (12,3) Ino (45,6) LA i P < rx ® w ay 825, Dene each function by a formal () To each number let assign its square plus & Gi) To each number let g assign its cob plo twie the number. (i) To each nomber greater than or equal to 3 let A aaign the number squared, and each une ethan Set halen the Mame “2 424 Determine the numberof diferent fanetions from ,8) Ino (2,8). B21. Let f:R+R be defined by f(x) = x*—4e+3. Find (i) f(4), (ii) A-3), (iii) Ay—22), 1 here. Ba Let 9: RR be dated by ot) = {278 EE 2 pina «9 a1), 0 0d) 02) . (ein weee 6 0, $2 Let W= (e,bed). Determine wheter each set of ordered pues isa function from W ito W. (ya), (64d, (da), (6, A, (ay) Gi) (8), 8), (6B), (4,0) (ii) Cae, (0), (0,9), (4,0) Gv) (aa), 2), (0,8), (8)8 FUNCTIONS [CHAP. 8 8.80, Let the function g assign to each name in the set (Betty, Martin, David, Alan, Rebecca) the number of different letters needed to spell the name. Find the graph of g, ie. write g as a set of ordered airs, 831, Let W 1,2,8,4) and let g: WW be defined by the diagram (i) Write g as a set of ordered pairs. (ii) Plot g on the coordinate diagram of Wx W. (iii) Find the range of 9. 852 Let V = (1,2,8,4}. Determine whether the set of points in exch coordinate diagram of VxV is-a function from V into V. : AHH : HEHE HEE Bis GRAPHS OF REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS 888, Sketch the graph of each function: ( fe) =, (8) o@)= 42-3, (a) el 884, Sketch the graph of each function: fou 0 i (fla) = 28-3242, Gi) gle) = at 100+ 9, UH) Me) Liteeo! COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS 835. The functions f:A > B, g:B> A, hiC> B, F:B-C, G:A~C are pictured in the diagram below. Determine whether each of the following defines a product function and if it does, find its domain and codomain: (i) g°f, (ii) ef, (iii) Fef, (iv) Gof, () Goh, (vi) Fok, (vil) heGog, (wil he, 836. The following diagrams define functions f, 9 and h which map the set (1,2,3,4) into itself, (i) Find the ranges of f, 9 and h. i) Find the composition functions (1) fog, (2) hef, (8) g, te. goa.CHAP. 8) FUNCTIONS 9 837, Let f:R> R and g:R> R be dofined by fix) = 98+ 8x41 and gfe defining the produet funetions (i) fea, (i) gf, ii) 9&9, (iv) fof. Find formulas ONE-ONE, ONTO AND INVERSE FUNCTIONS 838 Let f:X = Y. Which conditions define a one-one function: (i) fe) = (0) implies a= b (Gil) f(a) + 10) implies a + 6 (8) a= b implies fla) = 0) (iv) @ b implies fla) # f10) 829, (3) State whether or not each function in Problem 8.36 is one-one, (if) State whether or not each function in Problem 8.36 is onto. 840, Prove Theorem 8.2: If /:A Bis one-one and onto, and so has an inverse function f () Frbef= Ay and GH) foF-*= Aye then Bal, Prove: If f:A > B and g:B> A satisty g°f= ty, then fis one-one and g is onto B42, Let sR RB be defined by lx) = 82-7. Find a formula for the inverse function f-1:R—= R. B43. Let g:R— R be defined by g(x) = 29+2. Find a formula for the inverse function g-1:R > R. S44, Let be an equivalence relation in a non-empty aet A. ‘The function y from A into the quotient set A/R i defined by (a) ~ [a], the equivalence class of Show that is an onto function 845. Prove Theorem 83: Let f:A->B and g:B~A satisfy gof = 1, and fog = 1p. Then J i®ane-one and onto, and _g = f-1 Answers to Supplementary Problems 824 (Noy Gi) Yes, (i) No 8G a= tea, (iy aey=areen cay me = {HH TEE 828, Nine 827. (i) 8 (ii) 24, (Hit) y®— Ary + 4a? —4y + Be +8, (iv) a Be +15 828. (i) g(5) = 10, (i) 9(0) (iii) 9-2) 820, (0) Yew, i) No, (i) Yon, (iv) No San, 9 = (Betty), (Martin, 6, (Dav), (Alan), (Rebs, 8) BBL.) g = (0,2), 2,9), G1), (4,9)), Gil) (28,1) 842 6) No, (G8) No, (iil) Yes, (iv) No 83.) aia Graph of f Graph of 980 8a. 836 FUNCTIONS Graph of h () gef:A>A, (ii) No, (iti) Fossa > iv) No, () gok:C>A, (vi) Feh:C—C, (vil) hoGog:BB, (wil) hoG:A>B range of f= (1.2.4, range of g = (1,2,3,4), range of Goae) | (ho le) a3) ai aa 8.39, 842, 848. CHAP.8 aet—or+t Bet 62-1 feo @) Fear Gi) Wen Gait) (eave) Gv) Jefe) = 244 608 + Lda? + 15 +5 i) Yes, (i) No, (ii) No, (iv) Yes i) Only g is one-one. (ii) Only g is onto. P12) = +008 oa) = VerChapter 9 Vectors COLUMN VECTORS A column veetor u is a set of numbers t,tly,...,2, written in a column: ‘u\ 1, \ w= [| ‘The numbers 1, are called the components of the vector 1. yy (Q) (2) { i and fe t) Ga) Cm pe ee = eet Two column vectors u and v are equal, written u=v, if they have the same number of components and if corresponding components are equal. The vectors (3\ {2} and {3] \3/ \a/ fare not equal since corresponding elements are not equal. Example 12: Let e-v\ [4 ( +y) 2) z-1/ \s/ ‘Then, by definition of equality of column vectors, e-y=4 ety=2 p-1=a Solving the above system of equations gives © = 8, 4 and 2=4 Remark: In this chapter