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Toxoplasmosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Borana zone, Oromia

region, Ethiopia: seroprevalence and risk factors

Article  in  Tropical Animal Health and Production · August 2016

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Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606
DOI 10.1007/s11250-016-1133-3
REGULAR ARTICLES
Toxoplasmosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Borana zone,
Oromia region, Ethiopia: seroprevalence and risk factors
Endrias Zewdu Gebremedhin 1 & Nura Dima 2 & Ashenafi Feyisa Beyi 2 & Fufa Dawo 2 &
Negassa Feyissa 1 & Edilu Jorga 1 & Vincenzo Di Marco 3 & Maria Vitale 3
Received: 26 May 2016 / Accepted: 16 August 2016 / Published online: 24 August 2016
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract Toxoplasmosis is one of the most prevalent parasit-
ic infections of medical and veterinary importance. A cross-
sectional study was conducted from November 2013 to
January 2014 to estimate the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma
gondii infection in camels from four districts of Borana zone,
Southern Oromia, Ethiopia. In addition, a questionnaire sur-
vey was administered to 124 pastoralists to identify possible
risk factors and to assess the awareness level of pastoral com-
munities about toxoplasmosis. A total of 396 serum samples
were examined for anti-Toxoplasma IgG antibodies using the
direct agglutination test (DAT). Fisher’s exact test and logistic
regression were used for data analysis. An overall seropreva-
lence of 8.33 % (95 % confidence interval [CI] 5.60 %,
11.07 %) at animal-level and 37.5 % (95 % CI: 20.1 %,
57.4 %) at herd-level was found. The seroprevalence was
significantly high in Moyale district (23.07 %) followed by
Yabello (7.20 %), Dirre (3.77 %), and Arero (0.0 %) districts
(P < 0.001). Multivariable logistic regression analysis re-
vealed that the likelihood of acquiring T. gondii infection
was significantly higher in camels of Moyale district (adjusted
* Endrias Zewdu Gebremedhin
endrias.zewdu@gmail.com
Nura Dima
nurathevet01@yahoo.com
Ashenafi Feyisa Beyi
ashenafi.feyisa1@gmail.com
Fufa Dawo
fufa.bari15@gmail.com
Negassa Feyissa
negassa.feyissa@yahoo.com
Edilu Jorga
jedilu8@gmail.com
OR = 5.89, 95 % CI 2.15, 16.12; P = 0.001) than Dirre district,
in camels of >8 years old (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 4.95,
95 % CI 1.68, 14.55; P = 0.004) than camels of ≤4 years old.
There was no significant association between herd-level sero-
prevalence of T. gondii infection and abortion history, herd
size, and presence of domestic cats and wild felids
(P > 0.05). The majority of interviewees were uneducated
(82.25 %), and all had no knowledge of toxoplasmosis. All
camel herders drink raw camel milk but consume cooked meat
(90.32 %). Of the interviewees, 93.06 % are aware about soil-
eating habit of camels and provide salt supplement for their
camels. Majority of the respondents practice improper dispos-
al of aborted materials (throw along the way) (88.70 %), and
73 % of the study participants do not wash their hands after
handling aborted fetus. The results of the present study con-
firm relatively lower prevalence of T. gondii infection in
camels reared in Borana zone. Age and study district are sig-
nificant predictors of T. gondii seropositivity. The vast major-
ities of interviewed pastoralists were uneducated and practice
poor biosecurity measures to prevent diseases. Education of
Vincenzo Di Marco
dimarco.vince@gmail.com
Maria Vitale
marvitus@yahoo.com
1
Department of Veterinary Laboratory Technology, Ambo University,
Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, P.O.Box 19,
Ambo, Ethiopia
2
Department of Clinical Studies, Addis Ababa University, College of
Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, P.O.Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
3
Italian National Reference Centre for Toxoplasmosis at Istituto
Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia A. Mirri, Palermo, Italy
1600
pastoralists about biosecurity measures to prevent toxoplas-
mosis and further studies are warranted to unravel the eco-
nomic and public health consequences of T. gondii infection.
Keywords Toxoplasma gondii . Seroprevalence . Camel .
Borana zone . Risk factors
Introduction
Ethiopia has one of the largest camel populations in the world
predominantly kept in arid lowlands, which cover 50 % of the
country and home range for over 12 million pastoralists.
Ethiopia possesses 2.314 million dromedary camels
(Camelus dromedarius) mainly distributed in the Southern,
Eastern, and North east pastoral regions (CSA 2004). From
a global perspective, the economic production seems minimal.
