1.

HISTORICAL
Definition
Historical methods consist of a collection of techniques and approaches which
draw on both traditional history, and social research. It is also a kind of research
methodology that allows people to study past events that have molded the present.
Description
Historical methods provide a powerful set of tools for addressing broad, big
picture questions (Neuman 2003).
History
The methodology was first developed in the nineteenth century by social thinkers
such as Marx, Durkheim, and Weber (Neuman 2003). There has been a resurgence of
interest in historical methods since the 1970s, when researchers began to recognize the
limitations of methodologies such as structural functionalism and economic
determinism, which take a static view of society. Increasing political conflict between
Western nations meant that researchers became interested in exploring social change,
and looked for a methodology that took into account historical and cultural contexts.
Procedure
1) Begin with focusing questions.

The questions asked are going to be about change, as history is primarily the
story of change. Inductive thinking is generally associated with the interpretive
paradigm, and involves the researcher identifying categories, or patterns in data, that
seem suitable candidates for further investigation.
2) Specify the domain for the enquiry.
In the studies carried out by Mason et al (1997a) and (Porra, Hirschheim et al.
2006) the primary unit of analysis is an individual organization. The researcher needs
make decisions about what will be included in the domain, and what is the appropriate
time span for the study.
3) Gather evidence, using both primary and secondary sources
Primary sources are those that came into existence during the time to which they
refer, and secondary sources are those written by historians about a period in the past.
Primary sources can be public documents such as annual reports, statistics and
academic articles, which are organized around a timeline. Secondary sources can be
slotted into this timeline and include less public information such as letters, budgets,
and data collected from individual interviews.

4) Critique the evidence. Is it authentic and credible?

 It is common to find that evidence is contradictory, irrelevant or incomplete. Many
of the best storytellers’ favor accuracy less than they favor a gripping narrative.
Techniques such as counting the number of times an observation was made,
determining the credibility of sources, and establishing whether there are meaningful
relationships between the different parts of the evidence can be used to assist with this.
5) Determine patterns using inductive reasoning.
This is one of the central steps, though one of the most difficult. The task is to
explain what happened, and how and why it happened. This can be done using a
number of different tools; three of the most popular are conceptual frameworks, causal
chain analysis, and establishing empathy with the main participants. A conceptual
framework can be used to organize facts, and to concentrate attention on the essential
areas to be explained. A causal chain is a type of conceptual framework that shows the
sequence of events that produced the effects, results or consequences observed.
Conceptual frameworks and causal chains can be developed in advance independently
of the phenomena to be explained, and used as an explanatory framework, or they can
be used as ideal types around which historical data can be organized. A third approach
is to try to achieve empathy with the characters in the study. This means imagining how
events might have appeared to those who actually experienced them.

6) Tell the story.

This entails bringing together the results of evidence gathering, empathy, and
causal chain analysis to form a narrative.

7) Write the transcript.

The historical method is part of the hermeneutic tradition in that it treats the world
as a script. Every written account takes its place in the context of a network of other
written accounts that attempt to explain the relationships between living generations and
their predecessors.

Example
1. Interconnecting the existence of networks between businesses, customers,
suppliers, community groups and local authorities

2. Informing features related to learning such as the presence of embedded tacit

knowledge, transfer of best practice, and presence of knowledge

3. Innovating evidence of ability to create or adopt innovations, the presence of

entrepreneurs, and a competitive culture Interacting The presence of strong
 social capital, high levels of trust, a common regional culture, and professional
networks

4. Hard infrastructure in terms of transport and telecommunications links, plus soft

infrastructure in terms of regional norms and conventions

5. Economic features such as per capita income and employment levels

2. ANALYTICAL

Definition
The Analytical method is a generic process combining the power of the scientific
method with the use of formal process to solve any type of problem.
Description
One uses an analytic method to obtain, decode, or make explicit information
which is hidden, encoded or entailed by the information in a pre-existing knowledge
base.
All of these are on underlying discipline of logic which is the meat of analytic
argumentation. It attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be. Analytical
research, as a style of qualitative inquiry, draws from disciplines of philosophy, history
and biography. It describes and interprets the past or recent past from selected sources.
The sources may be documents preserved in collection, and or participants in oral
testimonies.
History
Analytical was first used in chemistry as also called analytical chemistry which
consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern, instrumental methods.
Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and
distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point,
boiling point, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or
volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate
samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then
qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument
and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often
the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte..
Analytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry,
providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the
object in question. During this period significant contributions to analytical chemistry
include the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and
systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups. The
first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert
Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860.
Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry take place after 1900.
During this period instrumental analysis becomes progressively dominant in the field. In
particular, many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were
discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century.

