6s CHEMISTRY The study of m: that accompany the cts, broBeFties, changes in composition, and energy transformations Us to identify, danse anaes, Chemistry encompasses everything around us end allows large-scale ssternti"Y: Predict and even prove phenomena from the molecular level to I. BASIC CONCEPTS A. Matter * anything and everything that has mass and occupies space 1, Physical Properties- qualities that characterize different types of matter a. Intensive Properties Do not depend on the amount of a substance. color, taste, odor, density, hardness, boiling point, freezing point b. Extensive Properties * Varies for different amount of a substance * mass, volume, length, width, thickness, area, height 2. Physical States of Matter and the Kinetic Molecular Theory There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas Since the particles of matter are very tiny to be observed, there is a need to develop a scientific model. + The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) provides a model of moving Particles in order to explain some properties of matter. It is based on the following assumptions: a. Molecules of gases move very fast in a series of straight-line paths. b. The distance between molecules is great that is why the volume occupied by molecules is negligible compared to the container's volume. c. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the Kelvin scale or absolute temperature. d. The forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules are negligible. e. The collision of molecules is perfectly elastic. That is, energy is conserved. + Based on the model, the particles in solid, liquid and gas can be represented as follows: liquid solid c ct e kine Tower average ) high average kinetic energy lower average kinetic 0 much rf ‘ energy of particles Kinetic energy of particles © mostly empty space > negligible molecular © particles are closer © particles move closer ther together rigid structure 1 V.EA, Learning, Ine. VisionsexceltencesAchievement 308 Katipunan Avenue, Quevan Cty © 433-3600 « 0919-5260581 EEEre oo-_! 66 3. Changes in matter eihvoives 3 change in size, frm, and state or phase of matter ‘Gmple:nsting of ron, gestion of f00d, fermentation of alcohol b. Phase changes * spontaneously occur, at constant temperature, as a result of absorption or release of heat + A simple temperature-energy curve illustrates the steps as solid ice melts to liquid, then to vapor, as a result of absorption of heat energy, ‘Temperature Curve Phase Changes Melting: solid to liquid Freezing: liquid to solid Voporization: liquid to gas Condensation: gas to liquid Sublimation: solid to gas Deposition: gas te solid 4. Classification of Matter How do we distinguish a solution from a pure substance, say a pure gold nugget from an alloy of gold and silver? * A pure substance has sharp boiling and melting points. ‘+ When heated, a pure substance may undergo change in state or color but returns to its original form when the initial conditions are restored. +A solution, being a homogenous mixture, may be separated by evaporation or distillation, How do we distinguish a compound like water from an element? ‘+ They are both homogeneous substances but only a compound like water ‘can be separated into its component elements by electrolysis or using electric current, How do we distinguish a mixture from a compound? + Amixture can be simply separated by physical means. +A mixture can vary in composition while a compound has a constart composition, rent * A mixture retains its original properties while a compound has differe” Properties from the elements it is composed of. Example: mixture of salt and water vs. water (compound) V.E.A. Learning, Ine. VisionsE xcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City « 433-3600 » 0919-5260581‘7 MATTER HETEROGENEOUS MATERIALS HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS Conpundof@ or nore abstnces Compased of substances that have ery different similar or identical parts: only one properties fie (a arevel & sand) (ea. allovs) SOLUTIONS PURE SUBSTANCES ‘Ahomogeneous mitre of two or Composed of only one rmore substances kind of substance (9, brine, alcohol, sugar & water) y ‘COLLOIDS Bridges the gop between a solution and a heterogeneous system where particles ¥ remain suspended and do not settle COMPOUND ELEMENT when left to stand Two or more different elements ‘Any substance with only (9, marshmallow, milk, foam, pant, etc) | | chemically combined in definite one kind of atom proportion (€9.