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HydroCAD-10 Owners Manual PDF
HydroCAD-10 Owners Manual PDF
Version 10
Owner's Manual
®
HydroCAD is a registered trademark of HydroCAD Software Solutions LLC.
Other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
1-800-927-7246
Tel: (603) 323-8666
Fax: (603) 323-7467
www.hydrocad.net
ISBN 978-0-913633-15-1
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Copyright
This publication and the associated software are copyrighted, with
all rights reserved to HydroCAD Software Solutions LLC. (“HSS”).
Your rights are subject to the limitations and restrictions imposed
by international and U.S. copyright laws. No part of this publication
may be reproduced in any form or by any means without written
permission from HSS.
Trademarks
This publication incorporates trademarks which are the property of
HSS. You may use these trademarks only for the purpose of
identifying the products of HSS, in accordance with accepted
trademark practice. Such use of any trademark does not give you
any rights of ownership in that trademark.
Other Trademarks
AutoCAD® is a registered trademark of Autodesk, Inc. Windows,
Windows 7, and Vista are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corp.
License Agreement
The accompanying computer software is licensed, not sold, to you by
HSS, under the terms of the license agreement shown in the
software’s installation program. By installing or using the software
you agree that you have read the license, and that you accept its
terms.
Disclaimer of Warranty
Although HSS has used its best efforts in the compilation and
preparation of this publication, it is provided “as-is”, with no
warranties, express or implied, that the publication or associated
software are error-free.
HSS MAKES NO WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
REGARDING THE PERFORMANCE OF THIS PUBLICATION OR
THE ASSOCIATED SOFTWARE, OR ITS MERCHANTABILITY OR
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. HSS SHALL NOT BE
LIABLE FOR ANY DAMAGES ALLEGED TO ARISE FROM THE
USE OF THIS PUBLICATION OR THE ASSOCIATED
SOFTWARE, INCLUDING LOSS OF REVENUES OR DAMAGE TO
PROPERTY, PERSONS, OR INTERESTS, INCLUDING BUSINESS
INTERRUPTION OR LOSS OF BUSINESS PROFITS, EVEN IF
HSS IS ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
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Table of Contents
Introduction to HydroCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Section 1 - What is HydroCAD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Section 2 - HydroCAD Features and Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Current Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Features added in HydroCAD-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Features added in HydroCAD-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Features added in HydroCAD-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Features added in HydroCAD-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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Section 7 - Data Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Tabular Data Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Automated Tabular Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Importing a TR-20 Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Importing Data from AutoCAD® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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Section 13 - SCS Unit Hydrograph Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Data Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
TR-55 and the Tabular Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Section 14 - Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Runoff Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Section 15 - Rational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Runoff Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Frequency Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Section 16 - Reach Routing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Reach Routing Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Reach Routing Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Reach Routing Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Reach Routing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Storage-Indication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Muskingum-Cunge Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Simultaneous Reach Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Effects of Reach Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Section 17 - Pond Storage Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Prismatoid Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Vertical Conic Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Round Pipe Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Box Pipe Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Elliptical and Arch Pipe Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Parabolic Arch Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Prefab Chamber Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Custom Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
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Section 18 - Pond Hydraulics Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Sharp-Crested Rectangular Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Broad-Crested Rectangular Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V-Notch Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Trapezoidal Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Weir Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Custom Weir/Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Asymmetrical Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Submerged Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Dam Breach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Rectangular Orifice in a Vertical Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Rectangular Orifice in a Horizontal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Orifice Discharge Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Circular Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Orifices Under Low-Head Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Modeling a Grate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Culvert Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Tube & Siphon Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Constant-Flow Outlet Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Special Outlet Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Pump Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exfiltration Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Tips for Using Exfiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Discharge Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Discharge Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Section 19 - Pond Routing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Stage-Storage Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Stage-Discharge Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Compound Outlet Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Pond Routing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Storage-Indication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Additional Routing Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Dynamic Storage-Indication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Simultaneous Pond Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Tailwater Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Reverse Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Section 20 - Detention Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Section 21 - Hydrograph Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
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Section 22 - Link Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Basic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Advanced Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Elevation Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Link Routing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Using a Link to Model a Large Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
External Hydrograph Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Hydrograph Export Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Section 23 - Land-Use Analysis & Pollutant Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Section 24 - Calculation Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Section 25 - Frequently Asked Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Section 26 - References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Appendix A1: Hydrologic Soil Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Appendix A2: Runoff Curve Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Appendix A3: Curve Number Adjustment for AMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Appendix B1: HydroCAD Rainfall Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Appendix B2: SCS Synthetic Rainfall Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Appendix B4: Rainfall Depth Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Appendix C: Manning's Number Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Appendix D1: Broad-Crested Weir Coefficients for Sharp-Edged Crests . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Appendix D2: Broad-Crested Weir Coefficients for Assorted Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Appendix E: Culvert Entrance Loss Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Appendix F: Sheet Flow Roughness Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Appendix G: Velocity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Appendix H: Cross-Sectional Area & Perimeter Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
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Introduction to HydroCAD
This section contains general information
about HydroCAD and the capabilities it
provides.
Introduction to HydroCAD 11
12 Introduction to HydroCAD
Section 1 - What is HydroCAD?
HydroCAD is a Computer Aided Design program for modeling the hydrology and hydraulics of
stormwater runoff, commonly referred to as H&H. HydroCAD uses procedures developed by the
Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service), plus a wide range of
other standard H&H calculations, to produce a fully-integrated, interactive stormwater modeling
system. Although HydroCAD was initially developed for use in the United States, it has global
application due to its ability to incorporate local rainfall and soil data.
HydroCAD is commonly used to generate runoff hydrographs for a given watershed and study their
flow through a drainage system consisting of natural and/or artificial components. This allows the
designer to verify the adequacy of the drainage system, or to predict where flooding or erosion
problems are likely to occur. These studies are often performed under a number of different rainfall
conditions, to verify the behavior of the system under various environmental conditions.
HydroCAD takes this capability one step further by maintaining a complete database for the
watershed and drainage system. This allows HydroCAD to provide an interactive working model
for the entire system where changes can easily be made and their effects viewed. With HydroCAD
this takes just seconds, not hours, so the engineer can interact with the watershed model in a way
not previously possible. This lets the engineer evaluate multiple design alternatives and choose
the most suitable, based on a range of safety, environmental, and financial considerations.
The advent of interactive design tools, like HydroCAD, frees the engineer to concentrate on creative
design, a goal which is often sacrificed when analysis of each alternative requires hours or days of
tedious calculations. No program can substitute for human creativity, but it can greatly aid that
creativity by assisting with the critical analysis of each idea or design. This is the goal of
HydroCAD.
Introduction to HydroCAD 13
14 Introduction to HydroCAD
Section 2 - HydroCAD Features and Capabilities
Current Features
Introduction to HydroCAD 15
Pond Storage Reporting
Custom stage-storage data Instant on-screen reports & graphs
Prefabricated chamber definitions Multiple report formats
Common storage shapes Multi-node & pre/post comparisons
Embedded storage volumes Metric, English, & custom units
Adjustable voids (for stone fill) Independent units for input & reports
Complex storage arrangements Export reports in multiple formats
Automatic data import/export
Underground Storage
Extensive library of prefab chambers General
Chamber reports Fully automatic calculations
Chamber layout wizard Unlimited hydrograph points
Automatic end-cap handling Automatic hydrograph summation
On-screen routing diagram
Water Quality Calculations Full drag-and-drop operation
Center-of-Mass detention time Diagram snap-to-grid
Plug-Flow detention time Diagram background images
Land-Use reporting Automatic hints and warnings
Pollutant loading Complete on-line help
Automatic timed backup
Special Operations Default project settings
Linked projects Multi-project operation
Flow thresholds & limits
Automatic flow diversions International Use
Metric units (SI) or English (US Customary)
Data Exchange Hard-Metric or English calculations
Tabular watershed import and export Accepts local rainfall data
Hydrograph import and export Customizable ground-cover tables
Linkage to Carlson Hydrology
Import sub-area data from AutoCAD®
16 Introduction to HydroCAD
Features added in HydroCAD-10
HydroCAD-10 adds a wide range of new engineering, reporting, and operational capabilities.
Introduction to HydroCAD 17
Features added in HydroCAD-9
18 Introduction to HydroCAD
Features added in HydroCAD-8
Introduction to HydroCAD 19
Features added in HydroCAD-7
HydroCAD-6 was the first native Windows release. It provided all the capabilities of earlier
versions, plus many new features including:
• Complete support for English, metric, mixed, or custom units.
• New tailwater-sensitive routing procedures.
• Ability to work on multiple projects at the same time.
• Enhanced data entry, reporting, and data export.
• Calculations speed increased by approximately fifty times.
20 Introduction to HydroCAD
HydroCAD User's Guide
This section contains information on the
installation and operation of HydroCAD.
It’s a hands-on guide for users of the
program which supplements the
information contained in the HydroCAD
help system.
This manual is intended to supplement the information contained in the HydroCAD help system,
which should be consulted for complete information on most topics, including step-by-step
operating instructions. Together they provide the basic information needed by qualified engineers
to install and use HydroCAD.
For assistance while using the program, click the Help button on
any screen, or select one of the Help items on the HydroCAD menu.
The help system includes hints, definitions, equations, and
background information for each field on all HydroCAD screens, as
well as detailed information on all program operations. In many
areas, the help system includes considerably more detail than the
printed documentation.
For new, updated, and expanded material visit the HydroCAD web
site at www.hydrocad.net and click on “Support.” The web site
is updated regularly in response to new questions and issues that
may not be covered in this Manual, and includes contact information
in case you need personal assistance.
! Small bold type indicates a menu selection (such as Project|Open) or a keystroke (such as
Enter).
! Underlined text indicates a user entry, such as the numeric value 12.40.
! The Tab key is often the most convenient way to step from one data field to another. Shift-
Tab can be used to step backwards through fields.
! Clicking the left (or primary) mouse button is indicated by Click. The right (or secondary)
mouse button is indicated by Right-Click, and is used to activate the context menu for many
items.
Installation
1a) To install from a CD, insert the disk in your CD drive and wait for the SETUP program
to appear. If setup doesn’t appear in a few seconds, open the CD (in My Computer) and
select the SETUP program.
1b) To install from the web, download and run the SETUP program.
Installation Notes
For detailed installation instructions, click the “Read Me” button in the setup program.
Always install HydroCAD on a local hard drive, even if you are using HydroCAD on a LAN or
sharing your data over a network The default location of \ProgramFiles\HydroCAD is recommended
unless you have a specific need to install elsewhere.
For a network installation, install each HydroCAD license on one workstation as described above.
You may also elect to share your HydroCAD license(s) within your office by using License Pooling,
as described below. In either case, you must run the installation program on each computer where
HydroCAD will be run.
After installation, each HydroCAD program can access projects on any local or network folder,
subject to the access rights assigned by the network administrator.
Installing an Update
A HydroCAD update is installed in the same manner as an initial installation. In order to preserve
all existing data and settings, the update should be installed in the same folder as your previous
version of HydroCAD. The installation program should detect the previous installation and suggest
the same directory.
If you decide to install an update in a different directory, it is strongly advised that you first
uninstall the previous program. (This is the only situation where it is necessary to uninstall the
program.)
Each version of HydroCAD can directly read projects created with any earlier version. However,
once a project has been modified, it may contain new features that make it incompatible with
earlier versions. If in doubt, make a backup copy of your project files before using them with a new
version.
A detailed list of recent software changes is available on the Start menu under Programs|HydroCAD.
Note: You do not normally need to uninstall HydroCAD before installing an update.
License Pooling
The HydroCAD License Agreement allows “License Pooling.” This technique allows you to
purchase a given number of HydroCAD licenses, and share them among multiple computers at the
same site. (See your software License Agreement for details.)
For example, if you buy 3 licenses, you would have the ability to run HydroCAD on any three
computers in your office at the same time. When properly configured, HydroCAD keeps track of
the number of licenses and users, allowing only the licensed number of copies to run at one time.
2) Install and run HydroCAD on each additional computer. On the Settings|Serial Number form,
press Network to browse to the same shared folder and click OK. The shared serial number(s) will
take effect as soon as you select the correct folder, and the main HydroCAD screen will appear.
(You do not have to reenter the serial numbers.) When the main screen appears, shut down
HydroCAD and repeat this step for any additional computers.
If you have multiple licenses that are already installed separately, you can enable license pooling
at any time. On each station select Settings|Serial Number and press Network to browse to the same
shared folder. As each station is configured, its serial number(s) will be automatically merged with
the shared list.
Operating Sequence
Although HydroCAD's capabilities can be used in any sequence, its power is most easily understood
by viewing it in five basic phases.
1
Although the node position does not affect any of HydroCAD’s calculations, the nodes can be positioned at actual
structure locations if desired.
Each HydroCAD project file includes a routing diagram, associated node data, and all the related
project settings, such as the rainfall, runoff, and routing parameters necessary to model the
hydrology and hydraulics of a given area. It is common to model the existing conditions first, and
then use a separate project file to model the proposed conditions. For further information read
about HydroCAD project files on page 35.
Starting HydroCAD
# Click (or double-click) a HydroCAD project on the desktop or in any folder -or-
# Click a recently used HydroCAD project listed under Start|Documents.
You can open a project regardless of whether or not HydroCAD is already running. If HydroCAD
is already running, the project is opened in the current HydroCAD session in addition to any
projects that are already open.
Other items on the Project menu can be used to close, rename, save, delete, combine, and import
projects.
For details on any menu item, move the mouse over the item
(without clicking on it) and press F1.
Most HydroCAD activities utilize the main screen, containing the routing diagram, plus one or
more report windows, used to view the runoff and routing results. To get more information on any
item, hold the mouse pointer over the item until a pop-up “tool tip” appears.
Main window
Main menu provides Main tool bar gives
most program operations quick access to
common operations
Window buttons let you
Title bar shows minimize, maximize, or
name of current close the window
project Event Selector gives
instant access to any
rainfall Routing diagram shows
interconnected nodes for
current project
To change the
routing, drag any Settings tool bar
outflow arrow gives quick
access to
common settings
Right-click any
Status line gives node to edit or
information about view a report
anything you point
to
Use the Project
selector to switch
between active
projects, or to drag
nodes between
Create new nodes Click a button to
projects Drag across any
by dragging them select a report,
graph to zoom or
from the palette change the layout,
right-click to select
onto the routing or edit the node
curves
diagram
The routing diagram shows the individual nodes that make up each project. The nodes are usually
connected by arrows that indicate how their outflows are routed. Multiple inflows are summed
automatically as required.2
Based on the routing diagram, HydroCAD is able to determine the correct sequence of calculations,
and then calculate the flows throughout the project. Routing calculations are automatically
updated as required. You can manipulate the diagram display with the main scroll bars, the tool
bar, the main menu, the palette, and the mouse.
Watershed components
Each drainage system is represented by a network of the following types of nodes:
! Subcatchment: A relatively homogenous area of land that typically drains into a reach
or pond. Each subcatchment generates a runoff hydrograph. A subcatchment may also be
used to account for the rain falling directly on the surface of a pond. A subcatchment cannot
be used to route an inflow hydrograph. Instead, use a subcatchment to calculate the runoff
and a separate reach to perform the routing.
! Pond: A pond, swamp, dam, catch basin, manhole, drywell, or other impoundment that
fills with water from one or more sources and empties in a manner determined by a weir,
culvert, or other outlet device(s). The outflow of each pond is determined by a hydrograph
routing calculation which attenuates and delays the peak flow. A pond may empty into a
reach or into another pond. An optional secondary outflow may be used to divert the
discharge from specific outlet devices and route them separately. A discarded outflow is
also available for outflows that are not subject to further routing, such as exfiltration.
! Catch Basin: A special type of pond that provides an insignificant amount of storage, but
otherwise has all the properties and capabilities of a pond. Since a catch basin has no
storage capability, it cannot detain or attenuate its inflow. However, the routing
calculations will determine the water surface level (headwater) at each point in time.
! Reach: A uniform stream, channel, or pipe that conveys water from one point to another
and operates under open channel flow.3 A reach may also be used to route an upstream
hydrograph through a subcatchment.4 The outflow of each reach is determined by a
hydrograph routing calculation. This generally delays and attenuates the peak flow. A
reach may be routed into a pond or into another reach.
2
To sum multiple flows without performing a hydrograph routing, use an undescribed reach, pond, or link.
3
To model a pipe under other flow conditions, including headwater and tailwater effects, use a catch basin or pond with
a culvert outlet. This applies to most culverted road crossings, manholes, and other impoundments that feed a pipe.
4
When a reach drains a subcatchment along its length, it may be best modeled as a component of the subcatchment's
Tc calculation, rather than as an independent reach.
Creating a Node
The easiest way to create a node is to drag the desired item from the palette at the left side of the
diagram. (See illustration on page 29.) You can also create a clone of an existing node by dragging
the node while holding down the Ctrl key.
Node Numbering
Each node on the routing diagram must have a unique number in order to distinguish it from other
nodes in the same project. The “number” may also contain non-numeric characters including
letters and punctuation. Although the length of numbers is unrestricted, shorter numbers are
recommended for readability.
Different types of nodes cannot share the same number. If you need to use the same number, you
can distinguish them by adding a suffix, such as 4P (for pond 4) or 4S (for subcatchment 4). This
notation is automatically applied when importing projects from HydroCAD-5, which allowed the
same numbers to be used with each type of node.
The default value consists of one or more digits, followed by the first letter of the node type. The
numeric portion will normally be the lowest possible value that does not conflict with any existing
node. For example, the first default number for a subcatchment will be 1S. When a second
subcatchment is created, its number will be 2S, unless that value is already in use, in which case
the next available value will be used.
HydroCAD can also be configured to assign sequential node numbers. When this mode is selected
(on the Settings|General screen) HydroCAD will use the next available number that is greater than
the last number assigned, even if a lower number is available.
Node numbers, including the default value, may be changed at any time. When doing so, note that
any unique node number may be used. The default digit-letter format is not required.
X,Y Coordinates
Each node on the routing diagram is located at a specific X and Y coordinate. Since the routing
diagram is a schematic representation of a project, the position of the nodes has no effect on the
calculations. However, specific X,Y coordinates may be used if desired.
The current X-Y position of the cursor is displayed in the status bar.
A secondary or tertiary outflow is available only for certain types of nodes, and is intended for
outflows that are to be routed separately. Some nodes may also have an unrouted or discarded
outflow, such as the exfiltration from a pond.
When an outflow is not routed, a circular “handle” appears below the node. The outflow can be
routed by dragging the handle to the desired node. To change an existing routing, drag the arrow
head to another node. To un-route an outflow, drag the arrow head back to the originating node.
Outflow routing can also be modified with Node|Reroute.
Certain nodes can also have a “discarded” outflow (such as the exfiltration from a pond) which is
always discarded and not available for further routing.
The most common node operations are available on the context menu, which is activated by a Right-
click on any node.
# Select Edit to enter or modify specific node information. A separate editing screen is
provided for each type of node, with several categories of information grouped on separate
tabs. When editing a node, press F1 or click the Help button for further details. The help
system contains extensive information, and should be your primary resource when editing
nodes.
# Select Report to open a new report window for the current node. Use the buttons on the
report window to adjust the display and view different reports. There are also several items
on the View menu to help manage report windows.
