1.

Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots Rich Knight, Biodiversity &

Conservation Biology UWCknight.rich@gmail.com Note: Additional notes in text - all slides
with the green tick are examinable
2. Biomes (Terrestrial) Spatial units with "Ecological Similarity" with respect to
communities of • Plants, • Animals, • Soil Organisms. Defined based on • Plant structures
(such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), • Leaf types (such as broadleaf and needle leaf), •
Plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), • Climate (moisture and temperature).
3. Biome characteristics Not defined by • genetic, • taxonomic, or • historical
similarities Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of • Ecological succession
e.g. Savanna, • Climax vegetation e.g. Tropical Rainforest.
4. Biome Biodiversity Determined especially by fauna e.g. mammals Subdominant
plant forms depends on • Abiotic factors (soil, light etc) • Biomass productivity of the
dominant vegetation Species diversity tends to be higher in biomes with particular patterns
of • higher net primary productivity, • higher moisture availability • higher temperatures
5. Biome - distribution Major factor determining their distribution are • Latitude: arctic,
boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical • Humidity: humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid.
• seasonal variation: rainfall may be distributed evenly throughout the year, or possess
seasonal variations. • dry summer, wet winter: most regions of the earth receive most of
their rainfall during the summer months; Mediterranean climate regions receive their
rainfall during the winter months. • Elevation: increasing elevation causes a distribution of
habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude. Biodiversity increases towards the
equator and with increased humidity

7. Udvardy Classification (12) • Tropical humid forests • Subtropical and temperate

rainforests or woodlands • Temperate broad-leaf forests or woodlands and sub-polar
deciduous thickets • Temperate needle-leaf forests or woodlands • Evergreen
sclerophyllous forests, scrub, or woodlands • Tropical dry or deciduous forests (including
Monsoon forests) or woodlands • Temperate grasslands • Warm deserts and semi-deserts
• Cold-winter (continental) deserts and semi-deserts • Tundra communities and barren
Arctic deserts • Mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation • Mixed
island systems
8. WWF: major habitat types (14) • Tundra (arctic) • Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic,
humid) • Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semi-humid) • Temperate
broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid) • Temperate grasslands, savannas, and
shrublands (temperate, semi-arid) • Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub
(temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) • Tropical and subtropical
coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) • Tropical and subtropical moist
broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
9. WWF ... /continued • Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and
subtropical, semi-humid) • Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
(tropical and subtropical, semi-arid) • Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or
montane climate) • Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid) • Mangrove
(subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated) • Flooded grasslands and savannas
(temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated) Further divided into 825
terrestrial eco-regions. WWF identified 200 ecoregions for conservation prioritization.
10. Aquatic biomes • Continental shelf • Littoral/Intertidal zone • Riparian • Pond/Lake •
Coral reef • Kelp forest • Pack ice • Hydrothermal vents • Cold seeps • Benthic zone •
Pelagic zone • Epipelagic • Mesopelagic • Bathypelagic • Abyssopelagic • Hadopelagic •
Neritic zone
11. 34 Biodiversity Hotspots >70% habitat lost, >1 500 endemic vascular plant spp.
Investment criteria for Conservation International’s prioritization.
12. Defining Biodiversity Hotspots Coined by Norman Myers in two articles in “The
Environmentalist” (1988 & 1990) Revised by Myers “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest
and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions” (1999) • Thirty-four areas are identified and
support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species •
Half of the world’s plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are
endemic to hotspots • Covers only 2.3 percent of the Earth's land surface • Therefore
defined as "a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is
threatened with destruction"
13. Critique of Biodiv. Hotspots High profile of the biodiversity hotspots concept - World
Banks funding has resulted in considerable criticism • Inadequate representation of other
species richness (e.g. total species richness or threatened species richness). • Inadequate
representation of taxa other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates, or fungi). • No provision
to protect smaller scale richness • No provision for changing land use patterns. • Do not
consider ecosystem services • Do not consider phylogenetic diversity.
14. Global Conservation Do not address the concept of cost The purpose of biodiversity
hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritise
conservation spending. The regions identified include regions in the developed world (e.g.
the California Floristic Province), alongside regions in the developing world (e.g.