Procedure
1. Identify the problem
2. Choose an appropriate process
3. Use the process to hypothesize analysis or solution elements
4. Design an experiment to test the hypothesis
5. Perform the experiment
6. Accept, reject or modify the hypothesis
7. Repeat 3,4,5, and 6 until the hypothesis is accepted
8. Implement the solution
9. Continuously improve the process as opportunities arise
Example
1. Analytic chemistry can be defined as the science of inventing and applying the
concepts,principles, and strategies for measuring the characterisctics of chemical
systems. If these new analytical methods are adopted by other scientists, they
may serve as enabling technologies that can advance the work of entire field. For
example,new technologies for DNA sequencing based on capillary
electrophoresis and protein analysis using mass spectrometry have had
significant impact on the questions being addressed by the biologists.
Depending on their jobs, analytical chemists may work on two complementary modes of
practice. In one mode, the analytical chemist works similarly to any other scientist
involved in basic research to identify hypothesis in a scientific area by developing new
measurement methods or techniques.
2.the preliminary steps of the analytical process are the pending goals of today’s
analytical chemistry. Meanwhile, detection and data treatment have experienced
enormous development in the last 20 years, whereas preliminary steps have improved
in only some of their different aspects, the others being at present based on old-
fashioned procedures. The delay is partially due to the variety of samples which in turn
require different treatment in each case.an intended critical overview of the preliminary
steps, starting from sampling and finishing at introduction of the detector is presented
with special emphasis on automation as the only way for eliminating overload in
analytical laboratories.
3.research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it, we
study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to
know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology, Researchers
not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the
mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques but they also need to know which of these methods or
techniques, are relevant and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and
why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain
techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not
form what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when
we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated
either by researcher the himself or by others.
4.The conduct of study and measure of dependent variable, the sets of numbers are
left. These numbers inevitably are not the same. That is, there is variability in the
numbers. Variability can be and usually is the result of more variables. These variables
include extraneous variables such as individual differences, experimental error and
confounds but may also include an effect of independent variables. The challenge is to
extract from the numbers a meaningful summary of the behavior observed and a
meaningful conclusion regarding the influence of the experimental treatment on
participant behavior.
5.The sample calculations may be hand written but must be clear and legible. Follow
the analysis steps in this manual, labeling them by number so we can follow what you
are doing. You must clearly show each step of your analysis by writing out each
equation used, followed by the calculation plugging in the relevant data including the
appropriate units, even if the equation is explicitly stated in the lab manual. Put a box
around, underline, or in some other way highlight the important answers
6.A large proportion possibly a majority of errors in laboratory medicine occur in the pre-
analytical phase of the testing process. Hence in the assessment and evaluation of
biochemical essays,pre-analytical factors need as thorough a consideration and
investigation as the more traditional direct analytical factors. A key goal must be correct
first time, every time.
This brief review will consider only those pre analytical factors that need to be
considered when introducing a new analytical test. It will not discuss in detail those
general pre analytical requirements common to all analytes, including the correct
identification of the patient, the correct labelling of the sample and the correct sample
registration.
7.the main purpose of statistics is to test hypothesis. For example, you might run an
experiment and find that a certain drug is effective at treating headaches. But if you
can’t repeat that experiment, no one will take your results seriously. A good example of
this was the cold fusion discovery, which petered into obscurity because no one was
able to duplicate the results.
8.a new analytical method has been devised to solve higher order initial value problems
for ordinary differential equations. This method was implemented to construct a series
solution for higher order initial value problems in the form of a rapidly convergent series
with easily computable components using symbolic computation software. The
proposed method is based on the Taylor series expansion which constructs an
analytical solution in the form of a polynomial. This technique is applied to a few test
examples to illustrate the accuracy, efficiency, and applicability of the method. The
results reveal that the method is very effective, straightforward and simple.
9.continous improvement is like a religion. Although it seems like a simple thing to
achieve, leaders and teams, who are not familiar with process improvement techniques
are having a hard time sustaining it.
To implement this mindset, you need to have a clear understanding of what exactly is
continuous improvement, what principles you need to follow, and check some of the
best practices.
3.DESCRIPTIVE
Definition
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon
being studied, it does not answer questions about how, when and or why the
characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the “what’ ’question.
Description
Descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on” why’’ a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
describes the subject of the research without covering “why’’ it happens.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends
among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather
population data and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.
The research will then uncover details on what is the purchasing pattern of New York
buyers but not cover any investigative details on why the patterns exits. Because for the
apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market
is the objective of the study.
History
Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of
research, descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike
other methods, it requires only one variable (Borg & Gall,1989). On the other hand,
descriptive research might simply report the percentage summary on a single variable.
Examples of this are the tally of reference citations in selected instructional design and
technology journals by Anglin and Towers (1992);Barry’s (1994) investigation of the
controversy surrounding advertising and Chennel One; Lu, Morlan, Lerchlorlarn, Lee,
and dike’s (1993) investigation of the international utilization of media in education
(1993); and Petterson, Metallinos, Muffoletto, Shaw, and Takakuwa’s (1993) analysis of
the use of verbo-visual information in teaching geography in various countries
Procedure
1. Identify the problem
2. Review literature
3. Select Participants and instruments
4. Collect valid and reliable data
5. Analyze data
6. Report conclusions
5.Example
A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to
understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different sets of people. To understand
the preferred flavor palette, they a conduct a descriptive research study using different
methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also conducting a survey
whilst collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference
of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to different
preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting a thorough descriptive research helps
the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
4. CASE STUDY
Definition
A process of record a research in which detailed consideration is given to the
development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time.
A particular instance of something used or analyzed in order to illustrate a thesis or
principle.
Description
A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative
methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing, comparing,
evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem.
A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete,
contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to
explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.
Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation. They keep your project
focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale
research.
HISTORY
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e.
the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the
study of a particular individual.
The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e.
retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her
everyday life.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data
collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones
carried out by Sigmund Freud, including Anna O and Little Hans.
Freud (1909a,1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his
patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Even
today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal
psychology and psychiatry.
This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a
psychologist, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification.
PROCEDURE
1.When to do a case study
A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete,
contextual. In-depth knowledge about a specific real- world subject. It allows you to
explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implication of the case.
Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation. They keep your project
focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale
research
Select a case
Choose a specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the
potential to:
 Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
 Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
 Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
 Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitave or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a
random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on
unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research
problem
Build a theoretical framework
While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should
usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not
just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It
might aim to:
 Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
 Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be
incorporated
 Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established
assumptions
To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should
conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical
framework. This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and
interpretation.
Collect your data
There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject.
Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews,
observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources. Sometimes a case study
will also collect quantitave data.
The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context
Describe and analyze the case
In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give
as complete a picture as possible of the subject.
How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some
case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate
sections or chapters for the methods, results and discussion.
Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various
angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual
analysis or discourse analysis).
In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it
back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

