Cast Irons

Cast irons, like steels, are basically alloys of iron and carbon. In relation to the iron-
iron carbide diagram, cast irons contain a greater amount of carbon compared to that
of steel. In steel the maximum content of carbon is 2.0%. Therefore, carbon content in
cast irons might be more than 2.0 to 6.67%, per cent carbon, Figure 1.

Steel Cast Iron

Figure 1: Iron-carbon phase diagram showing the range of carbon content in steel
and cast iron.

In previous chapter, it has been observed that increase in carbon content

increases the strength of steel, but the ductility decreases. Since carbon content in
cast iron is higher than that of steel and excessively high carbon content tends to
make the iron-carbon alloys very brittle, so most commercially manufactured types of
cast irons have carbon content in the range of 3.0 to 4.5% carbon. Not only the
brittleness issue, decrease or increase in carbon from this range, the melting
temperature of the iron-carbon alloys also increases, which makes the melting process
difficult and expensive. The eutectic Fe-C alloy (containing 4.3%C) has the lowest
melting temperature among all iron carbon alloys. Interestingly, melting temperature of
the iron-carbon alloy having carbon content 3.0-4.5% remains almost similar, Figure 2.
As a result, carbon content of cast irons is preferred to be close to the eutectic
composition.

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 Figure 2: Iron-carbon showing the carbon content and corresponding melting
temperatures of cast irons.

The ductility of cast iron is very low and it cannot be rolled, drawn or worked at room
temperature. Most of the cast irons are not malleable at any temperature. However,
they melt readily, in the molten condition they show better fluidity than that of steel and
can be cast into complicated shapes, which can be machined easily to final
dimensions. Since casting is the only suitable process applied to these alloys for their
shaping, they are known as cast irons. Although, the common cast irons are brittle and
have lower mechanical properties than most of the commercial steels, they are cheap,
can be cast more readily than steel and have other useful properties. In addition, by
proper alloy addition, good foundry control and appropriate heat treatment, the
properties of any cast iron can be varied over a wide range. Now, it has been possible
to raise the strength and ductility of some grades of cast iron that are comparable to
many steels. Significant developments in foundry control have led to the production of
large tonnages of cast iron products whose properties are generally consistent, which
is not so easy for steel products.

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Types of Cast Iron
The best method of classifying cast iron is according to metallographic structure.
There are four variables to be considered which lead to the different types of cast iron.
These are:

(a) carbon content,

(b) alloy and impurity content,
(c) cooling rate during casting and
(d) heat treatment after casting.

These variables control the conditions of the carbon and also its physical form in
the microstructures of cast irons. The carbon may be combined as iron carbide as
cementite or it may exist as free carbon generally known as graphitic carbon. The
shape and distribution of the free carbon particles greatly influence the physical,
chemical and mechanical properties of the cast irons. In this respect, shape and
distribution of carbon compound (iron carbide) also played important role. There are
several types of cast irons. List of most widely used cast irons are: 1. gray cast irons,
2. white cast irons, 3. malleable cast irons, 4. nodular cast iron and 5. compacted gray
cast iron.

Gray Cast Irons

The term gray iron refers to a broad class of ferrous casting alloys normally
characterized by a microstructure of flake type graphite in a ferrous matrix. Gray cast
irons have higher carbon as well as other impurity contents compared to steel. As a
class, they vary widely in physical and mechanical properties. By far the most
common of all cast irons is gray iron (or gray cast iron). This iron is termed as gray
cast, because it has a gray fracture appearance due to the presence of a high
volume fraction of graphite flakes (the graphite flakes have a gray appearance),
Figure 3.

Figure 3: Microstructures of gray cast iron in unetched (left) and etched (right) conditions.
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 Typical chemical composition range of gray cast iron is given in Table 1. The
metallurgy of gray irons is extremely complex because of a wide variety of factors
that influence their solidification and subsequent solid-state transformations. In spite
of this complexity, gray irons have found wide acceptance based on a combination of
outstanding castability, excellent machinability, economical, atmospheric corrosion
resistance and some other properties. Grades, chemical compositions, mechanical
properties and application of some gray cast irons are given below in Table 2.

Table 1: Chemical composition ranges of typical gray cast irons.