Madagascar). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of
magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspots do not consider the conservation
importance of this difference. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspots
15. North and Central America California Floristic Province Caribbean Islands Madrean
Pine-Oak Woodlands Mesoamerica 2 3 3 1 4 4
16. South America Atlantic Forest Cerrado Chilean Winter Rainfall- Valdivian Forests
Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Tropical Andes 2 5 5 5 3 3 3 1 1 4 4
17. Europe and Central Asia Caucasus Irano-Anatolian Mediterranean Basin Mountains
of Central Asia 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 4 4
18. Africa Cape Floristic Region Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Eastern Afromontane
Guinean Forests of West Africa Horn of Africa Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Succulent Karoo 2 2 7 5 2 8 7 6 3 3 3 3 1 4 4 4
19. Asia-Pacific 13 12 11 10 13 East Melanesian Islands Himalaya Indo-Burma Japan
Mountains of Southwest China New Caledonia New Zealand Philippines Polynesia-
Micronesia Southwest Australia Sundaland Wallacea Western Ghats and Sri Lanka 8 9 9
276593144
20. California Floristic Province • Mediterranean-type climate of North America • High
levels of plant endemism • the giant sequoia, the planet's largest living organism and less
massive relative, the coastal redwood. • Has a number of threatened endemic species
such as the giant kangaroo rat and the desert slender salamander • Some of the last
individuals of the Critically Endangered California condor • Wilderness destruction caused
by commercial farming • Heavily threatened by the expansion of urban areas, pollution,
and road construction.
21. California Floristic Province Recorded extinctions since 1500. *Categories I-IV
afford higher levels of protection.
22. Caribbean Islands • Diverse ecosystems from montane cloud forests to cactus
scrublands • Devastated by deforestation • Hotspot has dozens of threatened species,
including two species of solenodon (giant shrews) and the Cuban crocodile. • The hotspot
is also remarkable for the diminutive nature of much of its fauna, boasting the world's
smallest bird (the tiny bee hummingbird) and smallest snake.
23. Caribbean Islands
24. Includes Mexico's main mountain chains, mountaintops in Baja California and
southern US An area of rugged mountainous terrain, high relief, and deep canyons.
 Quarter of Mexico's plant species are found here, many of which are endemic. The pine
forests of Michoaca'n provide over-wintering sites for the annual monarch butterfly
migrations Excessive logging is causing destruction of pine forests and consequent loss of
habitat. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
25. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
26. The Mesoamerican forests are the third largest among the world's hotspots.
Endemic species include quetzals, howler monkeys, and 17,000 plant species. Is also a
corridor for many Neotropical migrant bird species. The hotspot's montane forests are
important for amphibians, many endemic species of which are in dramatic decline due to
an interaction between habitat loss, fungal disease and climate change. Mesoamerica
27. Mesoamerica
28. Atlantic Forest • Occurs in tropical South America includes 20,000 plant species, and
40% are endemic. • Only 10 percent or less remains. • More than 24 Critically Endangered
vertebrate species including three species of lion tamarins and six bird species • Hotspot
has almost 950 avian species with endemics such as the red-billed curassow, the Brazilian
merganser. • Sugarcane plantations and later, coffee plantations has contributed to
significant habitat destruction over the centuries • With massive urban growth of Rio de
Janeiro and Sao Paulo threaten what remains of this hotspot.
29. Atlantic Forest
30. Comprising 21% of Brazil Most extensive woodland-savanna in South America. Has
a pronounced dry season and supports a unique array of drought- and fire- adapted plant
species Numerous endemic bird species. Large mammals such as the giant anteater,
giant armadillo, jaguar and maned wolf still survive despite rapid expansion of Brazil's
agricultural frontier, which focuses primarily on soy and corn. Ranching is another major
threat to the region, as it produces almost 40 million cattle a year. Cerrado
31. Cerrado
32. Isolated by being bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Andes Mountains, and the
Atacama Desert. These forests have a rich endemic flora and fauna. Protection from
logging now exists. Rare fauna include Andean cat, the mountain vizcacha, & Andean
condor. Reptilian, amphibian, and freshwater fish endemism is high. Threats include
overgrazing, invasive species, & urbanization. Major hydroelectric dams and coastal
development are specific problems facing the conservation of this hotspot. Chilean Winter
Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
33. Chilean Winter Rainfall- Valdivian Forests
34. Bordered by Mesoamerica in the north, and to the east the Tropical Andes
hotspots. Endemic fauna include bare-necked umbrella bird and the brightly- colored
poison dart frogs, are characteristic of the region. The white-winged guan of Southern
Ecuador and extreme northern Peru is seriously threatened with extinction. Urbanization,
hunting (large birds and mammals), and deforestation, especially mangroves are threats.