EXAMPLES
How do populist politician use narratives about history to gain support?
How can teachers implement active learning strategies in mixed-level classrooms?
Case study of a local school that promotes active learning
5. SURVEY
A survey is a list of questions aimed at extracting specific data from a particular group of
people. Surveys may be conducted by phone, mail, via the internet, and sometimes
face-to-face on busy street corners or in malls.
Description
Survey research design is implemented in cases where there is limited cost involved
and there is a need to access details easily. This method is often used by small and
large organizations to understand and analyze new trends, market demands and
opinions. Collecting information through a tactfully designed survey research can be
much more effective and productive than a casually conducted survey.
HISTORY

Survey research may have its roots in English and American “social surveys’’ conducted
around the turn of the 20th century by researchers and reformers who wanted to
document the extent of social problems such as poverty. By the 1930s, the US
government was conducting surveys to document economic and social conditions in the
country. The need to draw conclusions about the entire population helped spur
advances in sampling procedures. At about the same time, several researchers who
had already made a name for themselves in market research, studying consumer
preferences for American businesses, turned their attention to election polling. A
watershed event was the presidential election of 1936 between Alf Landon and Franklin
Roosevelt. A magazine called Literary Digest conducted a survey by sending ballots to
millions of americans. Based on this “straw poll,’’ the editors predicted that Landon
would win in a landslide. At the same time , the new pollsters were using scientific
methods with much smaller samples to predict just the opposite-that Roosevelt would
win in a landslide. In fact, one of them, George Gallup, publicly criticized the methods
of Literary Digest before the election and all but guaranteed that his prediction would be
correct.
PROCEDURE
1. Decide survey questions
Brainstorm and put together effective survey questions which are grammatically and
logically appropriate. This can be done by understanding the objective and expected
outcomes of the survey. There are many surveys where details of responses are not as
important as gaining insights about what customers prefer from the provided options. In
such situations, a researcher can include multiple choice questions or close-ended
questions, Whereas, if details about certain questions are to be obtained, researchers
can include open-ended questions.
Ideally, the surveys should include a clever balance of open ended and closed-ended
questions. Use survey questions like Likert Scale, Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Score
question etc. to avoid fence-sitting.
2.Finalize a target audience
Send out relevant surveys as per the target audience and filter out irrelevant questions
as per the requirement. The survey research will be extremely effective in case a
sample is decided from the target population. This way, results can be according to the
desired market and be generalized to the entire population.
3.Zero-in on a survey method
There are many qualitative and quantitative research methods which can be discussed
and decided. Focus groups, online interviews, surveys, polls, questionnaire etc. can be
carried out with the pre-decided sample of individuals.
4.Design the questionnaire
What will the content of the questionnaire be? A researcher is required to answer this
question to be able to design it effectively. What will the content of the cover letter be?
Or what are the survey questions of this questionnaire? Understand the target market
thoroughly to create a questionnaire that targets a sample to gain insights about a
survey research topic
.5. Send out surveys and analyze results
Distribute the surveys to the target audience and patiently wait for the feedback and
comments. This is the most important step of the survey research. The survey needs to
be scheduled keeping in mind the nature of the target audience and the regions they
belong to.
Surveys can be conducted via email, embedded in website, shared via social media etc.
to gain maximum responses.
Analyze the feedback in real-time and identify patterns in the responses which might
lead to a much-needed breakthrough for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint
analysis, Cross tabulation and many such survey feedback analysis methods can be
used to implement corrective measures to improve customer or employee satisfaction.
Example
Prepare Yes/No questions
You may also want to use yes/no questions to separate people or branch into groups of