In Ethiopia, camels are the subset of huge livestock resource
when considered from national economic point of view
(Getahun and Bruckner 2000). Pastoralists depend on camels
for their livelihood. This dependence consists of utilization of
camel meat, milk, leather, and wool and packing, transport,
and riding. Moreover, camels are export commodity for sev-
eral countries and used as an important sport and tourism
resource in the Arabian Gulf countries (Snow et al. 1992). In
Ethiopia, camel production and reproductive performance is
constrained by shortage of feed and water, and diseases
(Keskes et al. 2013).
Camels were formerly considered resistant to most of the
disease commonly affecting livestock, but as more research
was conducted, camels were found to be susceptible to a large
number of pathogenic agents like Brucella spp., T. gondii,
Staphylococci spp. (Dalling et al. 1988).
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most prevalent parasitic infec-
tions of medical and veterinary importance; caused by an ob-
ligate intracellular parasite called T. gondii (Dubey 2010).
Toxoplasmosis is recognized as an emerging food-borne par-
asitic disease (Dorny et al. 2009) responsible for an estimated
20.7 % of food-borne deaths due to known infectious agents
(Ortega 2006). However, toxoplasmosis is still a neglected
and underreported disease in many countries despite having
adverse health effects similar to, for example, those of salmo-
nellosis and campylobacteriosis (Kijlstra and Jongert 2008).
Toxoplasmosis in camel might be an important disease be-
cause of its zoonotic importance and its effect in lowering
reproductive performances (Hilali et al. 1995; Ishag et al.
2006; Serrano-Martinez et al. 2007; Dubey 2010). There is
paucity of data on seroepidemiology of T. gondii in humans
and animals in Ethiopia although numerous literatures associ-
ate human toxoplasmosis with consumption of raw or
undercooked meat product of animal origin (Cook et al.
2000; Dubey 2010). Little is known about isolation of
T. gondii from camels in African countries. In Ethiopia,
Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606
meager published information is available on
seroepidemiology and bioassay of T. gondii infection in
camels (Gebremedhin et al. 2014). Therefore, the objectives
of this study were to estimate the seroprevalence, associated
risk factors, and awareness of pastoralist about toxoplasmosis
in camels in selected districts of Borana zone, Southern
Oromia, Ethiopia.
Materials and methods
Description of study area
The study was conducted in selected districts of Borana,
Southern Oromia, Ethiopia. Borana is a drought-prone pasto-
ral zone located in the southern part of Ethiopia bordering
Somali region in the East, Northern Kenya to the South,
Guji zone to the northeast and Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Regional state (SNNPR) in the
West. Borana is one of the 13 zones in Oromia regional state
located in the arid and semi‐arid southern parts of Ethiopia.
The bi‐modal rainfall regime is prominent in most districts of
Borana rangelands. The average annual rainfall ranges be-
tween 350 and 900 mm, with considerable spatial and tempo-
ral variability in quantities and distribution. Fifty-nine percent
of the rainfall occurs during March to May and 27 % in
September to November. The altitude of Yabello district
ranges from 350 to 1800 m above sea level (masl). Dirre
district is mainly characterized by lowlands and plateaus. It
stretches between 750 and 1670 masl. Arero district lies be-
tween 750 to 1700 masl. Moyale district lies between 1150
and 1350 masl with 80 % lowland and 20 % mid-lowland
agroclimatic zones (Dinka et al. 2013). To represent the agro-
ecological zones in Borana pastoral area, two agroclimatic
zones, namely mid-highland (Bwoinadega^—subtropical zone
with average annual temperature of 22 °C) and lowland
(Bkola^—tropical zone with average annual temperature of
27 °C) agroclimatic zones were chosen; Dirre, Arero, and
Yabello districts represented the mid-highland while Moyale
district represented the lowland agroecology. The distance
range of these districts from the capital of Ethiopia (Addis
Ababa) is 570–780 km (Dinka et al. 2013).
Extensive pastoral livestock production system with mo-
bility is the vital source of food and income in a population of
about 1 million residing in the zone. Cattle are the dominant
animal species. As aridity increases, the principal livestock
shifts gradually from cattle combined with small stock to
camels combined with small stock, with a relative degree of
the social and cultural values accounting for differences
(Demeke 1998). Similar to the other parts of the country, rapid
demographic change is also an issue for Borana zone. The
