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Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete: A Review

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Published at ICSECM 2011, Kandy-SriLanka

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete: A Review

Hamid Pesaran Behbahani,
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
(email: hamidbehbahani@gmail.com)
Behzad Nematollahi,
Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)
(email: behcom62@gmail.com)
Majid Farasatpour,
Azad University-Shahr-e-kord Branch, Islamic Republic of Iran

Abstract
Concrete is one of the world most widely used construction material. However, since the early
1800’s, it has been known that concrete is weak in tension. Weak tensile strength combined with
brittle behavior result in sudden tensile failure without warning. This is obviously not desirable for
any construction material. Thus, concrete requires some form of tensile reinforcement to compensate
its brittle behavior and improve its tensile strength and strain capacity to be used in structural
applications. Historically, steel has been used as the material of choice for tensile reinforcement in
concrete. Unlike conventional reinforcing bars, which are specifically designed and placed in the
tensile zone of the concrete member, fibers are thin, short and distributed randomly throughout the
concrete member. Fibers are commercially available and manufactured from steel, plastic, glass and
other natural materials. Steel fibers can be defined as discrete, short length of steel having ratio of its
length to diameter (i.e. aspect ratio) in the range of 20 to 100 with any of the several cross-section,
and that are sufficiently small to be easily and randomly dispersed in fresh concrete mix using
conventional mixing procedure. The random distribution results in a loss of efficiency as compared
to conventional rebars, but the closely spaced fibers improve toughness and tensile properties of
concrete and help to control cracking. In many situations it is prudent to combine fiber reinforcement
with conventional steel reinforcement to improve performance. Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is
defined as a composite material essentially consisting of conventional concrete or mortar reinforced
by the random dispersal of short, discontinious, and discrete fine fibres of specific geometry. Since
Biblical times, approximately 3500 years ago, brittle building materials, e.g. clay sun baked bricks,
were reinforced with horse-hair, straw and other vegetable fibres. Although reinforcing brittle
materials with fibers is an old concept, modern day use of fibers in concrete is only started in the
early 1960s. Realizing the improved properties of the fiber reinforced concrete products, further
research and development on fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) has been initiated since the last three
decades. This paper presents an overview of the mechanical properties of Steel Fiber Reinforced
Concrete (SFRC), its advantages, and its applications.
Keywords: Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC), Steel Fiber Reinfoced Concrete (SFRC), Mechanical
properties.
 1. Introduction

One of the undesirable characteristics of the concrete as a brittle material is its low tensile
strength, and strain capacity. Therefore it requires reinforcement in order to be used as the most
widely construction material. Conventionally, this reinforcement is in the form of continuous steel
bars placed in the concrete structure in the appropriate positions to withstand the imposed tensile and
shear stresses. Fibers, on the other hand, are generally short, discontinuous, and randomly distributed
throughout the concrete member to produce a composite construction material known as fiber
reinforced concrete (FRC). Fibers used in cement-based composites are primarily made of steel,
glass, and polymer or derived from natural materials. Fibers can control cracking more effectively
due to their tendency to be more closely spaced than conventional reinforcing steel bars. It should be
highlighted that fiber used as the concrete reinforcement is not a substitute for conventional steel
bars. Fibers and steel bars have different roles to play in advanced concrete technology, and there are
many applications in which both fibers and continuous reinforcing steel bars should be used.
Steel fiber (SF) is the most popular type of fiber used as concrete reinforcement. Initially, SFs
are used to prevent/control plastic and drying shrinkage in concrete. Further research and
development revealed that addition of SFs in concrete significantly increases its flexural toughness,
the energy absorption capacity, ductile behaviour prior to the ultimate failure, reduced cracking, and
improved durability (Altun et al., 2006). This paper reviews the effects of addition of SFs in concrete,
and investigates the mechanical properties, and applications of SF reinforced concrete (SFRC).

2. Different Types of Fibers

There are two methods to categorize fibres according to their modulus of elasticity or their
origin. In the view of modulus of elasticity, fibres can be classified into two basic categories, namely,
those having a higher elastic modulus than concrete mix (called hard intrusion) and those with lower
elastic modulus than the concrete mix (called soft intrusion). Steel, carbon and glass have higher
elastic modulus than cement mortar matrix, and polypropylene and vegetable fibres are classified as
the low elastic modulus fibres. High elastic modulus fibers simultaneously can improve both flexural
and impact resistance; whereas, low elastic modulus fibres can improve the impact resistance of
concrete but do not contribute much to its flexural strength.
According to the origin of fibres, they are classified in three categories of metallic fibers (such
as steel, carbon steel, and stainless steel), mineral fibers (such as asbestos and glass fibers), and
organic fibers. Organic fibers can be further divided into natural and man-made fibers.
Natural fibers can be classified into vegetable origin or sisal (such as wood fibers and leaf fibers),
and animal origin (such as hair fibers and silk). Man-made fibers can also be divided into two groups
as natural polymer (such as cellulose and protein fibers), and synthetic fibers (such as nylon and
polypropylene). Figure 1 shows the classification of fibers based on this method (James Patrick
Maina Mwangi, 1985). Table 1 shows the properties of different types of fibers can be used in the
concrete industry (Johnson and Colin, 1982).
Figure1: Fibers Classification (James Patrick Maina Mwangi, 1985)

