Writing an Applied Linguistics ‘Thesis or DissertationWriting an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research JOHN BITCHENER palgrave macmillancrash 0 sigeemet grein commun gener nena Tora span mrgena peed sera ereearkcrertat Sager eee arian weap Fe seer tera Sheiteneannce in ee eae eyoeset ne teat shire samen ae See cep sirnnamarar este rape art ene Sprain me scerneae ean : merge ged mee, wpmacemtaar crear eateetg te pete opocag teeta ates Pagare® and Maca a gtr radars inthe United States ‘tenia tng Erp and eh counts | 97-0-20-22459-7 hha ‘su a-o-20-22484-4popetck ‘aboot pintado paper tal forcing ad made rom aly nage an sae ees sources Log pir marta ces respected toner toe enon pation te Feary og ‘Acaaloee card orth bok sate om the Bh Lay. ‘eaalog cr forbear he Urry of agree. Pete an nn Get Beta ty (Pr hatny Rowe Chipper and Etoure Contents Preface Acknowledgements 1. Background ‘What isthe book about? Who is the book for? ‘Why has the book been written? ow does the book meet the content, structure, linguistic and presentational needs of students? How is the book organized? ‘What isthe sample masters thesis about and why has it been selected? How can this book be used? Further reading 2 Abstract Introduction “The functions ofa chess abstract ‘The content and steucture ofa thesis abstract Analysis of Masters thesis abstract ‘Analysis of a Doctoral thesis abstract ‘A key linguistic feature of a thesis abst Frequently asked questions Farther activities Farther re 3 Introduction Introduction “The functions ofa thesis introduction ‘The content and structure ofa thess introduction Analysis of a Masters thesis introduction Some key linguistics features ofa thesis introductionFrequently asked questions Further activities Further reading Literature Review Introduction ‘The functions of a thesis literature review “The content and structure of a thesis literature review. ‘Conclusion of the literature review Some key linguistic features of thesis literature reviews and approaches to processing the literature Frequently asked questions Further activities Further reading Methodology Introduction ‘The functions of a thesis methodology chapter ‘The content and structure of a thesis methodology chapter ‘Sample analysis of WTC thesis methodology chapeer ‘Some key linguistic features ofa thesis methodology chapter Frequently asked questions Further activities Further reading Results Inteoduction ‘The functions of a thesis results chapter ‘The content and structure of a thesis results chaprer Sample analysis of a Masters thess results chapter Quantitative results Some key linguistic and presentation features of a thesis results chaprer Frequently asked questions Further activities Further reading 110 110 110 an 113 138 140 142 143 14s 145 145 146 147 148 168 172 173 17 7. Discussion of Results Introduction ‘The functions ofa thesis discussion of results ‘The content and stracture of a thesis discussion of results Sample analysis of 2 Masters thesis discussion of, results Some key linguistic features of a thesis discussion of results Frequently asked questions Further activities Further reading 8 Conclusion Introduction “The functions of a thesis conclusion ‘The content and structure ofa thesis conclusion Sample analysis of a Masters thesis conclusion Some key linguistic features of a thesis conclusion Frequently asked questions Further activities Further reading Appendix 178 178 179 179 181 192 193 198 196 197 197 197 198 199 aun 21 212 213 viPreface ‘This book has been written in response co frequently asked questions by first time thesis writers about (1) the content that is, felevant to different parts of a thesis, (2) how the content can be ost effectively organized and (3) the extent to which the vati- ‘ous sections ofa thesis have particular language and presentational characteristic. Each of these issues is discussed in relation to the typical par-genres of an empirically based thesis: the abstract, the introduction, the literature review, the methodology, the result, the discussion of results and the conclusion. The focus ofthe book is therefore on the writing up of the thesis rather than on the research process. ‘The book will be of interest to a wide audience. The main target group is frstxime writers of an empirically based thesis. To vary- ing extents it will also have relevance to writers of other thesis types. Secondly, although the illustrative material presented in the book has been drawn from theses in Applied Linguistics, this does rot mean that itis only relevant for those working within this discipline. Any student writing up a piece of empirical research, particularly bur not exclusively with a social science orientation, will find the hook instructive. Thirdly, the book has been writen for both native and second language speakers of English. Finally, itis anticipated that the book will also be useful for thesis super- visors and for traning unis within tertiary institutions preparing, supervisors and others forthe ask ahead, “The book comprises eight chapters: the background to the book, the abstract, the introduction, the literature review, the method ‘ology, the results, the discussion of results and the conclusion. ‘After the background chapter each of the following chapters cov- fers the same areas of content and presents it in the same way across chapters Introduction tothe chapeer + Purpose/functions ofthe partgenre (chapter) © Content and structure options forthe partgenre (chapter) ‘© Linguistic and presentational characteristics of the part-genre (chapter) ‘© Frequently asked questions and answers Further activities © Further reading ‘The content and structure section of each chapter considers a num- ber of options for deciding upon the units of content that could be included and for deciding how these can be most effectively orga- nized, Throughout, excerpts from a sample thesis are presented to illustrate the options presented. This is then followed up with a detailed commentary on what has been included by the author and ‘on the extent ro which the various options have been incorporated into her thesis. “The material in this book can be used a varity of ways. At an indi- vidual level, students can either ead the whole through from cover to cover or dip into various chapters depending on where they are atin the writing process. Thus, it can be used as a reference guide. ‘Supervisors might find this option particularly useful. The book can also be used in classes, seminars and workshops as a core text or 25, ‘resource tool to accompany other materials. Used in these ways, the further activities secions will provide teachers and presenters ‘with ready-made tasks for student/trainee use. Those intrested in, the research that underpins the content will find plenty of sugges- tions at the end of each chapter for further reading. Other uses of the book will no doubt be identified by its users overtime. {In no way isthe material presented in the book intended ro be pre seriptive. The approach that has been taken is one that presents ‘options that might be considered by individual thesis writers. The ‘options included in the book are based on discourse analysis research of typical approaches that have been taken in the writ ing of the various part-gentes and on feedback from supervisors and students about what they have found to be helpful advice. It is hoped that you, as readers of this book, will find the material equally helpfulAcknowledgements ‘This book would not have been possible without the permission ‘of Katherine Cao whose fist class Master's thesis has been used t0 illustrate most of the material presented in this book. Katherine's thesis won the Applied Linguistics Association of New Zealand Best Maste’s thesis competition two years ago not only for the quality ofthe content ofthe thesis but also forthe way in which ithad been so cleaely and effectively written. [am also grateful to Shawn Loewen for allowing me to refer to his Doctoral abstract 50 that points of comparison could be made between his and Katherine's approach to this part-genre. Much ofthe inspiration for vwrting the book came from staff and students at both my ovn uni- versity and other universities in New Zealand, Australia, the United States and Asia. Wichout the insight of Madeline Banda, Director ‘of Postgraduate Studies at AUT University and key members of her team like Annette Tait, the seminar and workshop series on thesis, ‘writing that informed the focus of the book would not have been offered and the book's content may have not been feld-tested. Stu ‘dent feedback on these seminars and workshops identified where their needs lay and so played a major role in determining the con- tent of the book. Iam grateful to all the students I have supervised ‘ver the last decade for the way in which they challenged me to articulate precisely what was required when writing the different parts of thei thesis. Meeting these demands forced me to reflect ‘upon the recurrent isues facing, fist time thesis writers and upon hhow they might be most effectively addressed. Over the years, many fof my New Zealand and international colleagues had suggested that | put into print what they had heaed me say at conferences and. during informal conversations about effective thesis writing. In this, regard, Lam especialy grateful to Professor Dana Ferris (University ‘of California, Davis) and Professor Margie Berns (Purdue Univer- sity for thee inspiration and insightful comments on an early daft ‘of the book. Without the additional comments and suggestions of the anonymous reviewers of the book, a number of the refinements, that appear inthe book would not have been included. Last, but not least, I wish to acknowledge the support and clear guidance given by Kitty van Boxel and the team at Palgrave Macmillan. They have been so pleasant and easy to work with over the pas year,1 Background WHAT IS THE BOOK ABOUT? ‘This book has been written to introduce first-time thesis and dissertation (hereafter, ‘thesis rather than ‘dissertation’ will be used) writers to the process of writing up an empirically based piece ‘of research. Ithas three key aims. The fist isto introduce you to the type of content that is typically presented in each ofthe part-genres {chapters or sections) ofa thesis: the abstract, che introduction, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion and the conclusion. The second aim is to introduce a range of options for presenting or structuring your content so that itis rhetorically and persuasively effective. The third aim is to acquaint you with some of the key linguistic and presentation features of each part- {gente so that your content is presented with clarity, coherence and Cohesion. Thus, the book has been written to help you with the ‘writing-up process rather than the research process. WHO IS THE BOOK FOR? _ “The book has been written to address the throe key areas identified above for students writing their first thesis, usually at Masters or Honoues level, but it may also be of value to Doctoral students who have noe previously completed a thesis. Ik may also be of, value to supervisors and those offering thesis-writing course-work papersleourses, seminars, workshops or other forms of prepara- tory taining because it provides content and worked analyses of sections of each ofthe chapters writen by a first-time thesis writer. Unlike some thesis-writing texts, this book has been written to cater to the needs of both native speakers of English as well as to those who have an ESL (English as a Second Language) orEFL (English as a Foreign Language) background. Although the bbook focuses on approaches that are characteristic of theses in Applied Linguistics, students, in other disciplines, who ate writing, ‘up a piece of empirically based research (respective of whether it is quantitative or qualitative in focus) will also find the book helpful because the book adopts an approach that trains you as reader to analyze other theses within or outside the Bld of Applied Linguistics, ‘The book has been written ro meet the needs of students who say. they are unsure or unaware ofthe specific part-genre content and. ‘organizational expectations and requirements of supervisors, in tutions and examiners. Sometimes, students also mention that they ‘want to know more about how the content should be formatted and expressed. These issues, from both supervisor and student per- spectives, have been reported in a range of published articles and texts. In fst presenting seminars and workshops to first-time thesis ‘writers in the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand, 1 was sur prised to find so many students artending these non-credit-bearing, fessions. However, it coon became clear that some of the sources from which supervisors and others expected their students to have ‘gained an understanding, of these requirements and expectations ‘were not actualy focusing their attention on the content and orgy nizational detail that students were wanting, For example, a8 a student preparing 10 do a major piece of research, you are likely to have completed a research methods course burt may not have been ‘one that focused on the specific content and organizational charac~ teristics of different parts of the thesis. Asa student, you may also, hhave consulted some of the available guidebooks and handbooks ‘on how to write a thesis and not found them particularly informa tive about the type of content that is relevant to the part-gences fr about ways of effectively structuring the content. This is not $0 ‘much a criticism of the available practitioner advice as a reflection, of their different aims and purpose. Many are focused on aspects of the research process and on an overview of the macro-structure of a thesis rather than on the micro-clements of the part-gentes. Another reason for reading this book may be that you have not yet hhad any discussion with your supervisor about the various part- genres. Sometimes, students have also said that their supervisor's tacit understanding of what is required is not articulated explic- itly enough with examples for their full understanding. If you are reading this book for any of these reasons, you should feel thar your specific needs have been met by the time you have read the ‘material in this book and sought to apply what has been presented ‘The material as been field-tsted over a number of years and has been positively received internationally by students from different ethnic, language and educational backgrounds. HOW DOES THE BOOK MEET THE CONTENT, STRUCTURE, LINGUISTIC AND. PRESENTATIONAL NEEDS OF STUDENTS? To help you understand what content and structure are appro- priate forthe different parts of your thesis, the book presents 2 ‘ange of options illustrating them with analyses of and commen- tary on a range of sections from the part-genres of a well-written ‘Masters thesis in Applied Linguistics. The approach taken in the ‘book is drawn from genre analytic research and best practice super visor advice. Because the content is research informed, we need to consider why the genre approach is relevant to the needs of students writing their first thesis Examining the discourse of a gente, like the thesis and its part- ‘genres, enables us to understand the type of coment thats eypically presented and how itis presented so that the narrative or argument ‘or case tha is being presented s accomplished with rhetorical effec- tiveness, The starting point of this justifeation is an understanding ‘of what a genre is. The term ‘gence’ has been defined in a variety ‘of ways but, in each full definition, several key characteristics tend +o be present. The frst characteristic is that a genre isa type of ds course that occurs in a particular setting. In this case, the particular setting isan academic seting where the expectations and require ‘ments of what constitutes a thesis are defined by the academic community of researchers, teachers, examiners, supervisors and‘The second characteristic is thata genre as distinctive and recognizable patterns and norms with respect to content and, structure. In other words, the type of content and structure that ou ‘observe in one thesis will be sulficiently similar to that observed in other theses. The third characteristic is that ie has particular and distinctive communicative functions and these determine the nature of the content and how ie is organized. Consequently, each ‘of the chapters of your thesis will meet different requirements and expectations. So, having defined the key elements of a genre and indicated the relevance ofthe genre analytic approach taken in this book, we can now consider the relationship between these charac teristics and how analytic research has informed our understanding, of what constitutes a part- genre Genre theory has proposed and genre research has revealed (1) how the purpose or functions of a genre or part-gene inform che choice ‘of content and its rhetorical staging or organization and (2) how this staging can be identified in terms of the discourse moves (sep- arate units/sections of content) and sub-moves (also referred to in the literature as steps or strategies) that are employed. (If you are inerested in reading some of the literature on this topic, a list of further reading suggestions is provided at the end of this chapter) Because ofthese relationships tis importane that you understand fist the various functions of each part-genre as these will determine what content and structure is relevant. Therefore, each ofthe chap. ters in this book will focus on a different part-genre and each will begin with an outline of its purpose and functions. This wll be fo lowed up witha consideration of the type of content that might be presented and, in doing so, focus on how it can be effectively pre Sented. Fitst, you will be introduced to a range of optional moves, and sub-moves. Each move and sub-move will then be illustrated with extrac from our sample Masters thesis. Key features about the way in which the author has made use of the vatious options will be discussed, It will be emphasized throughour the book that the moves and sub-moves presented in each chapter are options; they are not a prescriptive list that you must use. Although you ‘may choose to use al ofthe options, you do not need to feel con- strained by the range presented. Depending on the topic and focus ‘of your thesis, you may be able to add other moves or sub-moves.. HOW IS THE BOOK ORGANIZED? ‘The book comprises eight chapters with the following seven chapters being devoted to a separate part-genre of the thesis. Although each of these chapters considers a different partgenre, authors sometimes include more than one partgente in a single ‘chapter. For instance, the discussion of results is sometimes com- bined with a presentation of the results and sometimes the dis- ‘cussion of results is combined with the conclusion. In contrast, the literature review partgenre is sometimes spread across more than one chapter. If you are presenting more than one part-genre in a single chapter or spreading a part-genre across more than one chapter the approach taken in this book can easly be adapted. ‘Within each chapter of this book, the areas of focus are the same, After an introduction, we will consider the purpose and functions of the part-genre. This is followed