number of the inhabitants of Borana zone was estimated at
1,162,879 people (CSA 2013).
Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606
Study animals
Three hundred ninety-six camels of both sexes aged above
6 months and belonging to different localities, reproductive
status, agroecological zones, and extensive management sys-
tem were sampled.
Study design and sample size
Study design
The study design was cross-sectional, and the study was con-
ducted from November 2013 to January 2014. Out of the total
13 districts of Borana zone, the study districts were selected
purposively to represent the midland and lowland
agroecologies on top of suitability from the standpoint of se-
curity, accessibility, and availability of infrastructure.
Sample size
The sample size was determined based on expected preva-
lence (P) of 49.62 % (Gebremedhin et al. 2014), 95 % confi-
dence interval (Z = 1.96) and a 5 % desired absolute precision
(d) using the formula given by Thrusfield (2005, i.e., n = P (1-
P) Z2/d2). Accordingly, a sample size of 384 was calculated;
however, for the purpose of this study, 396 animals were
considered.
Sample collection and transportation
Approximately 6–10 ml blood samples were collected from
jugular vein of the camels by using disposable plain
vacutainer tubes and needles. Sera were transported in an ice
box to Yabello regional veterinary laboratory during the field
study time and were sent to Addis Ababa University, College
of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Ethio-Belgium
laboratory.
Questionnaire survey
A semi-structured questionnaire was prepared to gather
information about the potential risk factors and awareness
of owners/herders about acquiring T. gondii infection in-
cluding the habit of consumption of raw camel meat and
milk and it contained mostly closed-ended questions to
ease data processing, minimizing variation and improve
precision of responses (Thrusfield 2005). This question-
naire was randomly administered to 124 pastoralists. The
questions in the questionnaire included sex (male, fe-
male), age (≤4 years, 4–8 years and ≥8 years), presence
of wild felids (yes/no), presence of cats (yes/no), source
of water (tap, well, river, pond and lake, mixed), and herd
1601
size (small 1–9, medium 10–19, large ≥20 camels) [Omer
et al. 2011]. Additionally, information about history of
abortion (yes/no), educational level (uneducated, primary
school, secondary school, tertiary/university), awareness
about the health risk of cat to human (yes/no), awareness
about diseases transmitted from cat to camel (yes/no),
awareness about T. gondii (yes/no), way of camel meat
consumption (cooking, without cooking, both), raw camel
milk drinking (yes/no), way of handling of aborted fetus
(using glove, washing hands, without washing hands),
way of disposing of aborted fetus (giving to cat, throwing,
burying, burning), camel soil-eating habit (yes/no), and
mineral supplementation (yes/no) were documented dur-
ing the field survey.
Serological test
T. gondii-specific IgG antibodies (in camels) were detected
by the direct agglutination test (DAT) [Toxo screen DA,
biomerieux®, France] following the procedure described
by the manufacturer of the kit. The kit has sensitivity and
specificity of 96.22 and 98.80 %, respectively. Briefly, the
serum samples were diluted 1:40 and 1:4000 using phos-
phate buffer saline (PBS, pH = 7.2) and 25 μl of diluted
sera were placed in U-bottom well of the microtiter plate.
Sera samples were treated with 0.2 M 2-mercaptoethanol
to remove nonspecific IgM or IgM-like substances.
Sedimentation of antigens at the bottom of the well was
considered as a positive result while a clear agglutination
above the half of the well was considered as a negative
result. A titer of 1:40 or 1:4000 or both was considered
indicative of T. gondii exposure. Positive and negative
controls were included in each test.
Data analysis
Data generated from the laboratory investigation and the
questionnaire survey were recorded and coded on
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft corporation) and
analyzed using STATA version 11.0 for windows (Stata
corp. College Station, TX, USA). Descriptive statistics
were utilized to summarize the data and Fisher’s exact
test was used to determine animal- and herd-levels, prev-
alence, and proportions of positive animals for T. gondii
with respect to district, sex, age, and parity. Seropre
valence was calculated as the number of serologically
positive samples divided by the total number of tested
samples multiplied by 100. The association of potential
risk factors with T. gondii IgG seropositivity was analyzed
using logistic regression. The significance level was set at
α ≤ 0.05.
1602 Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606

