BUILDING SERVICES III – AR8622

PART – B
1. Write in detail about:
a. Cooling Towers.
b. Relationship b/w pressure & Saturation temperature.

a. What is a (wet, atmospheric) cooling tower?

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The type of heat rejection in a cooling
tower is termed "evaporative" in that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to
evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream.
The heat from the water stream transferred to the air stream raises the air's temperature and its
relative humidity to 100%, and this air is discharged to the atmosphere. Evaporative heat
rejection devices such as cooling towers are commonly used to provide significantly lower water
temperatures than achievable with "air cooled" or "dry" heat rejection devices, like the radiator in
a car, thereby achieving more cost-effective and energy efficient operation of systems in need of
cooling. Think of the times you've seen something hot be rapidly cooled by putting water on it,
which evaporates, cooling rapidly, such as an overheated car radiator. The cooling potential of a
wet surface is much better than a dry one.

Common applications for cooling towers are providing cooled water for air-conditioning,
manufacturing and electric power generation. The smallest cooling towers are designed to handle
water streams of only a few gallons of water per minute supplied in small pipes like those might
see in a residence, while the largest cool hundreds of thousands of gallons per minute supplied in
pipes as much as 15 feet (about 5 meters) in diameter on a large power plant.

The generic term "cooling tower" is used to describe both direct (open circuit) and indirect
(closed circuit) heat rejection equipment. While most think of a "cooling tower" as an open direct
contact heat rejection device, the indirect cooling tower, sometimes referred to as a "closed
circuit cooling tower" is nonetheless also a cooling tower.

A direct, or open circuit cooling tower is an enclosed structure with internal means to distribute
the warm water fed to it over a labyrinth-like packing or "fill." The fill provides a vastly
expanded air-water interface for heating of the air and evaporation to take place. The water is
cooled as it descends through the fill by gravity while in direct contact with air that passes over
it. The cooled water is then collected in a cold water basin below the fill from which it is pumped
back through the process to absorb more heat. The heated and moisture laden air leaving the fill
is discharged to the atmosphere at a point remote enough from the air inlets to prevent its being
drawn back into the cooling tower.
The fill may consist of multiple, mainly vertical, wetted surfaces upon which a thin film of water
spreads (film fill), or several levels of horizontal splash elements which create a cascade of many
small droplets that have a large combined surface area (splash fill).

An indirect, or closed circuit cooling tower involves no direct contact of the air and the fluid,
usually water or a glycol mixture, being cooled. Unlike the open cooling tower, the indirect
cooling tower has two separate fluid circuits. One is an external circuit in which water is
recirculated on the outside of the second circuit, which is tube bundles (closed coils) which are
connected to the process for the hot fluid being cooled and returned in a closed circuit. Air is
drawn through the recirculating water cascading over the outside of the hot tubes, providing
evaporative cooling similar to an open cooling tower. In operation the heat flows from the
internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls of the coils, to the external circuit and then by
heating of the air and evaporation of some of the water, to the atmosphere. Operation of the
indirect cooling towers is therefore very similar to the open cooling tower with one exception.
The process fluid being cooled is contained in a "closed" circuit and is not directly exposed to the
atmosphere or the recirculated external water.

In a counter-flow cooling tower air travels upward through the fill or tube bundles, opposite to
the downward motion of the water. In a cross-flow cooling tower air moves horizontally through
the fill as the water moves downward.

Cooling towers are also characterized by the means by which air is moved. Mechanical-draft
cooling towers rely on power-driven fans to draw or force the air through the tower. Natural-
draft cooling towers use the buoyancy of the exhaust air rising in a tall chimney to provide the
draft. A fan-assisted natural-draft cooling tower employs mechanical draft to augment the
buoyancy effect. Many early cooling towers relied only on prevailing wind to generate the draft
of air.

If cooled water is returned from the cooling tower to be reused, some water must be added to
replace, or make-up, the portion of the flow that evaporates. Because evaporation consists of
pure water, the concentration of dissolved minerals and other solids in circulating water will tend
to increase unless some means of dissolved-solids control, such as blow-down, is provided.
Some water is also lost by droplets being carried out with the exhaust air (drift), but this is
typically reduced to a very small amount by installing baffle-like devices, called drift
eliminators, to collect the droplets. The make-up amount must equal the total of the evaporation,
blow-down, drift, and other water losses such as wind blowout and leakage, to maintain a steady
water level.

Some useful terms, commonly used in the cooling tower industry:

Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets
have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower. The drift rate is
typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through which the
air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower.
Blow-out - Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air inlet
openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or misting. Devices
such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters are used to limit these losses.

Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is visible when
water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like the saturated air in
one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present
fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling
process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown
out of the air inlets.

Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed in order to maintain the
amount of dissolved solids and other impurities at an acceptable level.

Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water flowing
through a wood structure cooling tower.

Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and
direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by fans,
the fan blades moving in the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.

b. The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of

a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid[1][2] and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A
liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric
pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at
atmospheric pressure. For example, water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level, but at 93.4 °C
(200.1 °F) at 1,905 metres (6,250 ft) [3] altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at
different temperatures.
The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric
pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, one atmosphere.[4][5] At that temperature, the
vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow
bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been
defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of
one bar.[6]
The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound,
etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).
Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process
of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the
liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings
as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid
escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.

Saturation temperature and pressure

Demonstration of the lower boiling point of water at lower pressure, achieved by using a vacuum
pump.
Main article: Vapor–liquid equilibrium
A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely
a saturated vapor contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing).
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for
a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be
said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase
transition.
If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will
begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at
saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is
applied.
The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals
the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure.
Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of
101.325 kPa (or 1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa. At higher elevations,
where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point
increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties
become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the
boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling
point cannot be reduced below the triple point.
If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known,
the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, thus:
where:
 is the boiling point at the pressure of interest,
 is the ideal gas constant,
 is the vapour pressure of the liquid at the pressure of interest,
 is some pressure where the corresponding  is known (usually data available at 1 atm or
100 kPa),
 is the heat of vaporization of the liquid,
 is the boiling temperature,
 is the natural logarithm.
Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding
saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor
phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a
direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is
saturation temperature.
If the temperature in a system remains constant
(an isothermal system), vapor at saturation pressure and
temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the
system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation
pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as
system pressure is decreased.

There are two conventions regarding the standard boiling point

of water: The normal boiling point is 99.97 °C (211.9 °F) at a
pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa). The IUPAC
recommended standard boiling point of water at a standard
pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar)[7] is 99.61 °C (211.3 °F).[6][8] For
comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at 8,848 m (29,029 ft)
elevation, the pressure is about 34 kPa (255 Torr)[9] and the
boiling point of water is 71 °C (160 °F). The Celsius temperature
scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 °C being defined
by the water freezing point and 100 °C being defined by the
water boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure.

Relation between the normal boiling point and the vapor pressure
of liquids[edit]

A log-lin vapor pressure chart for various liquids

The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature,
the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at
atmospheric pressure) of the liquid.
The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor
pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids.[10] As can
be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures
have the lowest normal boiling points.
 For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the
highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also
has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where
the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line)
intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of
absolute vapor pressure.
The critical point of a liquid is the highest temperature (and
pressure) it will actually boil at.

2. Explain in detail about the various types of Sprinkler Systems in fire protection with the
neat sketches.

5 Types of Fire Sprinkler Systems and Their Benefits

Should you decide to invest in a fire protection system, fire sprinklers are certainly a great choice
for most buildings. With a sprinkler system, you can be guaranteed total protection against fire
emergencies since they are known to significantly minimize damage and prevent loss of life.
Sprinklers have come a long way today and there are many types you can consider depending on
your building’s unique fire protection requirements. We’ll cover the 5 common types of
sprinklers available in the market today.

Wet Pipe Fire Sprinkler Systems

This type of sprinkler contains pipes that are filled with water and sprinkler heads. During a fire,
the heat causes the core of the sprinkler head to burst discharging water. The sprinkler heads are
not all activated at once since each one of them is independent. It will depend on whether they
are exposed to heat. The main advantage of this system is that it can help to significantly reduce
damage in the event of a false alarm since only one sprinkler head will be activated. It’s no
wonder this is the most commonly used sprinkler system in the market today.

Dry Pipe Fire Sprinkler Systems

In locations that experience cold climates, the wet pipe sprinklers may be at risk of freezing and
becoming inefficient. In this case, the dry pipe system, which is filled with air as opposed to
water in the pipe system, is recommended. This dry pipe sprinklers are designed to only
discharge water to the pipes when the sprinkler heads are activated. They are usually more
complex than the wet pipe sprinklers and therefore cost more to install. Because the water is not
supplied to the pipe, this kind of system has an increased fire response time. It is often
recommended in cold climates where the risk of freezing is so high that it could undermine
other fire protection systems.

Foam Fire Sprinkler Systems

There are other fire protection systems that are designed to discharge water and foam to put off a
fire. The foam fire sprinkler system works this way. It is mainly recommended in buildings that
handle highly hazardous components and flammable liquids like workplaces, industries and
aircraft hangers.

Pre-action Fire Sprinkler Systems

These are hybrid fire protection systems that are designed to take advantage of the flexibility of
wet pipe systems as well as the complexity of dry pipe sprinklers. The major drawback is that
they can be very costly to install and have high maintenance demands. This type of system is
often installed in commercial properties such as libraries, museums and data centres where if
there is an accidental discharge it can lead to significant losses.

Deluge Fire Sprinkler Systems

This sprinkler system is designed without the heat sensing elements that are contained in both
wet and dry pipe systems. They have a common trigger that causes the valves to open. Once the
valve opens, the water is discharged to the piping system and sprays on all the heads at once
covering the whole area. This type of system is not commonly used at homes but is mainly found
in industries with flammable liquids.

3. Explain condensate cycle and vapour compression cycle with sketches.

The Refrigeration Cycle
Simple vapour compression cycle
The vapour compression cycle is used for refrigeration in preference to gas cycles; making use
of the latent heat enables a far larger quantity of heat to be extracted for a given refrigerant mass
flow rate. This makes the equipment as compact as possible.
A liquid boils and condenses – the change between the liquid and the gaseous states – at a
temperature which depends on its pressure, within the limits of its freezing point and critical
temperature (see Fig. 2.2). In boiling it must obtain the latent heat of evaporation and in
condensing the latent heat is given up.

Figure 2.2. Evaporation and condensation of a fluid.

Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure, thus providing the latent heat to
make it vaporise. The vapour is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure and a
corresponding saturation temperature at which its latent heat can be rejected so that it changes
back to a liquid. The cycle is shown in Fig. 2.3. The cooling effect is the heat transferred to the
working fluid in the evaporation process, that is the change in enthalpy between the fluid
entering and the vapour leaving the evaporator.
Figure 2.3. Simple vapour-compression cycle with pressure and enthalpy values for R134a.
The simple vapour compression cycle is superimposed on the P–h diagram in Fig. 2.4. The
evaporation process or vaporisation of refrigerant is a constant pressure process and therefore it
is represented by a horizontal line. In the compression process the energy used to compress the
vapour turns into heat and increases its temperature and enthalpy, so that at the end of
compression the vapour state is in the superheated part of the diagram and outside the saturation
curve. A process in which the heat of compression raises the enthalpy of the gas is
termed adiabatic compression. Before condensation can start, the vapour must be cooled. The
final compression temperature is almost always above the condensation temperature as shown,
and so some heat is rejected at a temperature above the condensation temperature. This
represents a deviation from the ideal cycle. The actual condensation process is represented by the
part of the horizontal line within the saturation curve.