those who “who have purchased’ ’your products or services. Once separated, different
questions can be asked of each of these groups.
6.INTERVIEW
Definition
It is a qualitative research technique which involves conducting intensive individual
interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, program or situation.
Description
Interviews are designed to collect a richer source of information from a small number of
people about attributes, behavior, preferences, feelings, attitudes, opinions and
knowledge. They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects’
opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc. Interview questions are usually
open ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected
History
The Interview is one of the popular style forms (genre) for Georgian media but how it is
being transformed? Interview, as a genre was born in USA in XIX century and spread
rapidly in Europe. According to researchers after this form appeared in media, a new
stage of professionalism begun. In order to show the process of transformation of
interview in space and time, the author studied the early stage of the development of
this genre in Georgia and at the same time considered to show the history of this
journalistic style forms.
It is true that soon the most popular and authentic journalistic style form became
popular but at the same time opponents appeared. According to Haller:”Bluff, joint
product of politician and newspaper writers,’’-so in his editorial column, January 28,1869
the newspaper “Nation’’ (published in New York) evaluated the fashion which was
spread with an unusual name “Interviewing’’. Their irony referred especially to Josef
Barbreag Mac Culleg, who was the reporter of the “New York Associated Press’ ’He
used this English word two years ago and explained it as “intermeeting’’. With this he
brought in a notion of a new journalistic style form (Haller 210).
According to this quotation, interview probably first appeared in 1867 but other
researchers wrote other dates.”Interview-said Emil Dovifat-is an invention of American
Journalism: Gordon Bennett sent the reporter of is newspaper “Herald’’. This took place
in 1859 and soon the new form of information, gained its utter recognition.
However, they considered the opinion of Nils Guner Nilson, Swede researcher of
Minnesota State University as more reliable. According to his assertion, interview was
fashionable in 30s of XIX century but it did not in political journalism. It is being used by
crime reporters to show “Human Interest stories’’.
American researcher M. Charly is also sharing Nilson’s point of views. He considers
that, the James Gordon’s speaking with Rozina Taunsend, the participant of sensational
court process, meant the birth of “journalistic interview’ ’This speaking which was
published on april 16, 1836, was prepared also as a style of interrogation of witness, but
as Nilson wrote: “When Gordon Bennett was speaking with main witness of the
sensational murder, he simply used the “method of interview’ ’which is typical of courts.
This unusual form had a lot of followers and it was used to show so called “Human
Interest story’’. The second direction of interview appeared a bit later in free press. It
was connected to the reporter of “Associated Press’’Josef Bar Bridge MacCuleg who
had close relationship with Andrew Johnson. When he was elected as a president. In
April 1864, after the death of Lincoln, the meetings of reporter and new president were
often printed as an exclusive talk.
As a German Professor M. Haller mentions, “the interviews of MacCulegs were not only
to show his privileged role to the triumphant. These interviews became popular because
of their objective, direct form between two equal partners. The form was created in the
political interview which seemed useful for both sides-interviewer and respondent.
Procedure
1.Design interview questions
Think about who you will interview, what kind of information you want to obtain from
interviews and why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic.
2.Develop an interview guide
Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview. Devise your questions so
interviewees can help answer your research question. Have a sequence to your
questions/or topics by grouping them in themes. Make sure you can easily move back
and forth between questions or topics and shall be clear and easy to understand.
Further, do not ask leading questions.
3.Plan and manage logistics
Do you want to bring a second interviewer, a note taker, record interviews or time to
transcribe interview recordings? Where will you interview people and setting with the
least distraction? How long will each interview take and do you need to address terms
of confidentiality?