Results Table 2 Animal-level seroprevalence of T. gondii in camels described

by districts, sex, age. and parity

Seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG seropositivity Categories No. tested No. Positive (%) P value

The overall animal- and herd-level seroprevalence of IgG an- District Arero 34 0 (0) <0.001
tibodies against T. gondii in camels of the current study area Dirre 159 6 (3.77)
was 8.33 % (95 % CI 5.60 %, 11.07 %) and 37.50 % (95 % CI Yabello 125 9 (7.20)
22.73 %, 54.20 %), respectively. Both animal- and herd-level Moyale 78 18 (23.08)
seroprevalence of camel toxoplasmosis was significantly dif- Sex Male 97 3 (3.09) 0.034
ferent between districts (P < 0.05). The highest animal- and Female 299 30 (10.03)
herd-level seroprevalence was recorded in Moyale district Age ≤4 years 207 7 (3.40) <0.001
(Table 1). 4-8 years 108 8 (7.40)
>8 years 81 18 (22.22)
Parity 1 41 2 (4.88) 0.032
Animal-level seroprevalence 2–4 87 12 (13.79)
>4 44 11 (25.00)
The seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG seropositivity was signif-
icantly higher (P < 0.05) in female (10.03 %) than male
(3.09 %) camels, in camels older than 8 years (22.20 %) than herd-level seroprevalence and herd size, presence of domestic
those camels ≤4 years (3.40 %), and in camels more than four cats, presence of wild cats, and history of abortion (P > 0.05).
parities (25.00 %) than those in the first parity (4.88 %)
(Table 2). Risk factors

The result obtained from the univariable logistic regression

Herd-level seroprevalence
Among the 40 camel herds examined, 15 herds (37.5 %) had
at least one seropositive camel. Fisher’s exact test analysis
showed that the herd-level seroprevalence of T. gondii infec-
tion was significantly associated with districts (P = 0.033).
Herd-level seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in Moyale
district (100 %) was higher as compared to Yabello
(35.29 %) and Dirre (31.25 %) districts. Even though the
seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was higher in camel
herds which drunk water from pond and lake (71.43 %) than
those camels which drunk water from the tap and river
(25.0 %), the difference was not statistically significant
(P = 0.103). No significant association was found between
Table 1 Animal- and herd-level seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in
camels from four districts of Borana zone, Southern Oromia, Ethiopia
analysis showed that districts, sex, age, and parity were found
to be significantly associated with Toxoplasma seropositivity
(Table 3). Camels from Moyale had nearly eight times
(OR = 7.65, 95 % CI 2.9, 20.2) more chances of being sero-
positive compared with those camels originated from Dirre
district.
The output of the multivariable logistic regression analysis
showed that districts and age were significantly associated
with seropositivity (P < 0.05) [Table 4], while peasant associ-
ation (PA) and parity were eliminated from the model due to
collinearity with district and age, respectively. At the herd-
level, except for the variable the source of water (pond and
lake, P = 0.045), other variables (district, history of abortion,
presence of domestic cat, presence of wild felids and herd
size) did not have significant association with T. gondii infec-
tion (P > 0.05) in both the univariable and multivariable logis-
tic regression analyses.