Figure 2.4. Pressure–enthalpy, P–h diagram, showing vapour compression cycle.

When the simple vapour compression cycle is shown on the temperature–entropy diagram
(Fig. 2.5), the deviations from the reversed Carnot cycle can be identified by shaded areas. The
adiabatic compression process continues beyond the point where the condensing temperature is
reached. The shaded triangle represents the extra work that could be avoided if the compression
process changed to isothermal (i.e. at constant temperature) at this point, whereas it carries on
until the condensing pressure is attained.
Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 2.5. Temperature–entropy diagram for ideal vapour compression cycle.

Expansion is a constant enthalpy process, shown as a vertical line on the P–h diagram. No heat is
absorbed or rejected during this expansion, the liquid just passes through a valve. Since the
reduction in pressure at this valve must cause a corresponding drop in temperature, some of the
fluid will flash off into vapour to remove the energy for this cooling. Therefore, volume of the
working fluid increases at the valve by this amount of flash gas, and gives rise to its name,
the expansion valve. No attempt is made to recover energy from the expansion process, for
example by use of a turbine. This is a second deviation from the ideal cycle. The work that could
potentially be recovered is represented by the shaded rectangle in Fig. 2.5.

Vapour compression cycle

The vapour compression cycle relies on the condensation temperature increasing with increase in
pressure. A vapour from the evaporator when compressed will condense at a higher temperature,
corresponding to the new higher pressure. Successful working fluids must have a high latent
heat of condensation so that the bulk of the heat can be extracted at the highest possible
temperature. This principle applies to all conventional heat pumps (Figure 27.9).
Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 27.9. The vapour compression cycle (R22). From 1 to 2 the refrigerant vapour absorbs
heat. From 2 to 3 the compressor compresses the gas. From 3 to 4 the gas is condensed and its
latent heat released. From 4 to 1 the liquid expands to a vapour at the lower pressure
The change in pressure between the evaporator and the condenser can be created by any
mechanically driven compressor. Almost all the equipment in use is mechanically driven and
electric motors are the driving units. They are favoured because of their cost, simplicity, silence,
efficiency, long life and reliability. However, there is an increasing use of fossil-fuel-driven
engines because the waste heat from such an engine can often be incorporated into the heating
scheme50 (Figure 27.10).

Figure 27.10. A gas engine driven air-to-water heat pump with heat recovery from the engine
(coefficient of performance 2.7)
The selection of heat pump working fluids is complex, but a critical factor is the range of
permissible condensing temperatures. The upper-temperature limits depend on the
compressor. Piston compressors, where the lubricating oil is in intimate contact with the working
fluid, are constrained by oil degradation. Dry compressors, where the bearings are sealed from
the working fluid, can operate at higher temperatures. However, the chemical and physical
stability of the working fluid itself then provides the working-temperature limits.51,52
In 1985 environmentalists discovered that certain refrigerants are attacking the protective
stratospheric ozone layer around the earth and destroying it. These refrigerants are
the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Government action in Montreal in 1985 produced the first
international agreement on restrictions necessary to protect the environment.53 The two popular
fluids R11 and R12 were amongst the most damaging chemicals and are progressively being
phased out. Consumption in 1998 was down to 50% of the production in 1986. New ozone
friendly refrigerants, in particular R134a, as a substitute for R12, are being developed.54,55 A
range of operating temperatures for different working fluids is illustrated in Figure 27.11.

Figure 27.11. The operating-temperature range for different working fluids

Present-day refrigerants are normally pure single halo-carbon compounds. They have simple
properties and boil and condense at constant temperatures. They are azeotropic. Non-azeotropic
mixtures have advantages in heat transfer and can be used to optimise cycle efficiencies. An
illustrative enthalpy diagram is shown in Figure 27.12.56
Figure 27.12. Non-azeotropic mixtures do not boil and condense at constant temperature. The
enthalpy diagram illustrates the saturated liquid line (bubble point) and the saturated vapour line
(dew-point) of a 70%/30% mixture of R13B1/R152A
This concept is now being used to control externally the refrigerant in the heat pump circuit by
storing the refrigerant in a heated rectifier.57–59 The composition of the refrigerant in the circuit is
then controlled by the rectifier temperature (Figure 27.13).

4. Discuss in detail about the fire safety consideration and NBC planning principles to be
followed
in a shopping mall.
Fire Safety at the Mall
In general the mall area is protected by intelligent addressable point-type optical smoke sensors,
with dual heat/smoke sensors in electrical rooms and heat sensors in the basement car park areas.
The mall is also fitted with break-glass call points and visual notification strobes. The detection
system is interfaced with a voice alarm system so that, in the event of a fire in any one zone, the
system broadcasts a message to that zone plus the adjacent zones. The adjacent zones may well
be a different fire compartment either on the same level or levels above and below. The system
extends into the tenant shop areas and the system is altered to accommodate the tenants' fit-out
design.
The system comprises eight 4-loop rack mounted controllers, internally networked. The entire
system operates in Vietnamese. This allows local security staff to operate the system in the
comfort of their natural language. The system monitors the sprinkler flow switches and status of
the fire pumps. In addition, controls the fire dampers, air conditioning and gas supply across the
global cause and effect matrix.

Life Safety Systems

In shopping centres and retail outlets, building regulations stress the importance of the provision
of life safety systems. The Crescent Mall has a design occupancy of 15,000 people and this can
represent a high risk when considering the number of people distributed throughout the building
at any one time.
Evacuation time for shopping centres can be lengthy. Much depends on the efficiency of the staff
to manage the evacuation process and a life safety system that includes a number of elements;
fire-detection systems, including manual call-points, electronic smoke and heat sensors that
activate audible alarms and that can be programmed to automatically notify local fire
departments. For fire suppression, hand-operated fire extinguishers and sprinkler systems should
be part of the overall system. Smoke is as dangerous as fire, so a well-designed smoke control
system should be provided to maintain smoke-free escape conditions to allow the building to be
evacuated with minimum risk of smoke inhalation.
Protective measures include the automatic shutdown of ventilating systems and elevators and the
division of the building into areas that are free from smoke. Occupants evacuate through smoke
control protected exits.
The need to evacuate only the area of the mall affected by fire has resulted in an intricate system
to ensure that fire can be detected in the early stages, the right areas are evacuated and the right
systems are in the right part of the building. For example, smoke curtains and smoke extract
operate to maintain the 'open' mall area as a place of comparative safety.
The “cause and effect” plan was agreed during the design process, and is developed from an
agreed life safety system. This plan was agreed with local building control, and is designed to be
robust throughout the life of the mall. Any deviation from, or change to, the plan should not be
made without proper consideration being given to the affect that any such deviation or change
would make to life safety.
Building to international standards is becoming easier in developing countries, aided by the
growing infrastructure and a better understanding of building codes. Systems are being
developed and produced in local languages, which aids the security of customers and staff
managing the building.
A large development like the Crescent Mall poses a variety of risks and challenges. Guidance
from the international fire community and experienced suppliers ensures the safety and longevity
of the building and those who use it. While international manufacturers supply into emerging
markets such as Vietnam, the challenges to complete projects, such as the Crescent Mall, are
substantial.
Training of the contractors is key and appointing a local distributor is essential to ensure
language and cultural differences do not inhibit the completion of an important part of the
building services. For example, MP Co., the local distributor for the Crescent Mall, employs
engineers certified by Cooper who then project manage the installation and commissioning of the
system. As emerging markets develop, and local skill levels lag that of developed countries, an
active involvement from concept design to final commissioning with local contractors and
designers ensures this development meets the international standards and offers the protection
expected in such a major development.
Shopping malls go hand-in-hand with adaptation. The evolution of the mall began with Trajan's
Market, built in Rome around 100-110 AD. The concept of the mall evolved from an open air
market to the modern day, enclosed mall, first built in Edina, Minnesota in 1956. Shopping malls
continue to change to adopt new retail ventures. It is this continuous change that provides a
backdrop to hidden areas that may unknowingly be prone to freezing fire protection sprinkler
pipes.

What are common fire hazards in malls?

Malls have a greater than average chance of fire due to the transient population. Each year, 1,710
fire events take place in the retail industry and 119 are caused by arson, according to the NFPA.
Other issues that stem from the transient population, including short-term employees, are
smoking within the building and unsafe storage of combustible and flammable materials.
Additional fire hazards are electrical malfunctions and the open flames, sparks, and hot surfaces,
found in most restaurants. Large numbers of people, expensive property, and large stocks of
merchandise rely on a full fire protection solution to keep them safe. Because of the menagerie
of retail outlets and a diverse population, fire protection must also be kept at its peak
performance.

5. Elaborate about the air variable air volume system and all air system of air-
conditioning.
Variable Air Volume Systems
This article provides background information and general information on variable air volume
(VAV) systems, and discusses improvements in today's VAV systems.
Figure 1. Comfort zones (ASHRAE 55).

THE HVAC SYSTEM

The main goal of any HVAC system is to provide comfort. The American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has established room conditions that
are acceptable for most building occupants. Comfort in a space depends on a combination
of temperature and humidity. Figure 1 shows the comfort zones for summer and winter as
defined in ASHRAE Standard 55. The comfort zone is the range of conditions that satisfy most
people who are appropriately dressed and are doing light work, such as office work. People
doing heavy work and those wearing heavier clothing may need cooler conditions. The summer
and winter comfort zones are slightly different because people dress differently for each season.

Ventilation (outside air) must be provided to every occupied building. Supplying a certain

amount of outside air prevents the indoor air from becoming stale and unhealthful. Building
codes specify the amount of ventilation air that must be introduced by the HVAC system.

An HVAC system conditions the supply air to provide the spaces with an acceptable
combination of humidity and temperature within the comfort zone. It also provides a sufficient
amount of outside air for ventilation. The effectiveness of the system depends upon two factors:

 The quantity of air being supplied, measured in cfm (cubic feet per minute).
 The temperature of the supply air.

To heat or cool a space, these two factors are combined in different ways depending upon the
type and design of the particular HVAC system. The combinations are:

 Constant Volume-Variable Temperature (CV-VT)

 Variable Volume-Constant Temperature (VV-CT)
 Variable Volume-Variable Temperature (VV-VT)

As the indoor air temperature varies, the humidity also increases or decreases. The indoor
humidity generally remains within the comfort zone. However in dry climates, many HVAC
systems have a humidifier unit in the central air handler to increase the moisture level in the
conditioned air when it is needed. In humid climates, systems may have a means of removing
moisture from the supply air.

Figure 2. Zones of a typical office building.

DIFFERING ZONES

In large buildings, the HVAC system must meet the varying needs of different spaces. Different
zones of a building have different heating and cooling needs.

In the past, large commercial buildings were usually designed with a central light well. This
admitted light and air to the inner rooms. As building and land costs increased and HVAC
systems developed, this inner light well was eliminated. Now buildings are designed with
a core of inner rooms where the light well used to be (Figure 2). The development of this inner
core created a new air conditioning problem. The core spaces do not require heating, but do
require cooling and ventilation.

The rooms along the outer walls require either heating or cooling as well as ventilation.
These outer rooms are also called perimeter spaces.