by an outline of the moves and sub-moves that can be employed in the presentation of content. ‘The extent to which these moves and sub-moves are employed and the way in which they are organized is then illustrated from our sample Masters thesis. The decisions thar have been made about the content and the organizational patterns of this material are then discussed. You will note that the analyses are presented in two ‘columns: the frst presents the text and the second he move anal- ysis, Where a move has not been presented alongside a sentence, it means that the same move employed in the previous sentence has ‘again been used. Having read the material, there will be opportu- nites for you to apply i in move and sub-move analyses as you proceed through the chapter and in the furcher activities section presented towards the end of the chapter. Some of the linguistic features that often characterize the part-genre under consideration are then presented and illustrated. On a few occasions, presenta- tional features are also diseussed. Following this material, answers to frequently asked questions are provided. These are not intended to be necessarily definitive or exhaustive but intended rather as guidelines that you can discuss with your supervisor. A further activities section provides you with additional opportunities 10 apply what you have been reading, You may find it helpfl to worke fon these activities with a fellow student or with your supervisor.Each chapter ends with a list of references for further reading. ‘You will find these worthwhile i you are interested in what others have said about thesis-writing and in what he published research informing this book has discovered. Finally, all the moves presented in the various chapters are given in an appendix at the end of the book. WHAT IS THE SAMPLE MASTERS THESIS ABOUT AND WHY HAS IT BEEN SELECTED? Throughout the book, illustrations will be drawn from one Mas- ters thesis. For the sake of clarity, the decision was made to focus fon one area of content rather than on a range of areas and to select fone that was wel sritten and cha illustrated many ofthe Features typically found in empirically based theses. Because you will be learning how to analyze extracts of discourse, you will be able to apply what you have learned to other texts and theses. Therefore, if ‘your literature search has led you to theses in your area of investiga~ tion, you will be able to analyze what they have presented and how the content has been organized. These observations may then guide the decisions thar you make about what to include in your thesis and about how to present your material in an effective manner, ‘The sample thesis that we will be referring to in this book was written by a very able Masters student who has since gone on to ‘complete a Doctoral thesis in the same field of enquiry. The Masters thesis is entitled "Willingness ro communicate ina second language classroom. The thesis investigates the willingness of second lan ‘guage learners of English to communicate in a second language Tearning classroom. It examines whether their willingness t0 take part in interactive activities is determined by innate tai-like fac- tors andlor situation-specific factors, including participation in pait work, small group interactions and plenary discussions. The subject matter ofthe thesis is reasonably accessible for those not familiar with the area. Inevitably, a certain amount of jargon specific to the field is presented so in Chapter 2 on the thesis abstract, key terms and construct are glossed. Ifyou are not reading the book in ‘chapter sequence, you may need to refer to the abstract chapter in, ‘cate some of the material requires clarification. Having said this, however, the content chat is presented should be easily understood ‘even if some of the terminology in the illustrative examples is not faniliar to you. HOW CAN THIS BOOK BE USED? ‘The book can be used in a variety of ways. First and foremost, i was writen as a reference guide for students who are about to start writing various parts oftheir thesis, As such, you could skim read it to get an idea of what is presented or to find out about 4 particular aspect of the writing process. For example, you may ‘want ro see what information has been provided on the Functions of a literature review in order to check whether oF not you have ‘a clear enough understanding ofits purpose and functions. Once you are about to stare writing a particular chaptes, you may want to read that particular part of the book more closely, Supervisors may also find the book wseful if they want to access some already prepared material about any of the part-genres of a thesis. Rather than having to reinvent the wheel, supervisors may find i a ready tool to use with their students. The further activities section may provide a good basis for dialogue between supervisors and their students. ‘The material in the book can also be used by seminar and work- shop presencrs. Already this has been the casein institutions that offer introductory, common-core programmes for their students, where generic content, that can be applied to any discipline, presented. The material in the book could also be adapeed for discipline specific courses. ‘Undergraduate teachers (for example, those offering academic wit ing courses and research methods and presentation courses) may also find parts of the book helpful. Both the instructional and ‘analytical material can be presented in a classroom environment ‘nd students can be given opportunities to use the further activ~ ities section of each chapter to further apply what they have learned,‘Thus, cher i a mukiplicity of ways in which the book can be used in any discipline. The material has been feld-tested in seminars and workshops with thesiissertation students in a wide range of disciplines across universities in Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand. FURTHER READING Reicher, D. (1994). The apprenticeship approach to advanced academic literacy: Graduate students and hie mentors. English for Specie Purposes, 13, 23-34. Btchene, J, 8¢ Basturkmen, H. (2006), Perceptions ofthe dffcules of, ‘ontgraduate L2 thesis students wring the discussion section. Journal of Engl for Academie Purposes, 5,418, ‘Casanaye,C, & Hubbard, P. (1992). The writing assignments and writing ‘problems of doctoral students: Faculty perceptions, pedagogical issues, nd needed research, English fr Specie Purpose, 11, 33-49. Cheng, A. (2007). Transtering. generic features and recontexnuliz~ ing gente awareness: Understanding writing performance in the ESP fence-based Iteracy framework, Enelish for Spectic Purposes, 26, e707. (Cooly, L & Lewkowicr, J (1997). Developing awareness of the shetori- ‘al and linguistic convestions of writing a thesis in English: Addressing the needs of ESLIEFL postgraduate students. In A. Dusk (Ed) Cul ‘ure and Styles of Academie Discourse (pp. 113-140). Belin: Mouton de Grover Devi, A (2008). Writing Genres (Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory) Carbondale: Souther lines University Press. Devit, A, Reif, M, 8 Bawarshiy A. (2004). Scenes of Writing: Strategies Yor Composing with Genres, New York: Pearson/Longman Dong, ¥. 1998). Non-native graduate students thesidiseration weit. ing in since: Self-reports by students and their advisors from two US insuitttons, Engi for Specfc Purposes, 17, 369-390, Duadley-Erans,T, (1993), Variation in communication paterns berween iscourse communities: The case of Highway Engineering and Plant Biology. In G. Blue (Ed), Language, Learning amd Succes Stdying ‘Through English pp. 141-147). London: Macmillan Publishers. pking, A 8 Dudley-Evans,T. (1988). A gente-ased investigation of the disaston section in articles and diseratons. English for Specc Purposes, 7, 113-121, Hyland, K. (2000). Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Aca ‘demic Writing. London: Pearson Education. Jenkins, S, Jordan, M, & Weiland P. (1993). The role of wring in grad ‘uate engineering education: A survey of faculty beliefs aod practices English for Spectic Purposes, 12, $1-67. Palrdge, B. (2002). Theis and disereation writing: An examination of ‘published advice and actual practice. English for Specific Purposes, 21, 125-143, Paleridge, 8. & Stari, S. (2007), Thess and Dissertation Writing in a ‘Second Language: A Handbook for Supervisors. New York: Routed. ‘Samaj, B. (2008). A discourse analysis of masters theses across dis lines with a focus om introductions. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7, 55-67. Swale J. (2004). Research Genres: Explorai ‘Cambridge: Cambridge Univerty Pres. ind. Applications2 Abstract INTRODUCTION In this chapter, we are going to look atthe type of content that may bo inchuded ina thesis abstract and at how st can be organized. But fist, we need to consider the purpose or function of an abstract. Having done that, we will focus on the content areas typically, included in a thesis abstract and on the ways in which this mate- rial may be presented effectively. We will then analyze an abstract writen by a Masters student and compare it with another by a Doctoral student. The analyses provided inthe chaprer of this book, will bea little more extensive than those in other chapters so that, if you are reading this chapter before others, you will have a clear and detailed understanding of che analytical approach that informs the book. This will be followed up with a discussion of one of the key linguistic features of thesis abstracts. The chapter will lose with answers co some frequently asked questions, with some fur- ther activites and alist of readings that will introduce you to some ofthe literature informing the material presented in this chapter ‘THE FUNCTIONS OF A THESIS ABSTRACT ‘The key aim of a thesis abstract is to introduce the reader to the main considerations of the thesis so most often include the fanctions presented below in Box 2a. Box 2a Functions of a thesis abstract 1. The aims ofthe study 2. The background and contae ofthe study 3. The methodology and mathod wed in he study “4. The bey findings ofthese 15 The conrbuton ofthe study wo the eld of owe “To some extent, it also has a persuasive function, namely, t0 con ‘vince readers thatthe main text has something new and important + offer. [nthe next section, we will look atthe typeof content that may be presented in an abstract and of ways of effectively struc- ‘uring it. In doing s0, you will see how both the content and its ‘organization are determined by the functions of an abstract. ‘THE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF A THESIS ABSTRACT You will recall, in Chapter 1, that we discussed the role chat genre analysis has played in helping writers understand (1) the type and structure of content that typically characterize the diferent part genres ofa thesis and (2) how this may be achieved through the use (of various moves (units of content) and sub-moves(atepe or strate Bes chat are used inthe presentation ofthe units of content). In this Section, we are going to consider the range of move and sub-move ‘options that you can choose from when writing a thesis abstract. Box 2b Abstract move and sub-move options Submoves 1. Provide context, background ofthe research © idnaty che motion for che esearch ©. Expanthengnianclcetralcy of he research fou 4. Ident 2 research gp continuation of esearch seadion 2 deni sims or incenons,quessons or hypodheses 1 Develop ams or menos, questions oF IyporhesesBox 2b (Continued) Moves Sub-moves 3. Method Identity overall approsch and methods 5 idea key desig aspects lena data sourees) and parameters 4 enety data arly procesies 2 Present mala fridngsresuts of key ins, ques 1 Presencmainfindngsresls of subsidary! ‘sonal sims, quesuors S5.Conelsion 2. Suggest sigifianclimportance of finngs beyond the research considering conerbutons to theory, research ad pracice Suggest aplication (or practice) and implatons (for farther research) ‘As you can se from Box 2b above, there are five moves and a (of sub-moves that can be included. The extent to which all of them ae included may vary from topic to topic as well as within and across disciplines. When we analyze the abstract from our sample theses in the next two sections, you will ee thatthe author included all ive moves and most of the sub-moves. When deciding which ‘moves and sub-moves to include in your thesis, you may wish to discuss the options with your supervisor. ANALYSIS OF A MASTERS THESIS ABSTRACT In this section, we will be analyzing the abstract moves and sub~ moves employed by the author of our sample Masters thesis (see Chapter 1 for background details on this thesis). Before reading the analysis, I woald suggest that you try to identify the moves ‘and sub-moves included in the abstract, using the options given in Box 2b. Ifyou decide to do this, you wll be in a better position ro understand and respond tothe analysis that follows. You can write ‘your moves and sub-moves in the space provided in column two ‘of Box 2c below. Having done this, you can compare your answers with those provided in Box 2d below. Box 2e Abstract text and move structure 1. Wilingness to communicate, an inva ference variable, current receling an Inernsng amount of tention nthe erste fon second language learning, 2. The present ‘udy has continued that foes by inverting “nether WTC should be considered trait Ike variable, or whether is more properly regarded a's stuatinal variable. 3. This d= theton was drawn by Macingyre eta (1998). who posed thae WC in U2 postees tee Gaal Characrerss, diferent from the vat Me WTC LI. 4. in extence, de conistoncy between learner! aclhrepore WTC and thelr seal WTC behavior in an L2 catroom set ‘ing was examined. . The sty also aimed took at how WIC varied according Changes In the site of three cassroom con ‘texts which ntaled both a spatal and eenpo- ‘al dimension ~ whole cas all groupe snd {Grads ~ over a one-month period of language course, A multemethod approach unde pprned the study by enabling the consruct {5 be looked ae from ferent perspectives 7. This approach, imoling the adoption of tHrocured Gassroom observation, paripant weakness of using sltzeport survey 263 sngle insrument to wamine the muledmensionat willingness o communiate contract 8. Ton Students, elle ina general Engl progam a an Aucklind languge school, complesed WTC questionnaires 9 Classroom observe tin of eight asses (Snteen hours) served the primary toal to calles data, 10 Follow-up Inervews were then conducted with the par. ‘lepanes 11 ings fom the dy revealedBox 2e (Continued) that WIC in L2 was both 3 taetbe and 2 uaional-based varble, 12. The caelevel WTC coud determine an Indias gener] endeneyin communication whereas stat level WC predicted the decision to iitae com munition within «parveuar context. 13 As 2Stuavoral varable, WTC was found tbe open to change over tine. 4A number Of factors that appeared to infvnce learn rs wilingess communicate behavior in ‘ree cutroom contents were Kented a ‘he number of inerlocutor() in parlor onto amie wih neroeutr() ster locutora! cask pedormance interest in top- les under dcution In tasks, tak types for Pallgroup work, whether LI or L2 was wed medion of communication ni parseparts faltral backgrounds. 15. The resus of the Study contrite 10 an ndertanding of th Anaic nature of wines to communicate In second language. 16. Praccal suggestions for pedagogy and fuure research wore also Idented Box 24 Abstract text and move structure analysis 1. Witingess to communicate, an ind Moves ta. b tal diference variable, curren reeling, (hwrouction~ context, an Increasing amount of aceon Inthe t= metiation) frature on second language learning. 2. The Moves Id 28 present study has conunued tat focus by (nreducton~ continue Irvetigning whether WTC should be com- radon: purpore sidered a taicke variable, or whether denied} ie is more propery regarded a: sit tional varable 3. Ths dtnction was drawn Move 2b (purpose by Mackiyre at ab (1998), who posted developed), that WIC in LZ possestes these dual characterizes, diferent ffom the wee WTC in LI 4 In enence, the consistency becween learners sltvepore WTC and ther sual WTC behavior in an L2-chsroom Seting wat evamined. 5. The study 240 ing to charges in the sae of three cass- toon contexes which encaled both a sata ‘rd tempor dimension ~ hole clas, sal ‘roups and dyads ~ or a one-month period Of a Language course. 6A mult-metiod Spproach underpinned dhe sudy by emabng the construct tobe looked at fromm der lent perspectives. 7. Ths approach, inva Ing the adoption of structured casroom ‘observation parecpan interviews and ques Wonaires, overcame the Wwealeess of Ung selhreport survey a6 2 single instrument te ecamine the multdmensions wingers to communeate consruce. 8. Ten stent, trvlled in general Englch program ac an ‘Acland language school, completed WTC (questionnaires. 9. Chusroom ssenaton of Siehe caser(ebwon hours) served as the primary toot to collec data 10. Followyp Carta ware then concuced with hepa ‘Sopans |I-Fndings rom te sty reveled ‘at WTC in L2 wa both a alike and 2 suationabaed varable, 12 The tae level WTC could determine an Indias _feeraltendoney in communication wherest Staelevel WTC precicwd the decsion ineate communieton win. 3 parecust fentexe 13, As a eons varable, WTC ‘was found to be open to change over tie. TH A number of factors that appeared to inluence learners wilingness © comeun- ‘ate behavior in three sso contexts ‘wore identfed ae the numberof introns: orf) in partclar content, amar wth Inertocutor), interlocutor tase paror ‘mance, imerest In topics under dicusion Moves 2b 3b (purpose ‘developed: mehod~ eign) Moves 2 3b (purpose “evloped: metho ~ ‘éesgn) Move 3a (method — ‘spprenc) Moves 3. (method — osteo aca ‘ource) Move 3 (datasource | ‘kparmeters) ove 3 (due source 2 ‘ parametrs) Move 3 (method ~ dara sorea) Mowe da product key ‘ining Move 4 (product — sebuidary feding) Move 4 (product — ebay fing) Move 4 (product — sebsiry fing)Box 2d (Continued) In tasks, ask ypes for paigroup work, whether Lor L2 was Used. at medium OF eommunicaton and. partpants cl tural bacgrounds. 15. The resus of the ‘dy contbute to an understanding ofthe yma natre of wilingress to commun {2te na second lnguage 16. Practica sup sesbons for pedagogy and future research ‘were als denied. ove Sa (conclusion = signee novel) Move 8 (ondusion— pplication further research) Glossary of terms used in the abstract 1. willingness to communicate: the extent to which a second language learner is willing to communicate in the classroom 2. individual difference variable: willingness to communicate in the classroom is something thac varies from one individual ro another 3. taitlike variable: a learner's general motivational orientation a learner's situation-specific motives and Overall patterns ‘There are three noteworthy features about the way in which the ‘moves and sub-moves have been presented inthe abstract: 1. All five moves have been included inthe abstract. 