‘Note that in the sltion of Eaampl 2 in the eso step we have bro sterner eval, yn, to limite citer In te atest of (2) oF“ S'Spomqueat bral which ination rind out When {he prosnr erie ot om s computer we ial opt the evento ha or ‘ty nunberof pbs connetie tha re avalable for imination a ah, oa he ann Ti pny rw sly ed by bed EXAMPLE 3. Dow Pfolow fom P v Qt urn We loveigle wheter Jo (PV Q) +P in 8 theorem, Ae sane DEEP © HOPvaur @) W() PHP ead 4) OP [Note that (9) nan aim, bt () lnc. Hence P des nt few fom P VQ. 7 om wm 1 some eas tho derivation ia lengr if hs procedre i wed. The reason ‘a at for evry sonnectveappeaving the iat stone tp toda, ta ‘omne ntepes branching appea hd han wo have to pun oo spe, We eal ‘ow conden an earpi or which the deration wan pres carder ee 4 RXAMPLE 4 Stow that 5 V B in tautctolaly impli by (PV) A (Pov) A (Qm3) (ow Branpl See It) summon Toatow ) BUPVQ) APB KOH) 188) WM HO PVOACADAQ= EVR 9 @ 1 PVOACIDA OH S5R ov @ HO CVO, P=H, 049258 (ates) © WE) PPR OSLER sad (0)Q, PB, Q—=555,8 we (8) PRO HS, Rand () PQ SH6P, SR (me) ©) ) Ph 8s 8, Rand (10) P, RS, BQ - @) WAN) P, 87,5, Rand) PP, 5,80 = (©) 013) QB, 0+ 8-45, Rand 100,05 8 RP me) (3) 8) G56 5, Bad (16) 2, B45, 2 - (19) OT) 5265 Pand (8) Oe 8, BP. - Now, (9) 19 (12) and (18) to (18) areal ain taro there flows, “Tie sting of oape show ow ths betehing sam, 7] muEncIsES 14 1 Show te yi of footing anunec or hich he pina von the Seeman tere ie 4 Ay spe ane BiG a Seb eka es ros G) nPtes inn sponse 8 Pee) @ GVan—RSCAQ—R ee SG P99 Soe SPA CV 9) at Br By, Band fo ‘Xtra fotntag matt pein ne ci, 8 Siew ore ak oan, ei ay as P,P RLS Pm a £80), DBA), AA DP 2 Sinn ie folowing edietmethed teke) Crease esos ae Ohad ee ease 0 eM 9a DV Iw, Show le ator, ug te tam pena eos Gren Crd) 8 BRE nem e fo aor Py 1 PPV onde 8 Fee eae 145 THE PREDICATE CALCULUS 6 far our dacuion of ebote lageha ben initad to the eonerson of (atenests and saatent fran Tea inference teary es aly ete "hr une thatthe poms and sonloioos were ll termi The symbols BQ bres Pu Qyen, mer md fr taints statement raraben Toe _Risoenis ere ks be unt of natament ced, so bo sal of {iy ‘tomie tateoot wna addled Only oapoubd forma were nalyed, {St fin anys wan done by studying te for of tbe compound forma, Et the conmcatons atoeen the comtitwet sonic sateen. Te wae Rot ‘pnt to ene the asta any two atomic natemesta Bare ome ota Ie tormon, in onder to lnveatigateguentoay of thi ature, we ntedure the enept cs preficatoin an ore tatement, Tho ogi bused ups th anaes ‘Twente in any eaten salle prdzte le| | 151. Predicates ‘tout, if we expr the eaten by aymbele we requ smo dient frbole #3 denne Sn. Such aja nt revel the eamonon features ot ‘Wes eee statemecte; we, both ae statement abut two deat naiidae ‘io are bahar Te nrodoo ume embed to deuce "le Becher” nd ‘othe to jin wih symbols ent tera nv, then ew Ives aybiin t dente etamenta abot any indus bing bahar, ‘Thayer "ts tne” cal predicate Anctbe onder he ene {0 ste slr deve forthe epecntaton fear agpted by the All nen belag re mrt ‘itn va bnen beng, “Theron, ohm ina mort Such » conchon sro intial trae. However, doe ot fll from the Inference thar of the tatemantealalundeeope ete. "The oa fer in ‘keiecy he fact that he saetos “Al Iman blogs are ora anor tesalyaed to ay anything aboot an fdivdoa If we ud eparae the prt Mire marta” fe the prt “Ait aman Ding” then He might be Peale fo ‘tailer sty pare burn bg ‘We sal melon «predate by «copter and the mare of in ual been general by eval Int: We dal on ee hat wing eae ‘tart ambole tauaerta nr weal ae pratt ea oe cos Fon, very peda deibe womthing about oe or mote objets (he ‘nord “object” being wed n'a ery genre ene to inclu fdidal oo ‘ell Tarlo a tment cold be tan ter of ape ‘he leter allowed by cena o ame ofthe oot tow th rediotae Srp 1 Jone tarlr 2 Srath ins bacelr Deo the prolate “is « becelor” ambi by the pedals tor 5, "John