€.H,0.N, K, Bo, Cu) (eg. H20, NaCl, CsHiz0s) Table 1. Types of Colloids ispersed Dispersion parti Medium ore Examples Gas Liquid Foam Beaten egg whites Gas solid Solid foam Marshmallow, rubber, foam Liquid Gas Liquid aerosol Foa, aerosol sprays Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, mayonnaise, butter Liquid Solid Gel Hair gel Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke, dust Solid Liquid Sol or suspension | Paint, hot chocolate Solid Solid Solid sol Colored glass How do we distinguish a solution from a colloid? Only colloids exhibit the following phenomena. + Tyndall effect: the scattering of visible light in all directions by colloidal particles = Brownian movement: the rapid, random, zigzag motion of dispersed particles through a dispersion medium; First observed by Robert Brown in 1827 V.E.A. Learning, inc. VisionsexcellencerAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City + 433-3600 + 0919-5260581OT os ‘es positive. The repulsion of the charges lum.) + Adsorpt its surface; (When Positive and the whole system becom keeps the particles dispersed throughout the medi 5. Methods of Separating Components of Mixtures ‘A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances and can therefore be separated into its component pure substances. Only a heterogeneous mixture composed of liquids and solids can be separated by the following methods: ‘a. decantation-settle heavy solids and gently pour out liquid b._filtration-separate fine solids from liquid using filter paper ©. mechanical separation- use forceps, sieves, or magnets to separate 4. fiotation-allow solids of suspension to settle; less dense material poured off ‘A homogeneous mixture can be separated using centrifugation, distillation, crystallization and chromatography. e. centrifugation-rotation speeds up settling of precipitates f. distillation-evaporate and condense volatile liquids based on difference in boiling pt; more volatile, lower boiling pt g. crystallization-lower temperature to enhance crystallization of more insoluble part h. chromatography-substances have different degree of adsorption on inert surface i. evaporation-heating of a solution to dryness (salt from water) PZ] Exercises: Ee © Apiece of Zinc metel was placed in a test tube with unknown aqueous solution 8 that turns blue litmus paper to red. The formation of bubbles was observed. An analysis of 8 was positive fer ‘S04 ions, The reaction can be represented as follows: Znls) + Aloq) > Boq) + cla) (Choose the appropriate word/s that describe A(aq), B(aq) and C(q) from the following list. Heterageneous Homogeneous ionic compound Pure substance Element molecular compound ‘Answers: A(oq): HeSOx , Homogeneous, ionic compound (09): ZnSOx , Homogeneous, ionic compound (g): He . Homogeneous, pure substance, element B. The Atom 1, Atomic Theory: The modern concept of the atom is a re: sult of a long process of scientific investigation by men of science from Democritus to Schroedinger, 2. Democritus: Matter can be broken down into its smallest particles or “atomos". b. John Dalton: An atom is an indestructible sphere with mass, * "= ©. 33 Thomson: Atom is a raisin bread of posit afta vita 4. E. Rutherford: Alpha scattering experiment led him to V.E.A. Learning, Inc. VisionsExcellencesAchievement 308 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City « 433-3600 « 0919-5260881 peeetememmmPlanck: re OF hight eomagnetic energy is quantized. A given frequency of Max radiation or light emit quantum. 12" &™#tS energy in multiples of a certain unit of energy called Ne Nails Bo ate 2Pplied the quantum theory to predict that 'Y charged electrons orbit the nucleus at specific fixed radii, like planets orbiting the sun. Bohr" Model Werner Heisenberg: The exact position and momentum of an electron at a Pecific instant cannot be known. But the probability of finding an electron in a region of space called an electron orbital can be determined. pois de Broglie: Matter has wave characteristics. He concluded that the vehavior of electrons can be better described in terms of waves than of particles. Schroedinger : The Modern Atomic Theory gives a quantum mechanical model Of an atom. Through mathematical equations it is able to describe the location and energy of an electron in a Hydrogen atom. 2. Parts of the atom a b. c. 4. Proton : positively charged particle Note: according to mass Electron : negatively charged particle N>P>E Neutron : neutral particle Nucleus : a tiny positively charged central core in an atom Atomic number vs. Atomic weight Ex Atomic number: number of protons: also equal to number of electrons in a neutral atom Atomic weight: number of protons + number of neutrons (Note: The weight of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.) 