Consider the needs of different zones in a typical office building which have different heat
loss and heat gain characteristics. The offices are arranged around the outer walls of the
building, with an inner core of rooms that have no outside exposure (Figure 2).
The outer rooms have at least one wall exposed to the outside temperatures. This means that
these offices have more heat loss and heat gain than the interior rooms:

 On cold days, heat transfers from the heated spaces of the building to the colder outside air
(heat loss).
 On warm days, heat transfers from the warm outside air to the cooler spaces of the building
(heat gain).

The outer rooms gain or lose heat at a varying rate. For example, when the sun strikes one side of
a building, that side has more heat gain than the sides that are shaded. The position of the sun,
color of the wall, insulation, amount of glass, and shading all affect this solar heat gain.

The core of the building gains heat from the interior load such as people, lights, and equipment.
Therefore, these spaces generally do not require heating except for a top floor where heat is lost
through the roof. The normal condition is that they gain too much heat and therefore require
cooling when occupied.

The cooling load for both core spaces and outer spaces depends on many factors such as these:

 Types of occupancy (density, active or passive work tasks).

 Heat produced by equipment.
 Type and level of lighting.

Since different spaces have different rates of heat gain and heat loss, it is impossible for an
HVAC system that delivers the same temperature of air at a fixed volume to every space

to provide comfort conditions for all of them. Therefore, heating and cooling must be supplied at
varying rates to different zones of the building. A zone is a space or group of spaces in a building
with similar requirements for heating and cooling. All rooms in a zone can be supplied with the
same temperature supply air at the same flow rate.

Figure 3. A single zone system.

SINGLE ZONE SYSTEM

The first HVAC systems were single zone systems (Figure 3). These systems treat the building
as a single zone. They deliver air from a central air handling unit at a constant volume and a
varying temperature (CV-VT). The central air handling unit in any HVAC system is the
equipment in the mechanical room or on the roof that conditions the primary supply air and
delivers it to the spaces.

The single zone system is still used in residences and in small commercial buildings. The single
zone system is effective in a small building because the heat gain and heat loss for different areas
may not vary a great deal.

Figure 4. Multizone system.

MULTIZONE SYSTEM

The multizone system (Figure 4) was an early system that was designed to meet the varying
needs of different zones. It has a separate supply air duct to each zone in a building. There is a
heating coil and a cooling coil in the central air handling unit. Both coils are in operation at the
same time. Dampers after the coils mix the hot and the cold supply air to the temperature needed
to satisfy each zone.

When heating and cooling occur at the same time it is called bucking because the heating and
cooling coils are working against each other. The supply air to each zone is mixed to a
temperature somewhere in between the hot and the cold supply air. The multizone system uses
too much energy to heat and cool the air at the same time.
Because they waste energy, multizone systems are no longer being installed. They are generally
banned by local building codes throughout the country.

Figure 5. Dual duct system.

DUAL DUCT SYSTEM

The dual duct low pressure system (Figure 5) was also designed to meet the comfort needs of
different zones. A dual duct system has two separate supply ducts from the HVAC unit to the
outlets in the spaces. One duct supplies cold air, and the other supplies heated air. In this system
both the heating and cooling coils operate at the same time, just as with the multizone system.
The hot air and the cold air are mixed with dampers at each zone in order to obtain the air
temperature needed for that zone. This system is intended to be constant volume-variable
temperature (CV-VT).

This system also uses too much energy because the hot air and cold air are bucking each other.
Therefore the dual duct system that mixes hot and cold air is now generally banned.

The dual duct system also has other problems. The cold duct usually requires most of the supply
air. This results in less flow in the hot duct at times and therefore a higher hot duct static
pressure. When a zone called for heating, the high static pressure in the hot duct resulted in a
high cfm that created drafts and noise in the conditioned spaces.

HIGH PRESSURE MIXING BOXES

To solve the problems of non-constant airflow rate in a dual duct system, a high pressure
mixing box was developed. This replaced the mixing dampers. The mixing boxes control the
cfm to a constant flow rate. The boxes change the system into a true constant volume-variable
temperature (CV-VT).
The dual duct mixing boxes require a high static pressure to operate - usually a minimum of 1.5
inches wg. The system itself generally requires about 3.0 inches wg duct pressure to operate
properly. The high fan horsepower required to maintain the high static pressure, plus the bucking
condition, means a high energy usage. The cost of operating the dual duct system was too high.

Another problem was that, because of the higher pressure often present in the hot duct, the hot
air might flow back through the mixing box and into the cold duct. This could raise the air
temperature in the cold duct so that the supply air could not cool the spaces adequately.

LOW PRESSURE REHEAT BOXES

Later, low pressure reheat units for the zones were developed. The supply air had to be cold
enough to meet the needs of the zone with the greatest cooling load. The supply air to all other
zones had to be reheated. There was no temperature control unless the boiler was operating. In
the summer when the boiler was normally turned off, the system could only deliver cold air that
was produced by the central cooling system. Often the conditioned spaces were too cold.

Figure 6. VAV system.

VAV SYSTEMS

Variable air volume (VAV) systems (Figure 6) were developed to be more energy efficient and
to meet the varying heating and cooling needs of different building zones. A zone can be a single
room or cluster of rooms with the same heat gain and heat loss characteristics.

VAV systems can save as much as 30 percent in energy costs as compared to conventional dual
duct systems. In addition, they are economical to install and to operate. Duct sizes and central air
handling units are smaller and the design and installation is generally much simpler.
 The main duct for a typical VAV system provides cooling only (at approximately 55°F). This
is called primary air. Room thermostats control the amount of primary air delivered to each
zone through modulating dampers for each zone. These dampers vary the volume of air to each
zone according to the cooling needs.

Early VAV systems varied the fan cfm output according to the total need of the zones. The fan
was sized for the maximum probable load. As the air volume for the zones varied, the static
pressure (SP) in the main duct tended to vary. An SP sensor in the main duct controlled the fan
output to maintain a constant supply duct static pressure. The fan output was varied either by fan
inlet vanes or by a damper at the fan outlet. These systems were variable volume-constant
temperature (VV-CT)

6. Delineate about – (i) Role of filters in air conditioning. (ii) Need of ducts in air
conditioning.

TheFunctionofAirFilters
An air filter is usually made of a spun fiberglass material or from pleated paper or cloth enclosed
in a cardboard frame. It’s basic function is to clean the air that circulates through your heating
and cooling system. Filters trap and hold many types of particulates and contaminants that could
affect your health and comfort, including:
 Dust and dirt
 Pollen
 Mold and mold spores
 Fibers and lint
 Metal, plaster or wood particles
 Hair and animal fur
 Bacteria and microorganisms
Filtration usually occurs when expended air is brought back into the HVAC equipment to be
conditioned and distributed again. The air is forced through the filter, and the material removes
particulates and other contaminants from the air.
AirFilterMaintenance
 All of the air that heats or cools your home will eventually pass through the air filter in the
HVAC system. For this reason, it’s extremely important that you keep clean filters in your
heating or cooling equipment.
 Dirty, clogged air filters are a primary source of HVAC system malfunctions. In the more
extreme cases, dirty filters can damage heating and cooling equipment.
 Dirty air filters can reduce the airflow inside the HVAC system, which can cause air-
handling fans to work harder and wear out quicker.
 Dirty air filters can’t remove particulates and contaminants effectively, which allows
these materials back into your indoor air.
 Dirty air filters can cause contaminants to accumulate in your HVAC system’s ductwork.
 Dirty air filters can cause HVAC equipment to work harder, increasing energy usage and
unnecessarily driving up your monthly energy bills.
Air filters should be checked every month and changed when they get dirty. A visual inspection
should show you whether the filters are dirty or clogged. Hold the filter up to a light source; if
you can’t see the light through the filter, it should be changed.
Davis Air Conditioning has served home heating and cooling customers in the Texas
communities of Houston, Galveston, Brazoria and Sugar Land since 1971. Contact us today for
more information on the importance of air filters in your HVAC system and for help choosing
the right filter for your needs.

Ducts are conduits or passages used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to

deliver and remove air. The needed airflows include, for example, supply air, return air,
and exhaust air.[1] Ducts commonly also deliver ventilation air as part of the supply air. As such,
air ducts are one method of ensuring acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.
A duct system is also called ductwork. Planning (laying out), sizing, optimizing, detailing, and
finding the pressure losses through a duct system is called duct design.[2]

Contents

 1Materials

o 1.1Galvanized steel

o 1.2Aluminium (Al)

o 1.3Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-insulated air ducts)

o 1.4Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork)