by, and Sh by 2 Tn Statement (1) and (2) can be viton ‘B(3) asda) nepetialy Tn geera, any statement ofthe pep ‘Show Qe «predate and pi theres canbe dented by G19) “Aatement whieh enpreaned by tag pedis eter tut ave a least avenue oan cbt sro wht pret, When a approprats ‘umber of tau ar ulated witha print, han we ge a ate Ung ‘apd tater to denote prelete may ot ident he apprpeat numb ‘name sscted it) Nora, ti amber ln rom Ue eon ot fom the moon tinged. "Fhin muri ean ln be ssrplsed by Me tuching s superscot vo a recat eter, indian Se umber of aren that ‘Seto be appended othe ater. A predate ego m (m > 0 sates oclled fs mepince prediete. For omrpie Bip (i) and () ie 2 Vpine pecs ‘Rnatber example that "Le es Wan” te 2pace paca In orto o> ‘ed one deestion tom = 0, we hall ean watment& place predioteb- 5 Tee painting ere ‘an be symbian hy B(p). Forth he conactivsdeaeibod aio ean now ‘storm smpoued statement auch “Jobat bachelor, ned Splat lng ine” ch am be witen ne BJ) A R(p) Otbr comet al ‘ated form sateen BD=RG) TRE) HV RG) oe ‘Coniernom,atamentanvalving the name of to cet, auch a2 4 Sok ale than J Canada in the nr of he Wale Staten “Th preiatn “tale than nd “eto the north of are 2plce predate ‘ed Seoten "Wi" than Satan (4) can be tented ta 4 jo). Nola ‘ast ordarin wth the ann apparin te atmo a wel aan Se pred Stee portant Sal, W donot the predate north a Sanada, ad's Unie Sts then (8) ie mbelsed we We)" Obvioady, ‘Nure) ithe aterm "Toe Usted Stato to th ort of Canada” ‘Beampler sf Space pent aod place prints ae Samm st et wenn Ralph and Bil 5 Green snd her play badge apn’ Zobeton and Sih 1 general an place print agin n name of objets obo isrtd ‘ned pire orto olan tement. Tow pontan of ae amet Iaportast I isan plas pda lta and yoyo ar the nates af ‘hj, then Slay anne) ts stalemate Ife we th tontetin every Drodisate ayo! ftlowed by an appropeato umber tarsal re te ores cat enloand in parotona ndveparted by emaman Ocesonaly ‘Reparation andthe commas ae repped The deftones not Yule {Bae demas be che rot any fod ot, For etme I B dnote te pred (nt ra unl ondfdontea “Thee” then BG) spmelie"h able Se bachelor" Tn cur over ingunge, tho coy miele nae ni oe {et would bh af ida, Howe, uch retort nem ‘uring to hele given above We show method of pening ml exec Sons Soe 13.152 ‘The Statement Fmetin, Variaben, and Quantiers 147 be the pia “ea mit] b ae Mn Brown” « Canada” Sod eA sheen HOD, He) and (0) mi denote statment: In fh ‘ewe atomentsbave a common form Ife mite (2) fot "ei marta the HG), ite ia), and ture having the ee form ea bo obtain fom (=) ty ralacing by an appropriate name. Nove tat (2) rn atement, bet ‘Sula tasaent moon = nepal by the tae of an bent Th tt ‘el beret lesan, Frm now owe al or alee andl ‘rcbect arable a all as amen oes "caplet fonction vale died tb an epeaion sonsting ot pets syne and tinea rvabe Sch x sateen {fnetionEocomar tenet bent vara ie oplacd by te same of my tjct The statement aulting rm replete called tion ance ‘ibe wateren fone ad in formule of ataren eet "The word “simp io the above dfeition diagnos the imple tte stent fet om hws teent fancioe which atesbaied fom combleg ne omar simple staurent feiss thei vnoetiven For exale Ite tet Ae) be "rine man” aod (2) be“ vs moray” Uhon We ea erm (Sep sean fenton ned a MQ) AHO) Mie) = He) WK) MK) WEA) ae stag traightornard Coir, for example, the dare fasen sO sities 1 Gle.y):# tale thn 1 toto y re reps by tbe mare of jet, we gut 4 statement I ‘worsens Mer andj Mi. Pow then we hve. on): Me, Me tae tan Mi Fr, oot (4, Me, Foi arta Mii. 1s pile to form statement Fanti of eno variable By sing sate ment fuel fone veable For emma given (2) 28a ma, Hy: vine mera {hen weimay write M2) 9 M(g)s 844 an andy fea metal, 1 ot poe however, to ws every sateen nati of wo ae ns ng statment fren ne vale, One ay of talaga fom ay steam funellon to vepace tho vata bi the me of obese. There another