District Animal-level seroprevalence* Herd-level seroprevalencea Awareness of pastoralists about toxoplasmosis

No. tested No. positive (%) No. tested No. Positive (%)
A questionnaire survey was administered to 124 camel
Arero 34 0 3 0 herders/owners (including the 40 sampled herds’ owners) for
Dirre 159 6 (3.78) 16 5 (31.25) the purpose of evaluating the general communities’ awareness
Yabello 125 9 (7.20) 17 6 (35.29) about the toxoplasmosis in the study districts. About 82 % of
Moyale 78 18 (23.07) 4 4 (100.00) the respondents were illiterate while 17.75 % of them attended
Overall 396 33 (8.33) 40 15 (37.50) at least primary schools. All (100 %) respondents had no
knowledge about T. gondii and diseases it could induce.
*Significant difference (P value = <0.001) Additionally, none of the respondents knew about the role of
a
Non-significant difference (P value = 1.0) cats in transmitting diseases to camels. However, 19.35 % of
Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606 1603

Table 3 Results of univariable

logistic regression analysis of risk Risk factors No. tested No. positive (%) Odds ratio 95 % CI of OR P value
factors of T. gondii infection in
camels at animal-level Lower Upper

District Arero 34 0 NA
Dirre 159 6 (3.77) Ref
Yabello 125 9 (7.20) 1.98 0.68 5.72 0.207
Moyale 78 18 (23.07) 7.65 2.90 20.20 <0.001*
Age ≤4 years 207 7 (3.4) Ref
4–8 years 95 3 (7.4) 2.27 0.78 6.69 0.120
>8 years 94 8 (20.2) 8.16 3.39 21.83 <0.001*
Sex Male 97 3 (3.09) Ref
Female 299 30 (10.03) 3.49 1.04 11.72 0.043*
PA Kawa and Dhadim 58 0 NA
D/Badana 75 1 (1.33) Ref
Dhedhertu 50 1 (2.0) 1.51 0.09 24.72 0.773
Madhacho 48 2 (4.17) 3.22 0.28 36.50 0.346
Higo 36 3 (8.33) 6.73 0.67 67.1 0.104
Dharito 50 8 (16.0) 14.1 1.70 116.6 0.014*
Bokola 79 18 (22.8) 21.8 2.83 168.27 0.003*
Parity 1 41 2 (4.87) Ref
2–4 87 12 (13.79) 3.12 0.79 20.69 0.149
>4 44 11 (25.00) 6.50 1.60 43.97 0.020*

NA not applied, Ref reference, PA peasant association

*significant

the respondents knew the health risk of cats to humans notably
in the transmission of rabies. About 90 % of interviewed pas-
toralists consume camel meat after cooking. All interviewed
pastoralists consume raw camel milk. About 93 % of
interviewed pastoralists do have awareness about the soil-
eating habit of their camels (Table 5).
Discussion
Camel population in Ethiopia is over 2.3 million (CSA 2004).
Despite the importance of camels in Ethiopian economy, there
is shortage of information on camel diseases in general and on
toxoplasmosis in particular. To the best of the knowledge of
the authors, the current study is the second (the first being in
Fentale district, central Oromia, by Gebremedhin et al. 2014)
seroepidemiological study of T. gondii infection in camels in
Ethiopia using DAT.
Unlike the present findings, higher seroprevalence ranging
from 13.1–90.9 % has been reported previously in Ethiopia
(Gebremedhin et al. 2014), Turkey (Utuk et al. 2012), Sudan
(Khalil and Elrayah 2011), Egypt (Shaapan and Fathia Khalil
2008), Saudi Arabia (Hussein et al. 1988), Iran (Hamidinejat
et al. 2013), and the United Arab Emirates (Abu-Zeid 2002).
Comparison of prevalence between countries might be diffi-
cult; however, variation between the present study and studies
done in other countries might be attributed to difference in the
density of domestic cats and wild felids, difference in climatic