Shortcut: You can double-click a new node to edit it. Double-clicking an existing node will open a
report window.
See page 37 for further details on data entry and import capabilities.
Automatic Calculations
HydroCAD automatically performs runoff and routing calculations as required, such as when you
view or print a report. Once a report window is open, calculations are automatically updated
whenever a change occurs that affects that node or report. You don’t need to close report window(s)
when making changes to the project: Just move the report to one side, make the changes, and the
report is automatically updated.
Each HydroCAD project maintains a number of calculation settings that control all runoff and
routing calculations. The most notable values are the rainfall settings, although there are many
other related parameters.
For ease of use, the calculation settings are grouped into several pages. Click the Help button on
any page for full details. After making any changes click OK or Apply.5 Any open report windows
will be automatically updated.
Each project may also define an unlimited number of rainfall events. (See the Rainfall tab of the
Settings|Calculation screen.) This allows you to instantly pick any event from the Event Selector on
the main screen, as well as printing reports for multiple events in a single operation.
Whenever calculations are performed, a message window is opened to report the progress of the
calculations. There are three basic types of messages:
Click on any message in the window for additional details. This will
link you to all the related technical information you need to
understand and resolve the situation. A complete list of messages
is also provided on page 131.
Important: Warning messages indicate that calculations have exceeded acceptable conditions.
Runoff and routing results cannot be relied upon while any warning messages are present! You
must understand and resolve all warning messages.
Right-click any message for other related options. This lets you
open a report or edit a node directly, without returning to the
routing diagram.
5
The Apply button is used to implement any new settings without closing the window. This lets you see the effects of
different values without having to re-open the window each time. Otherwise you can just use the OK button, which saves
the changes and closes the window. You do not need to click Apply and OK.
You can print individual reports by clicking the Print button on any report window. To print several
reports at once, select Print|Report or click the corresponding button on the main tool bar. This will
activate the report screen, which allows you to design a custom report for your project.
To print the routing diagram, select Print|Diagram, or use the corresponding button on the main tool
bar.
Other items on the Print menu can be used to change the page and printer settings for your reports.
These values apply to all projects, and are retained from one HydroCAD session to the next.
Units of Measure
To change the units of measure for the current project, select Settings|Units or click the
corresponding button on the settings tool bar. HydroCAD allows independent selection of units for
each of the following purposes:
! Input units are used for all data entry and verification.
! Report units are used for all reports and graphs.
! File units determine how data is stored in the project file.
! Calculation units are used for all internal calculations.
The input and report units include many traditional secondary units, such as rainfall in inches or
millimeters. HydroCAD also supports customized units definitions, including the ability to adjust
the formatting and precision of displayed values. (For details click Help on the units screen.)
For reliable data exchange, project files are always stored in "pure" English or metric units, as
described on page 43. You can change this setting if you plan to read the project file with other
software that requires specific units.
All internal values are maintained and calculated in the specified calculation units. Since internal
values are automatically converted to other units as required, this setting normally has no visible
effect.
New projects are automatically configured for English or metric units depending on your
computer’s country setting. To change your default units for new projects, close any open
projects(s) and open the Settings|Units screen. Whenever a project is open, Settings|Units will
configure the settings only for the current project.
By default, HydroCAD uses Large Units for Areas and Volumes. When this option is selected,
areas are reported in acres or hectares, and volumes are reported in acre-feet or mega-liters. For
projects that work on a smaller scale, you can un-check this option to report areas in square-feet
or square-meters, and volumes in cubic-feet or cubic-meters.
Project Storage
Each HydroCAD project consists of a master .hcp file that contains all essential project data.
Project files are small and easily transmitted as email attachments. You may freely send project
files to colleagues or reviewers, who can open them with a free HydroCAD Sampler available from
www.hydrocad.net You should also send the associated project file with any technical support
inquiries.
Some projects may also employ external hydrograph files, as described on page 128. In order to
keep all related project files together, do not rename projects using normal Windows commands.
Instead, open the project in HydroCAD and use Project|Rename.
Predefined Projects
HydroCAD includes a number of predefined projects. These are stored in the HydroCAD\Projects
folder in Windows “Shared Documents”.
Some predefined projects contain “sample nodes” or templates that you can use in your own
projects. Simply open your project and the sample project at the same time, and copy the desired
nodes to your project.
You can use Copy and Paste to copy nodes between projects, or drag
the nodes via the Project Selector. If the originating project is read-
only, dragging a node will make a clone without altering the original.
Otherwise, you can use Ctrl-Drag to move a copy of the node.
When opening a new project, all project parameters are set to default values. To customize the
default settings, open a new project called “Default,” configure the desired values, and save the
project.
Whenever a new project is created, HydroCAD automatically loads the contents of any
“Default”project that exists in the same folder. If the file isn't found, HydroCAD tries to load it
from the program's installation directory. You can use this behavior to create default settings for
individual folders, or to create master defaults that will be used for all other folders.
Although default projects normally contain only general project settings, they may also contain a
routing diagram and related node data.
A project can be marked Read-Only in order to protect it from accidental changes. To change this
setting use Settings|Read-Only. When a project is Read-Only, it is protected from any major changes.
The diagram can still be panned and zoomed, but nodes cannot be moved, added, deleted, or edited.
Read-Only status is also useful when copying nodes from one project to another, in that it allows
node copy/paste without danger of modifying the Read-Only project. When dragging a node from
a Read-Only project via the Project Selector, a clone will be created, as if the Ctrl key were pressed.
This makes Read-Only projects behave much like an extended palette. Some of the predefined
projects supplied with HydroCAD are set to Read-Only for this reason.
Read-Only status can be removed at any time and is not secured in any way. Also note that this
feature is independent of the read-only file status provided by the operating system.
While project files are normally used only by HydroCAD, it’s possible to view or even edit raw files
directly.
Warning! Modifying a project file by hand can produce unexpected results or even render
the file unreadable by HydroCAD. Do not modify a project file unless you're absolutely sure
of what you're doing! We cannot provide tech support for problems that result from
improper modifications to project files.
Before editing a file, make sure it isn't currently open in HydroCAD. Then right-click the file and
select Edit from the context menu. The file is opened in Windows Notepad for examination.
When you're done, close Notepad by clicking the “X” in the upper-right corner. Save your changes
only if you're absolutely sure you want to modify the project!
HydroCAD project files are stored in an easy-to-read plain-text format, making it relatively easy
to generate a usable file with any programming language. If you currently have programmatic
access to your existing data (via a scripting language, Basic, etc.) then you can export the desired
data to a HydroCAD project file.
Although HydroCAD project files support a large set of capabilities, you only need to provide the
specific data items you want to transfer into HydroCAD. Default values will be supplied for
missing values whenever possible, or HydroCAD will prompt the user to supply the missing items.
Files created by this process can be opened directly with HydroCAD by using the Project|Open
command, or you can use Project|Merge to combine the data with another project. This causes the
project to be selectively updated, retaining most of the original data except when it is being
replaced by a new value.
HydroCAD-10 includes the ability to import subcatchment (watershed) data from a tabular (CSV)
file, which can be readily created with a spreadsheet or database program. To explore this
capability, open a project and create a set of sample tables using Project|Export|Subcatchments. This
will create two files: One containing the subarea (curve number) data, and one containing the Tc
data. Opening these files will generally launch your default spreadsheet program, allowing you to
examine their format and content.
The tabular import capability can also be used to perform tabular editing of any project. First,
export the data and open the file(s) with a spreadsheet program as described above. After making
the desired changes, save the modified spreadsheet(s) to CSV format and import into the original
HydroCAD project using Project|Import|Subcatchments.
You can also transfer sub-area and Tc data separately by using the corresponding items on the
Project|Import and Project Export menus. For details press the F1 key on those menu items.
If tabular data is being imported repeatedly, perhaps as part of an automated transfer, you can
configure the project for one-click import. On the Settings|Watershed screen, select the Import tab and
specify the import file(s) containing the sub-area and/or Tc data. You can now use
Project|Import|Watershed to immediately import the specified files at any time. For details click the
Help button on the Settings|Watershed screen.
HydroCAD can read an existing TR-20 file and automatically convert the contents into an
equivalent HydroCAD project file. To start the process, click Project|Import|TR-20 and select the
desired file.6 For further details click the Help button on the import screen.
6
Original TR-20 files are converted in their entirety. At this writing, support for WinTR-20 files is still under
development, and is limited to the import of rainfall data.
HydroCAD provides two powerful capabilities for importing data from AutoCAD®, as described
below.
The import process analyzes special drawing layers containing the soil groups, ground covers, and
subcatchment boundaries, and imports each of the intersecting subareas into the appropriate
subcatchment. Subcatchments are automatically created on the HydroCAD routing diagram, with
CN values automatically determined from the specified ground cover file. Land use data can also
be imported for reporting or pollutant loading calculations, as discussed on page 129.
The import process includes multiple options including boundary verification, automatic node
placement, and highlighting of drawing areas as the corresponding subcatchment(s) are selected
in HydroCAD. Imported data can also be intermixed with manually created subcatchments,
without the risk of manual entries being overwritten by the import process. For details click the
Help button on the Settings|Watershed screen.
Data transfer from Carlson Hydrology utilizes the Project|Merge capability in HydroCAD, which is
controlled by various options on the Settings|Merge screen.
During a rainstorm, precipitation reaching the ground is dissipated by several mechanisms: some
is lost to evaporation, some infiltrates into the ground, and the remainder appears as stormwater
runoff. This runoff can cause a variety of undesirable effects, such as erosion and flooding. In order
to prevent such damage, the runoff must be safely conveyed through suitable channels, pipes,
ponds, streams, and rivers to a suitable point of disposal, and eventually to the sea. By
determining the nature of the runoff and the way it will flow through these channels, it is possible
to predict how, where, and when damage may occur. Steps can then be taken to reduce the chances
of damage, such as enlarging a stream to prevent overflow of its banks, or detaining some of the
runoff in a pond to reduce flooding downstream.
In the past, such analysis and design was often not performed. As a result, a significant amount
of stormwater damage now occurs, ranging from minor flooding of local streams, to erosion of
farmland, to flooding of major rivers. The resultant burden on many drainage systems and the
increasing rate of construction means that all new construction and development should include
a careful analysis of the effects on stormwater runoff. This not only reduces possible liability for
stormwater damage, but is required by many local, state, and federal regulations.
HydroCAD provides a number of techniques for the generation and routing of hydrographs. It also
provides many other related calculations, such as time of concentration, weighted curve numbers,
pond volumes, stage-discharge curves, pollutant loading, etc. This broad range of capabilities
allows a large number of studies to be performed entirely within HydroCAD.
1) Steady-state (constant flow) methods, such as the Rational method, commonly used for
storm sewer (pipe) networks.
Although HydroCAD can be used for steady-state designs and does include the Rational method,
it is designed primarily as a hydrograph generation and routing program. Certain calculations,
such as channel backwater or pressurized pipe networks, are often analyzed under constant flow
conditions, and may require steady-state numerical tools, rather than a hydrograph routing system
such as HydroCAD. And some projects may require a combined approach: Using HydroCAD to
model the overall drainage system, combined with a steady-state analysis for specific pipe
networks.
See the Frequently Asked Questions (beginning on page 143) for a discussion of several related
topics.
Most equations in this Manual are given in a universal format that may be directly evaluated in
metric (SI) or English (US Customary) units. When evaluating these equations, care must be taken
to use only primary units as listed in the following table.
Some empirical equations were developed with specific units (such as inches in the SCS runoff
equation), and cannot be readily expressed in a universal form. These equations are marked with
the original units.
HydroCAD also supports many secondary units, such as acres and hectares, which are
automatically converted to and from primary units as required. When evaluating equations by
hand, be sure to use the appropriate primary units as listed above.
You can change your default units, as well as the units for individual
projects, as described on page 34.
7
Conversion factors are shown to an accuracy of four decimal places. Actual conversions performed by HydroCAD
utilize a full-precision conversion of at least 10 digits.
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Data
An IDF curve is one of the most common means of defining the rainfall characteristics at any given
location. Each IDF curve defines the rainfall intensity (i) that will occur for a specified rainfall
duration (d) at a certain rainfall frequency or return period (T):8
For maximum flexibility, HydroCAD supports a number of different IDF data formats, including:
Local Precipitation Frequency Data is available from various web sites, such as those operated by
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) or the Northeast Regional
Climate Center (NRCC). These web sites use a standard data format that is automatically
recognized as an IDF file by HydroCAD-10, eliminating the need to manually create an IDF file.
For other locations (including international users) check with your weather bureau for the
availability of local data in the standard NOAA format, or create an IDF file manually using one
of the other formats supported by HydroCAD.
8
Instead of return period, it is more accurate to think in terms of the exceedence probability (p), where p=1/T. Thus,
a “25 year storm” actually designates a rainfall event which has a 4% chance of occurring in any given year.
Select View|IDF to see the sample IDF curves that are pre-installed in the HydroCAD IDF library.
The IDF screen also includes links for downloading additional IDF data, as well as instructions for
creating IDF files by hand. Click More IDF Data to access online data sources. For further details
click Help on the IDF report screen, or visit www.hydrocad.net/rainfall
Based on an analysis of nationwide IDF data, the US Soil Conservation Service9 developed a set
of four dimensionless synthetic rainfall distributions used to characterize the rainfall patterns for
the entire United States. These are known as the Type I, IA, II, and III distributions. Each
distribution is expressed as a mass curve indicating what fraction of the total 24-hour precipitation
has fallen at any time. (See page 157 for details.)
Synthetic rainfalls can be developed from standard IDF data discussed on page 45. Using 6 minute
steps, the incremental rainfall depth is calculated for durations of 6 minutes to 24 hours, placing
the highest (6 minute) incremental depth at the center of the storm, and adding the incremental
depths for successively longer durations on alternating sides of the peak until a complete 24-hour
curve is developed.10
Since these are synthetic rainfall distributions, they are not intended to represent an actual rainfall
event. However, since they contain rainfall data for all durations from 6 minutes up to 24 hours,
they can be used to simulate the behavior of a watershed under a wide range of conditions, and are
not limited to the analysis of a single duration like the Rational method. Each curve also provides
depth information for all durations up to 24 hours, making it suitable for volume-sensitive
calculations, such as detention pond simulations.
9
The SCS is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service, or NRCS.
10
In practice, synthetic rainfalls can be generated for any duration using any desired time increment.
HydroCAD provides an extensive library of predefined distributions, including the standard SCS
distributions discussed above. Select View|Storm to see the HydroCAD Storm library and view the
pre-installed rainfall distributions. A partial list also appears on page 155.
The storm report screen also includes links for downloading additional rainfall distributions,
instructions for creating rainfall files by hand, and the ability to automatically generate a custom
synthetic rainfall distribution based on local IDF data. To access these tools click the More Storms
button. For further details click Help or visit www.hydrocad.net/rainfall
For situations where none of the pre-installed rainfalls are appropriate, such as locations outside
the US, or where newer rainfall data is available, HydroCAD-10 can generate custom synthetic
rainfall distributions from local IDF data using the process outlined on page 46. To start the
conversion process click More Storms on the View|Storm screen.
HydroCAD-10 also has the ability to import rainfall tables from a TR-20 or WinTR-20 data file.
This process creates a native HydroCAD rainfall file, including multiple events when applicable.
For details press Help on the Project|Import|TR-20 screen.
Rainfall Events
HydroCAD allows a set of rainfall conditions to be saved as a named rainfall event. Each event
definition specifies a rainfall distribution, duration, and depth.11 Events can be defined by hand
on the Rainfall tab of the Settings|Calculation screen. You can also use the Import Events button to
automatically define rainfall events from a number of different sources:
Regardless of the source, rainfall events are always stored in the individual HydroCAD project file
where they were created.
11
Event definitions are commonly used to model different return periods, such as the 25-year or 100-year storms, but
can also be used to model other rainfall conditions, such as a “water quality” event.
While a rainfall distribution (see above) specifies how precipitation is distributed over time, a unit
hydrograph predicts the distribution of runoff over time. More precisely, a unit hydrograph
represents the runoff resulting from a single burst of rainfall with the following characteristics:
Most projects in the United States employ the standard SCS unit hydrograph show above, which
is commonly identified by its peak factor of 484. The SCS UH can also be characterized by a shape
factor K=0.75, which is the ratio of the UH peak intensity to the total UH volume.12 For further
details read about the SCS runoff procedure on page 57.
The HydroCAD UH library also includes the Delmarva UH, gamma curves with peak factors of
200 to 600, and a number of local tables. Select View|Unit Hydrograph to open the UH report screen
and view the pre-installed tables. The UH screen also includes links for downloading additional
UH data, as well as instructions for creating UH files by hand. For further details click Help on the
UH screen or visit www.hydrocad.net/rainfall
12
For the traditional SCS UH, K is also equal to twice the fraction of the UH volume that occurs before the peak. Other
UH definitions may not preserve this relationship.
The SCS Curve Number (CN) is used to determine the portion of the precipitation depth that will
appear as runoff. The CN is a function of the soil type and ground cover. A high CN (such as 98
for pavement) indicates low retention and high runoff, while a low CN (such as 30 for certain
wooded areas) indicates a high retention capability and low runoff. This relationship is defined by
the SCS runoff equation as shown on page 59.
HydroCAD includes a complete curve number lookup table based on data developed by the SCS
(NRCS) and published in TR-55. This table depends on the Hydrologic Soil Group, as discussed in
Appendix A1. Also see NEH, which provides additional guidance on curve number selection.
The standard curve number lookup table is based on the relationship Ia=0.2S (see page 59 for
details.) For other conditions, including international applications, an alternate lookup table can
be specified on the Settings|Watershed screen.
For rainfall on the surface of a pond or lake, a CN value of 98 is commonly used. The HydroCAD
lookup table contains separate entries for water surfaces, so they can be reported separately from
pavement and other impervious surfaces with a comparable CN value.
The lookup table also includes a separate entry for unconnected impervious surfaces, which invokes
a special curve number weighting procedure, as described below.13
CNC=Composite CN value
CN1-CNn=Individual CN values
A1-An=Area associated with each CN value
13
This option was added in HydroCAD 9.0. Earlier versions treat all impervious areas as connected using Eq.1.
If runoff from an impervious surface occurs as sheet flow over an adjacent pervious area, the
impervious area is considered to be unconnected, and its runoff may be reduced as it flows over the
pervious surface. This effect is considered to be significant only if less than 30% of the
subcatchment is impervious. When these conditions are met, the runoff is reduced by using a
modified curve number weighting procedure, as used in TR-55:
AImp AUnc
CNC ' CNPer % ( CNImp& CNPer ) ( 1 & ) Eq. 2
ATotal 2 A Imp
Restating this in the form of equation Eq.1 shows the underlying basis of this adjustment:
A Unc A Unc
CNPer ( APer% ) % CNImp ( AImp& )
2 2 Eq. 3
CNC '
ATotal
Aper=Pervious Area
Note that the standard weighting for the pervious CN value is increased by half the fraction of
unconnected impervious area, while the weighting for the impervious CN value is decreased by the
same amount. Due to the higher value of the impervious CN, this causes a reduction in the final
composite CN value.