ay i achat tn be cid, To order to unertand thin aleratine mood we fin com ‘ie Soe train eguationn in hemantay igre §yito 3 EER e- 0 betwen eed In ales, ite convene! lo anne that the varias xb bo replaced by ‘amber {res compler, fens, ites, et), an the above ogeean, we ‘road not normally ender abating fo sth nana ef a pero oF eet ‘Coca ef murnber We may rate thia da by ung hatte wee of te ‘urble= the nto eal bumber compe ubees or ntgen a. The ‘Trton depend on the probe Ander oonadeatioe, Fer example, ay [vintrrd only th real wlan be poatne auton ne pater ese 1p Statement (2) fz plaend by mel umber, ne gots atrent. Te ‘ekg eaten trae Ube lead for ‘iain Ue ral teen ease. (2) hare ‘whom abet for gers tre aiemeat If however, the universe of 2 {sludncompler numbers ur wall then we Sn it de te try subeion ‘stances whch give tn statement f(y If he univer of raed ‘nega than hare oly one ber which podacora tre atatament hen ‘teed. Tow taton oe aighy ferent ie (8) inthe seme at amy imber rmbt for, thn the rrlngstaterncot ite Therefore, We fay ony Dat 3 Porany nanber 2,28 ~ 1 = (2 —) # @ 4D. ‘Note hat (6) ia a atten and nt a tatement fenton eventhough are She's appara init a fost, dion of the phrse "For any bumber =" ‘neta the itnton The leter , we (8) dart rom te rate shlea ane ia Stazmente (2) to (9) a (8) the vara aed not be replaced ‘By any name to obainaeatemet in mathomaten hs Gane tea not ‘ide: Oculoaly noe a tatrnent invaver aa equality, a ditto ease ying the yet! m= istead of he uly gn oso that ea tate ‘hia eay, (@) wonld be wit neo we ty we ceb 1) A sar ‘taslon oor when a sahemechtanclon dase hot kev aa city, and ‘Banton enecary ning btn thae oro dierent ae of the vai shout ll fdviduale rebels bolonging to tans 7 AM oes are moral 8 Beery ape red ‘Any lotage thr poate or negative, “Let wn parphrae thos inte fllowing manner. a Forall = iz ioe maa, thn zie ert & Poralls; zien apne thee 2rd ‘9 Porall 71 late, the 2 eer pstve or nea. “We have lea show bow statement fnetions ach a ef «man “gin ao apie" or aed cam be mien by wang priate eal Tf Iatouon aya to eet the prea "For al "thn it would be pwible > ‘ymbaie Street (70), 80}. n0d (On).Wo aymboin “For all” by che symbol (¥0)” or by “(2)” with an ‘wederanng tht this pia be Plane before he eaten function to whch ‘Sin pace ie pled. Using MG): nan. He) moral Ale): wlan apple. Bla): ered. Na): elvamintoger, PC): 4 inter positive or pgative se write (2), (8), sd (80) ae 2 Gale) =H) & uae & GWG) Seep Somatic (2) (2) (2) i ala writen at (Ya) (MC) — 02) ‘The ayaa (2) or {=} ae called wineral quoter. Be pening, bs C{unteain aye" ae "(Ya coma the variable whch i {S'S quiniied. Ts now pale fru to quoi ay eaten anetion of ‘ne valet tan » statement," (2) Bf) tom statement wich ea Be 10 For lls, zis man, 1 For overy =p na mae. Lae Beating ea man In order ta detrmine tbe tah value of anyone of thateatatements i lv univercl quarter one may bo emped to conde he tat ace GP ibeteatamene faction wish ia quand. The matbod eno poste for {iro veammee. Fey stteen nlins do thaws tah vals Whe the ast ‘ies ape elaced by the mma of clot weg tdements whch ven ath “ln acon nm sass tere ea ete bunber of arta ha san produced by mach rubato. ‘Note chat the prin vrs appearing in theaters invslving quanti in ot poraant Beeman the natements realy wochanged t's {Solna ty 9 throghouts Tan the satmenta a)(MG) “> H2)) aod (GFCH Go — ly) te eave. Sometinws ie nesamary to uee more than ne ulveel quanti in & statement, For exp omer te y):2 alr than osc state tat "For any x and any tar than then yw taller ‘hte Por any st aia alr tang, heme bt tue a tlle ‘an 52a att ea nw bo mybobel ae antec +H.) “The univer quan: wn ed strat eprint sth a fora” nd or any" Another qantfer wl now be treed to aymbalie Capecons each as or ae bere Se lent ove” oF there ex mr” (Gte tnt me ie wal in Gh ear of at lent on") Cones the flowing teen 11 Tour