2. Some sentences include two moves. This i particularly the case withthe fist three moves (Introduction, Purpose and Method). ‘When rwo moves are presented in one sentence, one of the ‘two moves often provides reason oF justification for the ‘other move, 3. The Method move is given more coverage than other moves (sentences 4-10), “The patterns that you choose will reflect the focus that you wish to give in your abstract. For example, you may want to focus on your research method (particularly if it is novel and comprises a variety of approaches) or you may choose to focus on your product (particularly if there was a range of research questions). Now that we have considered some ofthe overall patterns, we will focus our attention on the way in which various moves and sub- roves have been presented, Introduction and Purpose Sentence “This sentence introduces the wider context ofthe study the willing- ness of second language learners to communicate in the language classcoom) and points to its importance as a central area of cut- rent research interest. Although it isa very general, introductory statement, you can see that it draws our attention to the fact that the willingness to communicate (hereafter referred to as WIC) con struct is an area of immediate relevance and interest co researchers and practitioners, Sentence 2 ‘The author then develops the introductory claim made in sen- tence 1, The sentence explains the central purpose of this ongoing investigation into WTC: to investigate whether it should be con- sidered a traitlike or situational variable. By explaining that the study has continued the focus referred to in sentence 1, the author is claiming (although somewhat indirectly) that the focus of this study isa new area of investigation. Notice how this opening state ‘ment on purpose follows logically from the opening introductory move and provides a clear example of the juxtaposition of two related moves within a single sentence. Sentence 3 ‘This sentence develops the statement of purpose presented in sentence 2. Although the author does not define ether the term ”‘eratike variable’ or ‘situational variable’, she does tate thatthe difference between the two terms was distinguished by Maclneyre etal. in earlier work. She then explains their belie that both vari- ables occur in the WTC of second language learners ina way thats, diferent to the WTC of first language learners. By implication, the ‘motivation for examining the two variables in the study is revealed: to investigate the extent to which each is evident in the behaviour of second language learners in a language learning classroom. So, you can see that this sentence has revealed more about the purpose and motivation ofthe study Method Sentence 4 With the general purpose of the study having been introduced, sentence 4 focuses more closely on its specific aim or purpose Having implied that there may be a difference in the extent 10 which the two variables occur in such classroom environments, the author explains that it was therefore important to examine their actual behaviour. The frst detail concerning the method that was employed to observe this behaviour is then presented — an obser- vation of classroom behaviour. Without being specific a this point about which method was used, this sentence states that some form ofself-report data was a part of the study’s wider methodology. You will also See how the author is implying chat there may be a differ ence between what second language learners think they are doing. ‘oF not doing when it comes to taking an active part in classroom ‘communication and what the observations oftheir behaviour actu- ally reveal. So, in summary, the sentence has introduced us to both the specific purpose of the study and two aspects of the method that were employed to achieve the purpose, Sentence 5 Here, the author also begins witha statement of purpose. She clar- fies the fact thatthe purpose ofthe study was nt just investigate any inconsistency between what students think they are doing and ‘what thei observed behaviour eveas but also to examine whether 8 diferent classroom contexts are likely to play a role in any dif- ference. Thus, she specifically mentions two further aspects of the study's methodology. First, its investigation into whether a difer- ‘ence in WTC might occur as a result of student communication within a whole class setting, within small groups or within dyadic (paired) groupings. Second, she explains that the study was con- ducted over a I-month period. So, again, we can see that this Sentence inks two moves (purpose and method) in order to explain hhow the particular purpose was investigated. Sentence 6 Having already presented specific aspects ofthe methodology that relate tothe key purposes ofthe study and to the context in which it ‘occurred, sentence 6 refers to the wider approach that was taken to investigate the various purposes. This isan introductory statement about the specific methods that are presented in the sentences that follow. You might ask why this broader statement has been given, here after earlier specifics on the methods employed in the study and why it is then followed up with further specifies. This sa good {uestion ro ask. It is one that might receive different but equally valid and plausible responses from different readers. On the one hand, it might be argued that, i earlier sentences, the author was seeking to link only contextual aspects of the methodology to the ‘statements of purpose so that che reader can immediately under stand the contextual parameters ofthe investigation. On the other hand, it might be argued that a separation of contextual detail from data Source detail was desirable in light of the amount of method ology detail being presenced inthe abstract. Fither argument would seem to be reasonable, Thus, is really a matter of individual pre ‘erence. But, having said this, the most common practice is one that describes the overall methodological approach before presenting the specific methods that were chosen, Sentence 7 “This sentence introduces us tothe types of data chat were collected in the study and explains why a multimethod approach was chosen for the study. Following on from sentence 6, we are first cold thaterr av ruc UNGuIICS TESS three types of data were used in the investigation: structured class- room observation, participant inrerviews and questionnaires. The author then explains that limitations with using a single data source for exploring a multidimensional construct like WTC meant that more than one type of data were used. In particular, she explains that the use of self-report data alone would have been a limitation siven the caution mentioned earlier in sentence 4. I is interesting and I believe important to note that the author is juxtaposing. a justification for methodological decision that she made. You will see that this occurs elsewhere in the abstract and so enables us to understand why particular decisions were made with all aspects of the study. Sentence 8 Next, the methodological statement of sentence 7 is introduced, Reference is made ro the frst of the three data sources (the use of sefeport questionnaires) and its parameters: the number (ten) and typeof learners (language school) who participated inthe study and the specific contextual setting {an Auckland language school [Note again the relevance of the link between both aspects of the ‘methodology (participants and setting) as these are likely to be erals of key interest to any reader who, before reading a whole thesis, would want eo know whether or not the findings and con- clusions are based on research that is robust and whether or nor is perhaps typical of other, similar research, Sentence 9 ‘The second data source (classroom observation) and its parameters (observation in 8 classes, roraling 16 houts) are then introduced in sentence 9. The particular importance of this data source is stated and so draws the readers attention back to earlier sentences, about the need for an examination of potentially more reliable data (eg. classroom observations) than that afforded by se-report ‘questionnaire answers. The limitations of questionnaice findings alone are several bu the abstracts nor the place to justify decisions that require more lengthy consideration. The methodology chapter of the thesis i the appropriate place for this typeof discussion. Sentence 10 In this sentence, the author concludes the detail on the study's methodology with its brie reference vo the third data source: follow-up interviews with participants. This extremely concise statement does not reveal anything else aboue the interviews so question concerning how many of the observed participants and questionnaire participants were interviewed is not known at this ‘stage. Compared with other starements in the abstraet have bee presented in more detail, this might be considered a weakness. In many abstracts, overall participant numbers are reported and sometimes this may even include the number who completed ‘questionnaires, who were interviewed and who were observed. Product Sentence I We are then introduced to the first of four product statements, In keeping with the key sim of the study ~ to investigate the jccurrence of trait-like and stuation-based variables in the willing ness of second language learners to communicate in thee language classcooms~ his sentence presents the frst key finding of the study (che existence of both variables in their communication behaviour) [No elements of discussion ae offered a simple statement of result is presented and i isthe one most central tothe aims of the stud. Sentence 12 ‘The particular role that each of the variables plays in a learner's willingness to communicate is then revealed in sentence 12, Con ‘cerning the trae-like variable the finding of the study i that it can determine an individual's general tendency. However, the second part of the sentence explains what the study found about the role ‘of the second variable (its potential for predicting the decision that a learner might make about initiating communication within a par- ticular context). So, we can see that the findings ofthe most central ‘ssuelquestion of the seudy have been presented before the findings of the subsidiary or additional ssues/questions.2 Sentence 13 This sentence simply extends the finding about the situational variable, namely, that it can change over time, What this actu ally means is unclear at this stage. However, sentence 14 extends four understanding of what may bring about change in different Sentence 14 ‘The last of the key findings to be introduced to the reader is pro vided in sentence 14. Explsising that bchavioural change can come about as a result of learners communicating in different classroom contexts, this sentence identifies six factors that may influence such behaviour. They are simply listed in the abstract because there is no space to provide additional detail, As you wil see later, the Dis- cussion of Results chapter ofthe thesis provides this elaboration Ir discusses whether or not and the extent to which there may be particular patterns associated with ther interaction, Conclusion Sentence 15 In the frst of two concluding statements, sentence 15 makes a broad statement about the significance of the Bindings. It explains that the WTC construct is dynamic. Without detailing the specifics of is dynamism, we can, nevertheless, understand quite easly from ‘what has been presented in sentences 11 to 14 that individual fac> tors and contexts may play a major role in the changing nature of a learner's behaviour. We are told that che findings offer some- thing new co chis fed of investigation and that the study has been worthwhile Sentence 16 “The abstract closes with a confirmation that there are practical applications fom the findings ofthe study that can be made to lan- ‘Buage learning classrooms. However, the guidelines and suggestions offered by the author are not presented here. We will find them recorded in the concluding chapter ofthe thesis. The final sentence also states that further research could be undertaken but, again, no ‘mention of specific areas is provided at chs point. This is not nec- essarily a shortcoming because references to specific applications and future areas of research are usualy very clearly signaled inthe concluding chapter ofa thesis Before drawing conclusions from this analysis for further applica tion, we are now going to consider another abstract, Written by an Applied Linguistics Doctoral student, we will be thinking about ‘whether there are similarities and/or differences between it and the Masters abstract we have just been considering. ANALYSIS OF A DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT {As you read the following abstract in Box 2¢, chink about the moves and sub-moves that the author has included and about whether there are similarities and/or differences between thie abstract and the Masters abstract. Iwould suggest that you write your move and ‘sub-move choices in column two of Box 2e before comparing ther ‘with the analysis given in Box 2F In order to see the similarities and differences beeween the Masters and Doctoral abstracts, you may find it helpful to create a chart that compares their move structures Having done that, read the analysis that follows on the similarities and differences between the two abstracts. Box 2e Abstract text and move structure 1. Current approaches to second langue Instruction five called for an integration of message focused and frm focused insrucion the L2 cissroom. 2 One way thls may be ccomplahed i throupy Ince fur on form which draws lamers attention to l= ust items as they arse in meaning foewsed Ineracton. 3. While eden focus on frmBox 26 (Continued) at been theoried to bane learners. ele ‘ature of niet oc on form and fc: ‘ives in promatingL2 learning 5. Thie-t¥0 hous of maturaloccuring meaning-ocuses 2 lessons were obsorved in 12 erent clases of young adults In 8 priate Ianguage chook. 6 Cheroom interacton yielded 1.373 focus on form episode (FES), occuring when there wana brie in eenon fom te tage £9 lngurte form. 7. These FFE: were transcribed: and analysed fora variety of general characterises and dacourse moves A subue of 491 FFEs ware used as «bas for invisied eas ems i which sidents who parigated in spectic FFES were asked to real the Ingust: formation provided inthe. 9. The rests showed thie incidental focus fon form di occur inthe lessons, aout the number of FFE: vared significa among ‘dasee,eachers and student. 10. The FFES were more quently code-rated and rece tive In macure 1. The response moves usual ‘curred immediatly afer the Wigge, and gererlly provided Ingste formation with» recast [2 Uptake occurred in roughly ehree ‘quartars ofthe FFES, and e was general sue- est 13. Adonly, pte was more ely to occur when the cgger was followed by an mmediaeciction response. 14. Succes {ul uptaka vas alo more likly to occur in FFEs targeting coderelted sudent errors with Immediate ection responses 15. The rests of the texing showed tht learners were abet recallhe targeted ing th nfermation corrector partly cerrety ™ wary 60% ofthe time one yaar the FFE, and 50% two weeks later. 16. Furdermore,succest- {el upeake In an FFE was found to be» sgeant (redetor of correc scores 7, These rest > {prt that incdena four on form may be of ome benefit earners, parsley are encour aged eo Incorporate the targeted Iinguste Kms ino ther own production Box 2f Abstract text and move structure analysis | Currant approaches vo second language tnetrvcion hve called Sr an ncagraton of message ocued and forrocued insu {on inthe L2 caeroom 2. One way tht nay be accomplshes 1s thou Incider {3 focus on form whlch draws learner tetencon to nguaic hems 2 they ars ‘rearing focused ineration. 3, While inc ‘ental focuron form has Been theorized to beni earners de empirical research has investigated ts actual eflecovenes. “4. This study examined the occrrence and rare of Iidetal focus on form and Is effectiveness in promoting 12 learning 5. Threy-ono hours of nautalh-occrrng meaning focused (2 lesons were observed In 2 diferent classes of young aus in 2 private angage schoo 6 Clasroom inter {con yee 1373 focus on form episodes (FFE), occuring when there was 2 brit fm ateron from message congue form. 7. These FFEe were tanserbed and sled fora variery of general character ‘and dacourse moves 8 A subset of 31 FFE were used ar bat for indvdilzed ‘est ems In which studene who paro= ped inspec FFES were ased to recall {he inguit formaton provided in her Moves (ouroduetion ~ contest enti tration) Move id (aroducton — contin rion) Moves le {troduction ~ ‘mporeance 2) Move 2a (purpose) Move 35 (retod in) Move 3h (nathod — eign sours) Move 3d (method ~ nals) Move 34 (method — aly) 29, The rents showed thi incidental foci Move 4a (product ‘on form did occur nthe lessons hough fing 1) ‘he numberof FE vaned sigan among ‘Guses,cechers and studene, 10. The FFE Move 4x (product wore more frequently coderrlsted andrea ‘ing 1) Gretrrmnre licTherepensemores usa Move 4a produ fceurred imeetiataly afer the tigger. and ‘ing 1) tener provded Ing formation with recast 2. Uptakececurredin rough three Move Aa (product — (quarters of the FFEs and it was fenealy ‘nding 1). Successful 13. Addionaly, vpake was more Move 4a (product — ay to occur when the tiger was fl fing 1) lowed by an mmecate eration rexponee TA Success upeke was ake more Mey Move-4 (product — to occur in FFES targeting. code-rdated fining 1) dene. errors wih immedate. cation Move ta product ~ ‘nding 2) Move 4 product — FFE was found to be 2 sigfiane pedi fining 2) tor of correct scores. 