5 Phosphorus, ;P: atomic weight = 31; atomic number Isotopes: elements with the same atomic number but different atomic weight; they differ in the number of neutrons Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-13 Ions 7 VY Anions ~ negatively charged atoms due to addition of electrons Y Cations - positively charged atoms due to loss of electrons > number of protons remain the same amples: Calcium ion, Ca?* : Ca atom that gave up 2 electrons "Atomic number of Ca : 20, also equal to # of protons = # of electrons Number of electrons in Ca**: 20 - 2 = 18 electrons; 20 protons Chlorine ion, CI’: Cl atom that gained 1 electron ‘Atomic number of Cl : 17 Number of electrons in Cl’ : 17 + 1 = 18 electrons; 17 protons 4. Electronic Configuration eled in In specific ‘This describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom based on speci tron energy levels of each electron in the form of numbers called quantum numbers. VA, tearin Visionstscetenc 20S eaponan Aven Inc. ‘Achievement wae, Quezon City # 433-3600 © 0919-5260581RS 10 Quantum Numbers: Each electron has @ unique set of four quantum numbers, a. Shell (1): principal quantum number; determines the distance from the nucleus and the energy of that electron (the greater the distance, the greater the energy); the maximum number of electrons in any energy level is 2m b, Subshell (1): azimuthal quantum number; describes the {0 [5 [spherical shape of the electron orbital 2 fp erineipal 3s_if in c. Orbital (m,): magnetic QN; describes the orientation of the orbital in space, meaning if an electron lies mostly on the x,y, or z axis, Number of orbitals in a shell = n* Number of orbitals in a subshell = 21+ 1 Example: subshell S (1=0) has one orientation of 3 dimensional grid subshell P (I=1) has 3 orientations > my= -1, 0, +4 that corresponds to P., Py, and pz orbitals subshell d (I=2) has 5 orientations > mj= ~2,~1, 0, +1, +2 that corresponds to day, Gye, Grey Ge", and dCa?y! Therefore, an ¢ sublevel has 1 orbital; a p sublevel has 3; a d sublevel has 5 orbitals; and an f sublevel has 7 orbitals. 4. Spin (m,): two electrons in any given orbital must have opposite spins (+ % or =); also related to Pauli’s Exclusion Principle Table 2. The Quantum Numbers [ Principal Quantum | Angular momentum | Subshell_|Manetic Quantum| No. of | ‘Number, n | Quantum Number, | |Designation| Number, m, | Electrons Values: 1, 2,3... | Values: 0..t0..n-L Values: -I.to...1 | (2n°) = no. of Subshells | ri a is [0 | 0 2s (0 (eens 1 2p 4,0, +4 ema) 0 30 | | 3 1 3p 1,0, +1 1s | {_ 2 3d__ +2, -1, 0, +1, +2 The Electronic Configuration 33s” ds” 5s” 6s 3p AB BP OP FB 3d 4d Bd bd 4f Bf 4. Governing principles in Modern Atomic Theory a. Aufbau principle: electrons will successively occupy the available orbitals in order of increasing energy 1s? 2s? 2p® 35? 3p® 4s? 3d"? ap? 5s b. Hund's rule of multiplicity: electrons will spread out over the available orbitals with their spins in the same direction before they pair up with opposite spins - Carbon atom: 18? 26? ap? [1] [1] 1] is 2s pe py BpR Lowest energy level: 157 V.E.A, Learning, Inc. fisioneExcellencesAchievement Jos Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City « 433-3600 « 0919-26058n c. Pauli's exclusion pr \ciple: " Picple: no two electrons inthe some atom can have the same quantum numbers. ecto ‘nese Exercise: ‘Assign quantum numbers to each of the 6 electrons in the Carbon atom. Carton atom: 6 electrons, 1s%2st2pt : [& eection ] =o Tecicn configaton [tend 2 me 7 2 = 7 Ist | saws [fe fe = —_ = i 7 2p 6. The Periodic Table The modern periodic table is adapted from Mendeleev's law of periodicity: When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights, their properties follow a pattern. He further showed that whether they are arranged vertically in increasing atomic weight or horizontally, the group of elements exhibit ‘similar chemical properties. Two more changes in the periodic table followed when in 1890 Sir William Ramsey iscovered the noble gases and Moseley’s x-ray experiments in 1913 showed that physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. The modern periodic table is shown to have elements listed in increasing atomic number. PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Fe na [Goa "Une ta ce [er (ona [pm | sm eu jes "re “oy He |e tm ve tw a bu [am ;"cm ek “ot es V.EA. Learning, inc. Vislonséxcettencesachievement 309 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City «433-3600 « 0919-5260581n a. Features of the Periodic Table 4 Major Classifications: 1. Inert or noble gases: Group 8; stable, non-reactive because it has g valence electrons or the number of electrons in the atom’s outermost energy level 2. Representative elements: Group A elements; group number = number of valence electrons; follow the octet rule to become stable; electrons are added in the s and p orbitals; such is the reason why there are marked similarities in properties within a group The 8 Families/Groups 1A Alkali metals VA Nitrogen family IIA Alkaline earth metals VIA Oxygen family IIA Boron family VIIA Halogen family IVA Carbon family VIIA Noble gases/Inert gases 3. Transition elements: Group B elements; between the alkali and alkaline earth metals (left) and the non-metals (right): do not follow octet rule; the number of electrons in the outermost energy level is either 1e or 2e only; electrons added to the inner d-orbitals only/ s-orbitals filled up; therefore similarities of properties not evident within a group. Fezg: 1s? 2s? 2p® 3s? 3p° 4s? 3d° 4. Inner-transition elements: electrons are added to the f-or lanthanide and actinide series Las, ...3d'° 4p® 5s? 4d'° 5Sp° 6s? af b. Periodic Trends When evaluating periodic trends of some elements and properties related to the periodic properties, remember that 1) Electrons have electrostatic attraction to protons in the nucleus; 2) the closer the electron is to the nucleus, the stronger the attraction; 3) Electrons between the valence electrons and the nucleus have a shielding effect on the valence electrons. Period (horizontal) increasing: electron affinity electronegativity non-metallic character ionization energy Note: Real gases behave ideally only at high temperatures and at low pressures increasing: Group atomic radius (vertical) | metallic character Period (horizontal) Atomic radius: approximate distance between the valence electron and nucleus; cations are smaller than the neutral atom; anion is bigger; why? Toniza! atom (1s nN energy: energy to remove an electron from a gaseous neutral ionization energy is the energy required to remove the first electron. V.E.A. Learning, Inc. : VisionsExcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City * 433-3600 + 0919-5260881a Electr ity: Sten ts pattinity: measure of change in energy when electron is added to an which the atom ig son affinity means energy is needed to gain an electron electron affinty (ent likely to do; therefore since metals have low positive “tron affinity they just lose the electron than gain it) Electronegativity: ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond (metals have low electronegativity EECTE Seco )i Fis the most electronegative element. 1. CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES ‘A. Laws of Chemical Combination 1, Law of Conservation of Mass 3 Matter is neither created nor destroyed during an ordinary chemical reaction. * The number of atoms of products is always equal to the number of atoms of reactants, A +B>C The mass of C produced is equal to the total mass of reactants A and B 2. Law of Definite Composition + Masses of elements in a chemical compound are always in the same proportion. A water molecule, H,0, will always have 88.9% O and 11.1% H by mass 3. Law of Multiple Proportions * When two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with a constant mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers | Oxyaen | t of 0 | ratios | [29 }169] 16:32 | 2a [32g] ot: 2 B. Chemical Bonding ‘© attractive forces that bind atoms or ions together in liquids or solids. * Types of forces a. Tonic bond: electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions, The higher the charges, the stronger the ionic bond. Ionic compounds usually dissolve in water and can conduct electricity. Na--CE — : Bond between Na‘ and CI to form NaCl Gi-Mg-Cl: + Bond between Mg? and two CI ions to form MgCl, b. Covalent bond: a bond shared by atoms of the same kind such as carbon atoms in diamonds or by two or more atoms in a compound such as SiO, Covalent solids