ite 4a, 18: Se el mambo ar eho “Toe Sit taarent ca be exponen asons way two amchwaye bee Ma. Thar ats on wc Cat #4 man HHS ‘Thana lar one» nach Cate man ‘Suey, (22) ean be wen a 12a. Tiare esta an sock that xn ama and i lever 125 Toee xa tent ooe = meh hat = na anand i deve, ‘Such rephrasing slow ut to inten the pl 3) "alld te etek ‘quanto wah eybolresenpriens ach ttre Tot sth at SE" cin en rench Ua or foram # Weng M2): 94a mn, (a): oa lve. Ri(e): ea ra aber (a): 2a ana spd sing the xine quanti, we cm write the tateeta (1) 40 (3) a4 He (3aytatiay) Te Gauri ce) ise GNM) A Rie) ef ta form “Some a Blo colo ne wed in we sates tthe fom “Al A re B."'Ton beginner thie wage ay apes ents. We ‘Sow it Se 1-8. why thane commer ae the Bight dee be ed thee 1453. Pratcte Format call tat capil lees wace Het woe 10 dnote sre defi statement ‘becquety they were sod an plceoldee fr he talent, ayn ake ‘ou, they wre old seater vaiablen Tose tatement vain wer al TSece 15 thd 16 te epi lates were intoduoed we deft pred ate twas ugpsted tha ipercrpt nb ss long with tho epi tars {S'iecioindante that te etl intern td an an pen pda, How ‘er, the notation was not neouaty benabe an plae predate obal ant Tetoowed by m objet vaste Such varablo av eid she neal ‘ovate and are denoted by lovercse eters When und ara mpace predist, ‘he capital belo lowed by ial vrsina which are eodoed In [aventhcus and npersad by commas, For eample, Play yy) denote. role preint erl n which he ler Pia an place peeeate enedty so ainda variables En gota, Poy yy 2) il be cle Eero ie. may sadn ro ‘The flowing ar some eagles o aca fries anne" O BQ) Play) Alene Play) and Ale) ‘A yelled foal of peat alee cbt by sing the flowing 4 Anatomie foal ie wel-omd fora 2 1d eh wettored formal then “Le wllfonmed fora, ana Cll g@ted reat mn sn (A NBD Cay BYP, 4 it fea wal red formula ad 2 is any viable, thea (2)A and (204 am weltionnd fralen 2 "Only thos formulae ciao by wing ae (1) (4 are wellormed sora ‘Since we wl be copcerned with only welLned formula, we sal we ‘he tr "Tora for wel-ord forma” Ws flow the toes con. rs ning the uo preter we nein tea asa 164 Pree and Bound Yaibine Given formula containing 2 arto he frm (2)P(2) oF (32), ch « ‘ars alld ans-bound prt ofthe form ny overrngeof e n e bound arta frmulnis called bound career he ny ocutens feo of {Sy saab tha nota bound sosrene i lads Sor waren Parte {he frm PG) wea (e)PCa) or in (32)P(a) donb a the op the quater, In lber wordy Shemp ef «auntie the frm ee ‘mediily flowing th quale. I the mops an stom forma then Pe ateshacs ere ned to eal he forma, aherige preteen sted ‘tonsa, sonar the lowing forms rts) o (NeW) =e ” QP) = GREY) o OPE) REV ENG) e) (397) Ra) 6 GaFi2) Agi) 6 In 0, Fl he ope the quanti, and bot cone ound ue ew Sncaress oy te cnet Sriangongel eer Fe) a Sa of we tenia (he ssp) na) = Canny), whist erp o (3) a3) Al noun bth Saad fat bol cere he ope ofthe ht gear iv PC) RU), a the sage i wooed Pla) +O). All occomences of # ar bound eccrence. I (5, Se sone of (35) & Ble) A OC, However, in (0) the mop of (3s) Pla) and Oe lt rere of Fin Gta) re. enuf! t note that inthe boand eoumenc of variable he eter sien to repre he vate ant important Ie ast ny thar ear {in be uted ana sabe thot atetng the ermal, provided that tbe now [eters mot weed dhowber ithe formals Thus the forma (Pan and (PCH) ‘rs the same, Further, the bound ccourence of vail cant be uti ‘tad bya emmtan ely fo cures ofa vale canbe For exam, GiP(e elem eanttonimtaner of (DPC) A QU). Infact (PCR) a) can be expend lo Bolo a “vey asthe prope and has the Sropeny QA change of vtaber in he brand oncerrone nota betton Ersanee, Soneimen tunel fo change te arabe inorder to eld come fsa Ta (0, tea better to wta (IPQ) A Qe) stad ot (2)PCo) A Qt), toms ts sparta the fren and bond osonences of archon Onno, (ne may come atone formal the pe (@)P(G) fe which the crete of {iste sd th sop of (2) doe