Table1: General Properties of Fibres (Johnson and Colin, 1980)

Fibers Diameter Specific Modulus of Tensile Elongation

(μm) Gravity Elasticity Strength to Failure
(GPa) (GPa) (%)

Chrysotile Asbestos 0.02-20 2.55 164 3.1 2-3

Crocidolite Asbestos 0.1-20 2.55 196 3.5 2-3

E-Glass 9-15 2.56 77 2-3.5 2-3.5

AR-Glass 9-15 2.71 80 2-2.8 2-3

Fibrillated Polypropylene 20-200 0.91 5 0.5 20

Steel 5-500 7.84 200 1-3 3-4

Stainless Steel 5-500 7.84 160 2.1 3

Carbon Type I 3 1.90 380 1.8 0.5

Carbon Type II 9 1.90 230 2.6 1.0

Aramid (Kevlar) 10 1.45 65-133 3.6 2.1-4.0

Cellulose - 1.2 10 0.4 -

Wood - 1.5 71 09 -

Nylon(Type 242) >4 1.14 4 0.9 15

3. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC)

In 1910, Porter first suggested the use of SFs in concrete (Naaman, 1985). However, the first
scientific research on fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) in the United States was done in 1963
(Romualdi and Baston, 1963). SFRC is produced using the conventional hydraulic cements, fine and
coarse aggregates, water, and SFs. American concrete institution (ACI 544.IR, 1996) defines SFs as
discrete, short lengths of steel having aspect ratio (ratio of lenth to diameter) in the range of 20 to 100
with any of the several cross-section which are sufficiently small to be easily and randomly dispersed
in fresh concrete mix using conventional mixing procedures. To enhance the workability and stability
of SFRC, superplasticizers (chemical admixtures) may also be added into the concrete mix. Figure 2
shows the engineering specifications of the SFs such as their shape, material, length, diameter, and
type of cross-section (ACI 544.IR, 1996).
The behavior of SFRC can be classified into three groups according to its application, fiber
volume percentage and fiber effectiveness; for instance SFRC is classified based on its fiber volume
percentage as follows: 1-Very low volume fraction of SF (less than 1% per volume of concrete),
which has been used for many years to control plastic shrinkage and as pavement reinforcement. 2-
Moderate volume fraction of SFs (l% to 2% per volume of concrete) which can improve modulus of
rupture (MOR), flexural toughness, impact resistance and other desirable mechanical propertie of
concrete. 3-High volume fractionof SFs (more than 2% per volume of concrete) used for special
applications such as impact and blast resistance structure; these include SIFCON (Slurry Infiltrated
Fiber Concrete), SIMCON (Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete).

Figure2: Different Shapes of Steel Fibers (ACI544.IR, 1996)

 In most cases, SFs may act as secondary reinforcement used along with conventional steel bars
or prestressing strands as the main reinforcement. In the class of high volume fraction of SFs (more
than 2% per volume of concrete), the SFs have excellent mechanical properties and can be used
without other continuous reinforcement; however, these composite materials are often suited for
highly specialized applications due to the limitations associated with processing and cost.
3.1. SFRC Benefits

The beneficial influence of SFs in concrete depends on many factors such as type, shape,
length, cross section, strength, fiber content, SFs bond strength, matrix strength, mix design, and
mixing of concrete. Typical load-deflection curves for plain concrete and FRC are shown in Figure 3
(ACI 544.IR, 1996). The addition of SFs in the conventonal reinforced concrete (RC) members has
several advantages such as 1- SFs increase the tensile strength of the matrix, thereby improving the
flexural strength of the concrete. 2- The crack bridging mechanism of SFs and their tendency to
redistribute stresses evenly throughout the matrix contribute to the post-cracking strength and
restraining of the cracks in the concrete. 3- Increase ductility of the concrete. 4- SFRC is more
durable and serviceable than conventional RC (Rapoport et al., 2001; Grzybowski and Shah, 1990;
Grzybowski 1989).