Example
Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions
are asked personally directly to the respondent. For this, a researcher can have a guide
online surveys to take note of the answers. A researcher can design his or her survey in
such a way that they take notes of the comments or points of view that stands out from
the interviewee.
7.QUANTITATIVE
Definition
Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages,
etc.[1] The researcher analyses the data with the help of statistics and hopes the
numbers will yield an unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger
population. Qualitative research, on the other hand, inquires deeply into specific
experiences, with the intention of describing and exploring meaning through text,
narrative, or visual-based data, by developing themes exclusive to that set of
participants.
Description
Quantitative research is widely used
in psychology, economics, demography, sociology, marketing, community health, health
& human development, gender studies, and political science; and less frequently
in anthropology and history. Research in mathematical sciences, such as physics, is
also "quantitative" by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the
social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods originating in both
philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, in contrast with qualitative
research methods.
Qualitative research produces information only on the particular cases studied, and any
more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to
verify which of such hypotheses are true. A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles
published in the top two American sociology journals between 1935 and 2005 found that
roughly two thirds of these articles used quantitative method.[3]
History
Quantitative historians start with databases. Large quantities of economic and
demographic data are available in print format. Quantifiers move these into
computerized databases. The largest repository is the inter-university consortium for
political and social research (ICPSR) at the University of Michigan, which provides
access to an extensive collection of downloadable political and social data for the
United States and the world.
Procedure
1. Study population and sampling-where did the data come from; how robust is it;
note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for
their selection;

1. Data collection-describe the tools and methods used to collect information and
identify the variable being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the
data; and, note if the data was pre-existing or you gathered it yourself. Describe
what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect to
describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.

2. Data analysis-describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If
appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each
research objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer
software used to manipulate the data.

Examples[edit]

 Research that consists of the percentage amounts of all the elements that make
up Earth's atmosphere.
 Survey that concludes that the average patient has to wait two hours in the
waiting room of a certain doctor before being selected.
 An experiment in which group x was given two tablets of aspirin a day and group
y was given two tablets of a placebo a day where each participant
is randomly assigned to one or other of the groups. The numerical factors such
as two tablets, percent of elements and the time of waiting make the situations
and results quantitative.
In finance, quantitative research into the stock markets is used to develop models to
price complex trades, and develop algorithms to exploit investment hypotheses, as seen
in quantitative hedge funds and Trading Strategy Indices.[12]
8.QUALITATIVE
Definition
Qualitative research is a kind of research that relies on unstructured and non-
numerical data. The data may take the form of field notes written by the researcher in
the course of observation, interviews, audio or video recordings carried out by the
researcher in natural settings or interviews, documents of various kinds (publicly
available or personal; paper-based or electronic; already available or elicited by the
researcher) and even material artefacts. The use of these data is informed by various
methodological or philosophical assumptions, as part of various methods, such as
ethnography (of various kinds), discourse analysis (of various kinds), interpretative
phenomenological analysis and other phenomenological methods. [1]
Description
Qualitative research approaches are employed across many academic disciplines,
particularly in the social sciences and applied fields like education, health sciences,
library and information science as well as criminology. [2] They are also used in market
research and in research concerned with human–computer interaction
The aim of a qualitative research project may vary with the disciplinary background,
such as a psychologist seeking in-depth understanding of human behavior and the
reasons that govern such behavior for example. Qualitative methods are best for
researching many of the why and how questions of human experience,[2] in making a
decision for example (not just what, where, when, or "who"); and have a strong basis in
the field of sociology to understand government and social programs. Qualitative
research is widely used by political science, social work, and education researchers

History[edit]
Sociologist Earl Babbie notes that qualitative research is "at once very old and very
new."[13] He documents that qualitative methods have been used for several centuries,
but anthropologists brought qualitative field research methods to the forefront through
their 19th century observations of preliterate societies.
Robert Bogdan in his advanced courses on qualitative research traces the history of the
development of the fields, and their particular relevance to disability and including the
work of his colleague Robert Edgerton and a founder of participant observation, Howard
S. Becker.[14] As Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen describe in their education text,
"historians of qualitative research have never, for instance, included Freud or Piaget as
developers of the qualitative approach, yet both relied on case studies, observations
and in depth interviewing".[15]
In the early 1900s, some researchers rejected positivism, the theoretical idea that there
is an objective world which we can gather data from and "verify" this data
through empiricism. These researchers embraced a qualitative research paradigm,
attempting to make qualitative research as "rigorous" as quantitative research and
creating myriad methods for qualitative research. Such developments were necessary
as qualitative researchers won national center awards, in collaboration with their
research colleagues at other universities and departments; and university
administrations funded Ph.D.s in both arenas through the ensuing decades. Most
theoretical constructs involve a process of qualitative analysis and understanding, and
construction of these concepts (e.g., Wolfensberger's social role valorization theories).
[16]