Table 4 Results of multivariable

logistic regression analysis of risk Risk factors Adjusted 95 % CI of OR P value
factors of T. gondii infection in odds ratio
camels at animal-level (aOR) Lower Upper

District Arero NA
Dirre Ref
Yabello 2.26 0.76 6.70 0.141
Moyale 5.89 2.15 16.12 0.001*
Age ≤4 years Ref
4–8 years 1.49 0.46 4.80 0.503
>8 years 4.95 1.68 14.55 0.004*
Sex Male Ref
Female 1.75 0.43 7.16 0.434

NA not applied, Ref reference

*significant
1604 Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606

Table 5 Summary of the

findings of the questionnaire Questions Categories No of respondents (%)
survey regarding possible risk
factors and awareness level of Level of education Uneducated 102 (82.25)
pastoralists about toxoplasmosis Primary school 19 (15.32)
in camels in Borana Secondary school 1 (0.80)
Tertiary/university 2 (1.61)
Awareness about health risk of cat to human Yes 24 (19.35)
No 100 (80.64)
Awareness about disease transmitted from cats to camels Yes 0 (0)
No 124 (100)
Awareness about Toxoplasmosis Yes 0 (0)
No 124 (100)
Way of camel meat consumption Always cooking 112 (90.32)
Always without cooking 0 (0)
Both 12 (9.67)
Raw camel milk drinking Yes 124 (100)
No 0 (0)
Way of handling of aborted fetus Using glove 0 (0)
Washing hands after handling 33 (26.61)
No washing after handling 91 (73.38)
Way of disposing of aborted fetus Giving to cat 0 (0)
Throwing along the way 110 (88.70)
Burying 0 (0)
Burning 14 (11.29)
Camel soil eating habit Yes 103 (83.06)
No 21 (16.94)
Mineral supplementation Yes 124 (100)
No 0 (0)
Water source for camel Tap water 11 (8.87)
Well 46 (37.09)
Pond & lake 43 (34.68)
River 0 (0)
Mixed 24 (19.35)