17) These results Move $a erect Oat incidental focis on form may (concuion = be of some benef to learners, partir. signfiance) larly Hf ehey are encouraged to incorporate the eargetd ingusoe Iams mo ther Own producson, Glossary of terms used in the abstract 1. message focused instruction: classroom teaching that focuses on the communication of meaning 2. form-focused instruction: classroom teaching that focuses on linguistic accuracy (eg. grammar) 3. incidental focus on form: the unplanned, incidental provision of instruction on a linguistic form or structure (eg. a grammar point) 4, focus on form episode: a unit of discourselineraction berween learners where the focus ison a linguistic pointe the trigger a statement that gives rie to another statement 6. uptake: accurate and appropriate use of a linguistic form ot structure after it had been focused on Similarities between the two abstracts AAs well as providing an abstract of similar length to that of the fist abstract, think you can see here that there are other similar- ities between the two abstracts, Both include the same five moves. Broadly speaking, the strategies employed in the creation ofthese moves are similar even though some differences are evident. Differences between the two abstracts ‘Mover within a sentence ‘The first difference between the abstracts concerns the incle sion of more than one move within 4 single sentence. This pat- tern characterizes a number of sentences in the first abstract but ie does not occur a¢ all in the second abstract. While links between moves are clearly and explicitly signaled when two ‘moves appear within a single sentence, it does not necessarily mean that links are not made when this does not occur. Sen tential links can be clearly and explicitly made between moves by other cohesive means. In comparing only one Masters and ‘one Doctoral thesis, we could easily assume that these are dif- ferences that reflect the two types of thesis. However, this is not the case. It is rather a difference in individual style and pref- ference. Any thesis needs ¢o establish links between moves and berween sentential propositions. The extent to which one approach is adopted more than another may be a feature of particular disc: pines bur generally itis the result of the writer's communicative syle. a2 Secondly, the Introduction move is slightly longer in the second. abstract than ic isin the fst. This may have occurred. because the author wanted to explain not only the context and impor: tance of the topic in some detail and the need for further research in the area but also what is meant by the key term ‘incidental focus on form’. The importance of defining and background- ing this particulae approsch to form-focused instruction in some detail arises from the confusion that could result for those not familiar with different approaches to form-focused instruction. For example, the second language acquisition literature makes a significant distinction between two types of form-focused instruc tions but the difference is only signaled by a change in the use of one letter ~ either a capital ‘S* (focus on formS) or a lower ‘case's (Focus on forms). Additionally, che second abstract seems toemphasize the limited amount of empirical research on the effec tiveness of incidental focus on form, whereas this focus is less ‘explicit in the first abstract. Again, the difference is not realy ‘one that distinguishes a Masters from a Doctoral thesis. Rather, it should be seen as a difference between the focus that two authors wish to provide or between two areas of investigation ‘where the background of one needs more explanation than that of the other. Purpose AA third diference is revealed in the more extensive statement of purpose provided in the first one. Whereas the second abstract referred t0 three purposes or aims within a single sentence, the fst abstract identified each purpose or aim across four sentences and, in doing s0, provided us with a more comprehensive and perhaps clearer understanding of the various aims ofthe study. The three key words in the purpose statement of the second abstract (‘occur- rence’, ‘nature’ and ‘effectiveness’ become cleat as we consider the Method and Product moves late inthe abstract. Its possible that the author of the second abstract may have assumed that we would, bbe more familiar with ths field of investigation so confined himself to a single sentence. Methodology Fourthly, while similar detail on the methodology of each study is presented in the two abstracts, che second abstract devotes only four seatences to it, compared with the seven sentences provided in the fest abstract. I ie possible that fewer design features were specified by this author because ofthe single dara source. By com- parison, data forthe fist study, outlined in the frst abstract, were sourced in several ways and these needed ro be outlined in the abstract so that we would know how reliable and valid the find- ings of the study are. The approach to data analysis is not outlined in the fist abstract but is described in detail in the methodology chapter of the thesis. Ic is likely thatthe author chose to refer to hhow the data were analyzed because of the relative novelty of the approach. Product “The Purpose move of the second abstract, in sentence 4, revealed the following two primary foci of the research: (1) the occurrence ‘and nature of incidental focus on form and (2) its effectiveness in ‘promoting second language learning. The Product move is there- fore presented in two parts as follows: (1) sentences 9-14 outline the first key finding and its associated findings and (2) sentences 15-16 refer tothe second key finding, Compared with the Product ‘move of the first abstract, similar detail on the findings of the sec ‘ond study is presented in the Product move of the second abstract, Conclusion ‘Compared with the detail presented for the Method and Product, moves ofthe two abstracts, less attetion is given in both abstracts to the Conclusion move. In both cases, the significance of the research is mentioned, particularly its application possibilities ‘Summary Tn summary, we have sen that the same five moves and similar sub- moves were employed in both abstracts and that a similar amount 2»‘of attention was given to each in the wo abstracts. This is not sur- prising because both abstracts are introducing empirical research in the same discipline A KEY LINGUISTIC FEATURE OF A THESIS ABSTRACT Tense Arguably, one of the most important linguistic features to note when writing an abstract is the use of the appropriate cease Because an abstract is reporting what has been done in the study tha is about to be reported on, is contextualizing the study in the ‘existing literature and/or is commenting on the extent ofthe study's contribution to that context, different verb tenses are required to convey these various details. Box 2g below identifies one exam: ple from the abstract of our sample Masters thesis to illustrate the usage of four different tenses. It should also be nored though that there may be some choice in the use of tense on some occasions. F ‘example, in sentence 16, although the author has used the past sin ple tense to convey the point that practical implications and future research suggestions were identified, other authors may have cho- sen to use the present tense. In this situation, the choice will depend, ‘upon how the author views the writing of the abstract. For exam- ple, if is seen as a description of the thesis iself (the document thatthe abstracts summarizing), ic is appropriate to use the present tense. However, ifthe author views the abstract as a summary of| the research that is reported in chat document, the past simple tense will be appropriate Box 2g Tense usage in thesis abstracts Sentence Tense Example Purpose ' Present WIC... frcuranty To real ong. contnuout—recing an nereaing workin la fun ofatenion'.. — Slengury 2 Proere The prone sud har To show atthe pov: ie aft pro wa tyetendng the esearch foes td thatch been cenpleed 3 Pacsinple Maciel (1996) Torpares who pated eae cenpletes son n wre ‘represen 1S Prenee The resus ofthis sndy To expan he simple conte to a8 vera of the Sinmere Fast te fey FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 1, How long should the abstract be? ‘There is no required length but most thesis abstracts are confined 10 350-500 words. 2, When i it best to write the abstract? “The abstract is often the last part of the thesis tobe writen. How ever, some students may write a draft of the abstract at an earlier stage and refine it once the other parts of the thesis have been 3. How much detail is expected for each of the key moves of the abstract? ‘This will vary from thesis to thesis and from individual to indi- vidual. You will have noticed in our analysis ofthe two theses in this chapter how the Doctoral thesis provided more decal on the ‘method and product moves than the Masters thesis did. Because the scope of the Doctoral thesis i greater, itis not uncommon for a the- sis artis evel to provide more detail on these moves. If your thesis is exploring new territory, it might be appropriate for you to pro- vide more introductory and purpose sub-moves. Your supervisorwill be able to guide you if you feel uncertain about what might be best in your case. 4. Should all the results be presented in the abstract? ‘The key results of your study should be presented in the abstract. ‘You might also choose to inelude one of two of the more inter- esting subsidiary results. Certainly, you should include at least the main result for each of the research questions/hypotheses you investigate. 5. How specific should 1 be when referring to implications and ‘applications ofthe study? Again, this is an individual matter. Some authors will efer to the key areas of practice that might benefit from the results ofthe study and to one or two areas for further research, These are areas that often receive les attention inthe abstract chan other areas. FURTHER ACTIVITIES ‘The following activities could be done individually, in pairs (with ‘another thesis student or with your supervisor) or in small groups: 1, Select a journal article in your area of research interes, remove the abstract and read the full article. Imagine that what you have ead is «shortened account ofa fll thesis. Drawing upon what you have learned while reading this chapter, write an abstract that would be suitable asa thesis abstract for the content you have read. Once you have completed the abstract, compaze it with the one that you removed from the journal article. Te will, be interesting for you ro compare the extent ro which the various moves and sub-moves difer berween the two. 2. By the time you read this book, you may have read a number of theses. If ths isthe case, select rwo or three and compare the move structure of each of their abstracts If you have not read fother theses, you could still do this activity: You may find in ‘your university library some theses in your discipline area that ‘could be used for this activity. Think about why any differences might have occurred and about any ways in which you think you 2 could improve the abstracts. You could compare the abstracts for Masters level theses, Doctoral level theses and Masters and Doctoral level theses. 3. Ifyou have written a draft of your abstract, you could refer to the move and sub-move options presented earlier in this chapter ‘evaluate what you have written, FURTHER READING you are interested in reading some ofthe iterate tht has informed the rateril presented in this chapter you may fnd the following felerences tefl Cooley, Ly & Lewkowice, J. (2003). Dissertation Writing in Practice: “Tmtng dese ito Tet. Hong Kongs Hong Kong Universcy Pes. Hyland, K. (2000), Speaking as an insider: Promotion and credibility in fabstracs. ln K. Hyland, Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in ‘Aaadenac Wong (pp. 68-84}. London: Longman, Kaplan, Re, Cantos. S, Hagarom, C, Lis, Dy Shiota, Y & “Zitnmerman, C (1994). On abstract weting, Text, 14, 401-136 Palsidge B, € Stahl, 8, (2007), Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a ‘Second Lamguage:A Handbook for Superoisors. New York: Routed Radestam, Ky 8 Newton, R (2001), Suresing our Dissertation: A Com (1990). Discoursal flaws in med iss pee research and text type, Text, Swals, J. (1980). Gene Analysis: English in Academic and Research ‘Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge Unversity Pres a“ 3 Introduction INTRODUCTION In this chapter, we will be considering the opening chapter of a thesis. First, we will reflect on its purpose or functions and then look at the type of content that is typically presented and at ways in which it might be organized. Having considered these options, we will then analyze the extent to which the introductory chap ter of our sample Masters thesis used these options. This analysis, will lead on to a discussion of some of the linguistic fearures that are characteristic of introductory chapters. Before concluding the chapter, we will look at some frequently asked questions, suggest some with followup activities and provide a list of references for farther reading ‘THE FUNCTIONS OF A THESIS INTRODUCTION “The primary purpose of the introductory chapter isto acquaint the reader to the thesis. Most often, this will involve a consideration of the steps presented below in Box 3a — Box 3a Functions of a thesis introduction |. description of the probe, Issue or question that inerests you 2A review of the background and context ofthe study. including 2 review of whats known fom the aaable erature about the are youare erested in 3. An idenecation of as in hs body of knowledge 4 An explanation of what you plan to do to adress one or more of these aps | 5. An outne of how you pln to carry out your ivestigon, together ‘with anindeaton of the scope and deans of your study ‘6, An explanaon of what you beeve your contbuton wil Be co eis ares of 7, An outline ofthe content and structure of your thei Although itis not essential that you cover all of these steps, you should at lease consider each one and have a considered reason for ‘not including any of them. In the following section, we will look in ‘more detail at how these functions might be achieved in the opening chapter ‘THE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF A THESIS INTRODUCTION |As we have seen in Chapter 1 of this book, researchers, over the years, have analyzed the typical content and organizational pat- tems of different parts of a thesis and produced frameworks of what they have found. When you tead the list of references at the end of this chapter, you will sce that quite a lot of attention has been given to the introductory chapter of theses and the cor responding section of research articles. The material presented in this chapter draws upon these analyses and has been summarized in Box 3b below. Box 3b Introduction move and sub-move options Sub-mover 4. Explaln the extant to which eis importa, canval rerestng, problematic or Flerant ', Prowde background information about se area .Itrodice (and review) aapects of previous research inthe aes 4. Define tems and conservesBox 3b (Continued) Sub-moves ‘+ ndleate a gap In previous research © Raises quesan about previous research © Idenely 3 probiem or need 4 Extend previous knowledge (Outine purpose, aim and objectives of present research Speci the research quesvonihypotheses that swore nvesiated Outline the theresa prspecsveshpositions 4. Deserbe the methodology and design ofthe «Inet the copeldlimiedons ofthe research {Balan che contribution ad value of he research othe Fld of {cutie the chaper organization ofthe thesis ‘As you can see, the first column outlines the key areas of content (main moves) and the second column outlines a range of sub-moves that mighe be considered for developing each main move. You will, note that these ae presented as options rather than requirements. Inthe analysis of our sample introductory chapter, we will see the extent ro which the author has utilized each of these moves. Then, ‘when you analyze the move structure ofthe Doctoral introducory chapter in the activites section ofthis chapter, you will be able to See 4 number of ways in which the rwo chapters are different and, in doing so see that each approach is equally valid and effective in terms of introducing the reader to the thesis. ANALYSIS OF A MASTERS THESIS \TRODUCTION In this section, we will analyze and discuss the moves used by the author of our Masters introductory chapter. As I suggested in the previous chapter, when discussing the content and structure 36 of the thesis abstract, I would suggest that you use the main and sub moves presented in Box 3b above to try to identify which options have been used in the chapter before you look at che anal- ysis provided. You will ned to cover the right hand side ofthe text ‘with a sheet of paper If you have browsed through the chapter of this book before reading the chapters more closely, you would have noticed that, unlike the chapters following this one, the author has not pro: vided an introductory section to outline the content of her chapter. ‘The introductory chapter of some theses does include this kind of advance organizer but itis more typical for one t0 not to be provided withthe opening chapter. However, the choice is yours. ‘Section I. Background of the study In this section, we focus our attention on the frst of three sections — the background informing the focus ofthe stud. Box 3e Section 1.1 ~ Background of the study |For many learners, he ulimate goa of inguage ean- Move tb Ing isto use che fnguage for authentic and elecove (background) emmuniation in everyday fe. 2. This conforms to the Eencape of communities language teching (CLT) = ‘dominan fenure of modern lngunge pegogy, which Dhces is major emphasis on faring hrough com- ‘munition (Eis 2004). 3. Long (1986) wpdate of che Inversion Hypothesis has sugested that second l= ‘ge interaction provides learrers with epportnies {o receive comprehensble input to produce and mol ‘hale ouput test out hypotherer and t noice Pe ‘ecg inher icerlarguage, which in turn faite Tanguage development Mackey 2002380). 4 Ie hasbeen argued by some researchers (or exan le, Skehan 1989) that language is best learnt hough Ecmmunieation, a notion stressing that lexmars have f0 ‘ak mordor ear (Sean 198485 Swain (1985, a7Box 3e (Continued) 1995) Qurpue Hypothesis sugested that output serves 2 orl practic by providing opportunities fr learners fo test hypotheses about the rules they have con structed forthe target language. 6 At the ame time, ‘is may lead to greater mea-ingiicavaraneat £0 that lamers ray pay parlor atetion to form 1-This may in cur cute them to tice gap Between what they wane to say ad what they can sy, leading them to recognize what they do nat know. or know ‘nly partly Swain 1995: 125, 126) in the process of ‘sruggng 0 produce ouput comprehensible to their Iincarloetors (Macey 2002}. 8 Inthe st decade, cere has bean a growing body of research the has Pad 38 foun a nde nce variable ~ wilingness to communicate (WTC) ~ 2'nonngistic construct thae would seem to be of Cbviousinerest nthe area of communicative lan- ‘age teaching (Bs 2004.5. Some researchers — for sample, Macey, Clment Oornye! nd Now 1996; HMacingre, Baker. Clemene and Donoran 2003 ~ ave ‘advocated that a fndmentl goal of second lrguage ‘education should be the creation of wilingness to com ‘manic n the language leaing proces In order produce studens who are wing to eck out com Trunleon opportunities and tose the language for futhenie communication. 10. Maclere, Baker Clee ‘ment and Conrod 200 have argued ehae WTC should be expected ofa the language leering proce, view based on der Ming da higher WTC amor ont ransates inc increased opporciniy for practice nan 2 and authentic L2 urge. 1. A widely accepted dtnion of WTC in L2 wat sug- gested by Macy eal. (1998: 547), who consisered this contruct 383 readiness fo ener Inco decourse ts parccuar sme witha apetfe person or parsons, {wing an 12. 12. Specie to an L2 eassroomn, WTC as defied boy xo (1997-49) an seen ten {ont imerae with thers inthe target langue, gen ‘chance to dos 13. Both dfnons emphasized that Moves lane (conway, background, previous research) Move Id (defnivone) ‘one would have the freedom to decide whether to com Tunica or not ina parsculr conexe 14. Also, oh Move Le \Sefnsone weatad WFC in a vory Broad sence, which (previous included it appleatons fo both writen and spoken com. revearh) munication. 