not contain a: neu aca reve ‘raanar te (2): Hall ay be etine that n a atom oer oe rece sf yrs ut be bound abd Ro Yarns obold have fen e- arrest cane where «io arable eur im frm han wee HXAMPLE 1 at Pia): eine pon Play): ele theft of» Me, 9)2 the mote of Wie te predict ee the father ofthe mother of 2” ‘sour Ia onder 1 amboie the print, we name a panon cad ‘ua the ti fy. Dbviowy we at Sony that athe fcr ef vam te ‘mothe ay Tenamumed thal roche paren rex, Wepre te pediste BNP A Fe AMD) HIE EXAMPLE 2 Symbol the erpruion “Al the wold love lover” sotgri Pet ote that he nation ely tt evry oven Pee): tunpernn, Le): valve. "The rue exretion a EO MEW AL) ~=REW HI1455 he Universe of Dacorne Beanie 2 Se. 154 shone thatthe pros of symbolising a tenant in Drdlnt cleats on be que compllentod, Hower, ere pleation ca Eintedueed by limiting the dso ndvidoas or bert undarenaderstin. ‘Tis linitasen aan tht te vole hich te qactied wate eal home Dj wich are moibere fu partidar et or am ach nrc ase ‘led the ariars of tours othe donors of indivi or apy thee ‘ae If the dacaston vette to human bong oly, then the une of ae ‘ure the sof haan tings Im usatary gabe ce nariber doy, te mars of dns cult be nabers real, comple, oa, tr) [EXAMPLE 1 Symbols the wate “All men are gnta”™ sovenow Udog (2): eina gant MG): aa man. ‘he ven statment canbe ayia as (2) (Ae) — @(e)). Hovwren it me ‘eet he vr + ters un a lf en hem Ge aes foci Hr EXAMPLE 2 Coir the ataent “Given any postive Steer, hare a treter pontiv integar’” Syme ti eternent ith and without tg he sea pave integers ne te univer of Gacoue. ‘ouoion Let she variables andy be etre t the mt of poitive lr tegioe Ten the ave ratement canbe parspbrned nla otal thre ‘ina ay soc that yn greater than» 1FG(e 9) "sega han 9" then be {ove satemect i (2)(39)Uar 2). If we do ot tone the esti on the ‘eivers of doure andi we wnt PCa) fot" wpa integer then We ‘San symblie the given veatameat na (2) (PCa) “> Coa) PO) A Gla 2) 7 “The snivee of daar, i ny, must be expliy sated, been the ‘ruth Yala statement depeods open i Foret, cocnldr the prota 2) as tan sd be statement (2)Q{2) and (2)(=) the unis face a given byehomee 1 non ae, rere 3 115.20,240 hen (2)Q() ete or the wnivar of diacurm (1) abd fle for (2) and (2) {Bis entment (4202) le rs for both (1) and (2), but fe fo (2) Te wmy bea Uat thre ae two wap of Otani 6 Opace protic ftom an tfc predate, Te he way into wboate nme feels em or rymbniingexpenions of hate “Same Sree ah etre contotve rte oojanatan: Using particle ample, Ne ‘ow aww tho moaning change the sock cones he wat Ud, ‘Coaiee the ater 2 Aut ae ial hich er fr any univer dour, In prises, let the wives of di ‘ie E be (Code, Ginger yy where the Sv two emer re Ue ae Stents Obey Stanent (}) frre over B Now omar the satmeste ieetey AG) and Cts) AAT), whare Cla) stna ses ane 4) ran G(s) “> ACs) api by ay f the eamente of then we pas tonstatomantBeace (2 (Ole) A(#) a ton ovr On the ther hand) (Cn) A Ate) elo ovr B een G(s) A 2(2) mares {evale aise whensinrplaedby Gor Thsmenna that Statement (1) ext enmbetice! ar 2) (Cte) & AG)? ‘Row consider ts ratnere. 2 Sore et te ak Lot B be ae above withthe understanding thas oth Cue and Ginger a whi gue ad lt B() 4 ce I toe ther se lack st he ‘von Band (2) i ne. The matament (32)(C(@), 5 BU) ba fle ‘ter tenure thre ins Macc On theses hand, (2) (la) ~B(G)) tur beans C(s) 08a) trun whan x repncnd by Oat 1. Ths ne bare ‘lemonstratnd that Ue onto! ot the soc comectve to we Ss HXERCIEES 1-5 1 Whihot he ening ae amet (lem V Gera B BEG XG) A Ga sc 8 Gira) A ga A Sta Me haha Ashwin DPA ado) visrorse ( GQur@auia AdaRy As 4 ananrone fdr ne Sse @ DRG) 0 50) @ Comes dase & baer oto) OO WV Ore4 UGNEO) EC) wwe meds = 5, 0):2 = 2 and the nine ie (0 GPE v aio wtme 72> 1,00 :4 3 Rede ante 0 GatRgTaaN a tetna > a0) 2 nate 4 mgt ENS A IS) tray mate 32.00 1 O60) SSR SR) Ao et EES A 146 INFERENCE THRORY OF