Figure3: Load-Deflection Curves for Plain and Fibrous Concrete (ACI 544.IR, 1996)

The only disadvantage of SFRC would be its decreased workability and accelerated stiffening
of fresh concrete due to the addition SFs, thereby increasing the construction labor and time due to
the excess vibration required to make the SFRC workable. This problem could be partially overcome
with the use of newly developed high range superplasticizers which not only enhance the workability
of SFRC but also maintain the plasticity of the mix for a longer time.
3.2. SFRC Application

Nowadays, SFRC is used at an increasing rate in various applications such as the

followings.
3.2.1. Highway and air-field pavements

SFRC can be used in the construction of new pavements or for the repair of existing
pavements by the use of bonded or un-bounded overlays to the beneath slab. It leads to a higher
flexural strength causing a decrease in the pavement’s thickness required. Besides, the resistance
to impact and repeated loading will be increased. The greater tensile strain capacity of SFRC
leads to a drop in the maximum crack widths than in plain concrete.

3.2.2. Hydraulic Structures

The most important advantage of using SFRC in hydraulic structures is the resistance of
SFRC to cavitation or erosion due to the high velocity of water flow compared to conventional
RC.

3.2.3. Fibre Shotcrete

Fibre shotcrete are used in rock slope stabilization, tunnel lining and bridge repair. A thin
coating of plain shotcrete applied monolithically on top of the fiber shotcrete, maybe used to
prevent surface staining due to rusting of SFs. The fiber shotcrete can be used in the protection
of steel structures.
3.2.4. Refractory Concrete

Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concretes have been reported to be more durable than
their unreinforced counterpart when exposed to high thermal stress, thermal cyclic, thermal
shock or mechanical abuse. The increased service span is probably due to the combination of
crack control, enhanced toughness, spalling and abrasion resistance imparted by the SFs.
3.2.5. Precast Application

SFRC can be used in the construction of precast products such as manhole covers,
concrete pipes, and machine bases and frames. Improved flexural strength and impact resistance
of SFRC may allow the use of these products in rough handling situations.
3.2.6. Structural Applications:

Addition of SFs into the conventional RC members has several addvantages such as the
followings, therby increasing the use of steel-fiber-added RC (SFARC) structures compared to
conventional RC members.
(i) Addition of SFs can provide an increased impact resistance to conventional RC
members, therby enhancing the resistance to local damage and spalling.
(ii) Addition of SFs can inhibit crack growth and crack widening; this may allow the
use of high strength steel bars without having excessive crack width or
deformation at service loads.
(iii) Addition of SFs increses the ductility of conventionally RC members, and hence,
enhances their stability and integrity under earthquake and blast loadings.
(iv) Addition of SFs increases the shear strength of RC members. As a consequence
punching shear strength of slabs will be increased and sudden punching failure
can be transformed into a gradual ductile failure (Gambhir, 1995).
 4. Mechanical Properties of SFRC

The crack-arrest and crack-control mechanism of SFs has three major effects on the
behaviour of SFRC structures (Ocean Heidelberg Cement Group, 1999). 1- The addition of SFs
delays the onset of flexural cracking. The tensile strain at the first crack can be increased as much
as 100 percent and the ultimate strain may be as large as 20 to 50 times that of plain concrete. 2-
The addition of SFs imparts a well-defined post-cracking behaviour to the structure. 3- The crack-
arrest property and the consequence increase in ductility impart a greater energy absorption
capacity (higher toughness) to the structure prior to failure.

4.1. Compressive Strength

Johnston (1974), and Dixon and Mayfield (1971) found that an addition of up to 1.5% of
SFs by volume increases the compressive strength from 0 to 15%. A gradual slope in the
descending part of the stress-strain curves indicates the improved spalling resistance, ductility
and toughness of SFRC as shown in Figure 4 (Padmarajaiah and Ramaswamy, 2002).

4.2. Shear Strength

Previous research has shown that addition of SFs substantially increases the shear strength
of concrete (Noghabai, 2000; Oh et al., 1999; Narayanan and Darwish, 1987; Barr, 1987). The
ultimate shear strength of SFRC containing 1 % by volume of SFs increases up to 170%
compared to RC without SFs (Narayanan and Darwish, 1987). Traditional transverse shear
reinforcement can be completely replaced by addition of SFs as an effective alternative
(Noghabai, 2000; Williamson, 1978). Rather than using a single type of SF, a combination of SFs
with various aspect ratios is more effective in improving the mechanical performance of SFRC
(Noghabai, 2000).