o 1.5Flexible ducting
 o 1.6Fabric ducting

o 1.7PVC low-profile ducting

o 1.8Waterproofing

 2Duct system components

o 2.1Vibration isolators

o 2.2Take-offs

o 2.3Stack boots and heads

o 2.4Volume control dampers

o 2.5Smoke and fire dampers

o 2.6Turning vanes

o 2.7Plenums

o 2.8Terminal units

o 2.9Air terminals

 3Duct cleaning

o 3.1Signs and indicators

o 3.2Commercial inspection

 4Duct sealing

o 4.1Signs of leaks

 5See also

 6References

 7Further reading

 8External links

Materials[edit]
Ducts can be made out of the following materials:
Galvanized steel[edit]
Galvanized mild steel is the standard and most common material used in fabricating ductwork
because the zinc coating of this metal prevents rusting and avoids cost of painting. For insulation
purposes, metal ducts are typically lined with faced fiberglass blankets (duct liner) or wrapped
externally with fiberglass blankets (duct wrap). When necessary, a double walled duct is used.
This will usually have an inner perforated liner, then a 1–2" layer of fiberglass insulation
contained inside an outer solid pipe.
Rectangular ductwork commonly is fabricated to suit by specialized metal shops. For ease of
handling, it most often comes in 4' sections (or joints). Round duct is made using a continuous
spiral forming machine which can make round duct in nearly any diameter when using the right
forming die and to any length to suit, but the most common stock sizes range evenly from 4" to
24" with 6"-12" being most commonly used. Stock pipe is usually sold in 10' joints. There are
also 5' joints of the non-spiral type pipe available, which is commonly used in residential
applications.
Aluminium (Al)[edit]
Aluminium ductwork is lightweight and quick to install. Also, custom or special shapes of ducts
can be easily fabricated in the shop or on site.
The ductwork construction starts with the tracing of the duct outline onto the aluminium
preinsulated panel. The parts are then typically cut at 45°, bent if required to obtain the different
fittings (i.e. elbows, tapers) and finally assembled with glue. Aluminium tape is applied to all
seams where the external surface of the aluminium foil has been cut. A variety of flanges are
available to suit various installation requirements. All internal joints are sealed with sealant.
Aluminum is also used to make round spiral duct, but it is much less common than galvanized
steel.
Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-insulated air ducts)[edit]
Traditionally, air ductwork is made of sheet metal which was installed first and then lagged with
insulation. Today, a sheet metal fabrication shop would commonly fabricate the galvanized steel
duct and insulate with duct wrap prior to installation. However, ductwork manufactured from
rigid insulation panels does not need any further insulation and can be installed in a single step.
Both polyurethane and phenolic foam panels are manufactured with factory applied aluminium
facings on both sides. The thickness of the aluminium foil can vary from 25 micrometres for
indoor use to 200 micrometres for external use or for higher mechanical characteristics. There
are various types of rigid polyurethane foam panels available, including a water formulated panel
for which the foaming process is obtained through the use of water and CO2 instead
of CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC gasses. Most manufacturers of rigid polyurethane or phenolic foam
panels use pentane as foaming agent instead of the aforementioned gasses.
A rigid phenolic insulation ductwork system is listed as a class 1[clarification needed] air duct to UL 181
Standard for Safety.
Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork)
Fiberglass duct board panels provide built-in thermal insulation and the interior surface absorbs
[sound], helping to provide quiet operation of the HVAC system.
The duct board is formed by sliding a specially-designed knife along the board using a
straightedge as a guide. The knife automatically trims out a groove with 45° sides which does not
quite penetrate the entire depth of the duct board, thus providing a thin section acting as a hinge.
The duct board can then be folded along the groove to produce 90° folds, making the rectangular
duct shape in the fabricator's desired size. The duct is then closed with outward-clinching staples
and special aluminum or similar metal-backed tape.
Flexible ducting
Flexible ducts (also known as flex) are typically made of flexible plastic over a metal wire coil to
shape a tube. They have a variety of configurations. In the United States, the insulation is
usually glass wool, but other markets such as Australia, use both polyester fibre and glass wool
for thermal insulation. A protective layer surrounds the insulation, and is usually composed
of polyethylene or metalised PET. It is commonly sold as boxes containing 25' of duct
compressed into a 5' length. It is available in diameters ranging from as small as 4" to as big as
18", but the most commonly used are even sizes ranging from 6" to 12".
Flexible duct is very convenient for attaching supply air outlets to the rigid ductwork. It is
commonly attached with long zip ties or metal band claps. However, the pressure loss is higher
than for most other types of ducts. As such, designers and installers attempt to keep their
installed lengths (runs) short, e.g. less than 15 feet or so, and try to minimize turns. Kinks in
flexible ducting must be avoided. Some flexible duct markets prefer to avoid using flexible duct
on the return air portions of HVAC systems, however flexible duct can tolerate
moderate negative pressures. The UL181 test requires a negative pressure of 200 Pa.
Fabric ducting
This is actually an air distribution device and is not intended as a conduit for conditioned air. The
term fabric duct is therefore somewhat misleading; fabric air dispersion system would be the
more definitive name. However, as it often replaces hard ductwork, it is easy to perceive it
simply as a duct. Usually made of polyester material, fabric ducts can provide a more even
distribution and blending of the conditioned air in a given space than a conventional duct system.
They may also be manufactured with vents or orifices.
Fabric ducts are available in various colours, with options for silk screening or other forms of
decoration, or in porous (air-permeable) and non-porous fabric. The determination which fabric
is appropriate (i.e. air-permeable or not) can be made by considering if the application would
require an insulated metal duct. If so, an air-permeable fabric is recommended because it will not
commonly create condensation on its surface and can therefore be used where air is supplied
below the dew point. Material that eliminates moisture may be healthier for the occupants. It can
also be treated with an anti-microbial agent to inhibit bacterial growth. Porous material also
tends to require less maintenance as it repels dust and other airborne contaminants.
Fabric made of more than 50% recycled material is also available, allowing it to be certified as
green product. The material can also be fire retardant, which means that the fabric can still burn,
but will extinguish when the heat source is removed.
Fabric ducts are not rated for use in ceilings or concealed attic spaces. However, products for use
in raised floor applications are available. Fabric ducting usually weighs less than other
conventional ducting and will therefore put less stress on the building's structure. The lower
weight allows for easier installation.
Fabric ducts require a minimum of certain range of airflow and static pressure in order for it to
work.
PVC low-profile ducting
PVC low-profile ducting has been developed as a cost-effective alternative to steel low-profile
ducting. Low-profile ducting has been used extensively in apartment and hotel ventilation since
2005. The growth of low-profile ducting has grown significantly due to the reduction of
available space in ceiling cavities in an effort to reduce cost. Since the Grenfell Tower fire in
2017 there has been a rise in the discovery of noncompliant building materials; many PVC low-
profile ducting manufacturers have struggled to gain or maintain compliance, and some building
projects have had to resort back to using the more expensive steel option.
Waterproofing
The finish for external ductwork exposed to the weather can be sheet steel coated with
aluminium or an aluminium/zinc alloy, a multilayer laminate, a fibre reinforced polymer or other
waterproof coating.

7. Explain in detail about the horizontal distribution of air conditioning services in a multi
storied office complex.
Design of an Air Distribution System for a MultiStory Office Building
Abstract— Earlier the use of air conditioning for comfort purpose was considered to be
expensive, but now-a-day, it has been a necessity for all human beings. Window air conditioners,
split air conditioners are used in small buildings, offices etc. But, when the cooling load required
is very high such as big buildings, multiplex, multi-story buildings, hospitals etc. centralized unit
(central air conditioners) used. The central AC’s systems are installed away from building called
central plant where water or air is to be cooled. This cooled air not directly supplied to the
building rooms. When the cooled air cannot be supplied directly from the air conditioning
equipment to the space to be cooled, then the ducts are provided. The duct systems carry the
cooled air from the air conditioning equipment for the proper distribution to rooms and also carry
the return air from the room back to the air conditioning equipment for recirculation. When ducts
are not properly designed, then it will lead to problem such as frictional loss, higher installation
cost, increased noise and power consumption, uneven cooling in the cooling space. For
minimizing this problem, a proper design of duct is needed. Equal friction method is used to
design the duct, which is simple method as compared with the other design methods. These work
gives the combination of theoretical and software tool to provide a comparative analysis of the
duct size. It also gives the comparison of pressure drop in rectangular duct and circular duct.
Keywords – Equal friction method, friction loss, duct sizing I. INTRODUCTION There are
many types of air conditioning system like window air conditioners, split air conditioners etc. but
these AC’s system are used in small room or office where cooling load required is low. When the
cooling load required is very high like multiplex building, hospital etc. central AC’s system are
used. In central AC’s system the cooled air is directly not distributed to the rooms. The cooled
air from the air conditioning equipment must be properly distributed to rooms or spaces to be
cold in order to provide comfort condition. When the cooled air cannot be supplied directly from
the air conditioning equipment to the spaces to be cooled, then the ducts are installed. The duct
systems convey the cold air from the air conditioning equipment to the proper air distribution
point and also carry the return air from the room back to the air conditioning equipment for
reconditioning and recirculation. In order to achieve required cooling load, proper method is
required. Proper air distribution is achieved with proper duct design which leads minimum losses
in the system, suitable selection of fan with high efficiency, optimum air velocity in duct, inlet
and outlet of fan. Today some software’s are available to estimate cooling load, to design the
duct. CFD and ANSYS software can be used for analysis of air motion and also can predict fluid
characteristics and pressure differentials to a very low level that are experimentally impossible
during experimentation. Analysis of air flow in duct with static pressure and velocity pressure is
made easier and faster in fluent software. Various researchers are having there contribution on
the topic. Design for high velocity duct system is done by determining the pressure losses,
calculating the noise level, determining the out of balance pressures &optimizing this against the
total cost of the system
[1]. VAV optimization procedure was applied to the three VAV duct systems to investigate the
impact of varying airflow rates on the sizing of duct systems. For comparison purposes, other
duct design methods, such as, equal friction, static regain, and the Method, were also applied to
the duct systems [2]. Design optimization of industrial ducts is achieved with CFD. The CFD
analysis has offered a comprehensive range of output including velocity distribution, pressure
profiles and turbulence levels. [3] Air may distribute in the room by air handling unit (AHU) or
fan coil unit (FCU). The use of AHU and FCU is depends upon the cooling load required. In this
work we decide that the FCU is used where cooling load required up to 5 tons and to use AHU
above 5 tons.
As we know that for FCU there is no duct is required. For calculating duct size first calculate the
dehumidified air and there after duct dimension has to be calculated. II. THEORY The
conditioned air (cooled or heated) from the air conditioning equipment must be properly
distributed to rooms or spaces to be conditioned in order to provide comfort conditions. When
the conditioned air cannot be supplied International Journal of Engineering Research &
Technology (IJERT) ISSN: 2278-0181 Published by, www.ijert.org ISNCESR-2015 Conference
Proceedings Volume 3, Issue 20 Special Issue - 2015 1 directly from the air conditioning
equipment to the spaces to be conditioned, then the ducts are installed. The duct systems convey
the conditioned air from air conditioning equipment to proper air distribution points or air supply
outlets in the room and carry there turn air from the room back to the air conditioning equipment
for reconditioning and recirculation. The conditioned air (cooled or heated) from the air
conditioning equipment must be properly distributed to rooms or spaces to be conditioned in
order to provide comfort conditions. It may be noted that duct system for proper distribution of
conditioned air cost nearly 20 to 30 % of total cost of equipment required. Duct material is
usually made from galvanized iron sheet metal, Al sheet metal or black steel. But now a day, the
use of non-metal ducts has increased. There sin bonded glass fiber ducts are used because they
are quite strong and easy to manufacture according to desired shape and size. They are used in
low velocity applications less than 600m/min and for static pressures below 5mm of water
gauge. Iz of static pressure, dynamic pressure &total pressure in duct is important. The pressure
in duct is usually expressed in mm of water. The pressure is lost due to friction between the
moving particles of fluid (i.e. air) and interior surface of duct. When the pressure loss occurs in a
straight duct, it is usually termed as friction loss. The pressure is also lost dynamically at the
changes of direction such as in bends, elbows etc. and the changes of cross section of duct; this
type of pressure loss is usually termed as dynamic loss. A. General rules for duct design
 Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to economize on power, material and shape.
 Sudden change in direction should be avoided.
 Air velocities in ducts should be within the permissible limits to minimize losses.
 Rectangular ducts should be made as nearly square as possible. This will ensure minimum
ducts surface. An aspect ratio of less than 4:1 should be maintained.
 Damper should be provided in each branch outlet for balancing the system.
III. METHOD OF DUCT DESIGN
1) Equal friction method
2) Velocity reduction method
3) Static reduction method In Equal Friction Method the frictional pressure dropper unit length
of the duct is maintained constant throughout the duct system.
Due to its simplicity, this method is used in the thesis to design the duct. A. Calculation for duct
size/dimension 1. First find out the air flow rate i.e. dehumidified air and cooling load. 2. Based
on cooling load select AHU or FCU which is to be installed. For FCU there is no need to duct
system. If AHU then calculate the duct dimension. 3. Select initial velocity (from
CarrierHandbook) 4. Duct area = air flow rate velocity 5. Based on duct area select duct
size/dimension (From Carrier Handbook), also Equivalent duct diameter. Then initial friction
rate is determined by using friction chart, on the basis of air quantity and equivalent duct
diameter or velocity of air. B. Calculation for dehumidified air quantity Room Rise = (1 – by
pass factor)*(Room temp - ADP) Dehumidified Air = RSH / (20.44 * dehumidified rise) Where,
ADP = apparatus due point RSH = room sensible heat IV. RESULT To design the duct for TIIR
building calculation of cooling load and air flow rate is done. By taking some suitable velocity
(from Table 1), considering noise factor main duct area is calculated. Based on these duct area,
the duct size is find out for the rectangular duct as well as round duct.
8. Explain about – (i) Principles of fire behaviour, (ii) Smoke proof enclosures.
Basic Principles of Fire Behavior

Principle 1.) The Fire Triangle or Tetrahedron, which includes Heat, Fuel, Oxygen, and Chain
Reaction (Chain Reaction is only in the Tetrahedron). If you remove one of this 4 items, the fire
cannot survive. This is the very baseline in which all fires are fought and extinguished.