5, In thie study, Macnee etal. (2001) Mowe 3e ‘rained VTC in four macro sil of speaking istening, (scope) ‘eating and wring, both side and outse the cassroar 16. Gren the scope ofthis presen sud. WTC wil be ‘As you read other texts onthe same themeltopic, write the author(s) and date ofthese texts under those already included. For example, in Box 4d above, you can see that on the theme of motivation (one of the key themes in our sample thesis), several pieces of literature hhave been included. Whenever you read about a new theme/topic, start a new heading. If you think about the relationship between diferent themestopics that you have added tothe mind-map, place them in a position that reveals something about thei relationship to other theme/topic headings. In the mind-map above, you can see, for example, that a new themelropic on task motivation’ has been added and’ char it has been placed under the more general theme/topic of ‘motivation’ with its relationship revealed ehrough the use ofa two-way arrow. The same can be seen with the ‘WTC definition’. Two defining perspectives ‘trait’ and ‘state’ have been placed under it. You can alo see that a one-way arrow connects the themestopics ‘motivation’ and ‘WTC definition’ because will- ingness to communicate is influenced by a learners motivation. The ‘one-way connection between “WTC definition’ and ‘measurement ‘of WTC” suggests the logic of considering what is meant by WTC. before ways in which it can be measured. For texts tha ae particularly relevant to your study, you may want to also develop subsidiary themes/topics within key themestopics For example, in our sample thesis, one of the main themes/topics is ‘empirical studies of willingness to communicate in L2'- In read ing about the empirical research that has been carried out with respect to the 12 (second language), four key types of study were considered. As Box 4 below illustrates, these were presented as subheadings on another part of the mind-map. Box 4e Another section of a themeltople mind-map wre api aten > esse 4 sasoatentont mass Even though the process of creating a mind-map may involve renaming and moving headings and sub-headings around, it has proven to be a time-effecive approach for (2) keeping tack of ‘one's reading, (b) determining what the themeltopic units will be and (c} determining the relationship of units with one another. 3. Creating a table of contents Once a mind-map has been created, it may be useful to produce a table of contents outline like the one shown in Box 4f below. Box 4f Table of contents (literature review chapter) Chapter 2 Willingness to communicate: A review of the licerature 21 exroduetion 22 Mosraton and Wilngness to Communicate 6Box 4f (Continued) 23. Task motiadion 24 Willingness vo Communiate 241 Defining Wilingnes to Communicate 242 Measurement of Wilingness co Communicate 243 The Tat Perspective and the Sate Perspective of WTC. 244 Cultural Contents and ther impact on WTC 245 _ Empirical Studies of Wilignest to Communicate in L2 2451 Test ofthe 2 WTC Model 2452 Test ofthe Hybrid Scio-educatonal Model andthe WTC Model 2453 Test ofthe Hybrid of Socal Content Model and the WTC Model 2454 Other Empire Sudes of WTC. | 246° Gapsin WTC Research ae ‘Operaionszation af WTC in he Second Language Classroom ‘Simmary Hiaving decided on the theme/topic units and on their relation- ship to one another, you will then be ready to start constructing {individual theme/topi units, Constructing o themeltople unit In this section, we will consider first a genre approach to the con- struction of a unit. In doing so, we will look at a series of move and sub-move options. This will be followed with a sample anal- ysis of a thematic unit from our sample thesis on WTC. Here, we will focus on the moves that have been included and on some of the key linguistic characteristics of the unit. Once you have a good understanding of hov one theme/topic unit has been constructed, you will be able to analyze others and think about what is the best Approach for the development of each of your own theme/topic, unis 1. Discourse move and sub-move options Each theme/topic unit is made up of a series of moves and sub- moves. There are theee main moves that might be included. As you. vill sce in Box 4g, there are a number of sub-moves that might be used to develop each main move Main move and sub-move options Subsmoves 1. A presentation of knowledge chime and statements about theories, bells, constructs td defnione ‘Acearement show: te certain, topertance ‘or sipifiance ofthe themetop 1 presentation of research evidence (¢ finding: methodooey. ‘A crtiue of inowedge chins, sues and problems associated wih move I ‘hinwltatemenc, [A presentation of research evidence in Felton to move 2 ‘An identcation of gap) n knowledge Indl research ‘Xcontnuavon or development ofa vadion ‘hat hat been extblched but no fly invecipted ‘A presentation of argument for introducing a ew perspecuve or thearesal Famework (5 4 rele of move | cms/tatemen) 1 Anannouncerent ofthe sim ofthe research ‘sud. An announcement ofthe theresa poson() or ramework(s) «An announcement ofthe earch dein and processes 4. An amouncement of how you define ‘concepts and terms your research ‘Themeltopic units are typically made up of a series of move 1 statements/laims. Some of these will be developed with move 2 sub-moves. For example, some move 1 claims will be critiqued and some may lead to an identification of where there ace gaps or ‘shortcomings inthe area of knowledge that could be considered for investigation. Move 3 statements are les likely to feature during the oapresentation of a themeltopic unit. Although some authors choose to signal how they will aim to address the issue(s) raised or how they will fil a particular knowledge gap during theie presentation of a unit, others will discuss them at the end of the unit or in the concluding section ofthe literature review. 2. Sample analysis 1 ~ Reporting theoretical perspectives In this section, we will take a Jook at the various main moves and sub-moves used in one thematic unit of our sample thesis. The text ‘of the unit entitled Motivation and Willingness to Communicate is provide in Box 4h below. Ifyou look back at the Table of Con: fens presented above in Box 4f, you will se thar this i the second theme/topic unit of che literature review. Before we proceed farther, it would he usefl for you to read this now. Box 4h Text of sample themeltopic unit one 2.2 Motivation and Willingness to Communicate |. Mothation i viewed 363 ey factor in L2 lari’ in second lane _uage acqustion (SLA) research (ls 1994: SOB Skshan 1989.2. The dy of he role of motvaton in SLA har been a prominne research area in the second language fald (Déenel and Kermos 2000). 3. The ‘mst important and influental motivation theory specifi to second l- sung leaning has been proposed by Robert Gardner, Walace Lambert and assocates (Sahan 1989, Dérmye 2001) who “grounded mothae {on research n'a sch papchologal framework (Darnye 1994 273). 4. Gardner and Lambert (1972) drew a dstinion between incasra ‘ve motvaton and lstrumenal matration 5. Integrative motivation is dented with porove acide toward target language roup and wilingness to negate into that target community. 6. strumeneal mos ‘ation, on the ater hand, refers 9 fnctional and praca reasons for learning second lunguage, such a ering 3 jo oF & promotion or f0 pass a required examination. 7. Gardrer (1985) esablshed socio-eucational model to aecoune for the role of various individual dferences In the laring of 2 second language. 8. This model propoes two basi atetudes ~ integrative and ‘sttades toward the leaning sation. 9 lzeraienas refers the desire to learn a second lrguage to mest sad communica wih members of the L2 community whereas ‘atiudes toward the learn- ing stun refers wo learners reaction o formal struction (Gardner land Macngre 1993) 10. These two castes of variables contrbute to leaner leis of 2 motivation which, n turn influnces language ern ing outcomes in beh formal and ioral earrng stations (Macngre td Charos 1996). Il. Gardner approach has tflenced many side les kn L2 motivation and has had rece empirical spore inthe field of second and foreign language education (Gardner 1988). 12 Yet in Spite of silence ret found i some studies were contadetory 12. For example, eels by Oler and his assolatas reported negative ‘eltonships between interatieness measures and proficiency (Skehan 1989), [4 Gardner hime had admited tat no lnk necessary existed between inegratve ettudes and profcency. and also acknowledged ‘hae the pasern of rtionsipe among acid and motivator ‘arabes and learning outcome: found in various suds were unstable (1985), 15. A notinble ‘edad sh’ ocd in most research bring te 1990 «prod of teri resarch sy nL ering inocnon 1 npr he paid was mrad ya earch or new Iaing rota paras So wel tan epson of te tps Intot Gory and practi, of L2 letrnng rotate 17. The mast itental ponerng wrk wee proved by Crokes and Sei. (i991), Dery (19), Ondo and Stearn (1994, 18. Crookes and Shi (991) sre the domiance of Carder 3058 ppc: toga! approach, ofrng ced » mesial Frmevork made Up Cl tow component 9, These were ares reece, Opec] {nd snidaciovoueome 20, Acorn the autor these variables rowed an atrsatve to Garters mtegaevelestumenal dehorony {Gernyl 201-21. Dorel (1994 cranes Gardner’ ode Deas {nhs vw man empha reed on general motional conponert: [Pounded nasal ibe aer han ow forage anginge soon Ne ths ced for s more proatic and efuetioncentared toprach to npg learning mtiaion. 2. Inds he flowed an proach an ner by Chest chit (191, by ming trot a micro, cairoom, icin and enrol lee en ayesang then fo a tree el framework nage ler iene io srg saaten ev 20° nod an Shear {Gann sty ares 3 frowng pp eoween 2 moovcon ecres Sa Re heme concept sata motvatonal pychogy.Box 4h (Continued) 25. They argued tht dhe interativeinstrumental view of motion was ‘00 narrow. andoferedaleeratve ways by which the noon of L mot ‘ation might be considered. 26. Ye, atthe same tine, they called for an ‘Spansion ofthe soc paychologal approach. 27. A common dhrend runing dough the Ierature merconed above waka view sgesthg ‘that Gardner tory was so Inluanthl and dominant, dae aerate ‘oncepes were not serious considered (Crookes and Schmidt 1981: 501: Dare! 1994-274), 28. In response to rtm and cals for the adaptation of 2 wider ‘sion of modaton (for example, Crookes and Schmidt 1991, Dire 1994, Onford and Shearin 1984), Tremblay and Gardner (1995) extended Gardner earlier construct of L2 motiation and propored 3 new stv tural model. 29. They incorporated thre skarnive motional the ries into the mode () goal theory. for which Oxford and Shearn (1994) sugested that learners personal goals language learning stuatins Should beset spectealy in ways that were chalnging but achievable, tnd accompaied by appropri feedback about progres) aerbuton| theory, ended 10 expan why subjective reasons to hich learners ateributed thir pase successes and falures considerably shaped their Imotvaonl eapostion (Dye 200%: 8); and (i) eeleacay theory, In which selealfiacy refers tos learner jen of how wel he cn ‘execute course of actions (Oxford and Shear 1994), or an india bois ha he has the ably to reach a certain level of performance (rembly and Gardner 1993). 30. Their model was empl ested nd supported to revel dat moiation wat a socal and psychologaly ‘complex construct (Tremblay and Gardner 1995; Gardner et a 1997). 31, The new approaches explored during the 19908 moved towards & Wider recon n heoring motivation, rather thn 3 simple focus 0b the sci psychoogaldmasion (Dérye 199), 32. Gardner’ (1985) approach offered a macro perpectiv in which L2modvaton was ear ined ina broad sense, by focusing on thelearers overall and generalized sposiion towards learning the L2 (Osraye! 200) 33. This macro per spective was however criscited as being ess adequate fr proving 1 fine-uned ana of instructed Second Language Acquistion (SLA), ‘which eas place primary in fanguage classrooms’ (Derry 2003: 11). 34. But the 1990s movement did place greater emphasis on a more Situated approach, and shied from socal atizodes to cseroom rea: ‘with more and mare studies Investigating how student motvaten 0 wt reflected in concrete cliteoom sizaons (Domye 1994, 2002) 35 Recen research recon tat hae adopted this stated approach have been characterized by a mero perspective that icluded te sey (ftask motvaton nd the sd ofwlingrss co conmunace (Dare! 20). Before I provide my analysis ofthe text, you may lke to see if you cean decide what discourse main moves and sub-moves have been used in some oral ofthe text. You can write your move selections in the second column, Paragraph 1 Sentences 1 and 2 (move 1b) introduce this theme/topic unit with statements about the centrality and importance of motivation in second language acquisition. Sentence 3 then introduces a key knowledge statement about the theoretical background undespin- ning the role of motivation in SLA (second language acquisition). ‘The knowledge claims presented in sentences 4-6 define two key ‘motivation constructs. Thus, tree diferent aspects of the knowl- edge territory of motivation in SLA have been introduced: its importance {move 1b), its theoretical significance {move 1a) and its construet components (move 1a). Box 4n() Paragraph | 1. Motivation is viewed at 2 “hy fictor in L2 Move Ib (ceowraley learning’ n second lngunge acqusion (SLA) importance) research (lle 199: S08; Skehan 1989), 2. The Mowe Ib (cms) ‘Rudy of the roe of modvation in SLA hasbeen 2 prominene research area inthe second lan- ‘age field (Dornye nd Kormos 2000). 3. The ‘most imporant and mnfluental motiationthe- ‘ry spect tasecondlanguage arin as been proposed by Rober Gardner, Walnce Lambert fd ssc ian 1989, Der! 20), ‘mothaton research Ina ci Propel famewar (rma 1796 7} n"Box 4h() (Continued) 4. Gardner and Lanibert (1972) drew a distinc: ‘ion between integrative modvation and instru mental matiation 5. Ineprae mourn i Identied with pose atuces coward a arget, language roup and wines o tera nto that target conmaniny. 6 Inseramene meta ‘on, on the other hand, refers to functional and praca! reason or learning second bnguage. uch as geting a jb ora promotion, ort pass 2 required eaminaon. Paragraph 2 In this paragraph, the author describes and explains the conti ‘bution of this early theoretical perspective before explaining that it has not gone unchallenged. She begine by presenting a num: ber of knowledge claims (move 1a) in sentences 7-10: theoretical claims in the form of a model concerning the role of motivation in [Learning (sentences 7, 8 and 10); and a definition of the model's ‘wo components/variabes (sentence 9). These move 1a statements lead naturally to move Ie in sentence 11 where research evidence in support of the theoretical model is mentioned. Despite this evir dence, sentences 12-14 introduce move 2a where the evidence [presented in sentence 11 is critiqued. In sentences 12-13, the author tell us thar some studies have revealed contradiccory findings (note that in doing so movelc is being used to support move 2a). The author, in sentence 14, then offers a resolution to these two po: tions by stating that the model's designer (a) had not claimed that there is necessarily a link between one of the two variables (inte- erative atitudes) and 12 proficiency and (b) had acknowledged that the relationship between the ewo variables and learning out- comes revealed in studies were unstable. In doing so, the author is indirectly exposing a gap or an area of investigation that needs to be further investigated. She is thereby indirectly hinting at a move 2b of 2c n Box 4h) Paragraph 2 7. Gardner (1985) exablshed soco- Move a (cis) ‘educator model secoue forthe role of ‘arour lnddal ferences the lari of second language. 8. This model pro pores to bac atttdes ~ loagratenes fd ates toward te learning ssn. $agratianes refers othe dete to lean 2 second language € met and commute ith members othe L2 community whereas “Tetuder toward de tarring sation refes {9 leares” reaction to forma instruction (Gardner and: Mache 1993). 10. These fo cases of varies contribute to lar fn lees of U2 motvaton wich, ea, Induences language learning cutcomes in Beh formal and informal learning situations Move Le (idence) (acnsyre and Chars 1996) I Gardnert ‘Move a legue) Approach has fluenced many sue Plows ie P'mothaion and hs had dec emir _(erque Beane] support in te filo second and ® langage edcation (Gardner 1988). 12. Yee inspite ofthis tnence, resus found in terme sexe ware cotradiory. 13, For ‘rample, sues by Oler and hi tocar Fepored negate relaonsipsbarween Inmgathenest mestures and proflncy (Gahan 1969, TA. Gardner mse had Admired tht no ink necessrly exited Move 2a (rkique) berweeninceprative studs and profeny, and aso acknowledged thatthe patterns of Teatonshps among sttudal and mow: ‘eral varie and learing outcomes found Invarour suds mere unstable (189) Paragraph 3 Paragraph 3 below then introduces us to the “educational shift? that occurred in motivation research during the 1990s. Thus, we are presented with a chronological outline of developments Bin theoretical claims and with arguments about second language learning motivation. Throughout the paragraph, each of the sen- fences is concerned with a critique of the Gardner and associates perspectives’ because ofthe limited nature oftheir focus and there- fore of their sole relevance to motivation in the second language learning classroom setting. Therefore, except for sentence 24 where 2 2b move refers directly to a study, the paragraph is made up of 2a and 2e moves entirely. This said, it needs to be acknowledged also chat 2b moves referring generally to research activity inform- ing the various theoretical perspectives are implied in sentences 1S and 21 Its useful to note also the way in which the various 2a move claims. are organized in the paragraph. Sentences 15-16 introduce the reader to the shift that occurred in the 1990s and the reason for its ‘occurrence. Sentence 17 then identifies the key theorstresearchers ‘behind the developments. Sentences 18-20 explain the focus and contribution of the first of these (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991), hile sentences 21-23 introduce the work of the second (Dorayei, 1994, including a further reference to Crookes 8 Schmide, 1991} and sentences 21-26 the work of the third (Oxford &¢ Shearin, 1994). Finally, sentence 27 summarizes ‘the common thread run ning through the literature mentioned above’ ~ the dominance of Gardner's theory (referred to in paragraph 2), that is, to the point where other perspectives on motivation were ignored. Box 4h(ii) Paragraph 3 15. A motceble ‘edvational shit! Move 2 (rtique) ‘curred in modatlon rvearch daring {he 1990s, 5 period of ewrsh research Activin L2 Tearing moceaion 16 In Mover 2a, 2e (erique & Farticar, the period was marked by ew perspective) search (or new leg motiaton Move 28 erqus) paradigns. as wall an expansion of the stape, In both theory apd prac: ‘ice, of L2 learning modvaton. 17. The most fuel poneering works were over 2a, 2 (erlque & provided by Crookes and. ‘Schmige new perpectis) ™ (19), Dernyel (1994), Oxford and Shearin (1994), 18. Crookes and Sehmide (1991) frilelzed the dominance of Gardnert foci paychologal approach, offer ing. instead 2 motiatonal framework ‘made up of four component. 19. These ‘were Interest. relevance, expectancy and ‘sfcooutcome 20. According to the Author, dese varble provided an alter ave to Gardner’ inegravelistramerta sdehotomy (Osrnpei 2001). 21, Decnyt (1994) erticzed Gardner’s model because In vw, es main emphasis rled on {eer mounntionl components groundes {na roca milew rather than nthe fregn language classroom. 22 He thus called for {more pagrus and educatin-conered fepronch co lngiage learning modalon 3B In this fe flowed an appreach taken ‘ater by Crookes and Sehmie (1991), by framing mobvaion at miro, classroom, furiculum and extracurricular level, then syotheeng them Inco a treeevel fexmawork ~ language lve, learner lve ad learning suation level 24. Oxford and Shearin’ (1994) study addressed rowing tp becween L2 motvation theories and fhe emerge concepts in mainstream Imotvaonal psychology 25. Toy argued Ghat the inagrativnsrumentlvew of Imotvaton was too narrow, and offered alkerrative ways by which the netion of LZ Imocvavon might be considered: 2. Yet at the same time, they aaled for an expan Sion of the soc prychotogal approach. 