are very hard and have very high melting and boiling points. c. Metallic bond: nuclei-electron attraction in metals characterized by free- moving electrons throughout the metallic substance. Delocalized electrons make metallic substances good conductor of heat and electricity, d. Van der Waals: very weak attractive forces Dipole-dipole: bond between neutral, polar molecules where the positive end of one polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule, These are usually substances which are gases or liquids at room molecules that occur randomly on atoms within molecules. A molecule acts as a very weak dipole when there is a concentration of electrons on one ‘ lightly polar. fivaragen bond: attraction between the postvely-charged hyérogen end of a molecule and the negative end of another molecule with a high electronegative element such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. This is V-EA, tearing, ne. sloneExcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Averue, Quozon city * 423-3600 + 0919-52605819 ” stronger than dipole-dipole force and therefore substances with hydrogen bonds have higher melting and boiling point. Relative Strengths: covalent > ionic > metallic > H-bonds > dispersion forces > It is easier to break bonds between molecules than to break bonds within a molecule. C._ Types of Reactions 1. General Classification a. Combination or Synthesis Reaction: A+B > AB Examples: 2g = + =), > —«2MgO. Be magnesium oxygen magnesium (metal) oxide Mg al Fe + S33 FS Ba iron sulfur iron(II) sulfide zn HO + 50, > H,S0, ca water sulfur sulfuric acid Ni trioxide for halogens Fe b. Decomposition Reaction: AB -» A+B, heat applied a Examples: 2H:0 9 2H) + On) h water hydrogen gas oxygen gas Lis the strongest reducing agent it CuCO, > CuO + CO iseosily oxiized Single Replacement Reaction: A+ BC + AC+B (The activity series maybe used to determine if an otom can replace another atom in @ compound or if the reaction will take place spontaneously such os the reaction below. Fe is obove Cu in the activity series.) Example: Fe + CuSO, 3 — Feso, + Cus) cu + He > No reaction, Cu cannot be oxidized 4. Double Replacement Reactions: AB+CD + AD +BC Example; NaCl + AgNO; > NaNO, + —Agci(s) 2. Endothermic vs, Exothermic Endothermic reaction: a chemical change which absorbs heat energy; Heat is considered a reactant ; Fxothermic reaction: a chemical reaction that liberates heat for it to proceed; Heat is considered a product Redox reactions Oxidation : a chemical reaction whi ich involves the toss of electr from an (anode) atom; e always on the Srecron(s) fr le product side CoC eae TH Ss Ht te chemical reaction wh atom; © always on th Reduction + rch invok (cathode) ant side” 'e addition of electron(s) to an he reactant side Ch? + 2e + 2c1 V.EA. Learning, Inc. VisionsexcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon Cy» 433-2600 « 0919-5260sa1an cu + 0? 4+ " 5 (oa) (ty? + 07 + Cu cu gains electrons: OA oxidting Agent Rect e agent He loses electrons: RA Balancing Redox Reactions: i) Write 2 haf reactions: 1 for oxdat for oxidation and 1 for reducti ii.) Balance all atoms aside from H and O. or reduction i) Balance # and O- a. Acidic Medium: Excess + 2H* > + ‘H2,0 excess HH D. Basic Medium: Excess O +H > + 20H" Excess HOR > + HO iv.) Balance electrons, then ada the two half reactions ane simplify 4. Neutralization Reaction (Involves acids and bases) Acid + Base > water + salt pH: Determines the acidity or basicity of a substance pH = 7 neutral Litmus test: Blue to red, Acid;Red to blue, Base pH > 7 basic DH <7 acidic D. Gases and Gas Laws Even though gases may have different properties, they have similar behaviors that follow the gas laws. eed M = rate of diffusion (iF, JM, MW= molecular weight 1. Graham's Law of Diffusion v Diffusion: the process of spreading out spontaneously to uniformly occupy a space (Tis constant) 2. Boyle's Law PV =k Pressure is caused by the collision of molecules with the container. When volume Is increased, the probability for molecules to colide with the container decreases, which causes the pressure to decrease. 3. Charles's Law vig (P is constant) T When the temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of molecules increases along with intenewve molecular motion. Ifthe container is elastic, the volume increases just as in a balloon. 4. Gay-Lussac's Law =i (V is constant) recsure fs neeased, it means that there i greater molecular motion and When therefors lignor kinetic energy. because Tis Proportional to KE, Tals increases. 