THE PREDICATE CALCULUS 1h thin acon we Sint generale the sonesp of equivalence and impletion {6 frmolas of the petits cael. We sal ess the samo terminegy ard ‘Simbel aa ths efor he satrent clos Tp fs, our ncn wll, ‘Rede statomentclsoa an epocicom Aer defi te concept of ral Inviving prea forma, eerie errs vale flan which be ‘Sha i be inference thor a pote oe 141. Vad Forsaie and Epuvalenese ‘The formulas of he priate alan are amd to contin statemint are ‘ite redlstn ed objet variables, The shove labs are ceured vo bong {o's exe th unm of danoure oth domain ofthe object rata ‘Buchs wlterw uy be fst ng, Th tr “vail” inden constants ‘is speci can In prea forma, whan ll he abject viable me ‘lca by delete mame of objects tad te rasan araer by seterens See obtai «tata whch hans uth vie oF "Note ath formal of prolate ees bere donot contin prodieate variably carain preity; ie every priate eter iit tended to bw definite peat, and Beno e nck wale for mbitaon Tlorever, we illu formulas witha opostying the dete petizate ved In tuch can, predicate lettre ar interpreted a dfs prodnten “Tat aad beany tre predicate ferme dined overs omrnon universe denoted by Sh mba Bar every agua of bers ase rom Ue Satenente have tees uth valu then the rede formule ted Bane {Bidtobe uaa to ech ihrer B Teese opbolind by Weng Am ‘er BME arity, thon wo my that A ad are equivalent, a ‘15 ho dentin of impiestin smb exten the ome a 0 a ‘timed iat the sume cect ten are umigned a te rae verbs got tuk and B Smarty» formulates tobe val in Bw fA be {tac evry angnment of objet tans rs 2 Se etrpoding raat In Aad for oveyaagnment of atementa to satementvarabien te ele Ing tatements have he trath vale A before I formule ab fora ‘tien Bem wets Fo "Noe hat A B regres that the equivalence of and 8 be ermine ‘oer ll univers, andthe mae tru for Fy ace hoe sateen ae made Teany artery iver ix posto detarnoe by truth table rato whether formula sali in 5 where se fie univer of dsetne ven ths method may not be Prasat won te tatber of slemes in Farge. te irspownbie who te ‘omber of alana in indo. Toe detonation of vabiey of formula Sy tuts tblor mould avave earaation for ll onl univer, wih ‘mpemnble Of couve anthod of derivation ave sf eval nal ich exe, fectanc of tw orm ‘oe tac i any pardon sdgnme of ace to Che variate oa forma Fels tte that ffl, ten fon cant be vai A silat remark canbe muda shot the equvnene of tro formulae. arias ofthe predint clel tat vlve conifers and mo fe ‘ria re sb fia of the tse cletos Therefore, abet ences ofthe taielogn bythe formals ld any umber ef seal {futeagns Fer camps oir etal fh statement cleten gen Y pute PaonTeve sod mabaiate te formals (2) ls) and (32)S(2) for P and @ repute ee nmumed thot (C2) aed (de) S(e) do noe contain any tee warble ‘Te loving tutlogin ae eae (IEG) v TUR) (GB(2)) + ((32)8(2)) ea GRY RLAN V (43018129) “Tae tatslogn orm ely 2 very special ln of valid formulas of te predicate tales, otber cw of valid formset allow from theta {slg ofthe statment cls il now be dicsod ‘Recal that say mntiaion neta of» tng isla tuo in ‘he statren clan, A retain ft ome inc ny vail ‘Toma goons replaced iy any eet fom Brought, & sinlat Sono renova al ew coo rte {tonic empl) formate if po mate conactivesappeat imi genera, toga he stemeat ean remaioa syd ful o the pedete ‘alta wen pie fra are abst for statement variables trragho he fama Thun al the inpetions and equadsecs of tbe eater a alu va in See: 142 canbe soniered on mplestions od equvlanss of ‘he priate eal in mice tbe ratoment arable are rpaed by pra Predaaefomaln a ao lstestin, Ie A(e), Sz), wed Cle, 9) deuote an ‘rime forma ofthe predcts els. Than ihe fing ve va formas Sf tin predate aon aw) eae a Cle. W) ABie) BBIs) AC) BE Ate) = Bla} Ala) V Ba) Bae Th fah, Tt 1-42 nd 4.9 can bn onder arpinton and etralenontof he peda cae with the undentandng that tbe tome vals tae) "and for pete predate fanaa "Tin 