Principle 2.) Method of Heat Transfer. There is Direct Flame Contact, which is self
explanatory fire touching an object. There is Convection, which is when heat is transfered
through air or liquid. Conduction, heat transfered through one body to another by direct contact
or by a medium, such as lets just say a piece of steel. Radiation, the transfer of heat through
waves (number one cause of any exposure fire...oh for those who don't know an exposure is a
building, floor, or area that is close to the fire and is in danger of catching fire as well)

Principle 3.) Stages Fire Growth. It starts off with an Ignition, where the Ignition temperature is
reached. The ignition temperature is lowest temperature that any combustible will catch fire, then
it will reach the Flame Point which is the temperature at which it will continue to burn after
ignition for at least 5 seconds. Then there is Growth as more oxygen is burned up and the fire
gets hotter. Fully involved is the climax of the fire, its usually reached right after the flash
point which is the lowest temperature at which a material will emit vapor combustible in air
mixture. Higher than Flame point of same material. This will cause a Flash Over, the point where
unburned combustible materials reach their fire point and simultaneously ignite in a closed
space, causing a roll over. (Flash Over will be continued). Then there is decay, where the fire
starts to die out. A fire that has been starved of oxygen may cause a backdraft.

Principle 4.) Thermal Layering. When we were all kids we were told to do what in a fire? To
get low and crawl right? Thats because heat rises, what else happens? Oxygen is pushed to the
ground and its cooler as well. Now in Thermal Layering, there are 3 different layers. The top
level being the ceiling is the Extreme Heat layer that is where all the superheated gases collect
and the highest temperatures, the middle layer is Moderate Heat layer obviously lower
temperature then the Extreme layer but warmer then the last layer, the Lower Heat level where
the temperatures are cooler.

To get a better idea of this process, take a lighter, put your finger level with the top of the lighter
as close as you can get to the flame WITHOUT burning yourself, then go from the top down and
close as you can. Which is hotter?

Principle 5.) Flash Over as I listed before above a flash over is the point where unburned
combustible materials reach their fire point and simultaneously ignite in a closed space, causing
a roll over. The effects of a Flash Over? Firefighters is exposed to temperatures from 1000* to
1500*F according to the Time Temperature Curve. A person can experience extreme pain on any
unprotected skin from temperatures of 280* to 320*F. Firefighters only have 2 seconds to escape
from a Flash Over, the average firefighter can crawl only 2.5 ft per Second. It is one of the most
deadly encounters a firefighter will face.

So how do these principles I have listed above apply to the WTC? Well just the Growth cycle
alone shows that it can cause temperatures in excess of 1000*F. With that kind of exposure the
strength of steel will rapidly decrease causing sagging which pull in on the exterior wall, which
causes a inward-outward collapse then pancaking of the floors (I will discuss more on steel in my
next thread). The transfer of that kind of temperature through the steel members, including the
remaining steel members covered by fire proof coating pieces can cause the steel to weaken. CTs
claim that the flames weren't hot enough, thats fine, its not the flame that is hottest part of a fire.
Remember the Extreme Heat Layer is the hottest part in a fire especially in the fully involved
stage of growth, temperatures of over 1,200* F can be reached and the oxygen supply can be
greatly diminished. With the temperature being this high, one breath of the superheated gases can
sear the lungs.

Smokeproof enclosure

In building safety and construction, a smokeproof enclosure is a type of exit stairwell that has
been designed to keep out smoke (and other combustion products) in the event of a fire, so that
building occupants may more safely exit the building. Rather than entering the stairwell directly
from the building interior, one enters a smokeproof enclosure by means of an open-air balcony or
alternatively, a so-called open vestibule, and proceeds thence, to the stairwell itself. The way that
the balcony or vestibule is ventilated divides smokeproof enclosures into two basic
types: mechanically ventilated which is not actually a smokeproof enclosures, where the
vestibule and stairwell are ventilated by mechanical equipment, and naturally ventilated open
air smokeproof enclosures where the open balcony or vestibule [or the stairwell] has openings
directly to the outside of the building. This is the only type of the original concept of a
smokeproof tower (i.e.: smokeproof enclosure).
Under United States building codes, the stairwell of a smokeproof enclosure must have walls
with a 2-hour fire resistance rating and vestibule doors (if provided) with a 1.5 hour fire
resistance rating. The Life Safety Code states that such stairwells be "approved systems with a
design pressure difference across the barrier of not less than 0.05 in. water column (12.5 Pa) in
sprinkled buildings and 0.10 in. water column (25 Pa) in non-sprinkled buildings".Approved, in
the Life Safety Code, means the committee didn't want to 'decide' so, left it up to someone else to
decide a particular issue.
In the so-called mechanically ventilated smokeproof enclosures, the stairwell is positively
pressurized relative to the rest of the building. This ensures that even when access doors are
opened, smoke will not enter the stairwell. Of course, a higher pressure within a stairwell makes
it harder to open doors from the building interior to the enclosed vestibules and to the enclosed
stairwell. The Life Safety Code requires that the pressure differential across the barrier not be so
great as to prevent the door from opening with a force of 30 lbf (133 N) at the door knob or
handle. These 'pressurization' problems are, of course, non-existent with naturally ventilated
smokeproof enclosures.
The fans and air ducts used to pressurize the stairwell are life-critical systems, and are required
to be enclosed in non-combustible, likewise two hour rated, construction. (For fully sprinkled
buildings, the required rating is just one hour.) The fans must be connected to an emergency
power supply, and capable of both automatic activation by various fire and smoke detectors, and
of manual activation by a central command post or by the actuation of a general fire alarm.

9. Write about – (i) Fire alarm systems, (ii) Anyone fire protection system.
Fire alarm system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Fire alarm" redirects here. For the Looney Toons cartoon, see The Fire Alarm.

A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people
through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or
other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke
detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices
such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall
mountable sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed
by a voice evacuation message which warns people inside the building not to use the elevators.
Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain frequencies and different tones including low, medium
and high, depending on the country and manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems
in Europe sound like a siren with alternating frequencies. Fire alarm electronic devices are
known as horns in the United States and Canada, and can be either continuous or set to different
codes. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to different volume levels.

Parts
A fire alarm control panel

Fire Alarm Speaker and switch

 Fire alarm control panel (FACP) AKA fire alarm control unit (FACU); This component,
the hub of the system, monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs and relays
information.
 Primary power supply: Commonly the non-switched 120 or 240-volt alternating current
source supplied from a commercial power utility. In non-residential applications, a branch
circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents. "Dedicated branch circuits"
should not be confused with "Individual branch circuits" which supply energy to a single
appliance.
 Secondary (backup) power supplies: This component, commonly consisting of sealed
lead-acid storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply
energy in the event of a primary power failure. The batteries can be either inside the bottom
of the panel or inside a separate battery box installed near the panel.
 Initiating devices: These components act as inputs to the fire alarm control unit and are
either manually or automatically activated. Examples would be devices such as pull stations,
heat detectors, duct detectors, and smoke detectors. Heat and smoke detectors have different
categories of both kinds. Some categories are a beam, photoelectric, ionization, aspiration,
and duct.
 Fire alarm notification appliance: This component uses energy supplied from the fire
alarm system or other stored energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to
take action, usually to evacuate. This is done by means of pulsing incandescent light,
flashing strobe light, electromechanical horn, siren, electronic horn, chime, bell, speaker, or a
combination of these devices. Strobes are either made of a xenon tube (most common) or
recently LEDs.
 Building safety interfaces: This interface allows the fire alarm system to control aspects
of the built environment, prepare the building for fire, and control the spread of smoke fumes
and fire by influencing air movement, lighting, process control, and human transport and
exit.

What is a Fire Protection System?

   
Fire safety is integral for business owners. A fire can spark in an instant and spread within
seconds. Businesses investing in fire protection systems realize significant benefits when the
systems perform as expected. These systems reduce damage to the building, expensive
equipment, documents, and inventory. Fire suppression systems, smoke detectors, and sprinkler
systems are all types of fire protection systems that help with fire detection and protecting
building occupants and equipment.

Understanding How a Fire Protection System Functions

It is important to understand the functionality of fire protection systems. Systems work in

different ways, but all have a common goal to detect a fire and protect the building, its
occupants, and valuables. A common fire protection system is a smoke detector and a sprinkler.
If a fire sparks, smoke sets off the detector causing the sprinkler system to activate. The water
protects against the spread of fire. While this is an effective method, when dealing with certain
critical equipment or special hazards, automatic fire suppression systems using clean agents are a
better choice. These systems detect and suppress fire while leaving no residue.
Benefits of Fire Protection Systems

One of the main benefits of a fire protection system is that in the long run, it saves money. Think
of a business and what investments are made in manufacturing equipment, information
technology hardware, and infrastructure. If a fire impacts operations for a significant period of
time, it could cost a company millions of dollars. A prime example is a machine shop that
manufactures parts. If the shop were to experience a fire and shut down for multiple days or
weeks, the business would suffer immensely. Equipment may need to be replaced, and valuable
contracts could be lost. Businesses must take into consideration all factors when they look at the
price of a fire protection system.

Another benefit of some types of fire protection systems is the automatic dispatching of
emergency services. These systems will work to immediately suppress the fire, while also
notifying the authorities to send emergency professionals to your location.

Determining the Appropriate Fire Protection System

How do you go about determining the best system for your business? You must consider the
facility you are protecting, compliance with building codes, and potential insurance
requirements.  Because many fire protection systems are permanent, it may be important to think
about your facility's future needs, not just its current needs. For example: if you are protecting a
server room and expect to add more servers as time goes on, can you add onto the system?

When selecting and installing a system, it is essential to hire a company with a comprehensive
understanding of your needs who can customize your fire protection options. If your building is
not up to code or machines and equipment are not adequately protected, you may face exposure
and downtime.

Active vs. Passive Fire Protection

Fire protection can be active or passive. When a building is under construction, the contractor
and architect can incorporate passive fire protection, such as fire doors and fire escapes. Passive
fire protection may also refer to the use of non-flammable materials during construction. By
contrast, active fire protection means using a system that reacts in case of a fire. Examples of
active fire protection include sprinkler systems and special hazard fire suppression systems.

Active vs. Non-Electric Detection

Deciding whether to use active or non-electric fire detection is also pivotal. Non-electric fire
detection does not require electricity. If you lose power, you have the security that your fire
protection system will work in case of a fire.  

You will also want to think about the system offering and any services that come with it. Will the
system give you around the clock detection? Does it notify authorities once triggered? What are
the recommendations for ongoing inspection or testing of the equipment?
Fire protection systems play an important role in keeping building occupants, assets, and the
building safe. If you are looking to protect critical equipment or machines, a fire suppression
system may be your best option.  

10. Explain about –(i) water requirement for fire fighting,(ii) Sprinkler system, (iii) space
requirement for fire fighting equipment.