Elements Weight%
Carbon 2.5-4.0
Silicon 1.0-3.0
Manganese 0.2-1.0
Phosphorus 0.002-1.0
Sulfur 0.02-0.25

Table 2: Grades, mechanical properties and applications of some gray cast irons.
Grade Composition Matrix TS YS % Ductility Typical Applications
(Weight%) Structures (MPa) (MPa) (50mm GL)
SAEG1800 3.4-3.7C Ferrite 124 - - Miscellaneous soft iron
2.55Si + castings in which strength
0.7Mn Pearlite is not a primary
consideration
SAEG2500 3.2-3.5C Ferrite 173 - -
2.20Si + Small cylinder blocks,
0.8Mn Pearlite cylinder heads, pistons,
clutch plates, transmission
SAEG4000 3.0-3.3C Pearlite 276 - - cases
2.0Si
0.8Mn Diesel engine castings,
liners, cylinders and pistons

Depending on carbon and silicon content in gray cast irons, they might have
ferritic, pearlitic or mixed microstructures. Here silicon behaves as graphitizer, i.e.
silicon helps to break down the cementite in pearlite or free form to its constituents
(iron and graphitic carbon) by the following reaction. This reaction, in general, is
known as graphitizing reaction.

Fe3C = Fe + 3C

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 Addition of more silicon means break down of more cementite and formation of
more ferrite. Here it important to note that slow cooling favours the graphitization
reaction. The properties of gray irons are affected by their structural morphologies,
Table 2. Gray cast irons have one unique property, which is their unparallel damping
capacity, Figure 4. From Figure 4, it clear that gray cast irons have several times
higher damping capacity compared to steel and other grade of cast irons because of
the flaky nature of the graphitic carbon.

Figure 4: Comparison of damping behaviours of various ferrous alloys.

As a result, the base structures for lath or shaper machines and heavy
equipments that are exposed to vibrations are frequently constructed from this
material. Another attractive property of gray cast iron is its high atmospheric
corrosion resistance. In general, graphite has a very corrosion resistance in many
solvents. As the graphite flakes surround also most all of ferrite and pearlite grain in
the gray cast irons, the solvent responsible for corrosion cannot get contact of the
low corrosion resistant constituents of (ferrite and pearlite) of gray cast iron. As a
result, gray cast iron products do not corrode if they serve in the atmosphere
exposure condition. This behaviour ensures huge applications of gray cast irons for
making tube well bodies, sewerage pipelines, fencing of gardens, metallic statues,
etc. Some examples of gray cast iron products are shown in Figure 5.

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 Figure 5: Some applications of gray cast iron.

White Cast Iron

If gray irons have relatively lower silicon contents and they are solidified rapidly
from molten condition, cementite cannot break down to form graphitic carbon and
ferrite grains. This compositional and cooling conditions result white iron. So, no
graphite flake remains present in white iron. Instead of graphite flakes, iron carbide
or cementite remains present in this type of cast iron. Depending on silicon content,
cooling rate and subsequent heat treatment after casting of white cast irons,
cementite may have various morphologies as networks around the pearlite grains,
plates adjacent to the pearlite grains or in random distribution, globule form, etc
(Figure 6). When cast irons of these types of microstructural morphologies are
broken, the fracture surface shows sparkling white appearance. This is the reason
why this group of cast irons are known as white cast iron. Depending on
microstructural morphologies, especially the geometry and distribution of cementite
phase tensile strength of white cast iron might vary to some extent.

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 Figure 6: White cast irons of various microstructural morphologies.

It has been mentioned that cementites in the white cast irons do not break to
ferrite and graphitic carbon. This is favoured by low silicon content and higher
cooling rate from its molten state. The composition range of elements in unalloyed
white iron is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Chemical composition range for white cast irons.

Elements Weight%
Carbon 2.0-3.6
Silicon 0.5-1.8
Manganese 0.25-0.8
Phosphorus 0.06-0.2
Sulfur 0.06-0.2

Compared to gray cast irons, the silicon content in white cast irons is lower. So,
insufficient silicon content cannot graphitize the cementite and form free carbon in
the structures. White irons are extremely hard and abrasion resistant. To enhance
their abrasion resistance, they are usually alloyed with nickel, chromium, and/or
molybdenum. As a consequence of large amounts of extremely hard cementite,
white cast iron is very brittle. They are virtually not machinable. As a result, its use is
limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface,
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without a high degree of ductility, for example, as rollers in rolling mills, grinder in ball
mills, jaws for crushing mills, inside lining of cement-gravel mixture, etc (Figure 7).
Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary in the production of another cast
iron, malleable iron, which is produced from white cast iron by heat treatment
technique.

Figure 7: Some useful products of white cast iron.

Malleable Cast Iron

These are produced from white cast irons modified by malleabilizing heat
treatment. The produced cast irons provide better strength along with significant
improvement in ductility. As a result, this cast iron is named by the heat treatment
process used. The heat treatment consists heating the white cast iron slowly to a
temperature at around 900oC and holding at this temperature for long time followed
by cooling to room temperature, Figure 8. Typical chemical compositions of white
cast iron suitable for production of malleable cast iron are presented in the following
Table 4.