In the 1970s and 1980s, the increasing ubiquity of computers aided in qualitative
analyses, several journals with a qualitative focus emerged, and postpositivism gained
recognition in the academy.[citation needed] In the late 1980s, questions of identity emerged,
including issues of race, class, gender, and discourse communities, leading to research
and writing becoming more reflexive. Throughout the 1990s, the concept of a passive
observer/researcher was rejected, and qualitative research became more participatory
and activist-oriented with support from the federal branches, such as the National
Institute on Disability Research and Rehabilitation (NIDRR) of the US Department of
Education (e.g., Rehabilitation Research and Training Centers for Family and
Community Living, 1990). Also, during this time, researchers began to use mixed-
method approaches, indicating a shift in thinking of qualitative and quantitative methods
as intrinsically incompatible. However, this history is not apolitical, as this has ushered
in a politics of "evidence" (e.g., evidence-based practices in health and human services)
and what can count as "scientific" research in scholarship, a current, ongoing debate in
the academy.
Procedure

Data collection[edit]
Qualitative researchers face many choices for techniques to generate data ranging
from grounded theory[17] development and practice, narratology, storytelling, transcript
poetry, biographical narrative interviews, classical ethnography, state or governmental
studies, research and service demonstrations, focus groups, case studies, participant
observation, qualitative review of statistics in order to predict future happenings,
or shadowing, surveys (including telephone surveys and consumer satisfaction
surveys), among many others. Qualitative methods are used in various methodological
approaches, such as action research which has sociological basis, or actor-network
theory.
The interview (structured, semi-structured or unstructured) is a common source of data
on the qualities/categories of interest. Interviewees are often identified through
sophisticated and sometimes, elitist, snowballing techniques. In fields that study
households, a much debated topic is whether interviews should be conducted
individually or collectively (e.g. as couple interviews).
Another method of qualitative data collection is the use of focus groups. The focus
group technique (e.g., Morgan, 1988) involves a moderator facilitating a small group
discussion between selected individuals on a particular topic, with video and written
data recorded, and is useful in a coordinated research approach studying phenomenon
in diverse ways in different environments with distinct stakeholders often excluded from
traditional processes. This method is a particularly popular in market research and
testing new initiatives with users/workers.
Other sources include focus groups, observation (without a predefined theory
like statistical theory in mind for example), reflective field notes, texts, pictures,
photographs and other images, interactions and practice captured on audio or video
recordings, public (e.g. official) personal documents, historical items, and websites and
social media.[18][19][20][13]
In participant observation[21] researchers typically become members of a culture, group,
or setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for the
researcher to gain a closer insight into the culture's practices, motivations, and
emotions. It is argued that the researchers' ability to understand the experiences of the
culture may be inhibited if they observe without participating. [citation needed] Participant
observation is a strategy of reflexive learning, not a single method of observing. [22] and
has been described as a continuum between participation and observation. The ways of
participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting as exemplified by
Helen Schwartzman's primer on Ethnography in Organizations (1993). [23] or Anne
Copeland and Kathleen White's "Studying Families" (1991). [24]

Coding[edit]
Main article: Coding (social sciences)
In general, coding refers to the act of associating meaningful ideas with the data of
interest. In the context of qualitative research, interpretative aspects of the coding
process are often explicitly recognized, articulated, and celebrated; producing specific
words or short phrases believed to be useful abstractions over the data.
As an act of sense making, most coding requires the qualitative analyst to read the data
and demarcate segments within it, which may be done at multiple and different times
throughout the data analysis process.[25] Each segment is labeled with a 'code' – usually
a word or short phrase suggesting how the associated data segments inform the
research objectives. In contrast with more quantitative forms of coding, mathematical
ideas and forms are usually under-developed in a 'pure' qualitative data analysis. When
coding is complete, the analyst may prepare reports via a mix of: summarizing the
prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across
distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more
codes.
Some qualitative data that is highly structured (e.g., open-ended responses from
surveys or tightly defined interview questions) is typically coded with minimal additional
segmentation of the data. Quantitative analysis based on codes from statistical theory is
typically the capstone analytical step for this type of qualitative data. A common form of
coding is open-ended coding, while other more structured techniques such as axial
coding or integration have also been described and articulated (Strauss & Corbin,
1990).[26] Because qualitative analyses are often more inductive than the hypothesis
testing nature of most quantitative research, the existing 'theoretical sensitivity' (i.e.,
familiarity with established theories in the field) of the analyst becomes a more pressing
concern in producing an acceptable analysis.