27 A common thrend running trough the leraure mentioned above wat 3 vw gesting hat Gardner's theory wat 20 inven ard. dominane. that alternate oncapts were noe seriously considered (Crookes and Sehmide 1991: SO: Doers 1994 274), Moves 24,25 (eraque a evidence) Moves 23,20 (ervque 8 new berspectve) 1sPorograph 4 Following on from the critique and call for ‘a wider vision of ‘motivation’, paragraph 4 below presents the response to these ‘move 2a claims. In sentence 28, move 2e introduces the new thooretical model proposed by Teemblay and Gardner, 1995. Sen tence 29 (also move 2e) then describes the alternative motivation theories that were incorporated into the new model. Finally, in sen- tence 30, move 2b explains how research evidence showed that ‘motivation was a socially and psychologically complex construct, thereby supporting the arguments expressed in paragraph 3 about the inadequacy of Gardner's original perspective. Box 4h(i) Paragraph 4 2B. n response to criticism and calls fr the Move 2e Adaptation ofa wider von f motivation (er (new perspective) ‘ample, Crookes and Schmidt 1991, Dorel 1994, Oxford and. Shara 1994), Tembay and Gardner (1995) ecended Gardner’ ear er contruce of L2 motiaton and proposed new structural mode. 29. They ncorpor ‘ted eres aernauve mavation! theories Inco the modek () goal theory, for which ‘Ondord and Shearin (1994) suggested that learners" personal goals In lngiage farn- ing stuatons should be set specially in ways hat wore calngng but achievable, and {ecompanied by appropriate feecback about progres (i) atrbucon theory Inended <0 taplin why sbjecive reat to which ears. ffs atibuted ther past suceses and fale lures considerably shaped their motiaonal SSspostin (DBrnyel 2003: 8) and (i) acy theory in which seleteacy refers to 2 learners judgment of ow well he can exe fate course of actions (Oxford and Shearin 1994), or an invidvals beets that he as ‘he ably to reach a certain level of perfor ‘mance (Tremblay and Gardner 1995). Ther Move 2 (evidence) % ‘model was empiriealy tested and supported to ‘reveal that motion wa 3 soul and py ‘ology complex contre (Trembiay snd ‘Gardner 1995; Gardner et a 1997}. Paragraph 5 Ina series of 1a moves, paragraph 5 sums up the developments presented in he fist four paragraphs. Starting with summary state- ments (sentence 31) ofthe overall focus of developments in the 1990s, the paragraph proceeds im sentences 32 and 33 to explain what the developments were a response o, while sentence 34 points qo the significance of the developments. Seatence 35 ends the part- fraph witha statement about the influence of these developments fn recant research focus on empirically testing miro perspec tives like task motivation and a willingness to communicate. Thus, the inal sentence provides a ink co the next thematctopic unit of the literature review on tsk motivation Box 4n(y) Paragraph 5 31, The new approsches explored during che Move la (cims) 1990 moved townrdra wider drecson in hear ing motvaon rather than a simple focus onthe ‘och peyhologal dimension (Darryal 1998) 32. Carder’ (1985) approach offered 2 macro per spective n which 12 motivation was examined in 1 broad sense, by fining on the learners over IM and generalized dsposioon towards leering the LY (Dernye! 2002) 33. Ths macro perspec: tie was however cried x being less adequate fer providing »fie-tned ara of inercted Steond Language Acquisiéon (SLA), which takes place primary n language classrooms” (Doryel 5003.11.34. Bue the 1990 moverene i place {pester emphasie on 2 more stuted appreach, Sad shied from socal attudes to cassroom realy, wh more and more sides investigating ”n Box 4h(v) (Continued) how sdent motiatlon wat reflected in con- ‘rete cassroom stations Dérnye 1994, 200). SS Recane research decions tha hve 3p ‘this stated appreach have been characterized by micro perspecive tae meted the sty of task motvation and the sudy of wilingness communicate (Dérnye 200), Overview of macro structure of the unit: [Now that we have examined in detail the move structure of the unit it is worth reflecting on its macro structure. 1. This themeftopic unit is primarily concemed with an overview of the development of theoretical perspectives on motivation. 2, The original perspective and model is introduced frst (para- ‘graphs 1 and 2) and is achieved by a series of move 1a claims and statements. However, the final sentences of paragraph 2 draw our attention to shortcomings in this perspective for understanding motivation in the second language classroom. 43. A critique of this perspective and model is then developed in paragraph 3 by means of 2a and 2e moves. 4. The outcome of this response (an extension of the original model) is presented in paragraph 4 through the use of move 2e and research evidence offering support ina single move 2b, '. The final paragraph then summatizes what has been presented inthe unit with a series of 1a statements. While the theoretical perspectives underpinning the research that is being reported in a thesis occupy a noteworthy component of a literature review, an even greater consideration is generally given toa review of the research that has been catried out in the area of investigation ~ research that may have focused on validating the- ‘retical perspectives and research that has examined the effect of certain conditions and variables on the issue or problem that was ‘central to the study. Our analysis so far has looked at the discourse patterning of a thematic unit primarily concerned with one aspect of the theoretical underpinning of the study conducted in our sam- pile thesis. Iris also important ro analyze the way in which empirical research can be presented in a thematiiropic unit. So, we are now ‘going to look at how this was achieved in another unit from our sample thesis entitled "Cultural contexts and thei impacton WTC. 3. Sample analysis 2~ Reporting research (1) In this section, we will analyze the discourse structure of another theme/topic uni from our sample thesis that considered the impact of one variable on a learner's willingness to communicate in the ‘classroom. Compared with the theoretical focus of the unit dis- sussed above, this unit is very much concerned with presenting the Findings of empirical investigations into the effect of cultural con- texts on WTC. For reasons of space, a shortened version ofthe unit will be considered. Where paragraphs have been omitted, the open- ing sentence of each of these paragraphs is provided so that you can see the overall argument of the unit. The shortened text is pro- vided in Box 4i below. You will nor thar sentences have only een numbered for the paragraphs we will be focusing on, namely para graphs 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Again, I would suggest that you read the text first and then do your own move analysis before reading the analysis provided. Box 4i Text of sample themeltopic two 2.4.4 Cultural Contexts and Their Impact on WTC. |.As developed by MeCroskay and Richmond (1987), the WTC sale as tested over tne na varity of situations with several tudes using ‘uture as basis 2 In such studs, WTC nL! was idented asa beh foral variable in one culture for eample, Asian cultures) n comparison wah western culture (MeCrosey and Richmond 1990), 3. The resumed Impact fculkure on WT was expected to operate more attra han 2 Seana level (Barraclough. Christoph! and MeCroshey 1988), nBox 4i (Continued) 4. Barraclough etal (1988) compared the resuts on the WTC sale ofa group of college sudents from Austra (n= 195) wih ets obtained from de Americ sample McCroskey and Baer 1985), nan attmpt dena silartesexsting in the characeraes of WTC sero thet ‘ure, 5. The ribs tested included communication apprehension, pereived communication competence and wiles communiate 6 The resus Indeated However that norms generated in the United States could not be applied elsewhere without spect ctural adap ‘on 7 Nevertheless, the asocations among the varabes observed in the United States were nt unique to tat coun culture since greater WTC was assocated with lower apprehension and higher perceived competence in both samples. 8. The rents azo indiated that Amer «an cologe students were scanty more wiling to cormuniate han ‘were snl eudents in Acta 9, This nding lo corresponded wth that of sncther comparstne sy = American colege sudenes wore found tobe sgnficandy more willg to communicate tan student fn ‘Sweden (Daun, Burroughs and McCroshey 1988) Burroughs and Marie (1990) conducted a study to examine the reaton= ‘ships Berween communiaton competence, communion sppreben- son, WTC andineroversin f collage students in Micronesia (0 = 159). ‘The focue of the rudy war on aiferences beoween dit gonericed In the Unted Sates (McCrosey and Baer 1985) and Mieronein oo, "MeCrosey ad Redmond (1990), taking the view ha an understanding ofthe cultural impact on Invi ferences shoud be a vial compos nent in the sudyofincrcuturl communist, undertcok an ana ly drawing onda from other research project conducted in Auris, Mlerones, Puerto Res. the United Sates and Sweden (Garacoush ea. 1988, Burough etal 190, MeCroshay etal 1985; MeCrosay nd Baer 1985; MeCrosiey otal. 1990) ‘A further comparative stay was erie out by Hackman and Barthel Hackman (1993s) between New Zeslnd subjects and an Amercan sample. McDowall and Yoruyanay (1996) conducted 2 study co invespte porsble diferences in the level of communication apprehension and ‘lignes to communist by focusing on incndialie and collecive ‘ures, 10. A study cried out by Asker atzempead to apply the WTC scale ~ ‘vised ongrally with Amerian native speakers in min’ (199: 164) — 1 an exstern cure, 11. The parcpanes in this study were 124 Undergraduate sent in Hong Kong. 12. Some rel cues were lancounered in making cross-cultural comparisons becnse both the Uniced Stes and. Australian cases were ferent in each of these countries Englch was not a second langage, ané comparisons wih Sweden and Finland were ificut since che Inuses and cultural Ldosenes between SwesuhFiich and English wore obvious greater ‘an between Engh and Asian languages. 3. When kana fice value, iis eomptng to conclude, on the bis made of cmparsons of WTC sores ated by sidents with eastern cultural Backgrounds with ‘hose of thar western counterparts, tha the comparaialy lw WTC sores ated by Aan students area reflection of euler infiences, and that one-on-one communiaions posed dfculies not encountered In her cultures, 14. Bue cauton shoud be exercised in making such broad geneazaions (Asker 1998168). 15, Strohser (1997) conducted » su to invest how commoni- “ation apprehension, wlignes to communicate and eutura ference inerralatd inthe university clasroor. 16. The sy alo stamped to sidress the role of cuture nd ecogivon of euler diferences nthe ‘ommunicasonineration Between instructors and student 7. The parecipans were sudents aval In Baie Englh and commanistion| asses (0=663) and the instructors ofthese ches, 18. The findings pointed to an important roe for culture In the beracton between Calera diferent siden and hei instructors. 19. The roe of etre appeared tobe an even more inportant factor when cultural ferences feed Between sufents and instructors. 20, The instructors were found olablthe studees a communicatively apprehensive or unwling ‘ commusication wih Ie ing into the phenomenon and eested the students dferend onthe uss of such bes. 2, Strohl sty ‘fered rom the aforementioned research In tha explored the impact ‘of eaure on WTC by exaining the sudent-nstrur eration. 12, Wen and Clément (2003) made an auempt to adape Macnee ‘cal (1998) WTC model tothe Chinese ESL content. 23. They argued that Confucianism, whch underay Chinese cultural values, was Uke 1 be manfested n 12 communication. 24. Thus WTC inthe (Zin 3 Chinese classroom seg would be afar more complicated notion than ‘that refleced in Macingre et as model 25. Ther modieaon of the2 Box 41 (Continued) seructrl relationships beeween the constructs mainly concerned ewo variables trom the top three layers inthe orignal mods, namely, the ‘esr vo communist (Layer I) and WTC (Layer I), 26. dsncton was made between these two notions. Dese to convmuniate refers {© 2 deliberate choice or preference whereas WTC enphaies the Feadines to act 27. The atehors contended eh having the desire ‘communicate did not neceisary imply a wlingness to communicate 2B. They als suggested tht a umber of factors tht loeeed Sly in Mache et a's mode! would Inervens between the inks ofthese ‘wo varables 29. These ators, including te societal context perso ley factrs, moovatoralorlenation and fective perception, would be posi related as wala cultural bounded to help create a postive ‘ommuteaon environment 30. Remaining untested an avaitng for ‘empiial research to confirm or dsconfirm the nflvnces ofthe pro- poted variables on WTC, thi revised theoretical framework propored {new way to localize the orga WTC model na diferent Englsh asa Foreign Language (EFL) sting where variables aflecting WTC could be ‘examined from 3 cultural perspective. Pc te Ae ed mot te se Lames nore eens Se eens Eorees ripe i rnscnews fess rpetnrrannn sneecenyar raat Sle Pate aoe er eat peau eng Tce Pence for Aaserptnenr die triad ewe pe tame ou Se sb ir ene rae eee = Poragraph 1 AAs you can see from Box 4i() below, we have three move Ia state- ‘meats introducing us to the empirical research that has looked at the impact of culture asa variable, In the frst sentence, we learn that culture was one ofthe variables that wa investigated when the WTC scale, developed by MeCroskey and Richmond (1987), tested its capacity to measure an individual's willingness to communicate Sentence 2 explains that, in LL (fist language) contexts, culture ‘was behavioural variabe, So in sentence 3, the author adds that it was also expected to occur more ata trait level than ata situa tional level. The extent to which research evidence supports these statements/laims is therefore the focus ofthe rest of the unit. Box 4i()) Paragraph | |. As devoped by MeCroskey and Richmond (987), the WTC sele war eared over te in 2 varity of stations with several stules using ‘atre asa bass. Zn such stdies. WTC in LT ‘as denied as a behavioral vrble in one cle {are (or empl, Asan elures) n comparison wih western cure (MeCroshey and Richmond 1990) 3. The presumed impact of culture on WTC was expected to operate more at trie than 3 susional level (Barraclough, Christophe! tnd MeCreske 1988) Move ta (lim) Porographs 2, 7 ond 8 AAs the text below in Box dif) shows, each of the sentences in the paragraphs provides move 1e statements about a number of research studies but what is worthy of further examination with these paragraphs is the type of content thar the author has peo- vided. When each study is described and discussed, the following, details (as shown in the text below) are frequently presented: a. Author(s) and dare b, Focus of study ~ aim or purpose , Sample size and setting/location 4. Key findings fe. Discussion £ Comparison with other studies 3Box ii) Paragraphs 2, 7 and 8 4. Barraclough e (1988) compared the rents onthe WTC scale ofa group of cl- lege sedan from Australia (n= 195) wih rests obtained from the American spe (CeCroskey and Baer 1985) in an acempe {oie series exiting nthe carne= terete of WTC across the wo clues 5. The varaber tested Included commu: ‘cation appreherson, perceived commu heaton competence and wilingness tO ‘Communicate 6 The results dated, how fever, tht norms generated in the United ‘Sates could not be apled elsewhere with ‘out specie cultural adaption. 7. Never- ‘holes, the azocatons among the var hor observed in the United Statat were rot unique to tae countrys culture sce treater WTC was assocated with lower oprehension and higher perceved compe- fence in both samples. 8 The results aso Indicated tat American college studenss ‘were sigianly more wig to commen ‘te than were sma sudens ny Auer 5 Ths rding slo corresponded with hat of another comparative sudy ~ American olge tidones wore found 0 be sgn Keandy more willing to communicate than sadencs im Sweden (Daun, Burroughs and MeCrosey 198) 10.A stay carrie out by Aker atempted to appy the WTC scale ~ ‘devised org ‘aly with American ative speakers in mind (1996: 164)" to an eastern cere 11. The paripans in his sedy were 124 under radunte studs in Hong Kong, 12. Some ‘al dfs were encountered in making ‘ros-cturalcompariions because both ‘the United State rd Astral ares were “ferent: n each ofthese coureies English ‘was nota second guage, and comparisons Move fe troughout “Authors ate Focus Sample location Focus Fading: Comparison Autor, dat, fois ‘Sample loeaton comparison with Sweden and Finknd were difict since the Ungusees and eutural doseness becween SwedahvFinish and Engish were. obviously ‘pester than between Englsh and Asian lan: ‘inges. 13. When takan 2 fee value eis Discusion femptingt conclude. on the bass made of ‘comparisons of WTC seores stained by sti- ‘dency with eartorn cata! backgrounds with ‘ose of thir western counterparts, that the “omparatiely low WTC scores aetained by ‘stn students ae reflection of eltral nf fencer, and that one-on-one communion: poved dilis noe encountered in other ‘tures, 14 Be cutlon should be exerci ‘making such broad generalzatons (Askar 1996: 168). 15. Seobmaier (1997) conducted a study to Investigate how communeton apprehersion witingnes to communicate and elura fer ‘hes incerrelted inthe university caeroom. 16. The study aio attempted to addres the tole of cuture, and recognition of cutural ‘iferences in the commnieton ingerscson between instructors and stents 17. The farucpant were ridents enoled in Base Englan and communication classes (9 = 683) and the vtructors ofthese cers. 18. The findings pointed to an important role for Caine the loarection becween kar tly ffrene students and ther intros 19, The role of cukure appeared to be an Discussion ven more important fetor when clr! dle ferences exited between student nd ince tore. 20, The instrocors wee fund to lbel ‘be stodens ae. communiatily apprehen- Sve or urwilng ro communication with ke Insighe inc the phenomenon and weated the ‘dents iflerenty on the bats of such bel 11, Strhmalers dy fered from the fore ‘mentoned retearch in that ie exploreé the impact of cure on WTC by examining the ‘deneinstrtorinerscon Comparisonincroduces us to a study that has not been completed. It explains the focus ofthe study and presents the various arguments that underpin it. In doing so, the author has employed a series of 2e moves that focus essentially on theoretical and construct statements. Had the empirical evidence been reported, many of these 2e moves would have been presented a5 Le moves that focused on findings and discussion. Box (i) Paragraph 9 22. Wen and Client (2003) made an azampt to Adapt Macnee eal (1998) WTC mode tthe Chinese ESL context. 23. They argued that Con- ful, which underlay Chinese curl wales, ‘was Maly to be mantested In LZ communication, 24. This WTC inthe L2 in a Chinese classroom set ting would be 3 far more completed nod than ‘hat rected in Macnee et als model. 