condition farming and management practices, difference in
the serological tests employed, serum dilutions, sample size,
and sex of camels (Dubey 2010).
The relatively lower seroprevalence of T. gondii infection
in the current study (8.33 %) as compared to previous study
made in Fentale district of Oromia region (46.62 %) might be
due to several factors such as the low number of animal and
human populations per square kilometer (CSA 2007) and the
low cat density and rearing of camels in marginal areas of
Borana zone. The emerging agropastoral practices, use of ir-
rigation schemes, and possible migration of camels of Fentale
to mid- and highland areas where toxoplasmosis is highly
prevalent (Zewdu et al. 2013; Gebremedhin et al. 2014) might
have additionally contributed to the high prevalence of toxo-
plasmosis in Fentale district compared to Borana zone.
Moreover, all interviewed herders provide salt for their camels
normally for fattening and as a means of withstanding some
diseases like respiratory disease (locally Bfurri^) and gastro-
intestinal tract parasitosis. Soil acidity (Demeke 1998) and salt
supplementation might decrease the seroprevalence of
T. gondii in Borana zone which agreed with a finding of
Jamra et al. (1991) who reported that the table salt has an
inactivation effect on T. gondii reducing its transmission.
In the current study, camels from Moyale district were
nearly six times (adjusted OR = 5.89) more likely to be
seropositive to T. gondii infection than camels of Dirre district
(P = 0.001) while no positive camel was found in Arero dis-
trict. This variation among the districts could be attributed to
the differences in environmental temperatures and moistures
(Dinka et al. 2013). Additionally, the better chance of contact
of camels of Moyale district with cats might have contributed
for the relatively higher seroprevalence. The influence of en-
vironment on the epidemiology of T. gondii infection has been
well documented (Dubey 2010).
In the present study, the seroprevalence of T. gondii infec-
tion was significantly higher in older camels (>8 years) (ad-
justed OR = 4.95, 95 % CI 1.68, 14.55; P = 0.004) than youn-
ger camels (≤4 years). The proportion of camels seropositive
to T. gondii infection increased as the age of camels increases.
Older animals are more likely to have been exposed to any one
of the different risk factors to acquire T. gondii infection than
younger animals. This finding is in harmony with the studies
conducted in Ethiopia (Gebremedhin et al. 2014) and else-
where (Hamidinejat et al. 2013), where a higher seropreva-
lence in adult than young camels was reported.
Univariable logistic regression showed that the chance of
T. gondii seropositivity in female camels (10.03 %, 95 % CI
10.4, 11.72) was 3.5 times higher than male camels (3.09 %,
95 % CI 0.64, 8.77) [P = 0.043] which might be due to de-
pressed physiological or immunological state in relation to
Trop Anim Health Prod (2016) 48:1599–1606
stress of pregnancy and lactation. This finding is coincided
with the finding of Hussein et al. (1988) from Saudi Arabia
who also found sex-linked differences in seropositivity. In this
study, the seropositivity of T .gondii infection in camels with
respect to parity varied from 4.87 to 25.00 %. The likelihood
of T. gondii seropositivity was significantly higher in camels
with higher parity number. This might be related to increased
exposure to different sources of T. gondii infection as the
parity number increases (Qublan et al. 2002).
None of the study participants appeared to be aware of
toxoplasmosis and its transmission to humans and between
animals. The role of cats and wild felids in the epidemiology
of the disease is totally unknown. Hygienic methods of han-
dling and disposal of aborted materials were not practiced.
Serrano-Martinez et al. (2007) indicated T. gondii as an im-
portant cause of abortion in camel population and burying and
burning of aborted fetus were suggested as good methods for
control of disease transmission. Lack of awareness about
toxoplasmosis is a potential risk factor to expose the individ-
uals to the disease. Moreover, the behavior of consumption of
raw camel milk by all respondents as well as raw camel meat
by 9.67 % of respondents, and possibly undercooked camel
meat, puts pastoralists of Borana zone in a more vulnerable
position with increased risk of acquiring T. gondii infection
and other zoonotic diseases. Human cases of toxoplasmosis
have been linked directly to consumption of raw goat milk
(Paul 1998). Risk factor studies in Sudan have suggested an
association between toxoplasmosis and drinking raw camel
milk (Elamin et al. 1992). This finding was further strength-
ened by the recent report of detection of T. gondii tachyzoites
from naturally infected camels in Iran (Dehkordi et al. 2013).
Similarly, Ishag et al. (2006) from Sudan detected tachyzoites
in milk of experimentally infected camels. Thus, consumption
of raw camel milk in Borana zone of Ethiopia, where the
seroprevalence T. gondii infection was 8.3 %, might constitute
important public health risk.
Conclusions
The results of the present study confirm relatively lower prev-
alence of T. gondii infection in camels reared in Borana zone.
Age and study district are significant predictors of T. gondii
seropositivity in camels. The vast majority of interviewed
pastoralists were uneducated and practice poor biosecurity
measures to prevent diseases. All interviewees had no aware-
ness about toxoplasmosis and the risk of acquiring the disease
from raw camel meat and milk is high. Preventive measures,
mainly education and awareness creation for the camel
herders/owners about identified risk factors and the role of
consuming raw or undercooked meat and edible offals and
handling of aborted fetus in acquiring of the disease should
be undertaken. Further studies assessing the role of camel
1605
meat and milk in transmission of toxoplasmosis to humans
under Borana conditions is imperative.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the financial sup-
port of Addis Ababa University (sub-thematic project investigation on
major camel diseases in Ethiopia and development of intervention strat-
egies), and the Italian National Reference Centre for Toxoplasmosis at the
Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia A. Mirri, Italy and par-
tial financial support to Maria Vitale grant No. RF 2007/RC. The authors
are grateful to the camel owners (pastoralists) for their collaboration in the
sampling and supplying information.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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