we shall frequently refer to numbers as scalars. VECTOR ADDITION Let and » be column vectors with the same number of components. The sum of w and », denoted by u +», is the column vector obtained by adding corresponding components: 8182 Vectors [cHar.9 eA es ten 4 ute wl \ ate) Note that u+v has the same number of components as u and v. The sum of two vectors with different numbers of components is not defined. Example 2: / \ 5\ G)+(4) - G8) - Q) Example 22: The sum ny, 4) @)+a) Js not defined since the vectors have different, numbers of components, A column vector whose components are all zero is called a zero vector and is also denoted by 0, The next Example shows that the zero vector is similar to the number zero in that, for any vector u, u+0 Example 23: m\ fo were\ fa A \ fe \.(' VW Meh weed SCALAR MULTIPLICATION ‘The product of a scalar kt and a column vector u, denoted by k+u or simply ku, is the column vector obtained by multiplying each component of w by ki: BAY ay Hy u,/ Observe that w and k-1 have the same number of components. We also define: sus stew and uso = w+ (-v) Baample 2: (2) . (2): ‘@)-0: -@-@ ‘The main properties of the column vectors under the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication are contained in the following theorem:De CHAP. 9) VecToRS 83. ‘Theorem 9.1: Let V, be the set of all n-component column vectors, and let 1, v,w & and let i,k” be sealars. Then: (i) (ure) Fw = w+ (v+w), ie. addition is associative; (ii) w+v = v+u, ie. addition is commutative; (iil) u+0 = 0+u= 4; (iv) wt Hw = Cw tu = 05 (wv) Kut) = ku t kes (vi) (b+ Rye = ku + bw; (vil) (kya = (lew); (viif) du =u ‘The properties listed in the above theorem are those which are used to define an abstract mathematical system called a linear space or vector space. Accordingly, the theorem can be restated as follows: ‘Theorem 9.1: The set of all w-component column vectors under the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. ROW VECTORS Analogously, a row vector w is a set of numbers 1,,W,,...,tl, written in a row: w= (yy oo ‘The numbers u, are called the components of the vector u, Two row vectors are equal if they have the Same number of components and if corresponding components are equal. Observe that a row vector is simply an ordered n-tuple of numbers. ‘The sum of two row vectors wand v with the same number of components, denoted by u-+0, ie the row vector obtained by adding corresponding components from w and WED = (Uys ae) + (Cy My BD (4,40, Fy yt, F2,) ‘The product of a sealar k and a row vector u, denoted by k+u or simply ku, is the row vector obtained by multiplying each component of u by k: Kew = k(ty a, = (boty Betgy oy K,) We also define w= lew and = ut(-v) as we did for column vectors. Bsamle A: 29+ .5.-21) = 0.8,-4 ( 50,28) = 10,18, 20 We also have a theorem for row vectors which corresponds to Theorem 9.1, ‘Theorem 9.2: The set of all n-component row vectors under the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication satisfies the properties listed in Theorem 9.1, that is, is a vector space. MULTIPLICATION OF A ROW VECTOR AND A COLUMN VECTOR If a row vector w and a column vector » have the same number of components, then their product, denoted by u-» or simply uv, is the scalar obtained by multiplying cor- responding elements and adding the resulting products:86 VECTORS. (CHAP. 9 ROW VECTORS 96, Let w= (2-71), v= (iii) -8u, (ivy -w. -8,0,4) and w = (0,5,~8). Find: (i) w+, (ii) v+e, (Ada corresponding components: 1+ (30,4 = @ utes 440,144) = (-1,-1,5) (i8) Add corresponding: components: vbw = (3,04) + (0,5,-8 = (-9+0,045,4-8 (-8,5,-4) (iif) Multiply each component of uw by the scalar —8: —8u = ~3(2,—7,1) (6,21, -3), (Gv) Multiply each component of ww by 1, ic. change the sign of each component: (0,5, -8) = (0,-5.8) 97. Let u, v and w be the row veetors of the preceding problem. Find (i) 8u—4v, (ii) 2u-+ 80-51. First perform the scalar multiplication and then the vector addition () t= 4y = 3,-1.1) ~41-3,0,4) = (6,-22,8) + (12,0,-16) = (18,—21,—19) ii) 2+ 80 ~ Bw = 212, —7, 1) + a(~B, 0, 4) ~ 5(0, 5, -8) (4, ~14, 2) + (9, 0, 12) + (0, ~25, 40) (4-94 0,-14+0—25, 2412 +40) = (-5, ~39, 54) 98, Find x, y and z if (22,8,9) = (4,2+2,22). Set corresponding components equal to each other to obtain the system of equations andy 99, Find x and y if x(1,1)+ 42,1) = (1.4). First multiply by the scalars + and y and then ada: 20,1) + v1) = 2) + Gy) = le +2n2—) = 4) Now set corresponding components equal to each other to obtain ety a~y =e Solve the system of equations to find #=3 and y=—I. MULTIPLICATION OF A ROW VECTOR AND A COLUMN VECTOR. 4 8 3 9.10. Compute: (i) 2-29 i) (i) (1, -1, 0,5) (3). (it) (8, -8,2,1)( _} 4 5 i) Multiply corresponding components and add 3)