Since the SCS runoff equation is non-linear, using a composite CN value may yield different results
than adding the runoff produced by the individual CN values. The difference is most pronounced
when the subcatchment includes both pervious surfaces (CN<98) and impervious surfaces (CN$98).
To account for this difference, HydroCAD provides the option to perform a separate runoff
calculation for the pervious and impervious portions of each subcatchment.14 This causes two
composite CN values to be calculated for each subcatchment: one that includes all pervious
surfaces, and one for all impervious surfaces. The runoff equation is then evaluated separately for
the two portions, and the combined volume is used to produce the final runoff hydrograph.
Separate pervious/impervious calculations are most often used in conjunction with the SBUH
runoff method (see page 63), while the SCS method is normally used with a single composite curve
number. The composite CN technique is specified for each project on the Settings|Calculation screen.
14
This option was added in HydroCAD 7.1. Earlier versions included all CN values in a single composite CN.
The antecedent moisture condition (a.k.a. antecedent rainfall condition) specifies the moisture level
in the ground immediately prior to the storm. HydroCAD implements four AMC/ARC conditions
as follows:
AMC 1 - Dry
AMC 2 - Normal
AMC 3 - Wet
AMC 4 - Saturated or frozen
It is common policy to use AMC 2 for most design work. Other values should be used only under
special circumstances. AMC 1 will produce less runoff, while AMC 3 and 4 can produce dramatic
increases in runoff, and are not normally used for design purposes.
The AMC works by adjusting the Curve Numbers in all subcatchments according to a predefined
table as shown on page 154. In general terms, AMC 1 reduces all CN values while AMC 3 increases
the values. AMC 2 uses the original values without adjustment.
The AMC 4 condition increases all CN values up to 98. (Any values above 98 are unchanged.) This
capability is provided for saturated or frozen surfaces that are expected to have virtually no
retention or infiltration capability. This setting is unique to HydroCAD, and is provided as an
alternative to manually adjusting multiple CN values.
AMC adjustments are always applied to the composite CN value, rather than to the individual CN
values. In the case of separate pervious/impervious runoff calculations (see page 49), the AMC
adjustment is applied separately to the composite pervious and impervious values.
The AMC is specified for each project on the Rainfall tab of the Settings|Calculation screen.
One of the key elements required for any runoff calculation is the Time of Concentration, or Tc. The
Tc is typically defined as the time required for runoff to travel from the most hydrologically distant
point of the watershed to the point of collection.
The time of concentration is commonly determined by summing the travel time (Tt) for each
consecutive flow segment along the subcatchment's hydraulic path. This process requires
identification of the type of flow occurring in each segment, and application of the appropriate
method for calculating the Tt. Although these segments will occur in a given physical order, the
order in which they are used in the program has no effect on the total travel time.
HydroCAD provides a variety of techniques for calculating the Tt, plus other procedures (such as
the Lag method) which are designed to directly determine the overall Tc. These procedures are
discussed below. If necessary, the Tc or Tt may also be determined by other procedures and entered
into HydroCAD directly.
The Curve Number Method (a.k.a. Watershed Lag Method, see NEH p.15-5) was developed to allow
calculation of the overall Tc under a wide range of conditions.15 The method is designed for areas
of 2000 acres or less. The calculation is quite simple, but requires a proper understanding of the
input requirements:
L l .8 (s%1).7 1000
T c' where L' and S' &10 Eq. 4
.6 1900 Y .5 CN
Note the use of the average land slope, as described below. (This is distinct from the slope of the
hydraulic path, as used in most Tc calculations.) Although some care is required to determine this
value, the Curve Number method has the advantage of using a small number of fairly objective
parameters. This provides more consistent results than some other approaches.
15
Since the Curve Number Method was designed to evaluate the Tc for an entire subcatchment, it is generally not used
in combination with other Tc procedures in the same subcatchment.
C I
Y ' 100 Eq. 5
A
C is obtained by adding the length of all contour lines within the subcatchment. The accuracy of
this technique depends on having a sufficient number of contour lines within the subcatchment.
Reducing the contour interval will generally increase the accuracy of the result.
The Sheet Flow procedure is designed for flow over plane surfaces, as usually occurs at the
headwaters of a catchment area. (See NEH p.15-6) The following equation is used for sheet flow:
0.007 (nL).8
Tt ' Eq. 6
.5
P2 s .4
Determining the actual length of sheet flow is critical to this method. Although the technique was
originally intended for lengths up to 300 feet, most agencies now recommend a maximum of 100
feet. In any case, the length should not extend past the point where there is evidence of
concentrated flow on the ground. The length is also critical in that Sheet Flow is often a dominant
factor in a subcatchment's total Tc.
Note: At the point where sheet flow no longer occurs, additional segments
of shallow concentrated flow and/or channel flow are typically used
to evaluate the remainder of the flow path. The total time for all
flow segments is used in the final runoff calculations.
Shallow concentrated flow (aka Upland Method) is designed for conditions that occur in the
headwaters of a watershed, including overland flow, grassed waterways, paved areas, and through
small upland gullies. Shallow concentrated flow does not have a well-defined channel, and
generally has flow depths of 0.1 to 0.5 feet. Although commonly published as a chart of velocity vs.
slope for various surfaces (see NEH Ch.15), shallow concentrated flow is based on the following
equations:
L
Tt ' where V ' Kv s Eq. 7
3600 V
See page 168 for a list of common KV values provided with HydroCAD.
Channel Flow
The Channel Flow procedure (see TR-55 p.3-3) is commonly employed where surveyed cross-
sections are available, or anywhere the velocity can be reasonably determined by Manning's
equation.
In addition to allowing direct entry of cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter, HydroCAD
provides automatic flow analysis of many standard channel and pipe shapes as described on
page 169.
Travel time for a lake or reservoir can be calculated by the following equation: (See NEH p.15-9)
L
Tt ' where V ' g D Eq. 9
3600 V
This technique may also be used for swamps with a significant amount of open water. If the
amount of open water is less than about 25%, a segment of channel flow (see p.55) will give a better
estimate of travel time.
Note: This procedure is used only if the water body lies within a subcatchment, and is being
modeled as part of the time of concentration. It does not account for storage effects, which require
a separate pond routing calculation as described on page 113.
Other Tc Procedures
Other Tc procedures can be employed by entering the calculated value directly into HydroCAD.
This can be used as the total Tc for a subcatchment, or combined with additional flow segments
calculated by other means. One situation that calls for direct Tc entry is modeling the “runoff” on
the surface of a pond. This requires the direct entry of a Tc value of zero.16
Tc Restrictions
Although HydroCAD has no inherent limitation on Tc values, some regulations may specify a
minimum allowable Tc value. If applicable, this value may be defined on the Settings|Calculation
screen17 and will be automatically applied to each subcatchment except those with an explicit Tc
value of zero.
16
When used in combination with a Curve Number of 100, this will produce complete, instantaneous “runoff.”
17
The ability to specify a minimum Tc value was added in HydroCAD 7.1.
The SCS-UH procedure is the primary runoff technique provided by HydroCAD. Although
HydroCAD does not employ any of the actual code from TR-20, it is based on the same SCS-UH
procedure and will produce essentially the same runoff results.
Data Requirements
The following data is required for the SCS unit hydrograph procedure as employed in TR-20 and
HydroCAD. Some of these items are provided for each individual subcatchment, while others apply
to the entire watershed.
Rainfall Distribution
The rainfall distribution is commonly expressed as a dimensionless mass curve, as shown above.
Multiplying the vertical axis by the total rainfall depth (see below) gives the actual rainfall depth
at any time during the storm.
HydroCAD can also be used with an actual (observed) rainfall distribution, as long as sufficiently
detailed rainfall recordings are available. This is sometimes done to model specific historic storms
that have produced record flooding.
18
Now the Natural Resources Conservation Service or NRCS.
Rainfall Depth
The total storm rainfall (in inches or millimeters) must be specified for the project location. For
projects in the continental United States, see the event lookup table in HydroCAD, or the rainfall
maps starting on page 159. For other locations, consult your local stormwater agency or weather
bureau. Calculations will often be performed for a number of different return periods ( such as 2,
5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years), using the corresponding depth for each return period. Each return
period can be defined as a separate rainfall event in HydroCAD, making it easy to change events
and do a multi-event analysis. See page 47 for details.
Curve Number
The CN value characterizes the type of soil and ground cover. See page 49 for details.
Time of Concentration
The Tc indicates the time required for all parts of the subcatchment to contribute to the runoff. See
page 53 for details.
Unit Hydrograph
The UH is a dimensionless
curve that shows the runoff
distribution resulting from
one unit of precipitation
excess occurring uniformly
over the watershed during
a specified duration. The
unit hydrograph is
commonly identified by its
peak factor, such as 484 for
the standard SCS UH. The
peak factor is a
characteristic of the unit
hydrograph curve,
representing the peak-to-
volume ratio of the curve.
For situations that require
a different peak factor, a
different UH must be selected, as discussed on page 48.
The SCS runoff hydrograph is generated by performing a convolution of the unit hydrograph with
the rainfall excess. (For details see NEH Ch.16.) A brief description of the HydroCAD
implementation follows:
1) At any time during the storm, the cumulative precipitation (rainfall depth) can be determined
from the selected rainfall distribution and the total rainfall depth. The cumulative precipitation
excess (runoff) can then be determined by the SCS runoff equation. (See TR-55 p.2-1 and NEH
Ch.10.)
( P&Ia )2
Q' and S ' 1000 &10 (Q'0 if P#Ia)
( P&Ia ) % S CN
Eq. 10
( P&.2S )2
if Ia ' 0.2 S then Q'
P % .8S
2) The storm is divided into a series of rainfall bursts of equal duration, with the burst duration
based on the unit hydrograph relationships:19
2 T
Tp' 5D and Tp' Tc ˆ D ' c Eq. 11
3 7.5
Tp=Time to peak
Tc=Time of concentration
D=Burst duration
3) The precipitation excess resulting from each burst is calculated by the SCS runoff equation:
4) The unit hydrograph defines how the precipitation excess from each burst will be distributed
over time. The volume of the unit hydrograph is given by Eq. 12 and its time-to-peak is given by
Eq. 11, allowing us to produce a fully dimensioned hydrograph for each burst.20
19
The time base of the UH will vary depending on the exact UH used in this process.
20
Although the UH peak factor does not appear directly in this calculation, the resulting peak is dependent on the UH
peak-to-volume relationship.
1) The runoff hydrograph consists of a series of ordinates (ft³/sec or m³/sec flows) at evenly spaced
intervals “dt.” Each ordinate specifies the average flow during the interval. As a result, if a narrow
peak occurred within one interval, the hydrograph would indicate an average flow that might be
significantly less than the instantaneous peak. This is likely to occur when Tc is less than 2dt, so
HydroCAD displays an informative warning in these cases.
When you encounter this situation, keep in mind that the instantaneous peak can exceed the
average for a time no longer than dt, which is commonly 6 minutes or less. In practice, such a short
instantaneous peak is usually attenuated to the average value by the storage characteristics of the
first reach or pond. However, if a true instantaneous peak is required, the runoff interval (dt) may
be reduced to approximately one-half the Tc.
2) The SCS unit hydrograph procedure has no inherent limitations on the time of concentration.
As Tc approaches 0, the runoff curve approaches the precipitation excess curve, which is the
expected limiting case.21 Similarly, for a very large Tc, the entire storm becomes a single rainfall
“burst” and the runoff approaches the shape of the unit hydrograph.
3) When making comparisons to TR-55, note that the TR-55 tables were produced for a curve
number of 75 and require a precipitation excess of at least 1.5 inches. As conditions deviate from
these, an increasing difference of up to 25% can be expected.
4) Runoff hydrographs are generated for a specified time span, such as 10 to 20 hours. You must
ensure that this span is suitable for the purposes of your analysis and the rainfall type being used.
If you are primarily concerned with peak flows, you can reduce calculation time by using a shorter
time span. However, for ponds and other volume-sensitive studies, make sure the time span begins
at or before the earliest runoff, or this early volume won't be included in your calculations.
HydroCAD will generate an automatic warning message if the span is not adequate to include the
earliest inflow into a pond. Also keep in mind that the volumes displayed by HydroCAD include
only the specified time span. By increasing the ending time to 25 hours or so, you'll get a complete
picture of the storm.
5) As a safeguard, HydroCAD performs an automatic check of runoff peaks in relation to the time
span. A warning message is displayed if the calculated time of the peak doesn't fall within the
middle 90% of the time span. If this warning appears, you should examine the hydrograph and
adjust the time span accordingly.22
6) The SCS runoff equation (Eq. 10) normally uses the standard Ia/S ratio of 0.2. which is applicable
to most projects. If required, this value may be changed on the Settings|Calculation screen.
21
If desired, the HydroCAD runoff procedure is specially designed to permit a Tc of zero. This can be used to model the
instantaneous “runoff” from rain falling on the surface of a pond.
22
This test is for the peak only. If the entire volume is required, you must still determine if the span is sufficient.
Because of the enormous computational requirements of the unit hydrograph procedure, the SCS
derived a simplified tabular method which it published in Technical Release 55 (TR-55).
The tabular method consists of a number of composite hydrographs produced with TR-20, which
are then scaled and interpolated in order to approximate the results that would have been produced
with TR-20 itself.
In order to keep the number of tables to a minimum, average values were used for several variables.
The equations of TR-55 were then designed to reintroduce the dependencies on these parameters.
The two primary assumptions of TR-55 are a Curve Number of 75 and a runoff of 3 inches. TR-20
and TR-55 can be expected to deviate as these assumptions become invalid.
The approximations of TR-55 are sufficient to cause the SCS to place the following warnings in the
documentation:
“This method (TR-55) approximates TR-20, a more detailed hydrograph procedure.... Use
TR-20 if the watershed is very complex or a higher degree of accuracy is required.”
This applies particularly to the design of detention basins, since they are very sensitive to changes
in the inflow hydrograph. Again quoting from TR-55:
“The procedure (TR-55) should not be used to perform final design if an error in storage of
25 percent cannot be tolerated.... More detailed hydrograph development and routing will
often pay for itself through reduced construction costs.”
When evaluating TR-55, keep in mind that it was developed primarily for manual use. When
computers are available, the complete TR-20 unit hydrograph methodology is preferred.
Note: The latest Windows TR-55 release now uses the full unit hydrograph
procedure, as HydroCAD has done since 1986. However, there are
still limitations in Win-TR-55 that preclude its use in many
situations, and require the use of a more flexible model, such as
Win-TR-20 or HydroCAD.
The Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph method (SBUH) was developed by the Santa Barbara
County (California) Flood Control and Water Conservation District. The SBUH method has many
similarities to the SCS Unit Hydrograph procedure discussed in the previous chapter. Both
techniques employ the same SCS curve numbers, runoff equation, and rainfall distributions.
However, the SBUH method does not utilize a unit hydrograph or the convolution process. Instead,
an instantaneous hydrograph is generated and then routed through an imaginary reservoir with
a time delay equal to the subcatchment's time of concentration.
This calculation is relatively simple in comparison to the SCS-UH procedure, and takes less time
to perform. While the availability of the SCS-UH procedure might appear to eliminate the need
for the SBUH method, some localities prefer the SBUH method for specific situations.
Runoff Procedure
There are two distinct steps involved in generating a runoff hydrograph by the SBUH method:
1) Compute the instantaneous hydrograph: The storm is divided into equal time
increments (dt). At each increment, the SCS Runoff Equation (see page 59) is used to determine
the precipitation excess. The difference between the successive values represents the
instantaneous runoff at that point in time. A typical instantaneous hydrograph is represented by
the dashed line in the above graph.
2) Compute the runoff hydrograph: The runoff hydrograph is obtained by routing the
instantaneous hydrograph through an imaginary reservoir with a time delay equal to the time of
concentration. The following equation is used to estimate the routed flow at each point in time:
dt Eq. 13
where w '
2 Tc % dt
A typical runoff hydrograph is shown by a solid line in the graph above. Note the delay and
reduction in the peak caused by the routing procedure.
Special Considerations
Some implementations of the SBUH method require that the runoff be calculated separately for
the pervious and impervious portions of each subcatchment, rather than using a single composite
curve number. This may be accomplished by modeling the pervious and impervious components
as separate subcatchments, or by changing the curve number weighting option as described on
page 50.
The Rational method may be used to generate runoff hydrographs. However, since Rational
method was developed primarily for predicting peak flow, its use is not advised for volume-sensitive
routing calculations.
Runoff Procedure
The Rational method predicts the peak runoff according to the formula:
Q=Peak Runoff
C=Runoff Coefficient
i=Rainfall intensity
A=Area
The equation can be evaluated using English or metric units, as long as proper dimensions are
observed. For English use, it is traditional to employ inches-per-hour and acres for the intensity
and area, respectively. Converting the units yields the following relationship, in which the factor
of 1.01 is often omitted:
For metric use we can substitute mm/hr and hectares for the intensity and area, respectively.
Converting the units yields the following relationship:
1
q [m 3/s] ' C i [mm/hr] A [ha] Eq. 16
360
When using the Rational method, the rainfall intensity can be entered manually, or an IDF curve
can be provided so the intensity can be automatically determined for any specified duration. IDF
is available from a number of sources as discussed on page 45.
In order to generate a complete hydrograph (as required by HydroCAD), it is assumed that the
runoff begins at the start of the storm and increases linearly to the peak value, which is sustained
until the storm duration (D) has elapsed, and then decreases linearly to zero.
The rate at which the hydrograph rises and falls is based on the Tc and a rise/fall factor. For
“standard” Rational method, the rise and fall factors are both one. That is, the rise and fall occur
over the exact interval Tc. Variations of the Rational method (often called the Modified Rational
method), may use different rise and fall factors, which can be set directly using Settings|Calculation.
Special Considerations
Since hydrographs produced by the Rational method do not reflect the total storm runoff volume
(or the intensity variation over time), this runoff method is generally not recommended for the
design and analysis of detention ponds. Whenever possible, the SCS-UH or SBUH runoff method
is preferable in order to produce a complete inflow hydrograph as required for accurate pond
routing.
Proper use of the Rational method also requires that the correct critical duration (and the
corresponding intensity) be used at each point of study. This is typically defined as the duration
that produces the highest peak flow. Depending on the specific watershed, this may occur at any
duration between the shortest and longest Tc. As the study progresses downstream, the critical
duration generally increases, and the determination of the critical duration tends to become more
complex. Note that as the duration is changed, all upstream subcatchments must be recalculated
for the new value. (HydroCAD does this automatically.) This is the correct procedure for applying
the Rational method, despite frequent misuse of the method in which upstream values are held
constant.
To avoid trial-and-error solutions, HydroCAD provides a duration analysis report that can
automatically determine the critical value.23 When you click the Update button on the duration
report, HydroCAD evaluates the peak flow for a range of durations and automatically determines
the critical duration. When analyzing a pond, this procedure will determine the duration that
produces the highest peak water surface elevation.
Frequency Factor
In some applications, the standard intensity value is adjusted by a specific “frequency factor”. This
value can entered directly on the Settings|Calculation screen, or specified within the applicable IDF
file. The latter method is generally preferred, since it allows a different frequency factor to be
automatically applied for each return period.
23
To enable the duration analysis report, you must select an appropriate IDF curve on the Rainfall tab of the
Settings|Calculation screen.