'vald formule Gained inthe unner do as¢ exhaust al pole ‘ad fan Thay ay srvern ober ast fran, patil theo ‘ivi quale, wtich pe fa. Such vad frmolar are ebaled In See TEA ty aig the nfrence thor ef pret lage 1-62. Some Vad Formolas over Plie Untrersce {inhi anin th lloing tion we mi predialysis och art, 8, lloned by eject varasee 3 9,"- Thaw ACs), Ala 9), ‘Bi, and C(a; 4,2) ate sample of pedests forma Soe Carthcatin e ‘eoemary nth siage, Toe formula), wih tomy Eat A ea prdeate {laf which rh one ofthe fen vata Tole vale of tere ‘ty and me wt to ena the depntaes ofA For eaap, we ay wile 2G) for WP) V ae Iino forma A(x) se replce each frm onerroee of Ue vale z by ssuer viable, then we ny tty bt or the orn: ad te eslang orn dane by A(y)- For ase a ute the orale (3) ‘hat be oor lrmala 4) nid tbe efor yl fe once of ‘inte the wope ofthe quater (a) a (9) EAs) ao rs fory. thon it ‘Stecsay to change sho vacale, appearing usa bound vara, ether ‘etal efoerbsiuting for. yt to bo wate, then ti sly {ro ides tate ll he bound warble diferent rem To flowing [Supls show what (9) ls fore given 4(3). ae A Fan Gr, end @eh w, Ranh oven BRR mes SOD Pn Bebe vom "he ftowing formas ar not flor Pav) AGIOHY (Si) +809) nore to mbes yn plac of he variable xin thee formula, ie oeeomary {0 tvs mate ta fort awe Gisela 1 sha univer of aacoure i fit mt than all pole substitutions of ‘ha objet varie an be soumerted: However tis aut pole enuserese ‘Mipanite mabtecone to unser of omar inintnte We sl now give ‘oes egllencs nash bold for» Sata nvr, Kater me show that he ‘Svatnos ele old for an abitery salve 1 he uivere of dcr deol by ite wt given by 3 lave ones) ‘om the meaning quanti a by snp aumertn oe te beets InSite mgt tat AW) AG NAW) Ao NAD (39400) AG) AOD VV) Eauiatenes (1) a0 (2) ver 5 show tat the eatin an be peed wii cnr of ovo ‘Tom eens theca be rove ly with she Bl of 1) (2, an De Moguls loner Tea GNU —@ UGHM=aKe — « We preset a proto (2) “MAGN = WACO A Ale) A 6 Ad) Mia) Me) vv Ate) 0) Ka? Toe at of oe I we eae tat the negation appearing bors aquifer negates ot Ae quater bot th tole qoxntifed Steet, ten ne ean imine erat arnt ted (3) and 3) and rote the surat TUehdie) © (29 Hed AGHAG) & UKE) 1 the universal apd otntal gunners are ale dal feat oer, then the abe equtalnces canbe stared by saying that te negation of Guan forma equivalent ts fran whieh Ue gunner feted Ute dan and Uh scope ofthe quater bye nepton EXAMPLE 1 Nasat he felloing statment (4) Que ie a aml town, (8) vary oy in Cade sean ‘ovvtion Sore pole negations ar follows: (e) Tee note os that Ottawa asa town, uae isnt smal tom, (0) Is ox the ace hat every ty ia Cann sen, ‘Some sey in Cana not ea uy [Note te deren between the negations of gun and nonqvatied ‘tater since epee (0) "Every ety a Ca ena an”“Tha poo by sumerton of tb cquvatncn (9 and (4) over S cannot be de case when the afvern of dncoure i ifiie Thre ae Dan ‘eh onuivatnccn wl ean ely bo sho to hold for elt wae But ‘whieh ale ol flor an ebirry waivers. These te ietned inthe net esti. 1463. Special Yald Pormias Invevng Queniere 1h tha sction we doa pt any sition othe aniereof anar, an ‘re tune t bo mbiery. Au pel ese may be Bit or int. To Sate gee fur enplicaana, Thee wl be ed inthe teary of aference tte predicate cle wd wl emi ele remove or 8d unten ‘ining the cour of deen Lei) be spine formula wher it partials eee aa of Intec Poe woa@eam a here ye eubeituted fer # i As) to obtain Ay), a8 expand in See. 1.42, Tn erdr to ahow (1), wa asume at (2)A(2) etre Obra ACK) ‘muss be tran: ene Se implction (1) tan Us ase (2) (a) So ae, ‘otng need be proved, Tas ampleaton cam be writen la more cones oma awe — @ 1 pte) wit rel nel tin in “iver yd pees (s). (ee cam once a nei ese A(t) 0 {hatte an drop the quan nthe denratn or tenor npleation, et be any bf! vara B be ay formula not conning any free onarene fan 2) beaay fol. Than BAG) BGA — mpiatin (3) state