Data analysis[edit]
The data that is obtained is streamlined (texts of thousands of pages in length) to a
definite theme or pattern, or representation of a theory or systemic issue or approach.
This step in a theoretical analysis or data analytic technique is further worked on (e.g.,
gender analysis may be conducted; comparative policy analysis may be developed). An
alternative research hypothesis is generated which finally provides the basis of the
research statement for continuing work in the fields.
To analyze qualitative data, the researcher seeks meaning from all of the data that is
available. The data may be categorized and sorted into patterns (i.e., pattern or
thematic analyses) as the primary basis for organizing and reporting the study findings
(e.g., activities in the home; interactions with government). [27] Qualitative researchers,
often associated with the education field, typically rely on the following methods for
gathering information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field
Notes, Reflexive Journals, Biographical Narrative Interviews, Structured Interview,
Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of documents and
materials.[28][29][30] The research then must be "written up" into a report, book chapter,
journal paper, thesis or dissertation, using descriptions, quotes from participants, charts
and tables to demonstrate the trustworthiness of the study findings.
Interpretive techniques[edit]
As a form of qualitative inquiry,[2] students of interpretive inquiry (interpretivists) often
disagree with the idea of theory-free observation or knowledge. Whilst this crucial
philosophical realization is also held by researchers in other fields, interpretivists are
often the most aggressive in taking this philosophical realization to its logical
conclusions. For example, an interpretivist researcher might believe in the existence of
an objective reality 'out there', but argue that the social and educational reality we act on
the basis of never allows a single human subject to directly access the reality 'out there'
in reality (this is a view shared by constructivist philosophies, see also subtle realism).
To researchers outside the qualitative research field, the most common analysis of
qualitative data is often perceived to be observer impression. That is, expert or
bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report
their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form.

Recursivity[edit]
In qualitative research, the idea of recursivity is expressed in terms of the nature of its
research procedures, which may be contrasted with experimental forms of research
design. From the experimental perspective, its major stages of research (data
collection, data analysis, discussion of the data in context of the literature, and drawing
conclusions) should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times) in a
research study. In qualitative research however, all of the four stages above may be
undertaken repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting
a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this
dynamicism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their
research focus or design midway through a research study, based on their 1st interim
data analysis, and then makes further unplanned changes again based on a 2nd interim
data analysis; this would be a terrible thing to do from the perspective of an (predefined)
experimental study of the same thing. Qualitative researchers would argue that their
recursivity in developing the relevant evidence and reasoning, enables the researcher to
be more open to unexpected results, more open to the potential of building new
constructs, and the possibility of integrating them with the explanations developed
continuously throughout a study.[31]
Recursive abstraction[edit]
As defined by Leshan 2012,[32][33] this is a method of qualitative data analysis where
qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding. A common method here is recursive
abstraction, where datasets are summarized; those summaries are therefore furthered
into summary and so on. The end result is a more compact summary that would have
been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation.
A frequent criticism of recursive abstraction is that the final conclusions are several
times removed from the underlying data. While it is true that poor initial summaries will
certainly yield an inaccurate final report, qualitative analysts can respond to this
criticism. They do so, like those using coding method, by documenting the reasoning
behind each summary step, citing examples from the data where statements were
included and where statements were excluded from the intermediate summary.

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)[edit]