Reach routing requires that the reach first be characterized by two curves: the end-area vs. depth
(stage-storage), and the discharge vs. depth (stage-discharge). This information may be determined
by any of the following options:
Option 1 The user may directly specify the end-area and discharge at any number of depths.
Values for intermediate depths are interpolated as described on page 70.
Option 2 The user may enter the end-area and wetted perimeter at each depth. Values for
intermediate depths are interpolated as described on page 70. Manning's equation is then used to
calculate the discharge at each depth (see Basic Hydraulics p.77):
2 1
A
also R ' and Q ' VA Eq. 18
P
2 1
A 5 1
1.486 3
S2 A
P A3 S2 Eq. 19
thus Q' ' 1.486
n 2
n P 3
Option 3 For a rectangular, vee, trapezoidal, parabolic, or circular (pipe) channel, the user may
provide the appropriate dimensions, and HydroCAD will determine the end-area and discharge
curves using the cross section equations on page 169, and Manning's equation as shown above.
Option 4b A custom cross-section may also be defined in which each segment has a different
Manning’s value. The total flow is determined with a composite Manning’s value or segmented
flow, using one of the following methods. (See Open Channel Hydraulics p.136.)
nc ' j i
3/2 2/3
(n Pi )
Eq. 20
j Pi
This technique is commonly used for “deep” channels, where the velocity is relatively constant
throughout the cross-section. If applied to a section with a constant Manning’s value, the result
is identical to the original Manning’s value.
nc ' j i i
2 1/2
(n P )
Eq. 21
j Pi
This technique is commonly used for “shallow” channels, where the velocity may vary considerably
between segments. It is based on the assumption that the total resistant force for the cross-section
is the sum of the resistant force for each of the segments.
P R 5/3
nc '
5/3
Eq. 22
j
Pi Ri
ni
Subdivision by Segment
Q ' j Qi Eq. 23
This technique produces exactly the same flow as the Lotter method, described above. It differs
only in the calculation procedure, in which the total flow is the sum of the flows calculated
separately for each segment, without the use of a composite Manning’s value.
Q ' j Qn Eq. 24
This technique subdivides the channel only when there is a change (break) in the Manning's value.
This produces more consistent results than subdivision by segment, in that the resulting flow is
independent of the number of points along the cross section. When all segments have the same
Manning's value, the flow is identical to the traditional solution for a constant Manning's value.
This technique is similar (although not identical) to the current procedure used in HEC-RAS.
Other Procedures
If another technique is used to calculate flow through a complex cross-section, the rating curve can
be calculated separately and entered into HydroCAD using option 1, above. However, using a
defined geometry or cross-section allows direct evaluation of the channel at any depth, without
having to interpolate between a (smaller) number of user-defined stages.
The preceding stage-discharge calculations are based solely on Manning's equation, and do not
consider possible inlet, outlet, or tailwater effects. If a complete analysis is desired for a pipe,
including entrance losses and possible tailwater effects, it should be modeled as a pond with a
culvert outlet. If a detailed water surface profile is required for a channel, you should use a
program specifically designed for that purpose.24
24
Water surface profiles are usually calculated under constant-flow conditions, rather than with a hydrograph (time-
varying flow). Peak flows (from HydroCAD or another hydrograph model) are often used as input for these calculations.
When performing a reach routing, HydroCAD uses an internal routing table to provide storage and
discharge information at any required depth. The construction of this table depends on the selected
reach option, as listed on page 67. When entering discharge or wetted-perimeter directly (options
1 or 2), several interpolation options are available:
Linear: This option creates a routing table containing the same number of depth values (stages)
specified by the user. When the routing is performed, intermediate storage and discharge values
are obtained by linear interpolation between these stages. (This option is provided primarily for
compatibility with HydroCAD 7.1 and earlier.)
Multi-point: This option creates a routing table with a larger number of evenly-spaced depth
intervals (normally 100). Each user-specified depth is also included in the table, to ensure
accuracy at these exact depths. Storage is calculated at each tabulated depth using a linear
interpolation between user-defined stages. When entering wetted-perimeter, linear interpolation
is used to determine the perimeter at each tabulated depth, and the corresponding discharge is
calculated with Manning's equation. When entering discharge, linear interpolation is used to
determine the discharge at each tabulated depth. Multi-point is the default option, and is
recommended for most situations.
Parabolic: This option creates a routing table with a larger number of evenly-spaced depths, just
like Multi-point, except that intermediate values are determined by parabolic interpolation using
the three adjacent user-defined stages. This option may provide greater accuracy when the
user-supplied rating table contains a limited number of stages.
Logarithmic: This option creates a routing table with a larger number of evenly-spaced depths,
just like Parabolic, except that intermediate storage and discharge values are determined by
logarithmic interpolation. (Since the log of zero is undefined, logarithmic interpolation cannot be
used between the first two user stages, so linear interpolation is employed in this range. This effect
can be minimized by including a near-zero stage slightly above the bottom of the channel.)
Note: The Parabolic and Logarithmic options may provide greater accuracy
when the user-supplied rating table contains a limited number of
stages. However, the resulting storage and discharge plots should
be examined to be sure the interpolation method is appropriate for
the data.
When using a standard channel geometry (option 3) or custom cross-section (options 4a and 4b) the
routing table normally contains 100 evenly-spaced depth values, ranging from zero depth up to the
overall depth of the reach. At each tabulated depth, HydroCAD calculates the perimeter, storage,
and discharge based on the channel geometry and Manning’s equation.
For all reach options, the finished routing table is used to perform the actual routing calculations,
using a linear interpolation to determine the storage and discharge at intermediate depths. If
greater accuracy is required, the number of depth increments can be increased on the Advanced
tab of the applicable reach.
HydroCAD currently provides the following techniques for reach routing, as described in the
remainder of this section:
Storage-Indication Method
The Storage-Indication method (Stor-Ind) is the most basic reach routing technique provided by
HydroCAD, and is based on the routing equations developed on page 115. The actual routing
procedure is as follows.
This routing method is intended to duplicate results that would be obtained with the current
Win-TR-20 software. (See Muskingum-Cunge Flood Routing Procedure in NRCS Hydrologic Models
by William H. Merkel.) The basic HydroCAD procedure is as follows:
When stage data is entered directly, the m value is calculated at each user-specified depth, and
then interpolated to the depths used in the internal routing table. When using a standard channel
geometry or cross-section, m is directly calculated at each depth in the routing table.
c ' m V Eq. 25
L Eq. 26
ˆ N ' round
c ∆t
∆x
K ' Eq. 28
c
1 Q 1 VD
X ' 1& ' 1& Eq. 29
2 B So c ∆x 2 So c ∆x
Note that the selection of ∆x will produce a wave travel time K that approximates the time step ∆t.
The routing factor X controls the peak outflow, with smaller values producing more attenuation.
I1%I2 O1%O2
S2 & S1 ' & ∆t Eq. 30
2 2
Combining with Eq.27 and simplifying yields the final routing equation:
O2 ' C1 I1 % C2 I2 % C3 O1
∆t /K % 2 X ∆t /K & 2 X
where C1 ' C2 '
C0 C0 Eq. 31
2 (1&X) & ∆t /K ∆t
C3 ' C0 ' % 2 (1&X)
C0 K
The continuity equation (Eq. 30) is also evaluated at each time step in order to determine the reach
storage, average depth, and average flow velocity over the length of the reach.
As an aid to evaluating the routing results, a detailed list of routing parameters is included in the
reach summary report. (Click any part of the report for a detailed discussion of each parameter.)
The Dynamic Muskingum-Cunge procedure will produce the same reach routing results as the
standard (sequential) Muskingum-Cunge procedure, as long as the same reference flow is used.
The Sim-Route reach routing procedure is provided for compatibility with simultaneous pond
routing. Although this method does not currently allow reaches to respond to tailwater changes,
its does allow the overall watershed to be analyzed in a simultaneous manner so that ponds may
respond to tailwater effects as described on page 119.
Simultaneous reach routing is based on the basic equation for conservation of mass. (See
Hydrologic Analysis and Design p.545.)
∆S
I & O ' where ∆ S ' S2 & S1
∆t
Eq. 32
ˆ S2 ' S1 % ( I & O ) ∆ t
1) Routing is performed using the specified time span and time increment, and begins with no
water stored in the reach.
2) The new reach storage (S2) is calculated using the above equation with the previous rates of
inflow and outflow. (Using the previous value allows non-sequential flows, for which the current
inflow is unknown.)
3) Using the new storage volume, a new flow depth is calculated based on the assumption of normal
flow.
4) Using the new flow depth, a new discharge is calculated from Manning's equation or from the
user-defined stage-discharge relationship.
5) Steps 2 through 4 are repeated at each time interval until the entire hydrograph has been
developed.
Additional considerations apply to all simultaneous routing procedures as described on page 119.
A reach will normally attenuate and delay the hydrograph that is routed through it. The extent of
this transformation depends on many factors, including the reach dimensions, slope, and Manning's
number. Short reaches (up to
several hundred feet) often have a
minimal effect on the routed
hydrograph. For this reason they
are frequently modeled as a flow
segment within a subcatchment.
Most pond routing procedures require basic information about the pond’s stage-storage
relationship. In addition to allowing direct entry of stage-storage data, HydroCAD can
automatically calculate storage volumes for a wide range of common shapes:
Prismatoid
A volume with a square or rectangular base, with vertical or equally-sloping
sides. Suitable for modeling rectangular vaults, excavations, or above-ground
storage with rectangular horizontal sections.
Upright Cone
A vertical cylinder or cone with any side-slope. Suitable for modeling a
vertical cylinder or above-ground storage with circular horizontal sections.
Arch Chamber
For approximate modeling of storage chambers with a parabolic arch and a
flat bottom. For more accurate results, use a prefab chamber definition, as
described below.
Prefab Chamber
For precise modeling of prefabricated stormwater chambers, using the
HydroCAD chamber library. The underground storage wizard can be used
for automated layout, modeling, and pricing of chamber installations.
Custom Storage
Allows direct entry of storage data or surface areas. Suitable for natural
ponds or other shapes that cannot be readily modeled with the other storage
options described above.
Compound Storage
Although a pond can often be described with a single storage definition, HydroCAD allows each
pond to employ multiple definitions as required to define the overall storage. For example, a single
pond might include an underground storage vault (prismatoid), a section of pipe storage, plus an
above-grade overflow area (custom storage).
Embedded Storage
Storage definitions can also be embedded inside each other, such as perforated pipe or storage
chambers buried in a bed of crushed stone. This procedure uses the ability to define the fraction
of voids within each storage volume, in order to allow for the effects of stone, sand, or gravel fill.
Wetted Area
For most storage definitions, HydroCAD can also determine the wetted area and surface area at any
elevation. These parameters may be used in conjunction with certain exfiltration calculations as
described on page 108.
The remainder of this section describes the equations used to evaluate each type of storage. This
includes the volume calculations, as well as the determination of surface and wetted areas.
For a prismatoid with a rectangular base and four equally sloping (or vertical) sides, the volume
is given by:
y
V ' ( A1 % 4 A2 % A3 )
6
L3 ' L1 % 2 y Z W3 ' W1 % 2 y Z
V=Volume
y=Water depth
A1=Bottom area (depth=0)
A2=Mid area (depth=y/2)
A3=Top area (depth=y)
L1,L2,L3=Bottom/Mid/Top length
W1,W2,W3=Bottom/Mid/Top width
Z=Side Run/Rise (0=vertical)
As ' Hs L1 % L3 % W1 %W3
Eq. 34
Hs ' y Z 2 % 1
AS=Side area
HS=Side height along slope
To obtain the total wetted area, add the bottom area to this value. (The top area is never included,
even when the volume is full.)
If a wall thickness is specified, the outer volume (inclusive of the wall) is calculated by increasing
the length and width of the prismatoid by twice the horizontal extent of the wall:
Do ' D % 2 T Z 2 % 1 Eq. 35
By convention, the wall thickness is not added to the top or bottom of the prismatoid.
The volume of a horizontal section (frustum) of a vertical cone (or cylinder) is given by:
h
V ' A1 % A2 % A1 A2
3
A1 ' π R1
2 Eq. 36
2
A2 ' π R2 and R2 ' R1 % h Z
V=Volume of section
h=Height of section
A1,A2=Area of bottom/top of section
R1,R2=Radius of bottom/top of section
Z=Side Run/Rise (0=vertical)
To obtain the total wetted area, add the bottom area to this value.
If a wall thickness is specified, the outer volume (inclusive of the wall) is calculated by increasing
the radius by the horizontal extent of the wall:
Ro ' R % T Z 2 % 1 Eq. 38
RO=Outside Radius
R=Inside Radius
T=Wall Thickness
Z=Side Run/Rise
By convention, the wall thickness is not added to the top or bottom of the cone.
For a level round pipe, the storage volume at any depth is given by:
V ' L Ae
1
Ae ' R 2 [ θ & sin ( θ ) ] Eq. 39
2
&1 y
θ ' 2 cos [ 1 & ]
R
V=Volume
L=Length
Ae=Submerged end area
R=Radius
θ=Submerged central angle [radians]
y=Water depth
(excluding end&areas)
Aw ' L R θ
(including end&areas) Eq. 40
Aw ' L R θ % 2 Ae
θ
As ' 2 L R sin ' 2 L y (2R&y) Eq. 41
2
If the pipe lies on a slope25, each of these parameters requires a numerical integration over the
portion of the pipe that is partially full. This is added to the corresponding value for any portion
of the pipe that is completely full.
If a wall thickness is specified, the outer volume (inclusive of the wall) is calculated by increasing
the radius by the wall thickness:
Ro ' R % T Eq. 42
RO=Outside Radius
R=Inside Radius
T=Wall Thickness
By convention, the wall thickness is not added to the pipe length (ends).
25
The ability to model sloped pipe storage was added in HydroCAD 7.1.
For a level box pipe, the storage volume at any depth is given by:
V ' L W y Eq. 43
V=Volume
L=Length
W=Width
y=Water depth
As ' L W Eq. 45
If a wall thickness is specified, the outer volume (inclusive of the wall) is calculated by increasing
the width and height by twice the wall thickness:
Do ' D % 2 T Eq. 46
DO=Outside Dimension
D=Inside Dimension
T=Wall Thickness
By convention, the wall thickness is not added to the pipe length (ends).
2
V ' Y W L Eq. 47
3
V=Storage volume
Y=Parabola height
W=Parabola width
L=Length of chamber
For a partially full arch, the volume is calculated by subtracting the non-submerged volume from
the volume of the entire arch.
As ' L Ps
2
2Y % 4Y 2% W Eq. 48
2 W2 W2 4
Ps ' 4Y % % ln
4 8Y W
2
As=Side area
Ps=Side perimeter
For a partially full arch, the side area is calculated by subtracting the non-submerged portion of
the arch from the entire arch.
To obtain the entire wetted area, add the bottom area to this value. For exfiltration calculations,
the end-area is normally excluded.
If a wall thickness is specified, the outer volume (inclusive of the wall) is calculated by increasing
the width and height accordingly:
Yo ' Y % T
Eq. 49
Wo ' W % 2 T
YO=Outside height
WO=Outside width
T=Wall Thickness
Note that the wall thickness is not added to the bottom of the arch, which is usually open.
The wetted area at any depth is the sum of the bottom area and
side area, which is inferred from the supplied chamber data. Note
that this value is rarely used in exfiltration calculations (see p.108),
since the exfiltration rate is usually based on the area of the outer
excavation in which the chamber is embedded, rather than the area
of the chamber itself.
Chamber Library
Click View|Chamber to open the chamber report
screen and view the chamber definitions that are
pre-installed with HydroCAD. The chamber report
allows you to select multiple chambers and compare
their storage characteristics and cross-sections, as
shown here.
Chamber Wizard
The chamber wizard simplifies the process of modeling underground storage systems, by
automatically sizing the overall drainage field based on the amount of stone required around each
chamber. Layout parameters, such as row spacing and stone cover, can be automatically set
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, making it much easier to design and compare
different storage scenarios.
1) Direct entry of cumulative (total) storage at various elevations, which requires no further
calculations.
2) Entry of incremental storage, that is, the volume of horizontal sections across the pond.
These sections are summed by the program to produce the cumulative storage.
3) Entry of surface areas at various elevations, from which HydroCAD determines the
incremental (and cumulative) storage at each elevation.
The third option is often the most convenient, since it uses readily available data, such as the
surface area at each contour elevation. The actual storage calculation is based on the selected pond
shape, as described below.
A1%A2
V ' h Eq. 50
2
V=Volume of section
h=Height of section
A1=Area of bottom of section
A2=Area of top of section
Since the aspect ratio of prismatic shapes is undefined, the wetted area cannot be determined,
making this shape incompatible with exfiltration calculations. One of the other shapes should be
selected when wetted area is required.
h
V ' A1 % A2 % A1 A2 Eq. 51
3
V=Volume of section
h=Height of section
A1=Area of bottom of section
A2=Area of top of section
2
A s ' A1 % A2 A1& A2 % 4 h 2 Eq. 52
To obtain the total wetted area, add the bottom area to this value.
h
V ' A1 % A2 % A1 A2 Eq. 53
3
V=Volume of section
h=Height of section
A1=Area of bottom of section
A2=Area of top of section
2
As ' A1% A2 A1& A2 % π h 2 ' π R1%R2 (R1&R2)2 % h 2 Eq. 54
To obtain the total wetted area, add the bottom area to this value.
To calculate the wetted area, the specified perimeter is taken as the circumference of an equivalent
circle. Substituting the resulting radius into equation 54 (the wetted area of a conic section) yields
a reasonable estimate of the wetted area:
P1 P2 P1 % P2 (P1&P2)2
R1 ' and R2 ' ˆ As ' %h 2 Eq. 55
2π 2π 2 4π2
To obtain the total wetted area, add the bottom area to this value.
This section details the hydraulics calculations used by HydroCAD. These equations are used to
determine the discharge of each device under specific headwater and tailwater conditions, primarily
in determining the stage-discharge relationship for a pond. All equations determine the discharge
Q, in ft³/sec or m³/sec.
The following outlet devices and flow characteristics can be modeled with HydroCAD, as detailed
in the following pages:
! V-Notch Weir
! Trapezoidal Weir
! Custom Weir/Orifice
! Asymmetrical Weir
! Submerged Weirs
! Dam Breach
! Culverts
! Pumps
! Exfiltration
The basic equation for a sharp-crested weir is derived in Open Channel Hydraulics p.362.
C=Weir coefficient
Le=Effective crest length
H=Head (above crest or invert elevation)
g=Gravitational constant
Cd=Discharge Coefficient
If the headwater exceeds the weir rise (see page 92), orifice flow exists with:
The effective crest length Le may include an adjustment for the number of end contractions.
nH L
Le ' L & (but not < ) Eq. 58
10 2
L=Crest length
n=Number of end contractions (0, 1, or 2)
In practice, the weir coefficient C may vary slightly based on the crest height and the resulting
turbulence. If the crest height is specified, the English weir coefficient is given by the following
equation: (To obtain a metric weir coefficient, divide this value by 1.811 as described on page 43.)