4 WATER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

However, on single unobstructed floor area not exceeding 1 000 m2, it shall have water
storage for fire fighting equivalent to 4 hours pumping capacity minimum, when using 8 strong
water jets simultaneously—each jet consuming 600 lpm. Where the area exceeds 1 000 m,
additional quantity at the rate of 50 percent of above shall be provided subject to a minimum of 4
hours pumping capacity.
4.2.4
The quantity of water requirement as mentioned above, shall be stored in the form of one
or more static tanks.
NOTE—In case of one tank it should be in two equal interconnected compartments.
In case of an efficient municipal fire hydrant system, the quantity of water required to be
stored in static tanks could be halved, however the capacity in any static tanks shall not be
changed.
In case of any industrial unit which has its own fire hydrant system installed, the entire
quantity of water could be stored in a single large tank/compartmental tank/reservoir with a well
designed ring main of adequate size on which hydrants can be installed.
4.2.5
For flammable liquid tank farms, the minimum water requirement for fire fighting shall be
calculated separately for use of foam, and for cooling of the affected tanks and also the
surrounding tanks, added together.
4.2.6
For tank farms with fixed foam installation system, the capacity of water tank shall be as
follows:
a. At the minimum rate of water solution calculated at 4.5 lm2 of liquid surface area (tank
surface), for a minimum time of 30 minutes. If fixed foam monitors are installed, an
additional quantity of 900 litres per minute for at least another 30 minutes duration shall
be provided, if number of monitors are many, provision for at least two monitors at the
rate of 900 lpm each to be calculated.
b. For cooling purpose of adjoining tanks, additional quantity of water shall be provided at
the rate of 10 lpm/m2 of exposed surface of the next tank, for a period of at least 1 hour.
4.2.7 Process Units
Water requirement for process units shall be depending upon the risk, but in no case less
than as laid down in 4.2.3 above.
2
4.2.8
Administrative buildings in factories etc shall be considered as light hazard, and the water
quantity and number of hydrants catered accordingly.
4.2.9 Storage Risks
For storage risks engineering stores shall be classified as light hazard category. General
stores as ordinary hazard and combustible or flammable stores as high or extra high hazard
category. In case of such combined risk, the risk category will be decided by its predominent
risk.

A sprinkler system consists of pipes along a ceiling that contain water under pressure, with an
additional source of water for a constant flow. Attached to the pipes, automatic sprinklers are
placed at select locations.

11. List down & explain the components of a window air conditioning unit.
Parts of the Window Air Conditioners

Windows air conditioners are one of the most widely used types of air conditioners because they
are the simplest form of the air conditioning systems. Window air conditioner comprises of the
rigid base on which all the parts of the window air conditioner are assembled. The base is
assembled inside the casing which is fitted into the wall or the window of the room in which the
air conditioner is fitted.

The whole assembly of the window air conditioner can be divided into two compartments: the
room side, which is also the cooling side and the outdoor side from where the heat absorbed by
the room air is liberated to the atmosphere. The room side and outdoor side are separated from
each other by an insulated partition enclosed inside the window air conditioner assembly (refer
fig 1 below).

In the front of the window air conditioner on the room side there is beautifully decorated front
panel on which the supply and return air grills are fitted (the whole front panel itself is
commonly called as front grill). The louvers fitted in the supply air grills are adjustable so as to
supply the air in desired direction. There is also one opening in the grill that allows access to the
control panel or operating panel in front of the window air conditioner.

The various parts of the window air conditioner can be divided into following categories: the
refrigeration system, air circulation system, ventilation system, control system, and the electrical
protection system. All these have been discussed in details below along with the front panel and
other parts.

Window Air Conditioner

The Refrigeration System of the Window Air Conditioner

The refrigeration system of the window air conditioner comprises of all the important parts of the
refrigeration cycle. These include the compressor, condenser, expansion valve and the
evaporator. All these components have been shown in fig 3 above. The refrigerant used in most
of the window air conditioners is R22.
The compressor used in the window air conditioners is hermetically sealed type, which is
portable one. This compressor has long life and it carries long warranty periods. In case of the
maintenance problems it can be replaced easily from the company. The condenser is made up of
copper tubing and it is cooled by the atmospheric air. The condenser is covered with the fins to
enable faster heat transfer rate from it.

12. Discuss the mechanical equipment and components needed for installation of air
conditioning systems in a building.

COMPONENTS OF AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

 March 15, 2013

40

HOW AN AIR CONDITIONER WORKS

Taken literally, air conditioning includes the cooling and heating of air, cleaning and controlling
its moisture level as well as conditioning it to provide maximum indoor comfort.

An air conditioner transfers heat from the inside of a building, where it is not wanted, to the
outside. Refrigerant in the system absorbs the excess heat and is then pumped through a closed
system of piping to an outside coil. A fan blows outside air over the hot coil, transferring heat
from the refrigerant to the outdoor air. Because the heat is removed from the indoor air, the
indoor area is cooled.

An air conditioning system generally consists of five mechanical components:

1. Compressor

2. Fan

3. Condenser Coil (Hot)

 4. Evaporator Coil (Cool)

5. Chemical Refrigerant

Most central air conditioning systems include a “hot” side, outside your home, and a “cool” side,
inside your home. The “hot” side generally consists of a condensing coil, a compressor and a fan.

The “cool” side is usually located within your furnace. The furnace blows air through an
evaporator coil, which cools the air, and routes this cool air throughout your home using a series
of air ducts.

The cleaning function of air conditioners is performed by filters, which remove dust and
contaminants from the air. In some systems, the filters are permanent and can be washed
periodically to remove accumulated dirt. Most systems have disposable filters which can be
replaced. When filters become clogged, they restrict the flow of air and cause the system to
operate inefficiently.

HOW A HEAT PUMP WORKS

A heat pump is like a conventional air conditioner except it also can provide heat in the winter.
In the summer, the heat pump collects heat from the house and expels it outside. In the winter,
the heat pump extracts heat from the outside air and circulates it inside the house. The heat pump
works best when the outdoor temperature is above freezing. Below that, supplementary heat
often is needed. A heat pump can save 30 to 60 percent less energy to supply the same heat when
compared to an electric furnace with a resistance heating element.

COOLING CYCLE

Refrigerant passes through the indoor coil, evaporating from a liquid to a vapor. As the liquid
evaporates, it absorbs heat, cooling the air around the coil. An indoor fan pushes this cooled air
through ducts inside the house. Meanwhile, the vaporized refrigerant laden with heat, passes
through a compressor which compresses the vapor, raising it’s temperature and pressure. The
reversing valve directs the flow of hot, high pressure vapor to the outdoor coil where the heat
released during condensation is fanned into the outdoor air, and the cycle begins again.

HEATING CYCLE

During the heating cycle the refrigerant flows in reverse. Liquid refrigerant now flows to the
outdoor coil picking up heat as it evaporates into a low pressure vapor.

The vapor travels through the compressor where it is compressed into a hot, high pressure vapor,
then is directed by the reversing valve to the indoor coil.

Then vapor turns into liquid as it passes through the indoor coil, releasing heat that is pushed
through the ducts by the indoor fan.

13. A- Discuss the role of cooling towers, B – Explain the principles of refrigeration with
relevant examples.
Cooling tower

A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser
water loop of an industrial chiller unit.

Natural draft wet cooling hyperboloid towers at Didcot Power Station (UK)

Forced draft wet cooling towers (height: 34 meters) and natural draft wet cooling tower (height:
122 meters) in Westfalen, Germany.
"Camouflaged" natural draft wet cooling tower in Dresden (Germany)
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the
cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use
the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb
air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the
working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations, nuclear power
stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air
induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced
draft cooling towers.
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures (as in
the adjacent image) that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter,
or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. The
hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants,[1] although they are
also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other
industrial plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling
towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat
from air conditioning.

Basic Principles of Refrigeration

May 21, 2007
Leo A. Meyer
Order Reprints
No Comments
If you are like most of us in the HVAC industry, you are a hands-on person - you don‘t want to
mess with a lot of theory, but just get in and get the job done. But a refrigeration system is
different from most of our work. Unless you understand the basic principles covered in this
article, you will never understand refrigeration. The refrigeration process operates on scientific
principles that are applied to practical mechanical processes.

SAFETY

It doesn‘t make much sense to learn about refrigeration if you‘re going to get yourself killed or
so injured that you can‘t work on it or anything else - or if you endanger others. When you work
around the refrigeration system - or any part of the HVAC system - remember these principles:

• You are dealing with electricity, heat, pressures, and possibly toxic gases. Don‘t start or stop
equipment, touch tubing, adjust valves, or open lines unless you really know what you are doing.

• Almost all HVAC equipment operates automatically - it can start at any time. Always be aware
of this.

• If you are working around any powered equipment, lock out and tag out the switch to be
absolutely certain that the power is off and cannot be turned on by anyone but you:

- Turn off the main disconnect switch to the equipment.

- Lock the switch with your padlock and tag it with your name and the date.

- Even though you have switched off the equipment, test the circuit to be sure the power is off.
Sometimes strange things happen with the wiring of electrical circuits.

Never attempt to service any refrigeration system unless you are qualified and certified. The high
side of the refrigeration cycle can be very hot, and you can be burned if you touch any
uninsulated parts. Opening a system can be very dangerous because it can freeze your skin. In
addition, some refrigerants are harmful to the atmosphere, so it is illegal to release them. You
must not handle them unless you have passed a certification test.

TEMPERATURE

Fahrenheit and Celsius Scales

Temperature is a measure of the degree of heat contained in a substance. Canada and almost
every other country except the United States use the Celsius (°C) temperature scale. In the
United States, Fahrenheit (°F) is still the official temperature scale, but more and more, you see
both °F and °C given together. Eventually, the United States will convert to the metric system
and use the Celsius (°C) scale.

Even though I have grown up with the Fahrenheit scale and know what the temperatures feel
like, I have to admit that the Celsius scale makes a lot more sense. In the Celsius scale, water
freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. There’s logic to that. In the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at
32°F and boils at 212°F. There’s no logic to that. If you work with the Celsius scale, you will
soon learn that you are comfortable at 20°C and feel too hot at 30°C. The Celsius and Fahrenheit
scales are shown in Figure 1. The table below compares some common temperatures:

Usually you will work in either °C units or °F units and there is no need to convert. If you are in
situations where you need to convert, the simplest way is to carry a conversion chart in your
toolbox for the normal range of temperatures. You can also record these equations in your
notebook:

14. Explain the working of any four types of fire detection and extinguishing systems.
FIRE PROTECTION: THE FOUR TYPES OF FIRE DETECTORS
Did you know that there are actually four different types of detectors that are used to sense the
presence of a fire? The best way to determine which kind is the right choice for your business or
building is to understand the differences between them.

The four types of fire detectors are ionization/photoelectric, photoelectric, ionization, and heat.
The differences in these four types are found in how they detect a fire – heat is obviously
triggered by temperature while the other three are from smoke.

 Ionization – Ionization smoke detectors actually have a constant electricalcurrent running

between  wo metal plates inside of the device. The electrical current is disrupted when
smoke enters the device chamber and triggers the alarm. This type of detector is great for
quickly identifying fires that are fast-burning.
 Photoelectric – Photoelectric detectors work similarly to Ionization detectors, but with a
beam of light instead of electricity. When smoke enters the chamber, the light beam is
scattered, which then triggers the alarm. This type of devices is good at identifying
smaller fires than an ionization detector. They are known to be highly reliable and rarely
produce false alarms.
 Heat – Heat detectors work by detecting an increase in air temperature caused by flames.
While these detectors have been known to trigger a few false alarms, they have a longer
reaction time than other smoke detectors. False alarms may be triggered in buildings that
are abnormally steamy, dusty, or humid and are best suited for buildings that are not
continuously occupied such as warehouses or storage facilities.
 Ionization/Photoelectric – A favorite of many professionals, a combination ionization and
photoelectric smoke detector is a considered by many to be the best type of detector.
These devices house both types of smoke detectors (not heat) in one unit to ensure that
any presence of smoke is detected as soon as possible.