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 o
900 C
1 2
Temperature

Moderate Cooling
Rate

Slow Cooling
0 3 Rate 3’
White Cast Iron Pearlite Ferrite
Time
Malleable Cast Iron

Figure 8: Heat treatment cycle for the production of malleable cast iron.

Table 4: Chemical composition range for white cast irons.

Elements Weight%
Carbon 2.16-2.9
Silicon 0.9-1.9
Manganese 0.15-1.25
Phosphorus 0.02-0.2
Sulfur 0.02-0.15

In the above heat treatment cycle (Figure 8), 0-1 denotes slow heating period.
On heating, pearlite and part of cementite transform to austenite. During long time
holding period (1-2) cementite phase is converted to graphite, which exists in the
form of clusters or rosettes around austenite. In the next step when this structure is
cooled, where cluster form of graphite does not change, but the austenite transforms
to either pearlite or ferrite depending on cooling rates. For faster cooling (2-3)
pearlitic or white heart malleable cast iron is formed. On the other hand, if the cooling
rate is very slow (2-3’), more carbon from austenite will come out and rest of the
austenite transforms to ferrite, which is called black heart malleable cast iron, Figure
9. Depending on heat treatment parameter, chemical compositions of the initial white

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cast irons mixed type microstructures (ferrite-pearlitic) of the malleable cast iron
might also form in the heat treated product, i.e. in malleable cast irons.

Figure 9: Microstructures of black heart (left) and black (right) malleable cast irons.

After heat treatment processes, malleable iron can be shaped through cold
working, such as stamping for straightening, bending or coining operations. This is
possible due to malleable iron's desirable property of being less strain rate sensitive
than other materials. The mechanical properties of some malleable cast irons are
mentioned in the following Table 5.

Table 5: Properties of some malleable cast irons.

Grade Composition Matrix TS YS % Ductility
(Weight%) Structures (MPa) (MPa) (50mm GL) Typical Applications

32510 2.3.-2.7C Ferrite 345 224 10 Various tool for general

1.0-1.75Si engineering service at normal
<0.55Mn and elevated temperatures

45006 2.4.-2.7C Ferrite 448 310 6

1.25-1.55Si + Relatively stronger tools for
<0.55Mn Pearlite general engineering service
at normal and elevated
temperatures

Malleable iron also exhibits better fracture toughness properties in low

temperature environments than other nodular irons, due to its lower silicon content.
The ductile to brittle transformation temperature is lower than many other ductile iron
alloys. It is often used for small castings requiring good tensile strength. It has a wide
range of applications. Some of which are as electrical fittings, gears, weight blocks,
hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings, power line hardware, farm
equipment, mining hardware and machine parts, Figure 10.

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 Figure 10: Some useful products made from malleable cast iron.

Nodular Cast Iron

In the earlier section, it has been revealed that gray cast irons have very poor
tensile strength and ductility. Similar to gray cast iron, white cast iron also shows
poor tensile strength with a very high level of brittleness because of cementite
networks or platelets around the pearlite grains. This poor strength and severe level
of brittleness restrict the direct application of this variety of cast iron. The poor
strength of gray cast iron was because of sharp edges of graphitic flakes, where
severe stress concentration takes place during the period of loading. Malleabilizing
heat treatment induces ductility and increases strength of the cast irons many extent.
However, scientists were looking forward to have cast iron of much more strength
and ductility. They argued that the strength of cast iron is possible to increase further
if the cluster like graphitic carbon in malleable cast iron is changed to round or
nodule shape. To produce nodular or ductile iron, a fairly high-purity cast iron is
inoculated with 0.03 to 0.06% Mg or 0.005 to 0.20% Ce. These elements provide
nuclei on which the graphite spheroids grow. Because of the shape of the graphite,
this type of cast iron exhibits far greater ductility than gray iron.
Nodular cast iron, also known as nodular iron and spheroidal graphite cast iron, is
a cast iron where the graphite is in the form of spheres or nodules. The nodules are
not as irregularly shaped as in malleable iron and are formed during solidification,
not by heat treatment. Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium (0.03 to
0.06% Mg or 0.005 to 0.20% Ce) to the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly
different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still forms, but as
nodules or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. The resulting alloy is called nodular
or ductile iron and a typical microstructure is shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11: Microstructures of unetched (top), ferritic (bottom left) and pearlitic (bottom
right) nodular cast irons.