H
C ' 3.27 % .4 Eq. 59
P
A broad-crested rectangular weir differs from a sharp-crested weir in that the weir coefficient may
vary as an arbitrary function of head. (See Practical Hydraulics p.274.) This allows more accurate
modeling of a wide range of real-world weirs.
C=Weir coefficient
L=Crest length
H=Head [above crest]
g=Gravitational constant
Cd=Discharge Coefficient
C varies with H by means of a lookup-table, which supplies the appropriate weir coefficient at
specific heads. For intermediate heads, HydroCAD interpolates linearly between the given values.
For heads that fall outside the given range, HydroCAD uses the first or last coefficient without
extrapolation.
! For other weir profiles as listed on page 165, the coefficients are
supplied automatically when the desired profile ID is specified.
Note: Although a broad-crested weir can produce more accurate results than using a sharp-crested
weir, the effect on the overall hydrograph routing is sometimes less than expected. Unless there
are significant variations in the weir coefficient, the sharp-crested weir equation may provide
comparable accuracy while requiring less data. A quick sensitivity analysis may be useful in
determining the actual effects of coefficient variations.
The basic equation for a v-notch weir is derived in Handbook of Hydraulics p.5-15:
If the headwater exceeds the weir rise (see page 92) orifice flow exists and the discharge is given
by:
This equation is equivalent to the normal v-notch weir flow (Eq.61) minus the trapezoidal weir flow
(Eq.64) that would otherwise occur above the rise.
The v-notch weir coefficient Cv may be entered manually, or automatically calculated based on the
notch angle using the following equation: (To obtain a metric weir coefficient, divide this value by
1.811 as described on page 43.)
tan(90&θ/2)
Cv ' 2.46 % Eq. 63
25
Trapezoidal weir flow is a combination of v-notch weir flow (Eq.61) with half of the vee on either
side of the horizontal spillway, plus rectangular weir flow (Eq.56) over the horizontal portion of the
spillway:
The weir coefficient may be entered manually, or automatically determined by Eq. 63 above. Also
note the factor of 5/4, which accounts for the different terms that are included in the rectangular
and v-notch weirs coefficients.
Note: This is the same trapezoidal weir equation used in previous versions of HydroCAD,
but is presented here in fully reduced form.
If the headwater exceeds the weir rise (see page 92), orifice flow exists and the discharge is a
combination of v-notch orifice flow (Eq.62) plus rectangular orifice flow (Eq.57):
The weir rise indicates the vertical height of the weir opening. This parameter is commonly used
to avoid “overlap” when multiple weir definitions are used to define a complex weir opening, such
as the superimposed rectangular and trapezoidal weirs shown here.
The use of the weir rise parameter is optional. If the rise is not defined (left blank), the weir is
assumed to have no vertical limit, and the standard weir equation is used for all heads.
Custom Weir/Orifice
A custom weir can be used to model an arbitrary symmetrical flow area, such as a v-notch cut into
a rectangular spillway, or a non-standard orifice. It can even be used to model a device with more
than one opening, as show below.
To calculate the flow through a custom weir, the weir is divided into a number of horizontal
trapezoidal sections, starting at the weir invert and extending to the headwater elevation. The
total flow is determined by adding the flow through each section as given by Eq.64 (for the
uppermost section) and Eq.65 (for the lower sections).
If the weir is subject to tailwater, the discharge is a combination of standard trapezoidal weir flow
(for the area above the tailwater) and constant-head orifice flow (for the area below the tailwater)
as given by Eq.67.
An asymmetrical weir can be used to model an arbitrary weir crest, such as water spilling over a
roadway. This option is similar to the custom weir/orifice (above), but it doesn’t require that the
weir opening be symmetrical around a vertical centerline.
Note that an asymmetrical weir will give exactly the same result as using several separate
trapezoidal weirs to describe the entire weir opening.
The preceding equations specify the discharge for various weirs under conditions of free discharge.
If the tailwater of a weir exceeds the crest elevation, the crest becomes submerged, and the
discharge must be reduced accordingly. HydroCAD provides two separate techniques for evaluating
submerged weirs:
If the weir rise is not specified, the final discharge is determined by the following equation from
Handbook of Hydraulics p.5-18:
0.385
H2 n
Qs ' Qf 1& Eq. 66
H1
Although this adjustment was derived specifically for sharp-crested weirs, it is also used to
estimate the discharge for submerged broad-crested weirs.
If the weir rise is specified, the discharge is the sum of two components:
1) Standard weir/orifice flow for the portion of the weir that lies above the tailwater, with the head
and rise measured from the tailwater elevation, rather than from the weir invert.
2) Constant-head orifice flow for the portion of the weir that lies below the tailwater:
Q ' Cd a 2gh
8 15
with Cv ' 2g Cd then Q ' Cv a h Eq. 67
15 8
2 3
or with C ' 2g Cd then Q ' C a h
3 2
Cd=Discharge coefficient
a=Submerged area
g=Gravitational constant
h=Effective head (HW-TW)
Cv=V-notch weir coefficient
C=Rectangular weir coefficient
This technique is based on standard weir and orifice flow calculations, and may provide more
accurate results than the empirical solution of Eq.66.
A dam breach is modeled as a weir opening whose dimensions change over time, as the breach
progresses. The breach can start at a specific time or water surface elevation, and progresses to
its final dimensions over a specified time.
For a rectangular opening in a vertical plane, the discharge under any head is derived from the
discharge through a thin horizontal strip. (See Handbook of Hydraulics p.4-3.)
2
Q ' Cd L 2g H 3/2 & [H&M ]3/2 Eq. 69
3
When the orifice is partially submerged (H<M) the term [H-M] becomes zero
and this reduces to the rectangular weir equation:
2
Q ' Cd L 2g H 3/2 ' C L H 3/2 (English units) Eq. 70
3
The above equations apply to free-discharge conditions. When the tailwater exceeds the orifice
invert, the discharge is the sum of two components:
1) The discharge for the portion of the orifice (if any) that lies above the tailwater elevation is given
by the previous equations, with the head and height measured from the tailwater level rather than
from the invert.
2) The portion of the orifice that lies below the tailwater is subject to a constant head differential,
with the discharge given by the basic orifice equation:
For an orifice opening in a horizontal plane, the discharge is given by the basic orifice equation as
derived in Handbook of Hydraulics p.4-3:
Q ' Cd a 2gh
where h ' H (for free discharge) Eq. 72
or h ' H & TW (for TW above invert)
Under low-head conditions, you may also wish to consider the possibility of weir flow as described
on page 99.
V=Discharge velocity
Cd=Discharge coefficient
g=Gravitational constant
h=Effective head
The discharge coefficient indicates the fraction of theoretical discharge that the orifice can actually
handle. The coefficient is a unit-less parameter which can vary from 0 (for no discharge) up to 1.0
(for full theoretical capability). The default value of 0.60 indicates that the orifice can discharge
60% of the theoretical value. Other coefficients can be used if required, although the value is
typically in the range of 0.59 to 0.61.
The above expression for orifice flow can also be written as a head-loss equation:
V2 1 1
h ' k where k ' and Cd ' Eq. 74
2g 2
Cd k
k=Head-loss coefficient
Any device that is characterized by this equation can usually be modeled with the standard orifice
calculations, with the head-loss coefficient converted to an equivalent discharge coefficient as
shown above.
The previous orifice equations for openings in a vertical plane are generally valid under all head
conditions. No adjustment is required under low-head (partially submerged) conditions, since these
equations reduce to the appropriate weir equation.
For orifice openings in a horizontal plane, the equations assume that the head is large in relation
to the orifice size. This can lead to overestimating the discharge under low-head conditions. To
ensure correct flow under all conditions, discharge can be automatically limited to that predicted
by the weir equation:
Q=Discharge
C=Weir Coefficient
L=Crest length (orifice perimeter)
H=Head (above invert elevation)
g=Gravitational constant
Cd=Discharge coefficient
This will cause the weir equation to control at low heads, without affecting the high-head discharge
predicted by the orifice equation. The result is useful for a range of real-world “orifices”, such as
the top of a standpipe.
! This adjustment is performed automatically whenever “Use weir flow at low heads” is
selected for a horizontal orifice.
Note: This calculation uses a preset discharge coefficient Cd=0.61, which corresponds to an English
weir coefficient C=3.27or a metric coefficient C=1.81.
Modeling a Grate
26
The ability to define the outer grate dimensions was added in HydroCAD 9.0.
HydroCAD can model a wide range of culvert shapes, including circular, box, elliptical, and pipe-
arch.
When evaluating a culvert, HydroCAD checks multiple flow conditions in order to determine the
prevailing control at each headwater elevation. This is based on six types of culvert flow as
identified in Culverts - Hydrology & Hydraulics page E-1. (Also see Standard Handbook for Civil
Engineers p.21-18,19.)
Tailwater
Type Inlet Outlet Slope Flow Type Dependent? Type of Control
1a Submerged Submerged Any Pipe Yes Outlet
1b Submerged Free Mild Pipe No Outlet (barrel)
1c Submerged Free Any Channel No Inlet (orifice)
2a Free TW>Yc Mild Channel Yes Outlet
2b Free TW<Yc Mild Channel No Outlet (barrel)
2c Free TW<Yc Steep Channel No Inlet (weir)
For type 1b, assuming that the culvert is full along its entire length, the velocity is given by the
following equation. (See Culverts - Hydrology & Hydraulics page D-11.)
H & D % SL
V2 ' and Q ' A V
K e%1 n2 L Eq. 79
%
2g C R 4/3
3
D ' H Eq. 80
4
Rather than directly determining whether type 1b or 2b flow exists, HydroCAD uses the lesser of
this depth and the culvert height. This also ensures continuity between the two flow conditions,
with the cross over occurring when the head is 4/3 of the culvert height.
Types 1a and 2a are similar to types 1b and 2b, except for the tailwater dependency. This is
accommodated by setting D equal to the tailwater depth whenever this value exceeds the normal
flow depth.
Types 1c and 2c operate under inlet control, and the discharge is determined with the orifice
equations given previously. The orifice discharge coefficient is given by:
Cc
Cd ' Eq. 81
1 % KE
Note that for Ke=.5 this yields Cd=.6, which is the default discharge
coefficient for a sharp-edged orifice.
The final determination of culvert discharge is made by calculating the type 1a/2a, 1b/2b and 1c/2c
flows as described above. The least of these values (a, b, and c) is then used as the final discharge
for a given head.
Note: The approximations used for culvert discharge have generally been found to provide
sufficient accuracy for most hydrograph routing purposes. However, it is strongly recommended
that the resulting stage-discharge curve be verified using independent culvert data. If a significant
discrepancy is found, the desired discharge data should be entered directly as a Special Outlet
instead of using the built-in culvert equations.
Tube flow is used to model a conduit flowing full, where the flow rate is determined by headwater,
tailwater, and tube characteristics. This capability can also be applied to model self-priming
siphons, where the flow initiates and breaks at preset elevations. The start/break capability also
makes this class of outlet suitable for modeling float-activated valves and other gravity-driven
devices that exhibit an on/off hysteresis with respect to head.
The operation of the tube/siphon outlet can be divided into three basic categories:
1) Regular Tube: A gravity-fed tube with a continuous downward slope to the outlet, or an
“inverted siphon” with a dip in the middle of the tube. These scenarios are defined by the tube’s
parameters and its inlet and outlet elevations. Flow begins when the headwater exceeds the inlet,
and stops when the headwater drops below the inlet.
2) Siphon or float-activated valve: A device that requires a water surface elevation some
distance above the inlet in order to initiate flow. These devices are also characterized by a break
elevation at which flow will cease. Flow begins when the headwater exceeds the “start” elevation,
and stops when the headwater drops below the “break” elevation.
3) Float valve with trickle: A float-activated valve (as above) that allows a reduced flow (trickle)
in the "closed" position. The trickle flow is characterized by an equivalent orifice diameter which
controls the flow when the valve is “closed”.
Note that categories 2 and 3 require a dynamic routing procedure in order to allow for the multi-
variable stage-discharge relationship. See page 117 for details.
When the tube length is zero, the discharge is calculated directly from the orifice equation:
When the tube length is non-zero, we must consider the head-loss from the orifice, plus the
frictional losses within the tube. For the orifice, we can solve the above equation for head:
Q2 V2
HO ' ' Eq. 83
2 2
2g CO a 2 2g CO
V=Flow Velocity
0.54
HF
V ' k CF R 0.63 Eq. 84
L
1.85
V
HF ' L R &1.17 Eq. 85
k CF
The total head loss for any flow rate is the sum of the orifice and tube losses:
1.85
V2 V
H(V) ' HO(V) % HF(V) ' %L R &1.17 Eq. 86
2g CO
2 k CF
This value must equal the vertical distance from the headwater to the outlet of the tube, or the
distance to the tailwater, if the outlet is submerged. To determine the flow rate for a given head,
a numerical solution for V is obtained by using Newton's Method. Multiplying by the tube area
gives the final discharge Q. When using a dynamic routing procedure, the tube outflow will
respond to changes in tailwater elevation as they occur.
For all tubes, the flow calculated above is gradually phased-in over an elevation range equal to
the orifice diameter. This avoids a sudden flow increase at initiation due to the suction head when
the tube outlet is lower than the inlet, and approximates orifice flow at low heads. This phase-in
is not applied to siphons or float-activated valves, since they are subject to full-flow conditions at
the moment of initiation.
Remember that all calculations assume the tube is always flowing full. For a partially-full tube,
consider a culvert outlet instead.
A constant flow outlet device may be used to model a skimmer or other outlet structure that
exhibits a relatively constant flow rate regardless of the water surface elevation. The specified flow
will occur whenever the headwater exceeds the device’s invert elevation.
For a skimmer, the invert elevation is the level at which water begins to overtop the inlet weir or
orifice and starts to flow through the structure. The invert will generally be above the bottom of
the pond, since a certain depth of water is usually required to reach the inlet and initiate operation.
After water begins to flow, an additional phase-in depth is generally required before the skimmer
starts to float and the full design flow is achieved. If the phase-in depth is set to zero, the full
design flow will occur as soon as the pond's water surface elevation exceeds the invert elevation.
However, a more stable and accurate routing is generally achieved by using a non-zero phase-in
depth.
When the water is above the invert but below the phase-in depth, the structure will discharge a
fraction of the total design flow calculated by:
D1
Q ' QD Eq. 87
D2
Q=Actual discharge
D1=Depth above invert
D2=Phase-In Depth
QD=Design Flow
This relationship provides a linear transition from zero to full flow that approximates the behavior
of the weir/orifice arrangement at the inlet of a typical floating skimmer. Since the phase-in depth
is usually small in comparison to the overall operating range of most skimmer installations, the
exact shape of the transition curve will have a minimal effect on the overall pond routing
calculation. For situations where the transition curve is critical, or the skimmer discharge is not
strictly constant, a special outlet can be used for more precise modeling. However, a constant flow
outlet will provide sufficient accuracy for most applications without requiring the external
calculation of a complete rating curve.
If the pond is subject to tailwater conditions, the discharge (and phase-in) are delayed until the
pond's water surface elevation exceeds the tailwater elevation. If a phase-in depth is specified, full
flow will occur when the WSE exceeds the tailwater elevation plus the phase-in depth.
The special outlet device is designed to handle unusual stage-discharge relationships (such as a
vortex valve) that can't be readily reproduced with any of the standard outlet devices.
The behavior of a special outlet device is defined by an explicit stage-discharge table. The first
discharge value must always be zero and may occur at any desired elevation. Additional discharge
values are specified at higher elevations as required to adequately represent the true shape of the
desired rating curve. When choosing the elevations, keep in mind that HydroCAD performs a
linear interpolation to determine the discharge at any required intermediate elevations.
If the last defined elevation is exceeded and the “Extrapolate” option is selected, HydroCAD will
extrapolate from the last two values. Otherwise, the final discharge value is used without
extrapolation.
! When the Head-Loss option is not selected, special outlets have a fixed stage-discharge
relationship and cannot respond to variable tailwater conditions. (The discharge is a function of
headwater only.)
! If the Head-Loss option is selected, the discharge is a function of the head loss (difference)
between the headwater and tailwater elevations. If the tailwater is less than the device invert, the
head-loss is given by the headwater depth above the invert, and the actual tailwater is ignored.
In this case, the discharge is the same as when the Head-Loss option is not selected.
Note: Rather than entering a rating table by hand, the “Load From File” button may be used to load
a pre-defined rating table, such as the vortex valve data added in HydroCAD 7.1.
V=Flow velocity
k=1.318 for English units or 0.85 for metric
C=Hazen-Williams coefficient
R=Hydraulic radius
S=Energy slope
h=Friction head loss
L=Pipe length
Q=Discharge
A=Flow area of discharge pipe
By solving for h, we can determine the head loss for any given flow rate:
1 0.63 1.85
&
Q 0.54 0.54 Q
h ' L R ' L R &1.17 Eq. 89
kCA kCA
Routing Considerations
Pumps should normally be modeled with a
tailwater-sensitive routing procedure, such
as the Dynamic Storage-Indication method.
(See p.117.) This allows the stage-
discharge relationship to be re-evaluated at
each time step, so that tailwater variations
and pump switching can be taken into
consideration (in addition to headwater
variations).
To separate exfiltration from other “true” outflows, it is usually directed to the discarded outflow
to prevent further routing. Since there are many different approaches to modeling exfiltration,
HydroCAD provides several options that can be used to implement a wide range of design methods:
Option 1 A constant exfiltration rate Q may be specified in Ft³/sec or m³/sec. This value may
be applied whenever there is water in the pond, or only when the level exceeds the specified “invert
elevation.” This feature may be used to exclude exfiltration through (lower) impervious regions of
the pond.
QY ' V AY Eq. 90
Option 3 This is an extension of Option 2, in which the exfiltration velocity is calculated from the
saturated hydraulic conductivity. For flow through a saturated medium, Darcy’s Law states:
V ' KS I Eq. 91
The Hydraulic Gradient is the head differential across the media divided by the media thickness:
27
The term "Permeability" is sometimes used as a synonym for Conductivity. However, Permeability has several
different meanings, and therefore is not used in this presentation.
Exfiltration Area
The exfiltration area for options 2 and 3 may be
defined in three ways: (A) if all exfiltration is
assumed to be downward (none through the sides of
the pond), you may use the pond's surface area;
(B) for downward exfiltration with in-sloping sides,
you may prefer to use horizontal area, which
includes the largest surface area at or below the
given elevation; (C) if exfiltration occurs through all
exposed surfaces regardless of slope, you may use the
pond's wetted area.
You can also restrict exfiltration to a certain region of the pond. Setting the invert elevation will
exclude the area of the pond that lies at or below this elevation. This reduces the effective
exfiltration area by the area at the invert:
If you wish to allow exfiltration through vertical surfaces, such as the sides of a drywell, then you
must specify wetted area (See page 78 for details on wetted area calculations.) As always, it is
your responsibility to ensure that this computation is applicable to your particular situation.
60
V ' Eq. 94
P
Embedded Storage
When using embedded storage volumes, (such as a chamber in a stone bed) water is assumed to
move freely between the chamber and outer storage volume, such that they maintain essentially
the same water surface elevation throughout the routing. (Referred to as a “level pond” routing.)