5. Ce d Gas Law PM, BY: . Combined Gas Law, aan? Pra Py + Prt Pa + pressures of the gases involved 6. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: ‘The total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial PV =nRT where P = pressure, atm volume, L # of moles, moles ideal gas constant 0.0821 L-atm/mol-k T = temperature, K 7. Ideal Gas Law Note: Real gases behave ideally only at high temperatures and at low pressures (neglects attractive/repulsive forces. V.EA, Learning, Inc. "sionsExcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan ‘Avenue, Quezon City + 433-3600 * 0919-52605811% oneentration of Solutions of a quantty of matter that contains 2 number dro number of 6.023 x 10: 2. Mole and c 3. Mole (n): 3 unit of measure nif particles equal to the Avogat 1 mole of an element equals the atomic mass unit of that element (1mole hydrogen = 1.008 gm hydrogen) one mole af any gas at STP accupies a volume of 22.4 liters (volume of hydrogen gas at STP = 22.4 1) b, Mole fraction (3) unt of desired eomponent (in moles! total amount of all solution components (in moles) c. Molarity (M) nount of sollte (in moles) volume of solution (in liters) d, Molality (m) weer, & Normality (N) esof-saluta , 90. of equivalents = 9 / equivalent weight volume of solution (in L) eq. wt. = molecular weight/ C_ for_acid: C = no. of replaceable H1 for_base: C=no. of replaceable OH for salt: C = no. of + charge: ; (as ‘= If 50.0 g of KClis dissolved in 0.0 ml of a solvent with a density of 1.21 g/mL, what she ‘molality of the resuiting solution? Given: moss solute = 50.0.9 les solute, molecular weight solute = 74.55 g/mole kg solvent Woume of saven! = $00 mL m=S00g/74s8gimoe x 1000989 Denay of sovont = 2 gmt Soomixt aryl finds =m “If 62.09 of HClis mixed with water to make 1 L of solution, what is the normality of the Solution? Equivalent weight of HCl: 36.45 g/ 1 eq. = 36.45 g/eq, Given; moss soule= 6209 Selvion: N= Ea.soute molec Weight s0U18 = 36.45 gimole one volume solution = 1.00 Find N= 62.0 gHCY 36.45 g/eq. = 170N V.E.A. Learning, inc. VisionsExcellence-Achievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City + 433-3600 « 0919-5260581» Ditutfon: used in the preparation of laboratory reagents BN nes SO1Ute anne (retain same number of motes) /aver where M = molarity and V = volume f Limi Jc Peretigg Readent : the reagent that is completely used up in a chemical lus limits the amount of product that can be formed 9. Percentage Yield = __actusl yield x 100 theoretical yiel Exercises: | HO + SOs > HS00 1880190150 wen odo 0 of wate wo! anc of xin gore wos 9e expected fo form? Indicate the limiting reagent, What is the percentage yield if only 49.80 g of HsSO4 was formed? pen ° " Solution: > gH)SO1 from 800.0 g SOs 510. $0, {Ua 2,( ie 12) “Bo teu! mol tet SO, html 1,50, Es > @H:SO« from 100 mL water [use density of water to solve mass for Given volume) “oom righ LLY Imol 1.0. Ybnat 1 $0, ¥ 8.8 180, Secouse the omount of H:SOformed fom the given arneunt of water floss than thot ‘om SOs, hen the liming reagent is water. yield = 49.80 g/54.484 g x 100= 91.40 % yield C. Colligative Properties + Boiling point elevation: addition of solute increases the boiling pt. of a solution + Freezing point depression: addition of solute further decreases (lower) the freezing point of the solution Vapor pressure lowering: addition of solute results in an aqueous solution with a lower vapor pressure than the pure solvent D. Nuclear Chemistry and Radioactivity Some nuclei, held together only by non-electrical, non-gravitational force, are unstable. To attain stability, they undergo radioactive decay,a process of altering the number of neutrons and protons through emission of a particle such as alpha, beta, or positron; electron capture; or gamma ray radiation. .dioactive substance is the time it takes for one-half of the substance to decay. For example, C-14, an isotope of Carbon used to determine the age of an organic substance, has a half-life of 5 730 years. Hence, after 5 730 years, only 0.5 grams will remain from 1.0 gm of C-14. The half-life of a rai Table 3. Properties of radiating particles Mass] Penetrating | Tonizing Symbot | Nature | charge | (amu) | Power eal a phe | helumion [42 4 1 10,000 Bae or ue | electron a 1/1840 100 100 adiant o 10,000 7 ener V.E.A. Learning \g. Inc. VisioneExcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City + 433-3600 + 0919-5260581— wo Examples of Nuctear Reactions: Nuclear Fusion ~ occurs when two nuclei combine to produce a nucleus of heavier mass ae a tHe + energy tion ~ consists of hetium nuclei that have been emitted from @ radioactive Alpha Rack aU > getHHe + tHe rodoactive ain partie ‘deca! Rota Radiation ~ consists of fast-moving electrons formed by the decomposition of a neutron of an atom ee 5 MHe + ate Corbon-14 —Nitrogen-14_—_—Beta particle (radioactive) ‘tab Gamma Radiation ~ is electromagnetic radiation oth > sha + He + 7 Thonum-230—-Redon2 Aipha particle Gamma Particle Positron emission ~ occurs when an atom looses @ proton wk > ¥ + ir III. Organic Chemistry Organic chemistry: @ branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon compounds (carbon in combination with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements). Carbon is a unique and versatile element because it exhibits a property called catenation that enables chain formation which is important in making large molecules like polymers. Carbon compounds are so diverse that they compose more than 90% of known compounds. Note: Some carbon-contai (BaCOs) and cyanides (NaCN). ng compounds are inorganic like carbonates Isomers: compounds having identical molecular formulas but different structural formulas and properties. Example: Ethanol and dimethly ether with molecular formula C.HsO have different structural formula, Ethanol —dimethy! ether CHCHZOH ~— CHs-O-CHy, Hydrocarbons : organic compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen only which are primarily sourced from petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Complete combustion with excess 0, produces carbon dioxide, water and heat/energy. (Note: simplest form of hydrocarbon is methane - CH,) Kinds of Hydrocarbon: 1. aliphatic: straight or branched open chain of carbon atoms (CUh-CH-CH, isobutane (branched) CHy-CHy-CH-CH, butane (straight chain) | (CH V.E.A. Learning, Inc. VisionsexcellencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City « 433-3600 + 0919-526058181 (saturated) al {caurated) | alkane with single bonds between C atoms (unstated) alkene with double Bonds between C atoms alkyne with triple bonds between C atoms 2. cyclic lose closed chains of carbon atoms; cyclo + (alkane name) Hc—CH, cyclobutane Hic cH, 3. aromatic aromatic HC containing six-membered rings of € atoms, wn as benzene, which exhibits resonance Molecular and Structural Formula of Alkanes Alkanes | Molecular Structural Formula | Formula, | CoHanea Methane | CH, Ethane | GH, ~ Feutane [Hho [chs = Cl, = CH, = CH —_ | Pentane | GHz [-CH = City = CH= CH= Cs —| Hexane | Celia CH, = CH, = CH, = CH - CH= CH Heptane | Gilg | CH,= CH, = CH) ~ CH - Cy - CH= CH Octane | Cie CH, CHy = CH, = CH, ~ CH, ~ CH, - CH = CH Nonane_ fee Cli, Cis CH, - CH, - CH, = CH, ~ CH, ~ CH, - CHa Decane | CioHa CH, - CH ~ CH, - CH, = CHa - CH - CHp ~ CHz = CHz = CHa | (Example: ethene has molecular formula CHa) Alkenes will have molecular formula CyHan ;cetylene has m.f. C2H2) ‘Alkynes will have molecular formula CqHan-2 (Example: ethyne or a Biological Macromolecules Large molecules or polymers that constitute all living matter. They are made up of basic units called monomers 1. Carbohydrates ~ CaH2nOn Cae evaee a form of energy source (starch in plants and glycogen in animals), and stractureysupport(. cellulose in plants and chitin in vertebrates). Can be classified as saoncerechordies, disaccharides, polysaccharides based on number of sugar molecules 2. Proteins - made up of C, H, O, Ny S ‘Amino acids (20 types) as basic units; functions in structural support, eneray transfer, ete. steroids (cholesterol), and phospholipids 3. Lipids - made up of C, H, O ile unsaturated fats are liquids. Includes fats (saturated and unsaturated fats), (membranes). Saturated fats are solids at room temp, wi Functions as a form of energy source and insulation Phosphate tule, phosphate group de up of a sugar molec 4, Nucleic Acids - made up of C, H, Oy Ny (only in DNA), uracil (only in RNA), Nucleotides as basic unit; nucleotides are ma and a nitrogenous base like adenine, guanine, thymine cytosine) uble-stranded molecule DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): tong, dot RNA (Ribonucleic acid): short, single-stranded molecule V.EA, Learning, Inc. VisionsExcetlencesAchievement 305 Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City + 433-3600 + 09195260561