that AC) follow oily rom B, then we ca coo sl). tem B. erthe trate) note that iB» 4(2) i aasmod tobe te for any vale ‘bles then angi doe nt change he tuth valve af 8. Thae B= (2) ‘mm ln bare, mporant toot hath vale a as) aclraty the na th nothing tat appar in B afte the abana f= Coat ‘evtrolons ae dncwoed in Ser A which gurantee the staterent “Anas eas a (Bh un epaee Bby PV "IP, whore Pinay tae roentvatable Since P'V Pin tay ome PVP) Ae VE) Ae) ‘regs tho impetion (ae probe 3m Baers 1.11) A@=(oae) impintion (4) permit ws vo conte (2)A(2) fm A) te permite wt ad the vlsert quantitate onan daring the sores of dar ‘Son. hie ral thereat all thereof mums! peration nd wil to denoted by US \Corerondig tothe recited (2) and (4) which perm the univer quanto to be removed or added drtog th our os eaten, als bare {io ore rn whieh wil part o fovea the cena gute ‘Sing the sou of» dertrauae "Toe folowing impienons, derivable under amretiona srr to those ‘wed fot (2) aed (ly eth eh ane say o AWeGA@ mgletin (5) in know ecient cpucieatin, abbreviated ere BS, le (@) known arena eatin 0° BO, tre argc) [nthe atrpretton of thee re wl be nce in Dest sco ‘Sore other important implandana und eqvalnecs volving th quan ‘erased in Tale ton 1-63, Tha aa be proved by ong Se eo tine of Ue guairs ad argues sate We oe fren bere Ln cra ‘be cae i ore raven to prove Shem by tng te ed dese ton ven nthe ort weton. forma A dow hot depon upon the vaste ‘thea (2) ed and (2) (2) hy andthe cations Jy and he become und Ba Using By we ca ety rove (2A) +B) GAL) ~ (HEB) Ee ‘Sinry trom fy fy wee prove (4G) BG) AG) +B) BH Wo sal equnty ue soe of de squlvalencue and implications goes ‘Tbr 42,15, Had 103 fer th doin os ohn om 8 Semen E eesea aes ORs Sees E See e ene E SESSeE Rae ren, avian Pas d= oe AR onre ah1d Tw as Trt reign thine echt arte ‘Sls dou whe ormelatovlvngonntiar The rar Pd, ear ine te inteducton of prmite tay tage of deriration sad te iatadarin sod ueey oe ean ee es ee Ec bona Slims Hinaiereorer aceon oak Breccia ee oe oan arr tery = iranian rea ee eee mapa tote care at Sgecpaan etait Greed ts mre me Comes sce Berane teers eee ae en he a of eon hein doe al of SS Ses cheeses fey tic ahttuneeh frutecoes ies ee lees erm ification follow. Here A(z) iv uned to sat gtnin tnt ee Perce tcerer ger Uy the tect fy fora AC). Recall tht for suena wbatation (2) Tha ‘Rule US (Univeral Speciation) From (2) (2) ome oa cae) Hale (Extend Spc) fram )4(0) oe a ene ‘pr hay ot fe ny ie rene os Sle Snee asec tne BS wand (ihe wads 3 6 ree an early riety ont ae eo [They a drving any condo, Rul BO (Esienal Gaeatintion) From ACs) one can cance nace. Rade Uo (Unive Gane), From As mca soe 049) iste par sp ich rented ve of BS he no vas {nicl by hat we f BS appt five AC). camel; an arid ash wow, by mea . outdo arr unt wand vans le 00 were nae npn Te Sherwani HW ese EEBoe) a sey me hh iene feu (e188 Hc bat sees (DG 8 ta cnt 8) std 20 2) are tus Om the otter han, (4) Dy, 5) a fase benuoe D(T, 8) 0d D(A, 6) ae fale. Conder now the floring debetton 1 @ Gap) P 1 @ De Ba 1G) 0,8) 90, 2) (ompatng mend seeatin) {8 Hep 3 we have obtained trom Dis, 5) the socshion (9) Diy, 8). Ob- Tints «i ot fe isthe pons, ned wo the em rection ey See WE SLES ad eppea fe in D(z, 6); bnew it eanaca be genlond Piss ‘se aaon hye obtained fas conchaon frome pe Ne nem sive ever tamper with sonnets fo stun the method of ‘eration tn the Sat cwo example we seth priests UO nee US ban, RXAMPLE 1 Show dat (0) (2) AF) nH) MO, Note eat {3 goblets ces aay ee Sat te Soren anne whi anes “Terr Searse 6 more we denote (0) naman, Ms): sn metal, and Soro en pot {he gamen fn the seve fae : BG) mare) ane > WG) Hates 05, «1) a He) > Hah) aC) 22,040 Note tht in tp 2 is we rave the univeral quasi) a EXAMPLE 2 tow tat HPC) OD) 0) (Qs) Ri) = (2) (PLW) + Rwy) B® Meee mG PH —aW) 5,08) 8 @ WER) P fa @ @@) Ru) 1s, (8) 31 Pe) (i tu 31) NPE) = Re) vO, me