15. Write notes on (i) AHU ,(ii) Cooling towers.

Air handler

An air handling unit; air flow is from the right to left in this case. Some AHU components shown
are
1 – Supply duct
2 – Fan compartment
3 – Vibration isolator ('flex joint')
4 – Heating and/or cooling coil
5 – Filter compartment
6 – Mixed (recirculated + outside) air duct

A rooftop packaged unit or RTU

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to regulate
and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.[1] An air
handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling elements, filter racks
or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers.[2] Air handlers usually connect to
a ductwork ventilation system that distributes the conditioned air through the building and
returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and
from the space served without ductwork
Small air handlers, for local use, are called terminal units, and may only include an air filter,
coil, and blower; these simple terminal units are called blower coils or fan coil units. A larger air
handler that conditions 100% outside air, and no recirculated air, is known as a makeup air
unit (MAU) or fresh air handling unit (FAHU). An air handler designed for outdoor use,
typically on roofs, is known as a packaged unit (PU) or rooftop unit (RTU).
Cooling tower

A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser
water loop of an industrial chiller unit.

Natural draft wet cooling hyperboloid towers at Didcot Power Station (UK)

Forced draft wet cooling towers (height: 34 meters) and natural draft wet cooling tower (height:
122 meters) in Westfalen, Germany.
"Camouflaged" natural draft wet cooling tower in Dresden (Germany)
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the
cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use
the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb
air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the
working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations, nuclear power
stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air
induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced
draft cooling towers.
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures (as in
the adjacent image) that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter,
or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. The
hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants,[1] although they are
also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other
industrial plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling
towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat
from air conditioning.

16. Explain the principles of packaged type air conditioner with neat sketch.
Packaged Air Conditioners

The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air conditioning capacities
up to 5 tons. The central air conditioning systems are used for where the cooling loads extend
beyond 20 tons. The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between
these two extremes. The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities of 3,
5, 7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are used commonly in places like restaurants, telephone
exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners all the important components of the air
conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window AC. Thus the compressor, cooling coil,
air handling unit and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and assembled at the factory
location.
 Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems, the packaged air conditioners
are divided into two types: ones with water cooled condenser and the ones with air cooled
condensers. Both these systems have been described below:
Packaged Air Conditioners with Water Cooled Condenser

In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water. The condenser is of shell
and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the cooling water flowing along
the shell side. The water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain functioning
of the air conditioning system.
The shell and tube type of condenser is compact in shape and it is enclosed in a single casing
along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit including the cooling coil
or the evaporator. This whole packaged air conditioning unit externally looks like a box with the
control panel located externally.
In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the compressor is located at the bottom
along with the condenser (refer the figure below). Above these components the evaporator or the
cooling coil is located. The air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower and the air
filter is located above the cooling coil. The centrifugal blower has the capacity to handle large
volume of air required for cooling a number of rooms. From the top of the package air
conditioners the duct comes out that extends to the various rooms that are to be cooled.
Sponsored Content

Grow Your Wealth in 6-18 Months by 25-50% with 10-12 High-Growth

Stocks.researchandranking.com

We can help you in immigrating to Canada within 6 months! No job offer

required.BetterPlace Immigration

Zero charge demat account with IIFLiifl.com


Multiply Your Wealth by Investing in 15-18 High-Growth Stock That Can Grow 4-5

Times in 5 Years.researchandranking.com

Understanding 2N3055 Transistor Spec SheetBright Hub Engineering


Access Hundreds of New Titles Using This ToolExpressVPN

Recommended by
All the components of this package AC are assembled at the factory site. The gas charging is also
done at the factory thus one does not have to perform the complicated operations of the laying
the piping, evacuation, gas charging, and leak testing at the site. The unit can be transported very
easily to the site and is installed easily on the plane surface. Since all the components are
assembled at the factory, the high quality of the packaged unit is ensured.
Package AC with Water Cooled Condenser
Packaged Air Conditioners with Air Cooled Condensers

In this packaged air conditioners the condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled by the
atmospheric air. There is an outdoor unit that comprises of the important components like the
compressor, condenser and in some cases the expansion valve (refer the figure below). The
outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other open place where the free flow of the
atmospheric air is available. The fan located inside this unit sucks the outside air and blows it
over the condenser coil cooling it in the process. The condenser coil is made up of several turns
of the copper tubing and it is finned externally. The packaged ACs with the air cooled
condensers are used more commonly than the ones with water cooled condensers since air is
freely available it is difficult maintain continuous flow of the water.
The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve, evaporator, the air handling blower and the
filter are located on the floor or hanged to the ceiling. The ducts coming from the cooling unit
are connected to the various rooms that are to be cooled.
Package Air Conditioner Air Cooled Condenser
17. Mention the different types of air conditioning systems for small scale project. Explain
with
neat sketches.
What are the Different Types of Commercial Air Conditioning System?
6th November 2014
Air conditioning is used in most commercial properties, ranging from small shops and cafés to
large office buildings and public spaces.
To meet these diverse applications, air conditioning systems have different heating and cooling
capacities and come with various setups and layouts.
There are almost infinite configurations within each category, but the main types of commercial
air conditioning are:

 Single Split System

 Multi-Split System
 VRF or VRV System

They all use the same basic technology and identical wall- or ceiling-mounted indoor units.
However, they have very different applications, so it’s important to find out which is best for
you.

Split System Air Conditioning

Single splits are the most affordable type of air conditioning system and suitable for use in
small commercial buildings. They provide heating and cooling to individual rooms, making them
ideal solutions for small offices, shops, cafés and server rooms.
They can also be used in combination to serve larger spaces and multiple rooms. The only
downside is that you need enough external space to have one outdoor unit for every indoor unit.
However, there are advantages to doing it this way. Firstly, it’s often cheaper than installing a
central system, and, as each system is self-contained, if one unit breaks down, the others
remain fully functional.
Even though they’re the cheapest type of air conditioning, single splits are effective and energy-
efficient systems. Their versatility makes them great for all kinds of applications and they’re
extremely popular with small businesses.
 Multi-Split System Air Conditioning
Multi-splits work in exactly the same way as single splits but, depending on the model, you can
connect up to nine indoor units to one outdoor unit. They’re most frequently used in places like
restaurants, offices, doctor’s surgeries and shops.
It’s always preferable to have fewer outdoor units, particularly if you lack space or want
to preserve your building’s external appearance. That gives multi-splits a distinctive advantage
over several single splits.
Another selling point is that you aren’t limited to using just one type of indoor unit. If you
wanted to, you could have any combination of wall- and ceiling-mounted air conditioning units,
along with an air curtain over the entrance.
However, multi-split systems are slightly more complex and require more pipework than several
single splits. That can make the installation more expensive and take longer, particularly if
you’re only looking to install a few indoor units.
Ultimately, the best solution depends on the layout of your building and the heating and cooling
capacity you require.

VRF or VRV Air Conditioning

VRF stands for variable refrigerant flow, while VRV stands for variable refrigerant volume. It
might seem confusing but they mean exactly the same thing.
Daikin originally developed the technology, calling it VRV, but then protected the term to stop
other manufacturers from using it. That’s why everyone else calls it VRF.
VRF/VRV air conditioning is the best solution for medium to large applications, including
hotels, retail spaces, larger offices and mixed-use buildings.
The systems are extremely efficient, reliable and easy to control, capable of meeting larger
buildings’ complete heating and cooling requirements. They also come with reduced installation
times, minimising disruption.
There are two types of VRF/VRV system, heat pump and heat recovery. Heat pump VRF/VRV
systems can provide either heating or cooling to a building at any given time, making them ideal
for open plan areas.
Heat recovery VRF/VRV systems are capable of providing simultaneous heating and cooling to
different areas at the same time, making them perfect for buildings with lots of individual rooms.
The most efficient commercial air conditioning systems, they recover waste heat from around the
building, using it to heat other rooms and hot water. Heat recovery systems are also more
flexible, as you have the option to heat one room while cooling another.

18. Write short notes on fire alarm systems and highlight the importance of fire fighting in
multi-storeyed buildings.
Fire alarm system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Fire alarm" redirects here. For the Looney Toons cartoon, see The Fire Alarm.
A fire alarm notification appliance widely used in the United States and Canada, pictured is
a Wheelock MT-24-LSM.
A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people
through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or
other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke
detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices
such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall
mountable sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed
by a voice evacuation message which warns people inside the building not to use the elevators.
Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain frequencies and different tones including low, medium
and high, depending on the country and manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems
in Europe sound like a siren with alternating frequencies. Fire alarm electronic devices are
known as horns in the United States and Canada, and can be either continuous or set to different
codes. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to different volume levels.
Basic fire safety measures required in any multi-storey building

Following are the basic fire safety measures

required in any multi-storey building as per the National Building Code(NBC):
1. Fixed carbon-di-oxide/foam/dco/water spray extinguishing system must be placed and
maintained in easily accessible places in buildings.
2. Proper Fire alarm system must be installed at each floor in all buildings of 15m. and
above in height, and residential buildings above 24m. Height.
3. Electrical codes shall be complied with to prevent overheating, ignition due to electrical
faults, short-circuits.
4. Every building shall have a fire exit at every floor which will be directly connected to
ground. It should be an external staircase separate from the main entrance. It should be
built with fire proof or non-combustible material.
5. A down comer is a pipe for fire fighting made within a building which is directly
connected with the water tank on the terrace of the building.
6. Installation of dry riser to provide water at each floor in the event of fire.
 7. Proper storage of hazardous and flammable materials which are needed in the building to
avoid fire.
8. Conduct fire drills at regular intervals to understand the evacuation process in case of
fire. These drills shall be done in the presence of a qualified fire officer and trained staff.
9. Periodic inspection of buildings by authorised officer for violations, making sure that
orders are complied with, prosecution or closure of buildings that are not complying.
10. A meeting point where people can gather or must report to during an emergency or a fire.
Even though NBC makes all the above mentioned measures mandatory, majority of multi storey
buildings continue to ignore these. Some buildings lack even basic fire safety systems like a fire
extinguisher.
These fire safety measures have been violated by many architects due to poor administration by
the authorities.
Though the buildings are required to obtain NOC from the fire department, There is no statutory
provision for continued verification of adherence to these requirement which leads to
malfunctioning in the structure by the builders.
There is no provision for the inspection of buildings for verification of fire safety measures and
their functioning in later years. Builders often change the fire safety structure set up at the time
of construction to make additions or for new structures.
Those who purchase apartments and occupy them are usually unaware of the provisions
regarding fire safety which have to be maintained by the builders as per NBC.

19. Write in detail about the factors to be considered while designing the ducts layouts for a
HVAC systems.
HVAC DESIGN BASICS
Duct System: Follow Manual D Procedures

Proper duct design is critical for any home for the comfort system(s) to deliver promised comfort
levels.