Figure4: Effects of SFs Content on Compressive Stress-Strain Curve of FRC (Padmarajaiah and
Ramaswamy, 2002)
 4.3. Tensile Strength

Addition of 1.5% by volume of SFs can improve the direct tensile strength of concrete up
to 40% (Williamson, 1974). Those SFs aligned in the direction of the tensile stress contribute to
an appreciable increase in the direct tensile strength of concrete as up to 133% for the addition of
6% by weight of smooth, straight SFs. However, for more or less randomly distributed fibers, the
increase in strength is much smaller, ranging from as low as no increase in some instances to
perhaps 60%, with many investigations indicating intermediate values, as shown in Figure 5.
Splitting-tension test of SFRC show similar result. Thus, adding fibers merely to increase the
direct tensile strength is probably not worthwhile. However, as in compression, steel fibers do
lead to major increases in the post-cracking behaviour or toughness.

Figure 5: Influence of Fibre Content on Tensile Strength (Johnston ACI-SP44-Detrpit 1974)

4.4. Impact Resistance

The impact resistance of SFRC against dynamic loads due to the dropped weights or
explosives is 8 to 10 times higher than that of the plain concrete. The test results of the specimens
containing high tensile strength, crimped SFs with the diameter of 0.50mm indicate an
improvement in the concrete toughness under impact loading more than 400 percent. An increase
in fatigue strength with increasing the percentage of SFs has also been noticed.

4.5. Durability

Corrosion in concrete structures due to the cracks is less severe in the SFRC
structures compared to conventional RC ones (Mangat and Gurusamy, 1987; Williamson and
Morse, 1977; Halvorsen et al., 1976; Aufmuth et al., 1974). Schupack (1985) found that a well-
compacted SFRC has a limited corrosion of fibers close to the surface of the concrete even when
concrete is highly saturated with chloride ions.
Turatsinze et al. (2005) conducted a research to investigate the corrosion of SFRC due to
the cracks. Prismatic SFRC specimens with the dimensions of 100*100*500mm containing hook-
end SFs with the dimensions of 60 mm in length and 0.8 mm in diameter were prepared.
 Specimens with vertical cracks were exposed to a marine-like environment for 1 year. After 1
year, the prisms were tested in three-point bending setup with the span of 200 mm and load-
deflection graphs were plotted and concluded that only those SFs crossing the crack within a 2 to
3mm rim from the external faces of the specimens exhibited extensive corrosion. Besides, no SFs
corrosion was observed in narrower parts of the cracks (i.e. where crack mouth opening was
about 0.1 mm) whilst in the wider parts of the cracks (i.e. where crack mouth opening was equal
to 0.5mm) a light corrosion of the fibers with no reduction in their section was observed.
Furthermore, no concrete bursting or sapling was recorded due to the corrosion of the fibers.
The measurement of concrete electrical resistivity can give an indication of concrete
durability (Chen and Hwang, 2001; Woodrow 1980). Figure 6 shows the relationship between the
concrete electrical resistivity and curing ages, and it indicates the reduction of concrete electrical
resistivity with the increase in the percentage of SFs due to the conductivity of the fibers (Tsai et
al., 2009). However, the gel formation due to the cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction
causing a dense microstructure and fills the conductive channel, thereby it decreases the effect of
SFs conductivity. In the long run, with the addition of 1.0% of SFs the desired concrete electrical
resistivity of over 20 kΩ-cm can be reached (Woodrow 1980).

4.6. Flexural Strength and Toughness

Hartman (1987) found that the influence of SFs on the flexural strength of concrete is
much greater than its influence on direct tension or compression. Oh et al. (1999) reported that
the flexural strength of SFRC is increased by about 55% with the addition of 2% of SFs.
Hartman (1999) experimented with 12 different SFRC beams produced by SFs of Dramix
RC-65/35-BN type with two different dosages of 60 kg/m3 and 100 kg/m3, and concluded that the
ratio of the measured ultimate load to the theoretical ultimate load turned out to be greater for
those SFRC beams having the dosage of 60 kg/m3.

Figure6: Effects of Fibre Content on Concrete Electrical Resistivity (Tsai et al., 2009)
 5. Conclusions

This paper presents an overview of the mechanical properties of Steel Fiber Reinforced
Concrete (SFRC), its advantages, and its applications. During the last decades incredible
development have been made in concrete technology. One of the major progresses is Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (FRC) which can be defined as a composite material consisting of
conventional concrete reinforced by the random dispersal of short, discontinious, and discrete
fine fibres of specific geometry. Unlike conventional reinforcing steel bars, which are specifically
designed and placed in the tensile zone of the concrete member, fibers are thin, short and
distributed randomly throughout the concrete member. Among all kinds of fibers which can be
used as concrete reinforcement, Steel Fibers are the most popular one. The performance of the
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) has shown a significant improvement in flexural
strength and overall toughness compared against Conventional Reinforced Concrete.

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