Any exfiltration is based on the outer storage volume only, since this is the only surface through
which water can actually leave the pond.
Advanced techniques
While most cases will require just a single exfiltration device, it is also possible to use several
exfiltration devices on a single pond. This could be used to model multistage exfiltration schemes,
such as a drywell that overflows into a perforated pipe.
As with all pond designs, you should review and understand the
stage-discharge plot to make sure the pond is exhibiting the
behavior you expect. Do not rely solely on a review of the
hydrograph, in which the pond's behavior is intertwined with the
complexities of the inflow hydrograph.
Each outlet device may employ an optional discharge multiplier. This factor can be used to increase
or decrease the device’s discharge under all flow conditions. The most common application is an
integral multiplier, such as “2", to double the device flow under all conditions. This is a convenient
way to model several identical devices with only a single outlet definition. A fractional multiplier
(such as 1.25 or 0.75) can be used to increase or decrease the normal device flow by the specified
factor.
Discharge Velocity
During each pond routing, HydroCAD attempts to calculate the discharge velocity for each
controlling outlet device. This velocity is listed on the pond outlet report, along with the maximum
discharge rate for each device.
Some devices (such as a horizontal orifice) have a uniform discharge velocity that is directly
specified by the governing discharge equation. Other devices (such as weirs) have significant
velocity variations over the flow area, and their discharge equations do not directly yield this
information. In these cases, the average velocity is estimated by dividing the flow rate by the
approximate cross-sectional area of the flow.
Notes:
1) The flow cross-section is estimated using the device geometry and the adjacent headwater
elevation. In some cases (such as certain weirs) the water surface elevation may actually decrease
as it approaches the device, resulting in a somewhat lower cross-sectional area, and a
correspondingly higher velocity.
2) The reported discharge velocity does not account for any acceleration (due to gravity) or
deceleration (due to friction) after it passes through the control point.
3) When applying a fractional discharge multiplier, the discharge velocity is adjusted in direct
proportion to the multiplier. The discharge velocity is not adjusted for integral multipliers, since
these are typically used to represent multiple devices, rather than an increased flow through a
single device.
4) The device velocity is reported only for informational purposes. This value does not play a role
in any other calculations, so any discrepancies in the reported velocity will not effect any other
calculations.
Most pond routing calculations require detailed information about the pond’s stage-storage and
stage-discharge relationships.
Stage-Storage Calculations
Pond storage may be defined by any combination of the techniques described in Section 17. When
multiple storage volumes are defined in a single pond, HydroCAD uses the total storage provided
by all volumes. This requires that the volumes be interconnected so that water can flow freely
between them, in order to obey the “level pool” assumption for pond routing.
Stage-Discharge Calculations
The stage-discharge curve is automatically compiled based on the outlet calculations described in
Section 18.
If any devices are routed to a secondary, tertiary or discarded outflow, additional stage-discharge
curves are compiled using the same basic procedure. Each device is included in the stage-discharge
curve to which it is routed. To perform the actual pond routing, a total discharge curve is obtained
by adding the individual curves. When routing is complete, the total outflow hydrograph is split
into separate outflows based on the ratio of the stage-discharge curves. This provides an automatic
split-flow, or “diversion” capability. This is most commonly used when one or more outlets require
separate routing, such as an emergency spillway (routed through a separate channel) or an
exfiltration outflow (to be removed from any further routing).
Primary Discharge
.))1=Culvert (standpipe outlet)
/))2=Orifice/vertical (side opening(s) in riser)
.))3=Orifice/horizontal (top opening of riser)
Reading from the bottom up: Device 3 is a horizontal orifice representing the flow into the top of
the riser. Device 2 is used to model one or more openings in the side of the riser. Devices 2 and 3
are summed together, and routed through the final outlet culvert, device 1.
When entering a compound outlet device, start with the final device (such as the
culvert shown above), and work up towards the pond, entering each device that limits flow
or contributes to the discharge. Repeat for any secondary, tertiary, or discarded discharge.
28
This procedure uses the standard hydraulic equations given previously, with consideration of the minimum tailwater
created when a device is lower than the next device downstream. However, it does not consider more complex interactions
that may occur between devices, except to limit the flow to the lesser of the two. Like all complex calculations, it is
important to verify these results by independent means to ensure they are sufficiently accurate for your purposes. In
situations where the inter-device water level may constitute a significant tailwater for the upstream device, this can be
modeled by treating the lower portion of the outlet structure as a separate “pond”, and using a tailwater-sensitive routing
procedure.
! Storage-Indication method
! Dynamic Storage-Indication method
! Simultaneous pond routing
All pond routing techniques assume that the storage volume is large in comparison to the inflow,
such that the pond constitutes a zero-velocity level pool. If the velocity approaching the outlet
device(s) is significant, pond routing may underestimate the discharge and overestimate the peak
elevation and storage of the pond.
Storage-Indication Method
The Storage-Indication method (SI) is based on the conservation of mass, as expressed in the
following relationship. (See Hydrologic Analysis and Design p.545.)
∆S
I & O ' or I ∆t & O ∆t ' ∆ S Eq. 95
∆t
Using subscripts 1 and 2 to denote values at the beginning and end of the time interval ∆t, yields
the following expression:
I1 % I2 O1 % O2
∆t & ∆t ' S2 & S1 Eq. 96
2 2
Rearranging the equation with unknown terms on the left and known terms on the right yields:
I1 % I2 O1 O2
∆t % S1 & ∆t ' S2 % ∆t Eq. 97
2 2 2
The right hand portion of this equation is known as the storage-indication value, which can be
evaluated at any stage (elevation) using the stage-storage and stage-discharge relationships
previously determined.
1) The pond's stage-discharge relationship is calculated based on the specified outlet devices.
2) The stage-storage relationship is determined from the specified stage-area or stage-storage data.
4) Routing is performed using the specified time span and time increment. At each point in time,
a storage-indication value is calculated based on the current inflow, plus the previous inflow,
outflow, and volume in the pond.
5) The current storage-indication value and the storage-indication curve are used to determine the
new elevation.
6) Using the new elevation, the stage-storage and stage-discharge curves are consulted to
determine the new storage and discharge.
7) This process is repeated for all points in the inflow hydrograph, producing a complete outflow
hydrograph as shown below.29
Special SI Considerations
Since the SI method is dependent on a static SI rating curve, it is unable to respond to other
factors, such as a varying downstream tailwater. These situations may require the use of an
alternate routing procedure, as described below. (HydroCAD will generally issue a warning
message if an alternate procedure is required.)
When modeling ponds with no storage capability, the SI procedure will calculate the headwater
elevation that is required to discharge the entire inflow at each time step. This eliminates any
detention effects, while still determining a water surface elevation at each time step.
29
If the pond has multiple outlets, the routing is performed based on the total discharge, and is then split according to
the characteristics of the individual outlets.
In addition to the basic routing procedure described above, HydroCAD provides the following
special routing capabilities.
1) The inflow hydrograph is automatically adjusted for any base flow (or inflow loss) by adding (or
subtracting) the specified value from each point on the hydrograph. If “automatic base flow” is
selected, the base flow is set to the pond's discharge at the specified starting elevation. This places
the pond in an equilibrium condition (stable water surface elevation) when routing begins.
2) If a starting elevation is specified, routing begins with the water at this level. If this is above the
lowest outlet device, the pond begins discharging immediately, possibly before any inflow has
occurred. If the starting elevation is below the lowest device, no outflow occurs until this level is
attained. (The outflow volume will also be reduced by the amount of storage below this level.)
3) Routing is normally performed using the time interval (dt) of the inflow hydrograph, although
a finer interval may be specified for each pond to provide improved tracking. The normal dt is
divided by the specified finer routing value. Finer routing (usually 2) can also be used to eliminate
any oscillations in the pond's outflow, which will usually be flagged by a specific warning message.
4) If the peak elevation exceeds the specified flood elevation, a warning message is issued and
routing will continue. The setting of the flood elevation has no effect on the routing itself.
The Storage-Indication method (SI) is one of the most widely used routing methods. Although the
nature of the SI makes it exceptionally stable, it is dependent on a static rating curve. This means
that the stage-discharge relationship must be known before routing begins, and cannot change until
the routing is complete. This prevents the pond from responding to external conditions (such as
varying tailwater or pump switching) and enforces a sequential evaluation of the watershed.
In contrast, the Dynamic Storage-Indication method (DSI) reevaluates the storage-indication curve
at each time step, allowing other variables (such as the downstream tailwater or pump switching)
to be taken into consideration. And since DSI uses the same equations as SI, it can be expected to
give comparable results when these variable are not present.
DSI routing may also require that upstream nodes be recalculated in response to downstream
tailwater changes. Due to these vastly greater computational requirements, DSI routing is
recommended only when variable tailwater dependencies or pump switching are involved.
HydroCAD will generally issue a warning message when these factors are present in a specific
model.
The SI and DSI methods are both sequential procedures. They require that the watershed have a
unique flow order. This precludes the modeling of situations with an ambiguous order, such as a
flow loop or flow reversal. To model these situations, HydroCAD provides the simultaneous routing
method, or Sim-Route.
Like the DSI procedure, Sim-Route allows for variable tailwater by re-evaluating all outlet devices
at each time step during the routing. But in order to allow for ambiguous flow order, Sim-Route
uses only the inflow at the previous time step, which is always available, regardless of the flow
order.
Since the current inflow is unknown, the traditional SI equations cannot be applied. Instead, Sim-
Route is based on a direct application of the basic equation for conservation of mass. (See
Hydrologic Analysis and Design p.545.)
∆S
I & O ' where ∆ S ' S2 & S1
∆t
Eq. 98
ˆ S2 ' S1 % ( I & O ) ∆ t
1) Routing is performed using the specified time span and time increment. The initial storage is
assumed to be zero, unless an initial elevation is specified.
2) The new pond storage (S2) is calculated using the above equation with the previous rates of
inflow and outflow.
3) Using the new storage, a new elevation is determined directly from the stage-storage
relationship.
4) New outflow(s) are calculated using the new pond elevation (the headwater) and the previous
elevation of each downstream node (the tailwater). Each outlet structure is directly evaluated
under these conditions, without use of an intermediate stage-discharge table.
5) Steps 2 through 4 are repeated at each time interval until the entire hydrograph has been
developed.
Note: When modeling ponds with no storage capability, the Sim-Route assumes the outflow is equal
to the inflow, and calculates the headwater elevation required to produce that discharge. This
eliminates any detention effects, while still allowing the water surface elevation (headwater) to be
determined at each time step.
Since this technique directly evaluates all outlet devices at each time increment, it eliminates the
approximations inherent in a pre-calculated stage-discharge curve, as used by the traditional
storage-indication method. The drawback is slower calculation time, particularly with small time
increments.
Simultaneous routing also requires a small enough time increment to permit accurate “tracking”
during the routing procedure. As the amount of available storage decreases, so does the required
dt. An inadequate dt will cause the outflow to oscillate, which will usually generate a warning
message. Very small reaches or ponds (such as catch basins) may require so small a time
increment as to make simultaneous routing impractical.
Tailwater Capabilities
In order for tailwater effects to be automatically accommodated, two conditions must exist:
1) The upper node must use a routing procedure that is “tailwater aware.” That is, it must
take the variable downstream condition (tailwater) into account when performing the
routing calculation.
2) The lower node must use a routing procedure that defines a water surface elevation,
which is seen as the tailwater for inflowing nodes.
The following table summarizes these characteristics for each type of node when using the DSI or
Sim-Route procedure described above.
Subcat no no
Reach no yes
Link no optional
Applying the previous rules to all node combinations indicates that automatic tailwater calculations
occur for the following combinations:
HydroCAD is designed to model flows that occur in the same direction as the outflow arrows on the
routing diagram. If the potential exists for flow in the reverse direction, an appropriate warning
message is issued. Since HydroCAD does not automatically model reverse flows, the user must
take appropriate action to address the situation.
1) Systems with reverse flow effects should generally be modeled with the Sim-Route procedure.
This allows each pond to respond to dynamic tailwater conditions, and allows flows in both
directions.
2) To model a reverse flow from one pond to another, create an appropriate outlet going in the
reverse direction, that is, routed from the “lower” pond to the “upper” pond. (This will appear on
the diagram as a double-ended arrow.) This outlet will mirror the normal down flow from the upper
pond, but is described from the standpoint of water flowing in the opposite direction.30
Note: The existence of tailwater alone does not necessarily indicate a reverse flow situation.
Although tailwater can reduce discharge, reverse flow can occur only when the tailwater elevation
exceeds the headwater and the flow changes direction. Reverse flow devices (and the Sim-Route
procedure in general) are recommended only when a specific reverse flow warning occurs.
Otherwise, the normal SI or DSI routing procedures are recommended.
30
A reverse outlet is permitted only for a simultaneous routing, which doesn’t require a linear flow sequence. Sequential
routing methods cannot accommodate such a “flow loop” and will report an error condition.
31
Note that these calculations are not routing methods. They are a separate analysis that is performed after the
hydrograph routing has been performed.
This section provides details on special hydrograph values that appear in HydroCAD reports.
The peak flow for each hydrograph is calculated using the three highest points on the
hydrograph.32 A parabola is fitted to these points and the apex of the parabola specifies the true
peak. This eliminates variations in the peak that would occur if only a single point were
considered. This improvement in accuracy is most pronounced with a narrow peak, where the two
closest points fall on either side of the peak and may be several percent below the actual peak.
The peak attenuation indicates the percentage reduction in peak inflow caused by a routing
operation. This is determined by comparing the peak of the inflow and outflow hydrographs as
calculated above.
The time of peak is determined by the same parabolic fit to the three highest points. The apex
of the parabola establishes a time of peak with far greater resolution than the time between points.
Like the peak flow, this value is not affected by the placement of the points on the “true” curve.
The time lag caused by a reach or pond is the difference between the time of peak obtained from
the inflow and outflow hydrographs. (This is distinct from the travel time, described below.)
The hydrograph volume is determined by integrating the flow over the time span of the
hydrograph. Since the volume can include flow only within the given time span, any flow before
or after is excluded. Also note that the lag introduced by a pond or reach can cause a discrepancy
between the calculated inflow and outflow volume. If necessary, this can be remedied by increasing
the calculation time span to include the entire duration of the inflow and outflow hydrographs.
The peak elevation, peak depth, and peak storage are determined by interpolation, in the
same manner as peak flow. (This is a change from HydroCAD-5, which reported the highest
discrete value as the peak.)
The maximum velocity is the largest value obtained by dividing each discrete flow rate by the
corresponding cross-sectional area. This result may be somewhat different than dividing the peak
flow by the corresponding area.
The average velocity is determined by averaging the flow rate divided by the corresponding area
at each time interval during the routing calculation.
The travel time is calculated by dividing the length of the reach, channel, or pipe by the velocity.
For a reach routing, the average and minimum travel time are calculated using the average and
maximum velocity, respectively. For some reach routing procedures, the travel time is used to
further translate (delay) the outflow.
32
HydroCAD also checks for flat-topped hydrographs, where curve fitting and extrapolation are not appropriate.
Basic Applications
! An internal link is used to process only the inflows that are connected on the routing
diagram.
! A file link is used to read a hydrograph from an external data file. This capability can
be used to import a hydrograph from another program, or to link several projects as
described below.
Note that any type of link may have inflows on the routing diagram. For a manual link or file link,
the imported hydrograph is added to any inflows shown on the diagram.
Advanced Settings
A link also provides several settings that can be used to perform special hydrograph operations:
Flow Threshold If a threshold is specified, only the portion of the inflow that exceeds this value is
retained. The default (blank) value causes the entire flow to be passed.
Flow Limit If a limit is specified, only the portion of the inflow below this limit is retained.
Discharge Multiplier After applying any flow threshold and/or limit, each flow is multiplied by this
value. The default value of one produces no net change to the hydrograph.
Time Multiplier Scales any external inflow to a different duration.33 The default value of one
produces no net change to the hydrograph. Internal (onscreen) inflows are not affected by this
setting.
Time Lag Delays (translates) the outflow hydrograph by the specified time. This option can be
used to apply a known time lag to any hydrograph.
33
The Time Multiplier allows the use of dimensionless hydrographs, as used for runoff studies in Ohio. A link file
containing the Ohio rural hydrograph is included in the Ohio rural hydrograph.hce file supplied with HydroCAD.
A link may also be used to define an arbitrary water surface elevation. Although the elevation has
no direct effect on the link's outflow, it allows the link to define special tailwater conditions when
using a tailwater-aware routing procedure. (See page 119 for details.)
For a fixed elevation, the desired water surface elevation is specified directly. This elevation will
exist at all times during the routing calculation. This option is useful for a site that discharges to
a lake or other water body whose elevation is essentially constant throughout the calculation time
span.
An elevation table may be used to specify an arbitrary water surface variation over time. This
can be used to simulate a river or other discharge point that lies outside the boundaries of the
HydroCAD model, but which creates a known, varying tailwater effect that must be considered.
A tidal elevation may be specified by defining the high and low tide elevations, the time of high
tide, and the tide cycle time. The tide cycle is measured from one high tide to the next, and defaults
to 12.42 hours (12 hours and 25 minutes). The resulting tidal elevation is defined by a sine wave
with the specified parameters, which repeats over the entire calculation time span.
1) If a Time Multiplier is specified, it is applied to any external inflow by multiplying each time
ordinate by this value. The time multiplier has no effect on any internal (onscreen) inflows.
2) The adjusted external inflow is converted to the current time span and time step, and added to
any internal (onscreen) inflows.34 The result is considered to be the total inflow for the link.
3) If a Flow Threshold is specified, only the portion of the inflow hydrograph above the threshold
is retained.
4) If a Flow Limit is specified, only the remainder of the inflow that falls below the threshold is
retained.
6) If the Flow Limit, Threshold, or Discharge Multiplier has caused a reduction of the inflow
hydrograph, a secondary outflow will be generated containing the remainder of the inflow
hydrograph. In some cases this may then be routed separately, providing a basic flow-diversion
mechanism.
The results of these operations are readily apparent upon viewing the link's hydrograph, which
shows the inflow and outflow curves as described above.
34
When adding hydrographs with the same starting time and time increment, the ordinates at matching times are
added directly. If the starting time or time increment are different, HydroCAD will interpolate from the external
hydrograph in order to obtain values at the same time steps as the current project. The resulting hydrograph will always
have the same time span and increment as the current project.
If you exceed the node capacity of your program, you can break a project into two (or more) sections
and then connect them using an automatic link. (This technique does not apply to the HydroCAD
Sampler, which does not have the file export capability.)
1) First break the project into two or more sections. You can do this by
dragging nodes from one project to another, or by cut-and-paste. One project
will typically contain the upstream portion of the watershed, and will end
with an unrouted outflow, as shown at right.
2) Verify the calculation settings for the upstream portion of the project.
Since rainfall settings must be set independently for each section of the
project, it’s very helpful to define each of the applicable rainfall events. This Upstream section
will allow you to select between events without having to modify each of the
interconnected files.
3) Under Settings|Export, select “Export Unrouted Outflow Hydrographs” and click OK.
4) Close and save the upstream project. As the project is closed, the unrouted nodes are
automatically updated and exported.