25. Their Imodieaton of the structora relatonchpe beoween the corsructs manly concerned ewo variables rom ‘the top thre ayers in the orignal model. ame. he esr wo convmuniat (Layer) and WTC (Lye I, 26. A ditincon wat made between these to notions. Desire to communicate reer 0 3 dele. ie choce or preference whereas WTC emphasize: ‘he readiness to act 27. The nthors contended that having the desire to communiate dd noe neces Sarky imply a wlgness to communicate. 28. They ts suggested tata numberof factors that lated ‘aly im Macintyre ot as mode would Intervene between the nt of thee swo variables. 29. There ‘actors including he socel context, personality fac- tars, matiationalorenations and fective percep ‘ons, would be postively rélated as walla ultra bounded to help create 2 postive communiction fervrorment. 30, Remaining untested and awaing {or empirical research to canfirm of deconinn the Intuenees of te proposed variables on WTC. ts revised theoretical frmework propored 2 new way Move 26 troughout ta locale the orga WTC model in diferent English as a Foreign Langage (FL) seuing where ‘arabes acing WTC could be examined from 8 Curl perspective Poragraph 10 Sentences 31 and 32 in Box 4ifiv) provide summary starements ‘of what has been presented in the preceding paragraphs. Sentence 33 explains what has yet to be discovered but provides an argu ‘ment, using move 2e, about what could reasonably be expected in ‘a study that examined the effec ofthe cultural variable on second language learners’ willingness to communicate in an ESL setting Finally, sentence 34 makes this gap/research niche explicit. Box (iv) Paragraph 10 summary, both theoretal and enpical In the above scion demanstraced ha the ‘alonship between WTC in LI ad is various Sntecednts were subsantal ferent when con- {idered rom 3 eros carl porpectie. 32. Thor fn Individuals communieaton ners and compe. {ences ae reflected inthe personality ofa clr’ (PeCroskey and Richmond 1991: 31), and ‘cue ture and conmunicauon are inexviably bound (teDowell and Yosuanae! 1996: 6) 33. fe was tlso suggested that theoretical cultural values in Lahoud exert an invence on WTC sn C2 a anh SL ering (Wen and Clement 2003). 34. Whether ‘hey do 50, however, appears tobe a question yet robe adérened, Move 1 (ein) Overview of macro structure of the unit: 1. We have seen that introductory background statements have been offered in the first paragraph of this thematictopic unit through the use of move Ta statements and that the following a7paragraphs are devoted to the presentation of the available research evidence by means of move Te statements 2, The author has also introduced us to series of move 2e stace- ‘ments in which she explains another direction that has yet to be fully investigated. 3, The unit conclades with both a summary of what has been presented in the unit (by means of move 1a statements) and a statement (using move 2e) about what might be expected from ‘another piece of research into the effecr of culture asa variable in the WTC of ESL setings. In doing so, the author is indicat ing a research niche or gap that has yet to be investigated. One ‘would expect, therefore, thae this might atleast be part of the focus ofthe study being reported inthe thesis. 4, We have seen in this unit that each of the empirical studies has been reported in quite a lot of detail. It is also the case in a literarure review that less attention might be given to such detail especialy if the focus of the research has less of a bearing on the central focus of the study being reported in the thesis. To illustrate this, we will have a look at one paragraph, presented below in Box 4j, from another part of our sample thesis. 3. Sample analysis 3 ~ Reporting research (2) In this paragraph, the author presents in a very concise manner some of the key research findings on the extent to which a WTC. scale is able ro measure ‘a personality-based, traitlike predisposi- tion’. We can see that sentences 1 and 2 introduce the scale and ‘what it aimed to measure (move 1a). Sentence 3 then refers to the findings of three studies (move 1c) but does not provide any other detail about the studies. An explanation of what the findings mean. (move 1a) is then presented in the first par of sentence 4 and this is then followed up with a reference to the findings of rwo stud- ies (move 1c) that support the claim. By means of a claim from ‘wo researchers, sentence 5 introduces a further reason (move 1a), for the belie that the WTC scale is the best available instrument for measuring the trait its reliability and validity. Supporting this belie, sentence $ refers to studies (move 1c) in the USA that found high levels of reliability. Sentence 7 introduces the fact that there is also research support (move 1a) for the construct and content validity ofthe instrument. Then, sentences 8 and 9 refer to research ‘support (moves 1c) forthe validity of the measure. Thus, it can be seen that the paragraph is focusing on the findings of a range of studies without reference ro other features ofthe research and does so in a very concise, focused manner. The reader does not need further detail about the studies in a paragraph that is focused on establishing che value ofthe instrument. Box 4j Example of reporting research |. One measure, a wilingness ro communicate seal, developed by MeCroskey and Rison, ‘reamed to asses a personly-based, rat ike predispastion which it relitively content aerss a valety of communiation contexts and Sry pes ofreceivers (1987 5).2. The ele wa incended to mensre the exten to which a per ‘son was wing to communicate and it incded ‘tems related to four communion contexts = public speaking, ang at meetings aking In Small groups and taking in dyads with tee Lopes of recavers~srangers acquaintances and lends, 3, Rass of studies wing the WTC scale (MeCroshey and Baer 1985, MeCroskey nd MeCroskey 1986) sugested that an in ‘ul wing 22 communicate in. one context with one receiver ype was highly correlated ‘ich wiligness to communicate in other com tots and with other recever pes. 4 Ths id Moves la, te oemenn Rowever tat an indus equaly (chm & evidence) willing to communicate in all contexts and with BT pes of recevers, and research dreced a Conederngtherelazorah general fourd that {he lrger the number af recevers. and the more ddscane the relationship between the indica tnd the receivers, the less willy an indi tal was to communicate (MeCrostay and Rich ‘mond 1991; MeCrosiay 1992) 5. Ye the WIC. Seale appeared co ofer the best instrument. for Felabey and val measuring the WTC.Box 4j (Continued) construct (MeCroshey and Richmond 1987). 1 Studies conducted i the United States found Move te (idence) gh teres of relay: and urmermore, rela Jing estinates generated from both western and exscerm ctures (LI) appeared to be consi- ‘ene wth thove obsined inthe United Stat ((eCrostay 1992, Askar 199) 7. n adion 2 number of research studies provided some Support for ls construct and” concent vad ly 8. MeCroskey (I992: 21) concuded hat the assumptions underying the WTC insta ‘ment were tenable and thatthe contee valiey Sppenres to be sssacrory 9 Smiary, Asker ove La (am) (1998: 165) caimed thatthe contene vay of Move le evidence) the data in is study seemed wo be stsctory tnd conezeant with finding fom ater stds ‘Summary ~ body of the literature review From the above analyses and discussion, we are now in a postion to summarize the key clement ofthe body of the lteature review before considering the conclusion and introduction. 1. The body of the review has provided the reader with an under- standing of non-research (especially theoretical) and research Tiverature elevane tothe study presented in the thesis. 2, In doing so, it has drawn our attention to what is known and, what is not known about the area of knowledge. 43. At times, it has identified shortcomings in the theoretical argu- ‘ments and the research that has been reported, thereby revealing directly or indirectly where further thinking and research could be considered. 4, Having achieved functions 1-4 and, to some extent, function $ (outlined in Box 4g) across a number of thematictopic units, the reader has been prepared for announcements by the thesis, author about the gap(s/shortcoming(s) her research project sought to investigate and why they were sufficiently important and significant to address. ‘5. The identification and justification of the research niche and the introduetion to the aims and design/methodology of the project ate typically presented as par ofthe literature review. CONCLUSION OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW ‘The conclusion of the literature review will usually stare with a summary of the key claims that have been presented in the vari ‘ous thematictopic units of the body of the review. In doing so, the author will usually draw some conclasions about the clims. For example, this will often involve an evaluation or weighing up ofthe importance and significance ofthe claims in light of the theoretical and research literature tha has been presented. Thus, moves 1a.be ‘and moves 2a,b will usually feature inthis discussion. Having done ‘his, the author will identify gaps or shortcomings in this literature and explain why one or more of the gaps should be filled. One or more of the other move 2 sub-moves cde will be employed for this purpose. Finally, the conclusion will introduce the reader to some ofthe key elements of the project. Typically, chis will involve an announcement of the aim(s) and/or research questions) of the study; an outline of the key theoretical perspectives underpinning the study; key elements of its methodology, design and processes; ‘and possibly a consideration of how key concepts and terms have been defined. Box 4k below summarizes these characteristics Box 4k Characteristics and move options summary (Characteristics Move options Moves lathe and 238 ‘Summary and conclusion of cms (evalusting/weighing up imporace nd sigicance of clas ight of theory {nd research erature)2 Box 4k (Continued) Characteristics dentition of gap(s in knowiedge and rationale for research project ‘Announcements about key elements of research project fmsiresearch questions theoreval perspectves methodology design, proces and defntons) (ur next task isto consider the extent ro which the conclusion of ‘our sample thesis observed these characteristics and moves options.. ‘Again, I would suggest that you read the text below in Box 4. and ty to identify which of these characteristics and moves have been, used by the author, Box 4l Text of sample conclusion |. This chapter has reviewed Inerture concerned with tee areas of teal importance in this presen research. 2 Fst, the Ieratre that adéresses motiation, with a paréclr fois on the development ‘of motvatona research ~ the shift from a macro toc paychologeal approach to a mize situated approach ro motivation ~ was desrbed 3 “Two research paradigms, as beng representative ofthis suited approach te mouvaion. were ented as sk motiation ad willnges 0 cm mania. 4. A consideration of ak motivation research ten followed. 5. feaeo presented the WTC construct and examine from diflering Perspectives. 6 Empires studs that explored the potetalancecedens nd contequences of WTC in L2 wre reviewed. 7. Fal tfreshadows the operationalzation ofthe WTC construct an appropriate variable {for stu na second language classroom. 8 This contendon is based on ‘beerations made inthe earl Irate concerned wth WTC, 9. WIC has exjoyed growing intrest among language faring researchers in recent years. 10. Factors suchas motiation,atieades, perceived competence and language anxiety hve been found to play 2 role in determining WTC. 11. Empirical evidence has also shown that Cultural context has an impact onthe relaionshp between WTC and its 12. Yee fe should be pointed ur that, util now, wary Ile empirical research concerning WTC in L2 appears to have been done using 2 Comiiation of quanative and qualtatie methods. 13. Because ofthe predominare use of questionnaires, WTC research to date ha tended 1 focus on reported WTC rather thin acual caesroom behavior. 14. A numberof researchers tae acualy called for verfieavon of sl repore WTC data by behavioral studles ofthe L classroom (Maclnyre 1d Charos 1996: Macinnyre etal 200: Malnyre ea. 2002; Yasha 2002; Yasha eta 2004) 15. Moreover variations in WTC overtime ‘that woul, on the face ot ject adam aspeccinco WTC research, sepearto have been largely igrored in previous sues. 16. Moreover, {truer research concerned wih how WTC: changes over te appears tobe needed 17-This say isan ater t fl hese gps by exploring leaner WTC behavior na second langage cassroom within 2 eak-based framework. 1B. Four key research questons are thus rased teow to rwestigate whether an inva learners WTC behavior changes according t0| ‘ree diferent sutonl contexts na second linguage cettoom over 2 period of 2 second language course as wall a exploring factors that righ flee WTC behavior from lerners perspective, |. Does learners sereport of WTC correspond t thelr behavior in ‘das in three interactional contexts whole as, all groupe and pur wok 2. Doce learners" WTC behavior in chs difer according to three ferent context: whole crs, smal group apd pair work? 3. Does leamers WTC behavior in cls change over tne: in the ase of hs sud. a one-month course? 4. Whac are leners: perceptions of most importante actors coneribut Ingo thele WTC in vee chssroom contexts? Paragraph 1 Sentences 1-6 are a summary ofthe main themesftopies presented in the body of the review bur not a summary of the key claims. Sentence 7 foreshadows the various gaps that are presented later in paragraph 3 and sentence 8 reminds the reader thatthe contention 2has been justified in the body of the review. No attempt has been made to draw any conclusions about the claims that have been presented in the review. A stronger opening tothe conclusion would have been provided ifthe key claims had been summarized and then evaluated in terms of their theoretical and empirical importance tnd significance before the literature gaps were identified, Paragraph 2 By means of 1a and te moves, respectively, sentence 9 points 10, the centrality of WTC research in recent years before identifying some key findings from the literature in sentences 10 and 11. Ie is questionable whether or not this paragraph would have been mote effectively placed before paragraph 1. Had the summary of paragraph I referred to claims rather than a lst of themes/topics, i would have had greater rhetorical effectiveness by following paragraph which was about the centrality of research on WTC. Porograph 3 ‘This paragraph, in all sentences, summarizes the various gaps (move 2b) that have been identified in the body of the review. Te points out the various shortcomings in the methodological Approaches that have been employed in WTC research, suggesting that these, together with a longitudinal focus sentence 16), should bo investigated. Paragraph 4 Sentence 17 then explains that the research project being reported in the thesis investigated the gaps identifed in paragraph 3 and thatthe methodological framework informing the project was task- based. Finally, sentence 18 announces the aims and the 4 research {questions that guided the study, together with the context and dura tion of the investigation. Thus, moves 3 a, b and c have been included, to some extent in this paragraph. Other theses will some- times provide more detail about each of the four sub-moves of move 3. The extent to which this is done is usually determined by ” the extent to which the introduction of the methodology chapter ‘makes these announcements. Your supervisor will be able to guide you on what might be the best approach for your thesis, Evaluating the effectiveness ofthe conclusion provided in our sam- ple thesis, it would be fair to say that apart from the lack of conclusions drawn about the claims made inthe literature and the somewhat scant attention given to move 3 announcements at the end, the conclusion satisfies many of the characteristics and move ‘options presented in Box 4k above, Before concluding this chapter, we need to turn our atention to the Introduction ofthe literature review chapter. Introduction to the literature Although the introduction tothe literature review is placed before the body of the review, i is often the last part ofthe chapter to be ‘written. An initial outline is sometimes written while the body of the review is being prepared and may then be modified once the rest. ‘of the chapter has been written. The primary function of the intro- ‘duction isto give the reader an overview of the main themes/topics ‘that willbe presented in the body of the review: Iris often referred to a8 an ‘advance organizer’. Some authors, when introducing the key theme/topic units, will go beyond a listing of the units and explain the relationship between each of them and so introduce the reader to the central ‘argument’ of the review. As you read the introduction to our sample thesis below in Box 4m, you can think bout whether it might have been a more effective introduction if theauthor had made more explicit connections between the various taitlsections, Box 4m Text of sample introduction “This chaptr reviews the Ierature associated withthe main ares of Inerest n ths study. These areas are fest, motivation ard wing: re to communicate second ask motion rd, the wllngness‘communicate consruct (WTC); an fly, research sues concerned ‘with wlingness co communi aL! and U2 “The frst socon denies the erature that explains the relitonsip ‘between motiatinal research and the study of wilirgnes to comme rics For decades, Gardner's (1972. 