Table 6: Range of chemical compositions of iron that is suitable for

nodular cast iron production.
Elements Weight%
Carbon 3.0-4.0
Silicon 1.8-2.8
Manganese 0.1-1.0
Phosphorus 0.01-0.1
Sulfur 0.01-0.03

Here it is to be mentioned that to produce ductile iron, a fairly high-purity cast

iron is required. The range of chemical compositions suitable for the production

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nodular cast iron is presented in Table 6. The matrix of the as cast nodular cast iron
is usually pearlitic. However, depending on heat treatment the matrix phase
surrounding the graphite nodule might be pearlite or ferrite. Nodular cast irons exhibit
a very attractive mechanical properties. In fact, ductile iron has mechanical
characteristics approaching those of steel. For example, ferritic ductile irons have
tensile strengths ranging between 380 and 480 MPa (55,000 and 70,000 psi) and
ductilities (as percent elongation) from 10% to 20%, Table 7. With ductile iron, the
safety and reliability of process equipment is improved. The improved mechanical
properties increase its resistance to breakage from physical load, or mechanical and
thermal shock far above that of gray iron. The corrosion resistance of ductile iron is
equal or superior to gray cast iron and to cast steel in many corrosives. Its wear
resistance is comparable to some of the best grades of steel and superior to gray
iron in heavy load or impact load situations. Because, it can be cast with the same
low cost procedures used for gray iron it is considerably less expensive than cast
steel and only moderately more expensive than gray iron. The substantial
advantages obtained from its high yield strength and ductility make it an economical
choice for many applications.
Table 7: Grade and mechanical properties of some nodular cast irons.
Grade Composition Matrix TS YS % Ductility
(Weight%) Structures (MPa) (MPa) (50mm GL) Typical Applications
ASTMA536 Pressure containing parts such
Ferritic 414 276 18 as valve and pump bodies,
water pipes.
60-40-18 3.5.-3.8C
2.0-2.8Si Pearlitic 689 483 3 High strength gears, water
100-70-03 0.05Mg pump and machine
<0.20Ni components, engine body.
120-90-02 <0.10Mo Tempered 827 621 2
Martensitic Pinions, gears, rollers, slides,
etc.

Typical applications for this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts,
gears, and other automotive and machine components, Figure 12.

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 Figure 12: Some products of nodular cast irons.

Compacted Graphite Iron

Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a
consequence of its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and
pointed and may serve as points of stress concentration when an external tensile
stress is applied. In order to avoid some limitations gray cast iron, materials scientist
has developed another type cast iron, which is relatively new in the family of cast
iron. Microstructurally, the graphite in CGI alloys has a worm-like (or vermicular)
shape; a typical CGI microstructure is shown in the optical micrograph of Figure 13.

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 Figure 13: Microstructures of compacted gray cast iron.

In a sense, this microstructure is intermediate between that of gray iron and

ductile (nodular) iron and, in fact, some of the graphite (less than 20%) may be as
nodules. However, sharp edges (characteristic of graphite flakes) should be avoided,
because the presence of this feature leads to a reduction in fracture and fatigue
resistance of the material. Magnesium and/or cerium are also added, but
concentrations are lower than for ductile iron. The chemistries of CGIs are more
complex than for the other cast iron types; compositions of magnesium, cerium and
other additives must be controlled so as to produce a microstructure that consists of
the worm-like graphite particles, while at the same time limiting the degree of
graphite nodularity and preventing the formation of graphite flakes. Furthermore,
depending on heat treatment, the matrix phase will be pearlite and/or ferrite. As with
the other types of cast irons, the mechanical properties of CGIs are related to
microstructure: graphite particle shape as well as the matrix phase/microconstituent.
An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancements
of both strength and ductility. Furthermore, CGIs with ferritic matrices have lower
strengths and higher ductilies than those with pearlitic matrices. In addition,
ductilities for CGIs are intermediate between values for gray and ductile irons; also,
moduli of elasticity range between 140 and 165 GPa. Grade, compositions and
properties of some compacted gray cast irons are presented in Table 8.

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 Table 8: Grade and mechanical properties of some compacted gray cast irons.
Grade Composition Matrix TS YS % Ductility
(Weight%) Structures (MPa) (MPa) (50mm GL) Typical Applications
250 3.1-3.8C Ferritic 414 250 3 Diesel engine blocks, exhaust
1.7-3.0Si manifolds, brake disc for high
0.015-0.035Mg Pearlitic 689 450 1 speed trains, etc.
450 0.06-0.13Ti

Compared to the other cast iron types, desirable characteristics of CGIs are:
higher thermal conductivity, better resistance to thermal shock (i.e., fracture resulting
from rapid temperature changes), lower oxidation at elevated temperatures, etc.
Compacted graphite irons are now being used in a number of important
applications—these include: diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox
housings, brake discs for high-speed trains and flywheels. Some of the applications
are shown below in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Some important products made of compacted gray cast iron.

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