Ecuador's coastal forests are only 2 percent of their original area consequently species
presence continue to decline. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
35. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
36. Greatest biodiversity on Earth Contain about 1/6 of all plant spp. in <1% of earth's
surface Species with unusual life histories e.g. Andean bromelilad 100 yrs to mature. The
threatened yellow-eared parrot, yellow-tailed woolly monkey and spectacled bear are all
endemic. Most species region for amphibians in the world (664 spp), 450 of which are on
the 2004 IUCN Red List. A quarter of its habitat still remains, threats include: mining,
timber extraction, oil exploration, and narcotics plantations, hydroelectric dams, cattle
ranching and invasive species. Tropical Andes
37. Tropical Andes
38. Caucasus • Includes desert, savanna, arid woodland, and forests biomes • High
levels of endemic plant species. • Mountainous landscapes have two species of highly
threatened Caucasian turs (mountain goats). • Political turmoil provides lack of
governmental regulation. • Forest clearing for fuel wood, illegal hunting and plant collecting
are serious threats • The intact areas only really exist in the higher mountain regions • The
plains experiencing the greatest levels of destruction.
39. Caucasus
40. Forms a natural Mountain barrier between the Mediterranean Basin and the dry
plateaus of Western Asia. Consists of mountains and interior basins. Contain many
centers of local endemism. Nearly 400 plant species are found only along the Anatolian
Diagonal, a floristic line that crosses Inner Anatolia. Many of Turkey's 1,200 endemic
species occur only to the immediate east or west of the divide. The hotspot includes four
endemic and threatened species of viper. Irano-Anatolian
41. Irano-Anatolian
42. The flora include 22,500 endemic vascular plant species (4 x more in the rest of
Europe. Includes many endemic reptile species. Threatened species are increasingly
confined to fragmented and isolated patches due to tourism/resort developments The
Mediterranean monk-seal, the barbary macaque and the Iberian lynx, which is Critically
Endangered, are among the region's most threatened species. Mediterranean Basin
43. Mediterranean Basin
44. Comprising two of Asia's major mountain ranges, Known to early Persians as the
"roof of the world." The hotspot's ecosystems include glaciers to deserts Include a highly
threatened type of walnut-fruit forest, that contains ancestors of domestic fruit varieties
(storehouse of genetic diversity). The hotspot is also home to a rich variety of ungulates,
including the threatened argali wild sheep. Mountains of Central Asia
45. Mountains of Central Asia
46. Cape Floristic Region • Evergreen fire-dependent shrublands characterize the
landscape • One of the world's five Mediterranean hotspots. • Home to the greatest non-
tropical concentration of higher plant species in the world, • Only hotspot that
encompasses an entire floral kingdom, and holds five of South Africa's 12 endemic plant
families and 160 endemic genera. • The geometric tortoise, the Cape sugar-bird, and a
number of antelope species are characteristic species.
47. Cape Floristic Region
48. Small and fragmented, these forest high levels of biodiversity. 40,000 cultivated
varieties of African violet, (US $100 million global trade) are derived from a few species of
this hotspot Include a variety of primate species and three endemic and highly threatened
monkey and two endemic bushbaby spp . The Tana River has two critically threatened
and endemic primates, the Tana River red colobus and the Tana River mangabey.