Contemporary qualitative data analyses are often supported by computer programs
(termed computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software) used with or without the
detailed hand coding and labeling of the past decades. These programs do not supplant
the interpretive nature of coding, but rather are aimed at enhancing analysts' efficiency
at applying, retrieving, and storing the codes generated from reading the data. Many
programs enhance efficiency in editing and revision of codes, which allow for more
effective work sharing, peer review, recursive examination of data, and analysis of large
datasets.
Common qualitative data analysis software includes:
A frequent criticism of quantitative coding approaches is against the transformation of
qualitative data into predefined (nomothetic) data structures, underpinned by 'objective
properties'; the variety, richness, and individual characteristics of the qualitative data is
argued to be largely omitted from such data coding processes, rendering the original
collection of qualitative data somewhat pointless.
To defend against the criticism of too much subjective variability in the categories and
relationships identified from data, qualitative analysts respond by thoroughly articulating
their definitions of codes and linking those codes soundly to the underlying data,
thereby preserving some of the richness that might be absent from a mere list of codes,
whilst satisfying the need for repeatable procedure held by experimentally oriented
researchers.
Coding and "thinking"[edit]
Some data analysis techniques rely on using computers to scan and reduce large sets
of qualitative data. At their most basic level, numerical coding relies on counting words,
phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data; other similar techniques are the
analyses of phrases and exchanges in conversational analyses. Often referred to
as content analysis, a basic structural building block to conceptual analysis, the
technique utilizes mixed methodology to unpack both small and large corpuses. Content
analysis is frequently used in sociology to explore relationships, such as the change in
perceptions of race over time (Morning 2008), or the lifestyles of temporal contractors
(Evans, et al. 2004).[34][35] Content analysis techniques thus help to provide broader
output for a larger, more accurate conceptual analysis.
Mechanical techniques are particularly well-suited for a few scenarios. One such
scenario is for datasets that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or
where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative to the value of information they
contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which it
contains "red flags" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a
lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or "green flags" (e.g., searching
for mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products). Many
researchers would consider these procedures on their data sets to be misuse of their
data collection and purposes.
A frequent criticism of mechanical techniques is the absence of a human interpreter;
computer analysis is relatively new having arrived in the late 1980s to the university
sectors. And while masters of these methods are able to write sophisticated software to
mimic some human decisions, the bulk of the "analysis" is still nonhuman. Analysts
respond by proving the value of their methods relative to either a) hiring and training a
human team to analyze the data or b) by letting the data go untouched, leaving any
actionable nuggets undiscovered; almost all coding schemes indicate probably studies
for further research.
Data sets and their analyses must also be written up, reviewed by other researchers,
circulated for comments, and finalized for public review. Numerical coding must be
available in the published articles, if the methodology and findings are to be compared
across research studies in traditional literature review and recommendation formats.

Examples
There are several different research approaches, or research designs, that qualitative
researchers use.[36][37] In the academic social sciences, the most frequently used
qualitative research approaches include the following points:

1. Basic/generic/pragmatic qualitative research, which involves using an eclectic

approach taken up to best match the research question at hand. This is often
called the mixed-method approach.
2. Ethnographic research. An example of applied ethnographic research is the
study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular
disease in their cultural framework.
3. Grounded theory is an inductive type of research, based or "grounded" in the
observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data
sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation
and surveys.[38]
4. Phenomenology describes the "subjective reality" of an event, as perceived by
the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon. [39]
5. Biographical research is aligned to the social interpretive paradigm of research
and is concerned with the reconstruction of life histories and the constitution of
meaning based on biographical narratives and documents. The starting point for
this approach is the understanding of an individual biography in terms of its
 social constitution, as influenced by symbolic interactionism, phenomenological
sociology of knowledge (Alfred Schütz, Peter L. Berger, and Thomas
Luckmann), and ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel).
6. Philosophical research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a
specific field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of
study to use an intellectual analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics,
or make a value judgment concerning an issue in their field of study their lives.
7. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people
communicate and develop symbolic meanings.
8. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study
of ethics as related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.
9. Social science and Governmental Research to understand social services,
government operations, and recommendations (or not) regarding future
developments and programs, including whether or not government should be
involved.
10. Activist research which aims to raise the views of the underprivileged or
"underdogs" to prominence to the elite or master classes, the latter who often
control the public view or positions.
11. Foundational research, examines the foundations for a science, analyzes the
beliefs, and develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in
light of new information.
12. Historical research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context
of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers
to current issues and problems. Historical research helps us in answering
questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now
and where are we going?
13. Visual ethnography. It uses visual methods of data collection, including photo,
voice, photo elicitation, collaging, drawing, and mapping. These techniques have
been used extensively as a participatory qualitative technique and to make the
familiar strange.[40][41]
14. Autoethnography, the study of self, is a method of qualitative research in which
the researcher uses their personal experience to address an issue.
15. Cognitive testing, or pilot testing, is used in the development of quantitative
survey items. Survey items are piloted on study participants to test the reliability
and validity of the items. This approach is similar to psychological testing using
an intelligence test like the WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Survey) in which
the interviewer records "qualitative" (i.e., clinical observations) throughout the
testing process. Qualitative research is often useful in a sociological lens.
Qualitative research can shed light on the intricacies in the functionality of
society and human interaction.
16. Arts-based research is an approach to qualitative study that uses art as data or
for reporting.[42][18] The approach recognizes that artful text (such as a poem or
play script), performance art (such as a dance performance or instrumental
music concert) and visual art (such as painting or sculpture) can be analyzed
and interpreted to contribute to a researcher's understanding of emerging
themes.[43][18] Art-based research includes participant-produced art either as
visual data[44][43] or for elicitation purposes,[43] and researcher-produced art as a
means for reporting.[45][44]