1980 1985) soc pychologl {pproach co motivation wat dominant untl 2 situated edvetonal {Spproach (offered or example, by Crookes and Semi 1991; Deel 1994; Oxford and Shearin 1984) was called for in the period of, rotation renaesance during the 199De (OBenyei 2001). The sed of ‘linge to communist represents sn aspect os read moving inthis ‘rection. ‘The second section presents a new developed research paradigm, snd the major conesbutors to Is development (fr ample, jlkonen 1989, 2001: rye! 2003): chat. the so-called sited approach to rotation, refered t0 25 ak motion In she third section he WTC constructs defined athe ous fom he erature, flowed by 2 dscripton of well-esablshed measurements ‘Of WTC (fr example, MeCrostey and Richone 1987), “The WTC construct Is then considered from differing pespecties includ eae state and cura! pespectves. Epil studies of ‘WTC tn (2.35 wall as the eperatnaioauon of WTC In L2, are ako ‘considered in thi section SOME KEY LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF THESIS LITERATURE REVIEWS AND APPROACHES ‘TO PROCESSING THE LITERATURE As you have seen, the literature review provides the reader with ‘the background co fully understand (a) the context of your study ‘and (b) why it was worth doing. In doing this, the ‘argument’ oF ‘ease’ that i developed throughout the literature review reports on and critiques a range of published literature (e.g. theoretical per- spectives and empirical research). The skills that are required to do this effectively are several so this section will outline some of the major ones. Although they are being presented in this chapter alone, they are not only relevant tothe writing of a good literature review. They will also need to be considered when you write other chapeers, ‘Summarizing (paraphrasing and coherence) You willbe reporting on a wide range of literature in your review bur only some ofthis will need to be discussed in detail. That which is most central to the focus of your study is likely to receive a detailed close-up consideration while other material may be sy- thesized more concisely. Most of your summary writing will involve paraphrasing (expressing ideas in your own words) what the liter- ature has reported. Sometimes you may find it useful 0 directly ‘quote what the literature hae said. The skill for doing this will be referred to below. When directly quoting another source, iis very important ro make sure that you integrate the quotation into the structure of your own writing and that you do so with grammatical accuracy. It's also important that your writing and. paraphras- ing provide the reader with coherent text. Avoiding convoluted sentences that may lose grammatical accuracy and therefore com prehensible meaning is one way of achieving coherence. If the reader gts tothe end of along sentence and cannot see how its end ing ultimately relates to the way in which it began, you are likely to hhave created a convoluted sentence. Explicit ather than vague weit- ing will also contribute to coherent text. If you take another ook at any of the passages of text from our sample thesis, you will see ‘hat the author has paraphrased effectively, created coherent text and presented us with clear summary statements of the published literature. ‘Synthesizing (cohesion) ‘Synthesizing what you have read so that you can show similarities and differences in the ideas that are being discussed also requires that you draw upon the skills refered to above. Additionally, 7cohesive links berween ideas (within and across paragraphs) need to be clear to the reader so he ot she can follow your argument ‘or narrative as you present one piece of information after another. “Most often the connection between one proposition and another will be evident by content links bu there are a number of linguistic devices that you can also use to strengthen the cohesion of your ‘writing. In Box 4n below, some ofthese possibilities are presented, with examples from the text we teferred to before and which is, provided again in Box 4o. Box 4n_ Some cohesive techniques with examples from Box 4m Techniques Examples & sentence numbers Sele (sernnces | 82) ‘One meonr, 0 wilnges to cammuncate sale, ‘devebped by (1) The sate os inended wo mesure (2) Relay (sentences 5 &6) Repettion of key word Repetition of key word Yee the WIC scale appeared oof the bast Inne fr elllty ond vl) Studs. fund high eof rellobity...(6) Furchermore (sentence 6 Studs. fund high eel of relay, ‘nd furthermore, reicbity esate ererated.--oppeoed. “This senonce 4 refering to sencence 3) Reais... supped tha...(3) This dd not mean... (4) ‘Other cohesive techniques might include (1) contrast connectors (eg. however, nevertheless, besides), (2) resule connectors (eg. therefore, consequently, thus) and (3) synonyms (words of similar meaning). ” Box 4o Text illustrating cohesive techniques |. One measure, a willingness to communicate sele, developed by McCroskey and Richmond, artmpted co assess 'spersonlty-based ‘alee predaposiion which x reatiely conten across a arity of| ommunistion contents and any types of receivers (1987: 8). 2. The scale was letended 29 measure the exten whieh a person was wile ing to communicate and tinued ites related vo four commnieation contents ~puble speaking, aking at menigs, caking in small groups and aking in dads with three types of receivers ~ strangers, acquain- ‘ances ad ends. 3. Results of studies ung the WTC sale (McCroskay ‘and Boer 1585; McCroskay and MeCrosley1986a, 8) sugested tat an Inia wiling co cemmuniatin one context wih one receiver ype ‘wa highly correlated wih lignes to communist in other contexts and with otber recaer types. 4 This dé no mean, howeve hat a9 Individual was equaly wil to comeuricate In all contexts and with al types of receivers and research directed 3 considering the relion- "hip general found that the lrger the number of rcevers. and the ‘more dstan the relaconshp between the individual andthe recever(), the les wigan indvidal was to communicate (MCrotkey and Rich ‘mond 1991; MeCroskay 1992) 5. Yee the WTC seale appeared 0 ofr the bes insrumene, for realty and val, n measuring the WTC conetruct (MeCroskey and Richmond 1987) 6. Seidl conducted in the United Sates found high levels of rely: and furthermore, rel ably estimates generated from both western and eastern cures (a Li) appeared to be consstene with those obtained inthe United Sates (eCroshey 1992. Asker 1998) 7. In adison, «umber of research studes provided some support fr Its construct and concent vad. 8. MeCrosey (199221) conchded thatthe assumptions underlying the WTC insrumene were enable andthe the content ality appeared to be saifactay. 9. Silay. Asker (1998: 166) camed that che concant ‘aliiy ofthe data in is study seemed tobe sasfactory ad consistent ‘th dings rom othr secs Reporting the published literature ‘There are two main reasons for reporting what others have said: (1) to explain what has been reported in the literature (includ- ing what research has found) and what has not been reported 9(including gaps in the published literature) and (2) to evaluate fr critique the work of others in order to negotiate your posi- tion/stance with respect to the existing body of knowledge. Another reason for reporting the published literature ~to support your own findings — will be considered in our discussion of results chapter Here, we will focus our attention on some of the knowledge and stills tha are required for explaining what has been reported in the literature and later inthis section, we will focus on the evaluation or critiquing the work of others. (a) different approaches to reporting the published literature ‘hace ofthe main types of reporting are presented below in Box 4p. with there tro etanples being tae from Box A above and the third from Box 4q below. a Box 4p Types of reporting with examples “Types of reporting Examples & sentence number ‘Central reporting author MeCroskey (92:2) conde that upon or hime he osumptrs we ee.) Non-central reporting Yetihe WTC sale appeared to offer ame of author responsible forthe best inseument.n mesuring Chim isplacedin brackets at the WTC enact (MeCrosey and fend of eeence Richmond 1987) (5) Non-reporting les focut_Intravenes refers tthe dese to fon author with no reporting lear a Second onguoge..- (Gardner ‘erb such a argued or found’ and Maelneyre 1995) 7) (©) choice of reporting verb Authors need to take care when choosing their reporting verbs, Because of the similarity in meaning beween some verbs, you can easily misrepresent another author i the reporting verb is not aceu- rate or fails to convey the exact shade of meaning intended. For example, because there is only a shade of difference in meaning between the verbs ‘state’ and ‘claim’, itis important that the appropriate and precise verb be chosen to convey what the source intended and also what you as author intend. Reflecting on the difference berween verbs such as ‘noted’, ‘stated’ ‘argued’, ‘con tended’, ‘claimed’ and ‘established, ican be seen that each ofthese verbs conveys a. greater strength of claim from ‘noted’ through to “etablished’, In the following text in Box 4q from our sample thesis, you can see from the hold examples the range and varying strength of verbs that have been chosen o report ¢he various claims, Box 4q_ Choice of reporting verb with examples 7, Gardoer (1985) established soco-edsctonal model to account {or the rol of various indvidaldiferences in dhe earring of 2 second langage: 8 Ths model proposes two bac atcider ~ inegrativeese ted actudes toward the learning ston 9- negatives refers co the desir go learn a second language to meet and communi with rmambers ofthe L2 community wheres ‘statudes toward the faring ‘anton’ refers to later’ ettion to formal Istracion (Gardner and Macingre 1993) 10. Thee two cases of vrbles coneribuce fe lerere levee of L2 motivation which in tur, influences language Tearing outcomes in both formal and Informal leaning situations (Macintyre and Charos 1996). 11. Gardner approach fas Influenced Imany ides Io L2 motivation and har tad direct empireal support tn the feld of second and foreign Inguage educaien (Gardner 1988), 12 Yee i spite ofthis infuence, ress found in some studies were centradiczary. 13. For example, sides by Oller and hie assocaes ‘reported neptiverautonshpe between integratenes measures and Dreiieney(kehan 1989) (4. Gardner Reef ha admitted! cht no Fk necessary existed between integrative atizades and proficiency, tnd sho. acknowledged that the. pares of rekconships among ‘studi! and moteational varaee and learning outcomes found ‘trtou sues wore uneable (1985), (6) tense of reporting verbs Even within a single paragraph, che choice of tenses for reporting claims or propositions can vary « great deal. Reasons for using particular tenses are presented in Box 4r below.Box 4r Reasons for choice of tense Tense Simple example Reasons Prosenesimple Smith (2008) ‘To convey the current reveals at sate of knowledge, ake 8 {enerlanton and presne faker findings as accepted face ‘sich 2008) To reer toa chim or revealed that... fing thichas been mde Seth (2008) has To reer to the curry revealed that. acopeed sae of afars In Box 4s below, the tenses in bold are identified. You may like to cover column two and make your own identification of tense fst ‘Once you have checked your identification against that provided in column two, think about which reason may have informed the author's choice in each case. Box 4s Examples of tense choice in sample text 7. Gardner (1985) established soco-edvational Past simple model t aecount or the roe of various indi Gferences in the learning ofa second language. | This model proposes two banc attudes ~ Present singe Incegratvenes and atotudes toward the learning sutton’ 9. lnteprativness refers to che desire Present simple fo lear a second fnguage #9 meet and com Imuniate ‘wit members of the L2_commanigy ‘whereas ‘attudes toward the laringstuaton Tefers to learner’ reaction to formal nstrucson (Gardner sod Maclngre 1993) 10. These ewo ‘caer f varies contribute to lees lev. Present simple ‘es of L2 moevation which, in turn infsnees Tanguage tearing outcmes in both formal and informal earring stations (Macintyre and Charos 102 1996). 11. Gardner’s approach has Influenced Present perfect ‘rany studies in L2 motition a fat tad rack {mpl sippors in the fald of second and for ‘pn lngange edvation (Gardner 1988). 12. Yer inspite of ths influence, rests found in some Past simple studs wee ontractory 13 For example, stud les by Oter and his asoces reported neitive Past simple Felonships becween Inegraveess measures {nd proficiency (Seehan 1989). 14 Gardner im felfhad admitted tat nolinknecesariyexsed Past prfec, becween negative steeds and profeieny and alo acknowledged thatthe pers ofrelion- Pas simple ‘hips among aural and metwatonal arable: tnd lari outcomes found in varous tudes Pst imple ‘were una (1985), Evaluating and critiquing the published research [As you were reading the published research for your liteanuee review, you will have been reading it with a ctitcal eye, thinking about the extent to which the claims that are made are justified by the evidence and so on. As you write your literature review, you need to convey these shortcomings to the reader and evali- ate the extent to which the claims are valid and reasonable, You will abo have thought about the appropriateness and robustness of the methodology that various studies had employed and about the way in which the methods were executed. Some of the spe cific questions you might like to think about as you present your review of the literature and evaluate its contribution are presented in Box 4t below. Box 4t Research literature evaluation questions 1 te he esearch sue clearly stated? 2 le ke context sfcndy explained? 4. Isthere suis jsticaton for the research? 4 Are the research qustonihypoceses leary Famed?Box 4¢ (Continued) 5. Is the methodological approach relevant and comprshensive enough for these quetonlhypheses! ‘Arehe methods of dita collection appropriate and sufeendy wide- ‘aging to produce satstitory answers! ‘Are the research instruments appropriate forthe research? ‘Are the varables and constructs ofthe research clearly defined and scoped? ‘Are he data colection procedures sufficient complete? ‘Are the dat say procedures appropriate! Have the data been appropriately analyzed? ‘Are he iin ofthe da rlated clearly to the research questions! hypotheses? ‘Ace the findings relevant co the research qusinslhypotheras! ‘Ace the fringe slicer to provide sxtstactory anoners £0 che ‘questionsfypotheses? ‘Ar the chim and conclsions soundly tased onthe findings ofthe tesearch ‘Are the implicxions and application dawn fom the fiings! ‘Taking a stance towards the published literature Having reviewed and evaluated the published literature, you will ‘want to make your stance towards it known to the ceader. There are a number of linguistic strategies that can be employed to help, you reveal your stance and these are presented in Box 4u below. Box 4u Linguistic strategies for evaluating published literature Strategies Purpose Examples Hedges To withhold your fl ‘Moy mag possibly ha comment toa statement seemed fo; oppeared to Boosters To reveal your ceringy Car definite without show sarement inte 104 Ariude ——Torevesl youratsnude Interesting supiing markers towards scatoment—unorunatey Engagement To bud rebionship As you cane; you wil hare mince swith te reader rated that conser wheter Salémencone To make reference to we: our the research) ‘Through the precise choice of verbs, you can also reveal your stance towards the published literature. Consider, for example, the dif- ference in attitude and stance that is conveyed by the use of the verbs we considered beforehand: noted, stated, argued, contended, claimed, established. You can also show the commitment of writers and researchers t0 their claims inthe same way. Consider, for example the differences revealed through the use ofthe following verbs: suggested, asserted, admitted, maintained. Well-chosen adjectives can also convey your stance towards the work of others. Consider, for example, the use of the follow- ing: a truly innovative design; his enlightening observations; this landmark study: this seminal work; this uninspiring result. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 1. How long should the literature review bet ‘This will most likely depend on whether you are writing a Masters ‘oF a Doctoral thesis. The literature review of a Doctoral thesis way well have 2-3 chapters while that of a Masters thesis may have only one chapter. Another guideline that supervisors often give their students is that che review may occupy about one thied ofthe thesis, excluding references, appendices and so on. It is likely to be the longest chapter that you write. At the end ofthe da, i is important that you cover sufficient background to situate well the various issues you were investigating IF you were examining a number of variables, for example, the length of the review may be relativelylengthy in case you seek to background each variable in reasonable eral. Ukimately, this question should be asked of your supervisor. 2, How do I decide what to include and what not to include in the literature review? The advice I give my students is that the research questions! hypotheses must guide you in determining what isfs not relevant. ‘You can ask yourself the following questions: (1) Which aspect of my thesis does this literature relate to? (2) Docs i add anything new to what has been included already? Following the mind-map approach introduced earlier in this chap- ter should help you decide whether or not a certain piece of Iiterature is relevant. 3. Should I refer to methodology literature in my literature review? “The literature informing your own methodology is usually pre- sented in the methodology chapter. However, when you are review: ing and evaluating your literatire review material, you may cele 10 various aspects of methodology in order to explain why a claim or 4 finding, for example is or isnot valid and convincing. Sometimes, ‘and this ir mor likely to be the case for a Doctoral thesis, separate literature review chapter focuses on methodological issues alone. 4. If many writerstresearchers have made the same claim, bow ‘many should I refer tot Generally speaking, you would be best to refer to three or four, ‘making sure that you include the most recent and the most signif cant. Concerning the latter, you would certainly want to include an earlier seminal work. FURTHER ACTIVITIES ‘The following activities could be done individually, in pairs (with another thesis student or with your supervisor) or in small groups: 1. IF you have read other theses as part of your literature search for can access theses in your discipline area from the library, 106 select the literature review from one thesis and carry out the following tasks: (a) Paraphrase one or two paragraphs of the unit. (b) Identify examples ofthe authors stance, drawing upon the strategies presented in Box 4t above. {c) Identify the reporting verbs that the author has used and think about the extent ro which you think they are appro: priate (a) Under the headings central, non-entral and non-reportng, identity examples of the way in which the literature referred to has been presented. 2, Select one of the most important journal articles you have read ‘and do a critical evaluation of it, focusing on the questions provided in Box 4s above. 3. Ifyou have written a draft of your literature review chapter, you could refer to the move and sub-move options presented earlier inthis chapter to evaluate what you have writen, 4. Do a move analysis of the following thematic unit from our sample Doctoral thesis and decide whether or not there are any noteworthy differences between this unit and others we have discussed in tie chapter. Alernatively, you may want to select tunie from one ofthe theses you have read. ‘Oxcput i he language produced by the learner. There Is debate, t00, ‘over the role of curt. Whe Krashen (198, 1985, eral) does not See any theoretical role for utp in SLA, other dagree. Gast (1997) argues tha none sense output not actualy 2 sage in scquion but ‘athe ‘an overt manfestaion of tat proces (p. 7). The role of autpue ln SLA has been put forward most ceri i Swain’ (1985, 195, 2000; Sain & Lapln, 1998) Ourput Hypothels which chs that producing language serves SLA in several wars, ‘One way euput can lp L2 acquisition i by developing fuency (de Bo, 196, Shan 1998; Swan. 1995) or the process of proceduralzaon in | Seaman preon Qe, As lermers proce the 2 ny ) 107WAITING AWAPLED LNGLSTICS THES _ (Continued) become more proficient inthe use of those ngs forme, Wie ou ‘uti sen to develop fiency, Senn (1995) also proposes that ouput babes lasers dendop ing accrery through corelonanesrraong and hypshess-ceseng In regards to consciounessraing, Swain arg ‘tha output can resin the noticing of Inguistc ems. Such moccing i srgued to be nacesary for L2 acqiiion (See Section 25 for a frther

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