Agricultural expansion is the biggest threat. Poor soils, increasing populations,
subsistence agriculture and commercial farming consume increasing amounts of natural
habitat. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
49. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
50. This hotspot is distributed along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in
the north to Zimbabwe. Although fragmented, all patches have a similar flora. The
Albertine Rift harbors more endemic mammals, birds, and amphib- ians than any other
African region. A complex geological history has resulted in the formation of a series of
unique freshwater lakes of immense fish diversity (e.g. 617 endemic fish species). Threats
include agriculture, (bananas, beans, and tea) and the growing bushmeat “industry”
Eastern Afromontane
51. Eastern Afromontane
52. The lowland forests of West Africa are home to more than a quarter of Africa's
mammals, including more than 20 spp. of primates. Logging, mining, hunting and human
population growth are placing extreme stress on the forests, however, threatening species
such as the Jentink's duiker, pygmy hippopotamus, and scattered populations of western
chimpanzees. Five Endemic Bird Areas lie partly or entirely within the hotspot. Guinean
Forests of West Africa
53. Guinean Forests of West Africa
54. Known for its biological diversity for thousands of years. One of only two hotspots
that is entirely arid Possesses endemic, threatened antelope, such as the beira, the
dibatag, and Speke‘s gazelle. Has more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa.
Endemics include Somali wild ass and sacred baboon. Is one of the most degraded
hotspots with only five percent of its original habitat remaining. Overgrazing and charcoal
harvesting are destructive forces, but a lack of government control is problematic. Horn of
Africa
55. Horn of Africa
56. High endemism with eight plant, four bird, and five primate families. Madagascar's
more than 50 lemur spp. are biodiversity highlights. A further 15 species are extinct due to
human influence. Contain a number of Critically Endangered bird species. The Seychelles
possess the only endemic family of amphibians: the Sooglossidae The Aldabra giant
tortoise, is a well known endemic. Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands
57. Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands
58. Found along the east coast of southern Africa below the Great Escarpment. An
important center of plant endemism. Possess nearly 600 tree species (highest of any
temperate forest). Bird-of-paradise flower is a distinctive hotspot endemic. Southern
subspecies of white rhinoceros rescued from extinction is a well known African
conservation success. Much of the once expansive grasslands and forests where the large
mammals occur is threatened from industrial and local farming. Maputaland-Pondoland-
Albany
59. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
60. Succulent Karoo • Occurs in South Africa and Namibia • World's richest succulent
flora • Exceptionally high levels of plant endemism (69%) with some unique forms like the
tree-like succulent called halfmens, and Aloes with tree growth forms (Aloe pillansi) •
Reptiles have high levels of endemism (lizards and especially tortoises) • One of only two
entirely arid ecosystems with hotspot status • Grazing, agriculture and mining, especially
for diamonds and heavy metals, threaten this fragile hotspot. • Low population densities
are some mitigation
61. Succulent Karoo
62. Once largely intact, the 1,600 East Melanesian Islands are now a hotspot, due,
sadly, to accelerating levels of habitat loss, which has been caused chiefly by excessive
logging, mining, and unsustainable farming practices. The region is one of the most
geographically complex areas on Earth. Isolation and adaptive radiation have led to very
high levels of endemism, both within the whole hotspot and on single islands. Notable
endemic species include the majestic Solomons sea-eagle and more than a dozen
threatened species of flying fox. The islands also harbor a diverse group of vascular plants
species, including 3,000 endemics. East Melanesian Islands
63. East Melanesian Islands
64. Contains the world's highest mountains, including Mt. Everest. These rise abruptly,
resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical
broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been
recorded at more than 6,000 meters. The hotspot is home to important populations of
numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild
water buffalo. Himalaya
65. Himalaya
66. Includes more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma and its biodiversity is
still to bediscovered. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years:
large-antlered muntjac, Annamite muntjac, grey-shanked douc, Annamite striped rabbit,
leaf deer, and saola. Contains many endemism freshwater turtle species, most of which
are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and habitat loss. Diverse avian
biodiversity (1,300 spp.) including the threatened white-eared night-heron, grey-crowned
crocias, and the orange-necked partridge. Indo-Burma
67. Indo-Burma
68. Japan (Island Archipelago) • These islands stretch from the humid subtropics in the
south to the boreal zone in the north • Include a wide variety of climates and ecosystems. •
A quarter of the vertebrate species in this hotspot are endemic, including the Critically
Endangered Okinawa woodpecker and the Japanese macaque (Snow Monkeys) •
Exceptionally high diversity of amphibians three-quarters of which are endemic • Urban
development, invasive alien species such as the Indian grey mongoose, the Siberian
weasel, and the large mouthed bass threaten local biodiversity.