5) Open the downstream portion of the split project and create a link. Edit the link and select File
Link. Select the File tab and press Browse to see a list of available export files. Select the desired
file from the upstream portion of the project.
6) If the file contains multiple outflows, use the “File Hydrograph” box to select the desired
hydrograph. Click OK to save the link's description.
7) You can now route the link's outflow on the diagram as shown at
the right. The link will automatically import the hydrograph as
calculations are performed.
8) Make sure the lower portion of the projects uses exactly the same
event definitions as the upper portion. (The easiest way to do this
is to import the events from the upper project, as described on
page 47.) This will allow you to select any event in the lower project
and the link will automatically import the corresponding
hydrograph. If you don’t use events, you’ll have to re-open the upper Downstream section
project each time you need to change the rainfall.
Important: If you change the upstream project while the downstream portion is open, the
downstream project will retain the earlier (outdated) inflow. To update the downstream project you
must either (1) close and reopen the downstream project, or (2) select Settings|Calculation and press
OK. In either case, you must close the upstream project in order for the exported flow(s) to become
available.
External hydrograph files are commonly used to connect separate projects with a file link, as
described above. HydroCAD automatically creates and deletes these files as required, based on the
export settings for each project. External hydrograph files may also be created manually or
generated by other software. These are ASCII text files with an .hce extension, and must follow the
format described in the sample file LinkTest.hce which is installed in the HydroCAD\Projects folder.
To edit an external hydrograph file by hand, click on the file and select “Notepad” when asked what
program you want to use to open it. Windows will remember this selection the next time you
attempt to open an external hydrograph.
External hydrograph files created by HydroCAD use the same file name as their project, with a
tilde and the node number added to the end. If you create your own external files, you may use any
name that does not match this format. Any files that match this specification will be overwritten
each time the project is opened by HydroCAD!
To import an external hydrograph into any project, create a file link on the diagram and use it to
import the file.
Several options are provided under Settings|Export that control which hydrographs (if any) will be
exported from the current project:
These settings instruct HydroCAD to automatically export certain hydrographs for use with an
automatic link or with other software. These hydrographs are automatically exported when the
project is saved and closed. The exported data is not available while the project is open.
If you plan to route the current project into another project using a link, use the “Unrouted
Outflows” setting. This optimizes disk space by exporting only the outflows that are not being
routed on the diagram. This will include all outflows that are likely to be imported with a link.
The “All Inflows” and “All Outflows” settings should be used only when absolutely necessary, since
they can consume large amounts of disk space. (A single 1000-point hydrograph requires about 15K
of storage. Multiply this by the total number of inflow or outflow hydrographs to estimate the total
storage required.)
Land-Use Reporting
Land-use reporting provides a detailed breakdown of how the land within a given project is being
used. This can include industrial, residential, and other uses. Although land-use reporting can
be used on its own, it is most commonly used in conjunction with pollutant loading calculations.
Pollutant Loading
Pollutant loading calculations are used to estimate the quantity of pollutants that are present in
site runoff. This is typically used to determine the Total Phosphorus (TP), Total Nitrogen (TN), and
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) that will be discharged from a site over a given period of time.
To simplify the calculation of pollutant loading, each sub-area is assigned to a specific land-use
category, and pollutant concentrations are defined for each category. To enable pollutant reporting
and define the pollutant concentrations, see the Settings|Land-Use screen.
L ' R C A Eq. 99
Although Eq.99 can be evaluated using the runoff depth for a single event, it is more commonly
used to calculate loading for a longer time period, such as one year. This requires an alternate
procedure for estimating the long-term runoff depth, such as the Simple Method.
R=Runoff depth
P=Precipitation depth
PJ=Fraction of rainfall events that produce runoff
RV=Runoff coefficient
Although this equation is most commonly used to estimate the annual runoff depth, it may be used
for any desired time period.
When evaluating these equations by hand, care must be taken to use consistent units throughout.
Manual calculations are commonly performed by combining equations 99, 100, and 101 and
consolidating the conversion factors:
When applying the Simple Method to multiple subcatchments and land-use areas, HydroCAD
provides several calculation options:
Option 1: Calculate imperviousness for the overall project, and use the resulting (same)
runoff coefficient to calculate the pollutant loads for all land-uses.
Option 2: Calculate imperviousness and pollutant loads separately for each land-use,
without regard to subcatchment delineation.
Option 3: Calculate imperviousness for each subcatchment, and use the resulting runoff
coefficient to calculate the pollutant load for all land-uses within that subcatchment.
Option 4: Calculate imperviousness for each land-use within each subcatchment, and use
the resulting runoff coefficient to calculate the loading for that land-use and subcatchment.
Option 4 is recommended for maximum accuracy. The other options are provided for compatibility
with pre-existing calculation procedures.
35
Exceptions to this rule can be made for water surfaces, which are commonly modeled with a high CN value, but not
classified as impervious. See page 49 for details.
This appendix lists samples of the various messages that may occur during runoff and routing
calculations. In actual use, the text of each message will vary to reflect the exact situation,
however the message number (shown in brackets) will remain the same.
When running HydroCAD, you can click on any item in the summary
report or message window for complete information. This will
display the entire text shown here, as well as links to related topics,
calculations and definitions.
A node was encountered with a number that was already in use. The node is skipped, and the
program continues to process any additional nodes.
This message usually occurs while adding a project that contains nodes that don't have unique
numbers. Before adding a project, you should generally renumber any nodes with conflicting
numbers. To add any nodes that were skipped, renumber the applicable nodes and add the project
again.
The message can also occur when pasting nodes from the clipboard, or opening a project that
contains duplicate node numbers. Tip: To make a clone of an existing node use Ctrl-drag (rather
than cut and paste).
The current project has exceeded the nominal node capacity of your program.
You can continue to work with the project, but you will not be able to save the project or produce
multi-page reports unless you reduce the number of nodes.
Warning: If you're using the HydroCAD Sampler, your changes will be lost when the Sampler's
time limit expires. To save your project you must reduce the number of nodes before the time limit
expires.
This message indicates the number of nodes that have been added, updated, and/or removed by the
Project|Add, Project|Merge, or Project|Import commands.
This message indicates that a number of nodes have been repositioned for better visibility. This
occurs automatically if the nodes don't contain the expected position information. The repositioned
nodes are selected and aligned in a row at the bottom of the routing diagram.
This situation occurs primarily with project files that are generated by another application which
doesn't provide position information. To avoid automatic repositioning of nodes, be sure they have
a valid position before the file is opened in HydroCAD.
Routing calculations are being performed up to a specific node. To save time, downstream nodes
are not being calculated, unless a dynamic or simultaneous routing is being performed. Any other
nodes will be automatically updated when required.
[13] Note: Time span = 5-20 hrs, dt= .05 hrs, 301 Points
This message indicates the time span and time increment (dt) being used to generate and route
hydrographs. The message also indicates the number of points in the resulting hydrographs.
This message indicates the method being used to produce runoff hydrographs. When using the SCS
method, the message also indicates the Unit Hydrograph (UH) being employed.
When using the Rational method, the message indicates the hydrograph rise/fall rates. These
parameters may be changed with Settings|Calculation.
This message indicates the rainfall duration, intensity, and frequency factor being used with the
Rational method. These parameters may be changed with Settings|Calculation.
[19] Note: Type II 24-hr 10-Year Rainfall= 4.30" x2, AMC=3, Ia/S=0.25
This message indicates the rainfall distribution, rainfall event name, and rainfall depth being used
to generate runoff hydrographs. The letter “x” indicates that several back-to-back storms are being
generated, with the specified rainfall depth occurring in each of the storms.
The Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) is shown only if it differs from the default value of 2
(normal conditions). The ratio of Ia to S is shown only if it differs from the default value of 0.2.
This message indicates the method being used to perform hydrograph routing through each reach.
The routing method may be changed using Settings|Calculation.
This message indicates the method being used to perform hydrograph routing through each pond.
The routing method may be changed using Settings|Calculation.
This message indicates that runoff or routing calculations are being updated for a given node.
Routing calculations are automatically updated as required to view or print reports. HydroCAD
employs a “minimal recalculation” feature, so that only the required nodes are updated at any given
time.
Any upstream nodes are automatically updated as required to produce a valid inflow. During a
dynamic or simultaneous routing, any downstream nodes that contribute to a tailwater effect are
updated concurrently. (See Tailwater Capabilities on page 119.) Otherwise, downstream nodes
are just marked as “invalid” and will be updated as their results are required.
The calculation time span may not be long enough to encompass the entire hydrograph duration,
causing a reduction in the reported hydrograph volume, runoff depth, and detention time. If you
wish to study the entire volume, the time span may be changed using Settings|Calculation: Time Span.
No description has been entered for the node, or the data is incomplete. For a subcatchment, no
runoff is produced. For a reach, pond, or link, any inflow is passed through unchanged.
To describe the node, select Node|Edit. An undescribed node can also be useful during initial design
work, since it allows a node to be placed on the diagram but not described until later.
This node has no inflow on the routing diagram, so it will produce no outflow unless it has a base
flow and/or initial water surface elevation.
The subcatchment has produced no runoff. This can occur in any of the following situations:
1) The entire runoff may be occurring before or after the specified time span. To change the time
span use Settings|Calculation.
2) For the SCS or SBUH methods, the rainfall depth may be insufficient to generate any runoff as
determined by the SCS runoff equation. This is normal when low rainfall depths are used in
combination with low curve numbers.
When the time-of-concentration is zero, the precipitation excess appears immediately as runoff.
Since the calculated peak flow is based on the average over each time interval (dt), using a longer
dt (in relation to the peak duration) will yield a lower “peak” flow.
If the instantaneous peak is required, reduce the dt. The dt may be changed using
Settings|Calculation: Time Span.
Due to the short rainfall duration, the peak runoff has not had time to attain the full value
predicted by the Rational Method equation Q=CiA. In order to attain the full peak, the rainfall
duration must be greater than or equal to the time-of-concentration multiplied by the rise rate.
Shorter durations will produce a proportionately lower peak.
When the time-of-concentration is less than twice the time increment (dt), the instantaneous peak
may exceed the (average) hydrograph peak for a brief time (less than dt).
If the instantaneous peak is required, reduce the dt. A dt of one-half the smallest Tc will prevent
this message from occurring. The dt may be changed using Settings|Calculation: Time Span.
When importing watershed data, a ground cover or soil group was not specified for all areas, so the
default value was used for those areas. The message will also indicate the default that was used,
plus the area to which it was applied.
The default ground cover and soil group are specified on the Settings|Watershed screen. When using
a default value, be sure to draw all areas that should not use the default.
Reach routing calculations assume normal-flow conditions in the channel or pipe. The software
does not evaluate inlet conditions or tailwater for the reach, although these may often be a
controlling factor.
If you wish to consider entrance losses, pressure flow, or other conditions for a pipe, it should be
modeled as a pond with a culvert outlet.
The reach is operating above its Manning's normal-flow capacity, but has not overtopped. This may
be acceptable depending on the design criteria.
A dam breach has commenced at the indicated time and water surface elevation.
The peak water surface elevation is displayed. Since a flood elevation has not been specified,
HydroCAD is unable to determine if this is an acceptable elevation.
If the peak elevation is higher than expected, make sure you have defined all necessary outlet
devices. For example, if the level exceeds the top of your pond or catch basin, you must define a
suitable overflow device. Otherwise the elevation may attain an unrealistic level.
It is also recommended that you define a flood elevation for this node. This will allow a warning
message to be automatically generated whenever the water surface exceeds the specified elevation.
Setting a flood elevation will also improve calculation speed by allowing a better estimate of the
elevation range prior to routing.
The peak depth in a reach or pond has exceeded the defined flood elevation. Routing continues as
usual. (A separate message occurs whenever a reach or pond exceeds the highest defined stage.)
The significance of this message depends on the flood level that has been specified for this node.
The message does not indicate that the calculations themselves have been compromised.
If the peak elevation is higher than expected, make sure you have defined all necessary outlet
devices. For example, if the level exceeds the top of your pond or catch basin, you must define a
suitable overflow device. Otherwise the elevation may attain an unrealistic level.
The specified culvert outlet or pipe reach has been resized according to the criteria established on
the Resize tab of the Settings|Calculation form.
The node's peak elevation has exceeded the outlet invert of an inflowing reach, but did not exceed
the reach’s outlet depth at any time during the routing.
This degree of tailwater is common, and does not necessarily require further action. The reach
routing calculations continue to be performed as if the reach were operating under normal
Manning's flow with no tailwater influence. The user is responsible for adjusting the model in any
way that is deemed necessary to accommodate this situation. In some situations, an alternate
routing method or modeling technique may be required.
[62] Hint: {node} Exceeded Reach x OUTLET depth by x.x’ @ x.x hrs
At some time during the routing, the node's water surface elevation has exceeded the flow depth
at the reach outlet, but always remained below the inlet depth. The message indicates the
maximum amount of exceedance, and the time at which it occurred.
This message indicates that part of the reach has been "flooded out" by the downstream node.
Important: The reach routing calculations are not automatically changed to accommodate this
situation, even though it may reduce the actual reach discharge. The routing continues to be
performed as if the reach were operating under normal Manning's flow with no tailwater influence.
Since these basic routing assumptions may no longer be valid, an alternate routing method or
modeling technique may be required. The user is responsible for adjusting the model in any way
that is deemed necessary to accommodate this situation.
Reminder: In most situations, a pipe reach is best modeled as a pond with a culvert outlet, which
can accommodate a wider range of tailwater conditions.
[63] Warning: {node} Exceeded Reach x INLET depth by x.x’ @ x.x hrs
At some time during the routing, the node's water surface elevation has exceeded the flow depth
at the reach inlet, indicating a tailwater dependency, or even the potential for reverse flow. The
message shows the maximum amount of reverse head and the time at which it occurred
Important: The reach routing calculations are not automatically changed to accommodate this
situation, even though the higher tailwater may in reality cause a reduction in flow, or even a
reverse flow. The routing continues to be performed without tailwater effects or reverse flow, as
if a one-way valve were preventing any backflow. The user is responsible for adjusting the model
in any way that is deemed necessary to accommodate this situation.
Note: If the reach is being used to connect two ponds, you may want to remove the reach and
connect one pond directly to the next. This will provide additional capabilities for handling the
tailwater effects as described on page 119.
The reach inlet elevation has not been specified. This information is required in order to detect
potential tailwater effects. Use Node|Edit: Profile to specify the reach elevation. (This warning
commonly occurs with reaches imported from HydroCAD 5, which did not define the elevation.)
This node cannot accept an inflow hydrograph. The inflow is ignored. If you need to route a
hydrograph through a subcatchment, use a separate reach routing.
Some of the imported data could not be fully processed. The data that was skipped is listed before
this message. When importing watershed data, review the source data to identify and correct the
problem.
When importing a TR-20 file, the skipped data is also listed in the project notes. In order to
properly replicate the results obtained with the original data, the skipped items must be manually
incorporated into the HydroCAD project. After incorporating the skipped items, you should open
the Project|Notes screen and update that information accordingly.
The rising limb of a Rational Method hydrograph contains fewer than eight ordinates. A smaller
dt is recommended in order to accurately represent the hydrograph. (A dt of .01 hours is generally
appropriate for most Rational method calculations.) Inspection of the hydrograph is also advised.
The dt may be changed using Settings|Calculation: Time Span.
The calculated runoff peak isn't within the middle 90% of the specified time span. Under these
conditions, the reported “peak” is the highest flow within the time span, and may not be the true
peak. Inspect the hydrograph and change the time span to include the peak. The time span may
be changed using Settings|Calculation: Time Span.
When importing watershed data, a ground cover or soil group was not specified for certain areas.
The message will indicate the amount of area that had no ground cover or soil group.
Because a ground cover or soil group was not specified, the Curve Number cannot be determined
for these areas. To resolve the problem, revise the input data or specify default values on the
Settings|Watershed screen.
When importing watershed data, the total area of a subcatchment did not match the sum of the
individual subareas. The message will indicate the actual difference in areas.
This message indicates a problem with the original data or the import process itself. Examine the
original data to identify and correct the discrepancy.
A pipe reach has filled with water, causing the flow to be limited and the excess volume to be
detained without head.
Important: Pipe reach calculations assume normal-flow conditions in the pipe. If you wish to
consider entrance losses, pressure flow, or other conditions, the pipe should be modeled as a pond
with a culvert outlet.
[77] Warning: Pond Manual tailwater submerged device # by x.x’ (SI method only)
The pond’s manual tailwater elevation exceeds an outlet device which is not tailwater-aware. The
message occurs when the manual tailwater setting is above the invert of one of the pond’s final
outlet devices, and that device is not able to respond to tailwater conditions.
This message can occur only for specific types of outlet devices that are unable to respond to
tailwater conditions, such as exfiltration and some special outlets. To resolve the situation, either
adjust the device to accommodate the tailwater, or switch to a tailwater-capable device.
The node's peak elevation has submerged the specified pond outlet device. This message occurs
when the peak elevation (tailwater) rises above the invert of one of the pond's final outlet device(s),
and that device is not able to respond to tailwater conditions.
Important: The pond routing calculations are not altered by this situation, even though the
tailwater may reduce the pond's discharge. The routing continues to be performed based on the
existing stage-discharge relationship, as if the tailwater did not exist.
This message can occur only for specific types of outlet devices that are unable to respond to
tailwater conditions, such as exfiltration and some special outlets. To resolve the situation, either
adjust the device to accommodate the tailwater, or switch to a tailwater-capable device.
[79] Warning: {node} Submerged Pond x device # by x.x' (SI method only)
The node's peak elevation has submerged the specified pond outlet device. This message occurs
when the peak elevation (tailwater) rises above the invert of one of the pond's final outlet device(s).
Important: The pond routing calculations are not altered by this situation, even though the
tailwater may reduce the pond's discharge. The routing continues to be performed based on the
existing stage-discharge relationship, as if the tailwater did not exist.
Since a static stage-discharge curve cannot accommodate a variable tailwater, the tailwater must
be specified manually using Node|Edit:Tailwater. If one of these tailwater options isn't sufficient, an
alternate routing method may be required, such as a dynamic routing.
At some point during the routing, the node's elevation has exceeded the elevation of an inflowing
pond, indicating a possible reverse flow. The message shows the maximum amount of reverse head,
the time at which it occurred, and an estimate of the potential reverse flow.
Important: The pond routing is not altered by this situation, even though the higher tailwater may
in reality cause a reverse flow. The routing continues to be performed as if a one-way valve were
preventing the backflow. The user is responsible for adjusting the model in any way that is deemed
necessary to accommodate this situation. If the potential reverse flow volume is significant in
proportion to the total outflow volume, you may be able to model the flow with a reverse outlet
device.
[81] Warning: {node} Exceeded Pond x by x.x' @ x.x hrs (SI method only)
At some point during the routing, the node's elevation has exceeded the elevation of an inflowing
pond, indicating a possible tailwater dependency. The message shows the maximum amount of
reverse head and the time at which it occurred.
Important: The pond routing is not altered by this situation, even though the higher tailwater may
in reality cause a reduced discharge. To remedy the situation, a different pond routing method
should be used that is able to accommodate tailwater effects.
Some inflow may be occurring before the beginning of the specified time span, and is therefore not
included in the routing. An earlier time span is required in order to include the early part of the
inflow hydrograph.
[85] Warning: {node} Oscillations may require Finer Routing>1 (SI method only)
The outflow of a pond or reach contains a greater number of peaks than the inflow. This suggests
that oscillations were induced by the routing and that the routing results may not be valid.
If a visual inspection reveals oscillations, they can usually be eliminated by setting the finer routing
value to 2 for that particular node. If this fails to correct the problem, the available storage may
be too small to permit an accurate routing for this node.
Note: Reducing the overall time increment (dt) may also resolve the problem, but this will
unnecessarily increase the calculation time for other nodes.
The outflow of a pond or reach contains a greater number of peaks than the inflow. This suggests
that oscillations were induced by the routing and that the routing results may not be valid.
If a visual inspection reveals oscillations, reduce the time increment (dt) until the situation is
corrected. This may require a reduction to the minimum dt of 0.01 hours.
If the problem persists, the available storage may be too small to permit an accurate routing with
the simultaneous routing method. This method is intended for "coupled ponds" of reasonable size.
In general, it is not intended for reaches or ponds with very small amounts of storage, such as catch
basins or manholes. The DSI method (or using a zero-storage pond) may produce better results.
[87] Warning: {node} Oscillations may require finer routing or smaller dt (DSI only)
The outflow of a pond or reach contains a greater number of peaks than the inflow. This suggests
that oscillations were induced by the routing and that the routing results may not be valid.
If a visual inspection reveals oscillations, increase the Finer Routing value (on the
Settings|Calculation screen) and/or reduce the time increment (dt) until the situation is corrected.
If the problem persists, the available storage may be too small to permit an accurate DSI routing.
[88] Warning: {node} Qout>Qin may require Finer Routing>1 (SI method only)
The peak outflow of a pond or reach was greater than the peak inflow. This can occur if the storage
is very small in relation to the inflow volume, or if there are abrupt changes in the stage-discharge
curve or inflow hydrograph.
This can usually be corrected by setting the finer routing value to 2 for that particular node. If this
fails to correct the problem, the available storage may be too small to permit an accurate routing
for this node.
Note: Reducing the overall time increment (dt) may also resolve the problem, but this will
unnecessarily increase the calculation time for other nodes.
[89] Warning: {node} Qout>Qin may require smaller dt (Sim-Route method only)
The peak outflow of a pond or reach was greater than the peak inflow. This can occur if the storage
is very small in relation to the inflow volume, or if there are abrupt changes in the stage-discharge
curve or inflow hydrograph.
This can usually be corrected by using a smaller time increment (dt) for the entire project. This
may require a reduction to the minimum dt of 0.01 hours.
If the problem persists, the available storage may be too small to permit an accurate routing with
the simultaneous routing method. This method is intended for "coupled ponds" of reasonable size.
In general, it is not intended for reaches or ponds with very small amounts of storage, such as catch
basins or manholes.
The peak outflow of a pond or reach was greater than the peak inflow. This can occur if the storage
is very small in relation to the inflow volume, or if there are abrupt changes in the stage-discharge
curve or inflow hydrograph.
In some cases, this message may be triggered by normal routing conditions. If a visual inspection
of the hydrograph confirms the presence of routing problems, they can usually be eliminated by
increasing the Finer Routing value (on the Setting|Calculation screen) or by reducing the overall time
increment (dt). If this fails to correct the problem, the available storage may be too small to permit
an accurate routing for this node.
The water surface elevation has exceeded the highest defined stage. Routing continues using a
linear extrapolation of the storage and discharge curves.
Important: For accuracy, you must extend the stage-storage data in order to prevent extrapolation.
[92] Warning: Pond Outlet Device #1 is above defined storage (Occurs while editing)
The invert of the specified outlet device lies above the highest defined stage, and therefore does not
contribute to the pre-calculated stage-discharge curve. This can result in no flow being allowed
through the device.
Important: In order for the device to be properly evaluated, additional stage-storage data must be
provided so that the device falls within the defined storage range. There should be at least one
defined stage above the top of the highest outlet device.
The water surface elevation has exceeded the highest defined stage. All defined storage has been
filled. Routing continues by applying additional head to the outlet(s), but without utilizing any
additional storage. In essence, the pond has been extended upward as a pencil-thin chamber with
no additional storage.
Important: For accuracy, you must define additional storage in order to accurately represent the
physical situation being modeled. This may consist of additional stage-storage data and/or storage
chambers, as required to describe the actual storage. Overfilled storage can also cause other
problems, such as oscillations.
This warning commonly results from a failure to provide storage data above the highest outlet
device, such as an emergency spillway. Although you may not intend to utilize this storage,
complete storage information is required in order to perform an accurate routing. When using
custom stage-storage data, the situation is easily resolved by entering storage at one or more
elevations above the upper-most outlet.
It is also possible that you have failed to include an overflow device for the pond, causing the
elevation to rise beyond the expected level.
The water level has exceeded the rise of the specified outlet device (usually a weir), but no matching
device was found to handle the flow at higher elevations. Calculations will continue using orifice
flow through the specified rise, but without using any additional flow area.
Important: To obtain accurate results, you probably need to define another outlet device (generally
a weir) to handle the flow that will occur when the headwater exceeds the top of the lower weir.
The invert of the upper weir must be equal to the lower weir's invert plus its rise.
The reach routing factor “X” (see page 73) has exceeded the permissible range of 0.0 to 0.5. The
value is automatically limited to the respective limit. To ensure an accurate routing, you must
adjust the reach parameters to produce a value in the required range.
At some time during the routing, the required lift was greater than the pump could deliver. No
pump flow occurs under these conditions. If you intend to operate the pump at this lift, you should
insert additional points at the beginning of the rating table to adequately describe the pump flow
under high head (low flow) conditions. See page 106 for further details.
At some time during the routing, the pump lift was below the range specified by the rating curve.
Under these conditions, the pump flow is assumed to be the highest value specified in the rating
table. If you intend to operate the pump at this lift, you should add additional points at the end of
the rating table to adequately describe the pump flow under low head (high flow) conditions. See
page 106 for further details.
To compare the existing and proposed conditions, open both files at the same time. Select the
nodes to be compared (one in each file), and select Comparison Report from the toolbar.
If there are no tailwater effects, or the tailwater is constant, the traditional Storage-Indication
method is still recommended.
The Sim-Route procedure may also be precluded for very small ponds (such as catch basins) that
will not “track” properly, even with the smallest dt. Although the Sim-Route procedure may work
with some catch basins, it is intended for larger ponds that have a significant storage volume in
relation to the inflow hydrograph.
The following publications contain additional information on the hydrology and hydraulics
calculations employed by HydroCAD. They are listed in the approximate order in which they are
referenced in this Manual.
[1] McCuen, Richard H. A Guide to Hydrologic Analysis Using SCS Methods, Prentice Hall, 1982.
(Out of print. Also see [13], Chapter 8.)
[2] Soil Conservation Service Technical Release Number 20 (TR-20), National Technical
Information Service, 1982.
[4] Sharp, J.J. & Sawden, P. Basic Hydrology, Butterworth Scientific, 1984.
[5] King, H.W. & Brater, E.F. Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw Hill, 1963.
[6] Simon, Andrew Practical Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
[9] Jerome M. Norman et al Culverts - Hydrology & Hydraulics, Lehigh University, 1980.
[10] NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Part 630: Hydrology (NEH, previously NEH-4)
[13] McCuen, Richard H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1989.
[14] Barfield and Warner Applied Hydrology and Sedimentology for Disturbed Areas, Oklahoma
Technical Press, 1983.
[15] NRCS (Formerly SCS) Agricultural Handbook Number 590, Ponds - Planning, Design,
Construction.
[16] Merkel, William H. Muskingum-Cunge Flood Routing Procedure in NRCS Hydrology Models,
Second Federal Interagency Hydrologic Modeling Conference, 2002
[17] Schueler, T.R. Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical Manual for Planning and Designing
Urban BMPs, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Publication No. 87703.
Soils are classified into hydrologic soil groups (HSG's) to indicate the minimum rate of infiltration
obtained for bare soil after prolonged wetting. The HSG's, which are A, B, C, and D, are one
element used in determining runoff curve numbers as listed on the following pages.
The infiltration rate is the rate at which water enters the soil at the soil surface. It is controlled
by surface conditions. HSG also indicates the transmission rate — the rate at which the water
moves through the soil. This rate is controlled by the soil profile. The four groups are defined by
SCS soil scientists as follows:
Group A soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted.
They consist chiefly of deep, well to excessively drained sands and gravels, and have a high rate
of water transmission (greater than 0.30 in/hr).
Group B soils have moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted, and consist chiefly of
moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately
coarse textures. These soils have a moderate rate of water transmission (0.15-0.30 in/hr).
Group C soils have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted, and consist chiefly of soils with
a layer that impedes downward movement of water, and soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
These soils have a low rate of water transmission (0.05-0.15 in/hr).
Group D soils have high runoff potential. They have very low infiltration rates when thoroughly
wetted, and consist chiefly of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils with a permanent high
water table, soils with a claypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly
impervious material. These soils have a very low rate of water transmission (0-0.05 in/hr).
Note: A complete list of soil types for the United States is included in the HydroCAD Help
system, and on the HydroCAD support page at www.hydrocad.net.
As a result of urbanization, the soil profile may be considerably altered and the listed group
classification may no longer apply. In these circumstances, use the following to determine HSG
according to the texture of the new surface soil, provided that significant compaction has not
occurred:
The following table lists the automatic curve number adjustments for Antecedent Moisture
Condition I and III as specified in NEH Table 10.1 and described on page 51. The first column lists
the normal (AMC II) values. The second and third columns list the adjusted values for AMC I and
III respectively. When using fractional curve numbers, the translation is performed using an
interpolated version of this table. For details see the AMC.TXT file installed with HydroCAD.
II I III II I III
5 2 13 60 40 78
61 41 78
10 4 22 62 42 79
63 43 80
15 6 30 64 44 81
65 45 82
20 9 37 66 46 82
67 47 83
25 12 43 68 48 84
69 50 84
30 15 50 70 51 85
31 16 51 71 52 86
32 16 52 72 53 86
33 17 53 73 54 87
34 18 54 74 55 88
35 18 55 75 57 88
36 19 56 76 58 89
37 20 57 77 59 89
38 21 58 78 60 90
39 21 59 79 62 91
40 22 60 80 63 91
41 23 61 81 64 92
42 24 62 82 66 92
43 25 63 83 67 93
44 25 64 84 68 93
45 26 65 85 70 94
46 27 66 86 72 94
47 28 67 87 73 95
48 29 68 88 75 95
49 30 69 89 76 96
50 31 70 90 78 96
51 31 70 91 80 97
52 32 71 92 81 97
53 33 72 93 83 98
54 34 73 94 85 98
55 35 74 95 87 98
56 36 75 96 89 99
57 37 75 97 91 99
58 38 76 98 94 99
59 39 77 99 97 100
100 100 100
Custom rainfalls may also be defined manually as described in the Rainfall.txt file, which may be
viewed by selecting Start|Programs|HydroCAD|Rainfall Info. Custom synthetic rainfall distributions can
also be created from local rainfall data as discussed on page 47.
This table reprinted from OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS by Ven Te Chow, Copyright 1959 by McGraw-Hill, with the
permission of the publisher.
This table reprinted from OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS by Ven Te Chow, Copyright 1959 by McGraw-Hill, with the
permission of the publisher.
The following table lists English weir coefficients for broad crested weirs with a sharp-edged crest
of various breadths. These coefficients are automatically entered into the lookup table for a broad
crested weir whenever a crest breadth is entered as described on page 89. If breadth falls between
two listed values, interpolated coefficients are automatically used. Breadths outside the listed
range will use the first or last coefficient values without extrapolation. Values are automatically
converted to the current input units as described on page 43.
------------------Weir Breadth--(ft)------------------
Head 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 10.0 15.0
---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
0.2 2.80 2.75 2.69 2.62 2.54 2.48 2.44 2.38 2.34 2.49 2.68
0.4 2.92 2.80 2.72 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.56 2.70
0.6 3.08 2.89 2.75 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.68 2.69 2.70 2.70 2.70
0.8 3.30 3.04 2.85 2.68 2.60 2.60 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.69 2.64
1.0 3.32 3.14 2.98 2.75 2.66 2.64 2.65 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.63
1.2 3.32 3.20 3.08 2.86 2.70 2.65 2.64 2.67 2.66 2.69 2.64
1.4 3.32 3.26 3.20 2.92 2.77 2.68 2.64 2.65 2.65 2.67 2.64
1.6 3.32 3.29 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.75 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
1.8 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.07 2.88 2.74 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.0 3.32 3.31 3.30 3.03 2.85 2.76 2.72 2.68 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.5 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.81 2.72 2.67 2.64 2.63
3.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.20 3.05 2.92 2.73 2.66 2.64 2.63
3.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.19 2.97 2.76 2.68 2.64 2.63
4.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.70 2.64 2.63
4.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.74 2.64 2.63
5.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.64 2.63
5.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.64 2.63
This table was derived from information in HANDBOOK OF HYDRAULICS by Brater and King, 1976.
Coefficients for the following weirs may be entered automatically by specifying the appropriate
Profile ID number on the HydroCAD weir screen.
Note: This table contains metric weir coefficients. To obtain English coefficients multiply the
values in this table by 1.811 as described on page 43.
Reprinted from PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS by Andrew L. Simon, Copyright 1981 by John Wiley & Sons with the
permission of the publisher.
The following table lists entrance loss coefficients for concrete, corrugated metal, and box culverts.
These values are automatically provided by HydroCAD when the corresponding entrance
description is selected for a given culvert.
Although comparable data is not available for corrugated plastic pipe, it is believed to be similar
to corrugated metal, and the same entries are listed for “CPP” in the internal lookup table.
This table reprinted from the CONCRETE PIPE HANDBOOK, Copyright 1981 by the American Concrete Pipe
Association, with the permission of the publisher.
HydroCAD provides the following table of roughness coefficients for use with the Sheet Flow
procedure (see page 54). This information is taken directly from NEH Table 15-1, with slight
abbreviation of the descriptions. If you decide to substitute other roughness coefficients, note that
these values are specifically for sheet flow, and are generally larger than the regular Manning's
numbers for comparable surfaces.
Surface Description n
Smooth surfaces .011
Fallow .05
Cultivated: Residue<=20% .06
Cultivated: Residue>20% .17
Grass: Short .15
Grass: Dense .24
Grass: Bermuda .41
Range .13
Woods: Light underbrush .40
Woods: Dense underbrush .80
Note: These coefficients may also be appropriate when using a reach to model artificially created
sheet flow (as from a level spreader) as long as the depth of flow is limited to approximately 1/10
foot.
The Shallow Concentrated Flow procedure (a.k.a. Upland Method) uses a velocity factor, KV, as
listed below. The first two surfaces (paved and unpaved) are the basis for TR-55 Figure 3-1, and
the factors were originally obtained from TR-55 Appendix F. The remaining surfaces were taken
from NEH-4 Figure 15.2, with the factors derived from that chart. Subsequent revisions to NEH
Part 630 provide numerical KV values which are in good agreement with the original chart, except
for “Grassed Waterways”, which appears to have changed from 15.0 to 16.13, making it the same
as the TR-55 “Unpaved” condition. For compatibility with previous calculations, the HydroCAD
lookup table continues to supply the original KV values as listed below. If different values are
required for any reason, HydroCAD allows direct KV entry instead of using the lookup table. See
page 55 for further details on Shallow Concentrated Flow.
Some descriptions have been abbreviated. Velocity factors have the same units as a velocity, and
may be converted between English and metric as described on page 43.
The following equations are used to calculate the cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter of
common channel geometries.
Y
a'Y W% Z1 % Z2
2
Eq. 103
2 2
Pw ' W % Y 1% Z1 % 1% Z2
a=Cross-sectional area
Pw=Wetted perimeter
Y=Flow depth
W=Bottom width
Z1=Left side slope Z-Value [run/rise]
Z2=Right side slope Z-Value [run/rise]
Note: Side slopes are now expressed as a Z-value, which is calculated as the run divided by the rise.
This is the reciprocal of the rise/run side slope used in HydroCAD-5 and earlier.
Parabolic Channel
2
a ' Y W
3
2 Eq. 104
2Y % 4Y 2% W
W2 W2 4
Pw ' 4Y 2% % ln
4 8Y W
2
a=Cross-sectional area
Pw=Wetted perimeter
Y=Flow depth
W=Flow width at surface
a=Cross-sectional area
Pw=Wetted perimeter
D=Diameter
R=Radius
Y=Flow depth
θ=Submerged central angle [radians]
Adding Hydrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Curve Number . . . 15, 18, 19, 37, 49, 50, 53,
Antecedent Moisture Condition . . . 51, 132, 54, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 137,
154 154
Area, Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49, 50, 64
Cross Sectional . . 55, 92, 106, 111, 123, Curve Number Method . . . . . . . . 15, 53, 54
142, 169, 170 Curve Numbers . . 42, 51, 63, 130, 134, 149-
Surface . . . . . . . 78, 81, 82, 85, 109, 110 154
Wetted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-86, 109, 110 Dam Breach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 128 Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 108
Automatic Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 128 Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Average Default
Land Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 54 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 35
Velocity . . . . . . . . 55, 67, 100, 111, 123 Detention . . 16, 20, 42, 46, 62, 66, 116, 118,
Backwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 101 121, 122, 133, 144
Base Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 71, 117, 133 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 121, 122, 133
Breach Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Discarded Outflow . . . . . . . 30, 32, 108, 113
Broad-Crested Weir . . 87, 89, 94, 114, 164, Discharge
165 Coefficient . . . . . . 88-91, 94, 96-99, 101
Burst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 59-61 Curve . . 87, 98, 101, 106, 108, 113, 114,
Calculation Time . . . . 61, 64, 101, 119, 123, 119, 138, 140, 141
126, 133, 139, 140 Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . 99, 111, 125, 126
Carlson Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 97, 111
Catch Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 135, 144 Diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 126
Center of Mass Detention Time . . . . . . 121 Duration,
Chamber, Critical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 66
Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 58, 132, 134
Prefabricated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Dynamic Storage-Indication . . . . 15, 20, 71,
Channel 107, 115, 117, 144
Flow . . . . . . . . . . 15, 30, 54-56, 101, 143 Earlier Time Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Elevation,
Circular Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Peak . 115, 117, 123, 135, 136, 138, 144
Compound Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 114 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Tidal . . . . . . . . 15, 20, 30, 119, 125, 126
Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 108, 109 Embedded
Constant Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 42, 104 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 78, 110
Contraction Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 End Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 63 English . . . 16, 17, 20, 34, 43, 55, 65, 67, 88,
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 68 90, 99, 100, 103, 106, 164,
Crest 165, 168
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 93 Entrance Loss Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 89, 95, 99 Exfiltration . . 15, 18, 30, 32, 78, 81-85, 87,
Critical Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 66 108-110, 113, 138
Cross Sectional Area . 55, 92, 106, 111, 123, Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 110
142, 169, 170 Export Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Culvert Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 100 External
Cumulative Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 126, 128
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Hydrograph Files . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 128