Step One: The process begins with a room-by-room Manual J heat loss/gain calculation. This
calculation is the staging point for all aspects of the heating and air conditioning system which
will follow. This calculation will determine the air flow requirements for each room, supply
register, and return grille.
Step Two: The designer determines from the calculation, the best equipment to meet the
system's, or home's, requirements. Here he should follow ACCA's Manual S: Residential
Equipment Selection guide. This step determines the the specific blower performance, which
then becomes critical in the duct design / sizing process.

Step Three: A rough sketch of the home's preferred air distribution system is drawn showing
equipment placement, register and return locations, air flow requirements for each room, each
supply register and return grille, and the location and lengths of ductwork to tie it all together.
More than 1 sketch may be necessary to determine the best duct layout based on the architectural
layout and structural members of the home.

Step Four: Now ductwork sizing begins. ACCA's Manual D procedures size the ductwork
accounting for blower performance, room-by-room cfm needs for both cooling and heating,
distance of ducting to each register or return, all ductwork fittings in the system, type of ducting
material planned (sheet metal, flex, or duct board), and any other restrictions in the duct system.

Perfect-Home-Hvac-Design  can provide Manual J, Manual D, Manual S, and simplified Duct

Design Services for minimal cost. All of the above steps are an integral production of your
Wrightsoft based hvac system design prepared for you by Perfect-Home-Hvac-Design.

Plus you will have all the reports and diagrams for your local friendly building inspector.

From here you can take your duct design to your neighborhood hvac fabricator, and move on to
step 5.

It is important to note here that not all ducting materials are created equal. A 6" round flexible
duct does not flow air as well as a 6" round galvanized duct does. An 8"x12" ductboard trunk
does not move as much air as an 8"x12" sheet metal duct does.

Step Five: Fabrication. This is where the ideas on paper begin to take shape. A fabrication list is
created and shop personnel build the ducting and fittings. Poorly designed, fabricated, or badly
sealed ductwork reduces the system's efficiency by as much as 40%, costing the homeowner
money and creating a drafty, uncomfortable home. Well sealed ducting begins in the shop, and
continues through the installation. Rectangular tees, ells, take-offs, reducers should be rounded
for best air flow. Square fittings of any sort in a duct system inhibit air flow.
Step Six: The installation. This is where a perfect duct design can be completely made or
broken. Rectangular tees, ells, take-offs, reducers should be rounded for best air flow. Square or
right angle fittings of any sort in a duct system inhibit air flow. A square tee or ell can add 100'
of equivalent length to the duct system. All fittings in the duct system and their equivalent length
should have been accounted for during the manual D procedure.

Special attention should be taken here to the joints in the duct system. All joints in the ductwork
should be sealed with mastic duct sealant or an approved duct tape. This will ensure that all air is
delivered to the conditioned living space. If joints are badly sealed the overall system will
operate at a lower efficiency and needlessly waste energy.

Sometimes the duct system design is undertaken by the architect in a residential application.
More often than not, this design is meant to show preferred duct location for fir-downs only.
Usually any duct sizing must still be determined by undertaking the above procedures. The
opposite is true for commercial projects. Often a commercial project has been fully designed by a
mechanical engineer and his designs must be followed.

The Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA) Manual J, Manual D, and Manual S are

invaluable guides for designing a well performing duct system. Following these guidelines, plus
hiring an hvac contractor that will follow good installation practices will ensure a quality end
product.

20. Explain the following – (i) Fire tower, (ii) Fire lifts, (iii) Fire Escape Stairs, (iv)
Automatic
Detection
Fire lookout tower

Angeles National Forest, Vetter Mountain fire lookout tower near Los Angeles, California.
Beyazıt Tower, is an 85 m (279 ft) tall fire-watch tower located in the courtyard of Istanbul
University's main campus (formerly Ottoman Ministry of War) on Beyazıt Square.
A fire lookout tower, fire tower or lookout tower, provides housing and protection for a person
known as a "fire lookout" whose duty it is to search for wildfires in the wilderness. The fire
lookout tower is a small building, usually located on the summit of a mountain or other high
vantage point, in order to maximize the viewing distance and range, known as view shed. From
this vantage point the fire lookout can see smoke that may develop, determine the location by
using a device known as an Osborne Fire Finder, and call fire suppression personnel to the fire.
Lookouts also report weather changes and plot the location of lightning strikes during storms.
The location of the strike is monitored for a period of days after in case of ignition.
The typical fire lookout tower consists of a small room, known as a cab located atop a large
steel, or wooden tower. Historically, the tops of tall trees have also been used to mount
permanent platforms. Sometimes natural rock may be used to create a lower platform. In cases
where the terrain makes a tower unnecessary, the structure is known as a ground cab. Ground
cabs are called towers, even if they don't sit on a tower.
Towers gained popularity in the early 1900s, and fires were reported using telephones, carrier
pigeons, and heliographs.[1]
Although many fire lookout towers have fallen into disrepair as a result of neglect, abandonment,
and declining budgets, some fire service personnel have made an effort to preserve older fire
towers, arguing that a good set of human eyes watching the forest for wildfire can be an effective
and cheap fire safety measure.[2]

Firefighting lift

Description
A firefighting lift is a lift that is often provided within a tall building, complex building or a
building with deep basements. The purpose of a firefighting lift is to provide a facility to assist
firefighters to move with more ease vertically through a building.
General considerations
A firefighting lift installation includes the lift car itself, the lift well and the lift machinery space,
together with the lift control system and the lift communications system.
A firefighting lift, unlike a normal passenger lift, is designed to operate so long as is practicable
when there is a fire in parts of the building beyond the confines of the firefighting shaft, as it is
used to transport firefighters and their equipment to a floor of their choice.
 The lift can be used in normal times as a passenger lift by the occupants of the building but, in
order to prevent the risk of the entrance being obstructed when the lift is required to go into the
firefighting mode, it should not be used for moving refuse, nor for moving goods. In buildings
provided with a single lift its use for the transport of goods should be avoided unless essential,
lift lobbies should be kept clear, and when used for moving goods the doors should not be
propped open to ensure that the lift remains at a particular level.
Firefighting lift cars should be provided with a means of external rescue of trapped firefighters in
the lift car.
There have been several recorded occasions when water from a landing valve, hose lines, etc.,
has entered the lift well and caused malfunction of the installation when it reached electrical door
interlocks, car controls, etc. It is therefore necessary to minimise both the effects of water on lift
operations, and the probability of water entering the lift well in the first place.
A firefighting lift switch should be provided to enable the fire service to obtain immediate
control of the firefighting lift(s) in a firefighting shaft.
The car controls of the firefighting lift should become active only after it has arrived at the fire
service access level and the firefighting lift switch has been operated. Once the firefighting lift
has arrived at the fire service access level, its doors should open and it should then operate as
follows.
 Fire personnel entering the lift car should be able to register a call to any selected landing
in the building by sustained pressure on a car control until the car doors have fully closed
 If a car control is released before the doors have fully closed, the doors should
immediately reopen and the call should be cancelled
 Once the lift is moving, it should be possible to register additional calls on the car
controls. The lift should travel in the direction of the first call registered, and should stop at the
first floor encountered for which a call is registered
 The doors should remain closed unless they are operated by continuous pressure on the
'door open' control. It should not be possible to open the doors without sustained pressure on the
control
 Release of the 'door open' control before the doors are fully open should cause the doors
to automatically re-close. This allows fire service personnel to observe the situation immediately
outside the lift landing doors in the firefighting lobby
 Once the doors are fully open they should remain open until a new call is registered at the
car control station
Fire escape
For the album by Sunburned Hand of the Man, see Fire Escape (album).

Fire escape in Greenwich Village

A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside of a building or
occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building. It provides a method of
escape in the event of a fire or other emergency that makes the stairwells inside a building
inaccessible. Fire escapes are most often found on multiple-story residential buildings, such
as apartment buildings. At one time, they were a very important aspect of fire safety for all new
construction in urban areas; more recently, however, they have fallen out of common use. This is
due to the improved building codes incorporating fire detectors, technologically advanced fire
fighting equipment, which includes better communications and the reach of fire fighting ladder
trucks, and more importantly fire sprinklers. The international building codes and other
authoritative agencies have incorporated fire sprinklers into multi-story buildings below 15
storeys and not just skyscrapers.
A fire escape consists of a number of horizontal platforms, one at each story of a building,
with ladders or stairs connecting them. The platform and stairs are usually open steel gratings, to
prevent the build-up of ice, snow, and leaves. Railings are usually provided on each of the levels,
but as fire escapes are designed for emergency use only, these railings often do not need to meet
the same standards as railings in other contexts. The ladder from the lowest level of the fire
escape to the ground may be fixed, but more commonly it swings down on a hinge or slides
down along a track. The moveable designs allow occupants to safely reach the ground in the
event of a fire but prevent people from accessing the fire escape from the ground at other times
(such as to perpetrate a burglary or vandalism).
Lower part of a fire escape in New York.
Exit from the interior of a building to the fire escape may be provided by a fire exit door, but in
most cases the only exit is through a window. When there is a door, it is often fitted with a fire
alarm to prevent other uses of the fire escape, and to prevent unauthorized entry. As many fire
escapes were built before the advent of electronic fire alarms, fire escapes in older buildings have
often needed to be retrofitted with alarms for this purpose.
An alternate form of rapid-exit fire escape developed in the early 1900s was a long canvas tube
suspended below a large funnel outside the window of a tall building. A person escaping the fire
would slide down the interior of the tube, and could control the speed of descent by pushing
outward on the tube walls with their arms and legs. This escape tube could be rapidly deployed
from a window and hung down to street level, though it was large and bulky to store inside the
building.[1]
A modern type of evacuation slide is the vertical spiral escape chute, which is a common means
of evacuation for buildings and other structures.

Automatic detection and tracking of human faces in video sequences are considered

fundamental in many applications, such as face recognition, video surveillance, and human-
computer interface. In this study, we propose a technique for real-time robust facial tracking in
human facial videos based on a new algorithm for face detection in color images. The proposed
face-detection algorithm extracts skin color regions in the CEILab color space, through the use
of a specialized unsupervised neural network. A correlation-based method is then applied for the
detection of human faces as elliptic regions. As a part of face tracking, the Kalman
filter algorithm is used to predict the next face-detection window and smooth the tracking
trajectory. Experiments on the five benchmark databases, namely, the CMU-PIE, color FERET,
IMM, and CalTech face databases, and the standard IIT-NRC facial video database demonstrate
the ability of the proposed algorithm in detecting and tracking faces in difficult conditions as
complex background and uncontrolled illumination.

Automation Agents for Controlling the Physical Components of a Transportation System

Wilfried Lepuschitz, ... Munir Merdan, in Industrial Agents, 2015
18.4.1 Diagnostic Mechanisms
The automatic detection of failures and unexpected behaviors is of significant importance for
achieving fault-tolerant manufacturing systems. Thus, the AAs incorporate diagnosis
mechanisms for observing their controlled entity’s behavior. On the one hand, an agent’s LLC is
able to detect failures such as a not moving blocker by using sensor data for verifying a position
change of the blocker after an according issued command. On the other hand, the HLC uses its
activity model for monitoring state sequences. Thus, it is possible to identify causes for failures
when differences between expected and occurred states are detected. Merging the information
of multiple agents allows the detection of a wide range of failures.