69. Japan (Island Archipelago)
70. Great variations in climate and topography, this Mountainous habitats has the most
endemic- rich temperate flora in the world. The golden monkey, giant panda, red panda,
and a number of pheasants are threatened endemics. Illegal hunting, overgrazing and
firewood collection are primary threats to biodiversity The construction of the Three
Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest ever and has impacted and will continue
to heavily threaten this hotspot’s biodiversity. Mountains of Southwest China
71. Mountains of Southwest China
72. Only the size of New Jersey this South Pacific island includes five endemic plant
families. It possess the world's only parasitic conifer and nearly two-thirds off the world's
species of Araucaria trees, all of which are endemic. Nickel mining, forest destruction and
invasive species threaten native fauna such as the kagu, an Endangered bird with a
distinctive crest that is the only surviving member of its family. New Caledonia
73. New Caledonia
74. A mountainous archipelago dominated by temperate rainforests. Fauna is mostly
endemic e.g. kiwi. Mammals (2 bat spp.), amphibians, and reptiles all endemic. Within 700
years of being occupied by humans 50 bird spp. have become extinct. Invasive species is
the most serious threat to the flora and fauna. Habitat destruction, through deforestation
and wetland drainage, is also a key problem. New Zealand
75. New Zealand
76. An archipelago of more than 7 100 islands of immense biodiversity Endemic
species restricted to forest fragments with only 7% remaining. Has over 6,000 plant
species and many birds species e.g. Cebu flower pecker, Philippine cockatoo, Visayan
wrinkled hornbill, and huge Philippine eagle. Amphibian endemism unusually high with
unique species e.g. panther flying frog. One of the most endangered areas. Historically
logged for timber products, forests now being cleared for farming needs and
developments. Philippines
77. Philippines
78. Comprising 4,500 islands stretched across the southern Pacific Ocean. Is the
epicenter of the current global extinction crisis. Within 200 years of the first Europeans 25
bird species have gone extinct Extinctions due to introduced invasive species and over-
hunting. The spectacular endemic honeycreepers and other forest birds of the Hawaiian
Islands are especially seriously threatened. Polynesia-Micronesia
79. Polynesia-Micronesia
80. This hot spot includes forest, wood- lands, shrublands, and heaths characterized
by high plant and reptile endemism. Numbat, honey possum, and the red- capped parrot
are unique vertebrate species. Due to dry and hot conditions the western swamp turtle
hibernates for two-thirds of year and may be the world’s most threatened freshwater turtle
species, conservation efforts are improving the situation. habitat loss through agricultural
expansion, accentuated by extensive fertilizer use contribute to declining biodiversity
Invasive alien species (foxes and cats) threaten native fauna. Southwest Australia
81. Southwest Australia
82. The spectacular flora of this hotspot are succumbing to the growth of industrial
forestry and international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for
food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the orangutan, found only in this
hotspot, are in dramatic decline. The last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are
also found on the islands of Java and Sumatra. Forest use for rubber, oil palm, and pulp
production are detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the hotspot. Sundaland
83. Sundaland
84. The flora and fauna of Wallacea are so varied that every island in this hotspot needs
protection The hotspot is second only to the Tropical Andes in terms of bird endemism
despite its relatively small land area. The world's largest lizard, the Komodo dragon, is
restricted to the islands of Komodo, Padar, Rinca, and Flores. Forests are being cleared at
increasing rates due to escalating populations. Deforestation was caused by the
government sponsored program, which moved people from overcrowded islands to
remote, sparsely inhabited one. Wallacea
85. Wallacea
86. Population pressure on forests due to demands for timber/agricultural land. In Sri
Lanka, only 1.5 percent of the original forest remains. Remaining forests are heavily
fragmented. Edges of protected areas have illegal activities of farmers, loggers, and
poachers. Annual monsoons with high mountain regions, contribute to numerous plant,
reptile, and amphibian endemics. Sir Lanka alone may have as many as 140 endemic
species of amphibians. Contains populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the
Endangered lion-tailed macaques . Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well,
with over 140 native species. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka