) (my o FIGURE 12-22 (Continued) Incident and reflected waves on a transmission line terminated in an open circuit ‘ positive values at the same time, thus producing a voltage maximum at the open. It ca. also be seen that one-quarter wavelength from the open end of the transmission line the sum of the incident and reflected waves (the standing wave) is always equal to 0 V (a min- imum). Figures 12-22h through m show propagation of the incident and reflected waves * until the reflected wave reaches the source, and Figure 12-22n shows the resulting stand- ing wave. It can be seen that the standing wave remains stationary (the voltage nodes and antinodes remain atthe same points); however, the amplitude of the antinodes varies from maximum positive to zero to maximum negative and then repeats. For an open load, all the incident voltage is reflected (E, = E); therefore, Vinqx = E; + E,, of 2E;. A similar il- ustration can be shown for a current standing wave (however, remember that the current reflects back with a 180° phase inversion). Metallic Cable Transmission MediaFIGURE 12-29 Voltage and current stdnding waves on a transmission line that is terminated in a short circuit 12-11-3 Standing Waves on a Shorted Line As with an open line, none of the incident power is absorbed by the load when a transmis~ sion line is terminated in a short circuit. However, with a shorted line, the incident voltage and current waves are reflected back in the opposite manner. The voltage wave is reflected 180° reversed from how it would have continued down an infinitely long line, and the cur- rent wave is reflected in exactly the same manner as if there were no short. Figure 12-23 shows the voltage and current standing waves on a transmission line that is terminated in a short circuit. It can be seen that the voltage standing wave has a mi imum value at the shorted end and a maximum value one-quarter wavelength from the short. The current standing wave has a maximum value at the short and a minimum value one-quarter wavelength back. The voltage and current standing waves repeat every one- quarter wavelength, Therefore, there is an impedance inversion every quarter-wevelength interval. The impedance at the short Z = ¥mig/lmax = Minimum, and one-quarter wave- length back Z = Visa/Tmin = Maximum. Again, it stands to reason that a voltage minimum ‘will occur across a short and there is maximum current. ‘The characteristics of a transmission line terminated in a short can be summarized as. follows: 1. The voltage incident wave is reflected back 180° reversed from how it would have continued. 2, The current incident wave is reflected back the same as if it had continued. 3. The sum of the incident and reflected current waveforms is maximum at the short. 4, The sum of the incident and reflected voltage waveforms is zero at the short. For a transmission line terminated in either a short or an open circuit, the reflection. coefficient is 1 (the worst case), and the SWR is infinity (also the worst-case condition). 12-12 TRANSMISSION-LINE INPUT IMPEDANCE In the preceding section, it was shown that, when a transmission line is terminated in either shor or an open circuit, there is an impedance inversion every quarter-wavelength, For a loss-les line, the impedance varies from infinity to zero. However, in a more practical si uation where power losses occur, the amplitude of the reflected wave is always lese than that ofthe incident wave except at the termination. Therefore, the impedance saree fren some maximum to some minimum value or vice versa, depending on whether ie a terminated ina shor or an open. The input impedance fora lossless line seen lonrage nas a transmission line that is terminated in a short or an open can be resistive, inducese ero. pécitive, depending on the distance from the termination. eee 1212-1 Phasor Analysis of Input Impedance: Open Line Phasor diagrams are generally used to analyze the input impedance of a is 8 7 Tans li inthe a span ges cei era casi He Chapter 1290° phase délay trom load to $0urc® a on trom source to }oad 180° phase reversal at the open 90" phase delay {rom fond to source o to) FIGURE 12:24 Voltage and current, phase relatiqnships for a quarter-wave line terminated in fn open circut: (8) voltage phase relationships; (b) current phase relationships rent phase relationships. Voltage and current phase relations refer to variations in time. Figures 12-21 to 12-23 show standing waves of voltage and current plotted versus distance and, therefore, are not indicative of true phase relationships. The succeeding sections use Phasor diagrams to analyze the input impedance of several transmission-line configurations. 12-12-1-1 Quarter-wavelength transmission line. Figure 12-24a shows the phasor diagram for the voltage, and Figure 12-24 shows the phasor diagram for the current at the input to a quarter-wave section of a transmission line terminated in an open circuit. /, and V, are the in-phase incident current and voltage waveforms, respectively, at the input (source) end of the line at a given instant in time. Any reflected voltage (E,) present at the input of the Jine has traveled one-half ‘wavelength (from the source to the open and back) and is, conse- quently, 180° behind the incident voltage. Therefore, the total voltage (E_)at the input end is the sum of E, and E,. E, = E, + E, /180°, and, assuming a small line loss, E, = E, — E, The reflected current is delayed 90° propagating 1rum the source to the load and another 90° from the load back to the source. A'.o, the reflected current undergoes a 180° phase re- versal at the open. The reflected current has effectively been delayed 360°. Therefore, when the reflected current reaches he source end, itis in phase with the incident current, and the total current /, = /; + [,. By examining Figure 12-24, it can be seen that E, and /, are in phase. Therefore, the input impedance seen looking into a transmission line one-quarter wave-length long that is terminated in an open circuit Z,, = E, /0° /I, /0° = Zy /0°. Zghas a0° phase angle, is resistive, and is minimum. Therefore, a quarter-wavelength transmission line terminated in an open circuit is equivalent to a series resonant LC circuit. Figure 12-25 shows several voltage phasors for the incident and reflected waves on a transmission line that is terminated in an open circuit and how they produce a voltage standing wave. 12-12-1-2 Transmission line less than one-quarter wavelength long. Figure 12-26a shows the voltage phasor diagram, and Figure 12-26b shows the current phasor diagram for a transmission line that is less than one-quarter wavelength long (4/4) and terminated in an ‘open circuit. Again, the incident current (J,) and voltage (E,) are in phase. The reflected volt- age wave is delayed 45° traveling from the source to the load (a distance of one-eighth wavelength) and another 45° traveling from the load back to the scurce (an additional one- eighth wavelength). Therefore, when the reflected wave reaches the source end, it lags the incident wave by 90°. The total voligge a the source end is the vector sum of the incident and reflected waves. Thus, E,= VE? + E? = E, /—45°. The reflected current wave 1s delayed 45° traveling from the source to the load and another 45° from the load back to the source (a total distance of one-quarter wavelength). In addition, the reflected current wave has undergone a 180° phase reversal at the open prior to being reflected. The reflected cur. rent wave has been delayed a total of 270°. Therefore, the reflected wave effectively leads Metallic Cable Transmission Media asue Ev) 3ue ua Evy Lod Distance from load FIGURE 12-25 Vector addition of incident and reflected waves producing a standing wave {45* phase dolay from load to source 45° phase delay . from source to load 45* phase delay 1 ease e, Lo8e 180° phase reversal eae atthe open o © FIGURE 12-26 Vottage and current phase relationships for @ transmission line less then ‘one-quarter wavelength terminated in an open circuit: (a) vokage phase relationships. {b) current phase relationships the incident wave by 90°. The total curent atthe source end isthe vector sum of the pres ent and reflected waves. Thus, J, = VI? + I? = I, /+45°, By examining Figure 12-26, it can be seen that E lags J by 90°. Therefore, Zy = E, 745° /I, +45 = Ze 90°. Zu has a ~ 90° phase angle and. therefore, is capacitive, Any transmission line that s Tess than one-quarter wavelength and terminated in an open circuit is equivalent to a capacitor. The {amount of capacitance depends on the exact electical length ef the Ine, 12-12-1-3 Transmission line more than 12-27a shows the voltage phasor diagram and Fi,terminated in an open circuit. For this example, a three-eighths wavelength trans- mission line is used. The reflected voltage is delayed three-quarters wavelength or 270°. Therefore, the neflected voltage effectively leads the incident voltage by 90°. Consequently, the total voltage E, = VE? + E? 445° = E, /+45°. The reflected c’ Ponies has been delayed 270° and undergone an 180° phase reversal. Therefore, the re- re AVF nat cectively lags the incident current by 90°, Consequently, the total current I oh Ur Lo4S° = 1,/—45°. Therefore, Z = E,/+45° /l, /—45° = Zn + 90°. Zn has a +90° phase angle and is therefore inductive. The magnitude of the input imped- ance equals the characteristic impedance at eighth wavelength points. A transmission line between one-quarter and one-half wavelength that is terminated in an open circuit is equivalent to an inductor. The amount of inductance depends on the exact electrical length of the line, _ 12-12-1-4 Open transmission line as a circuit element. From the preceding dis- cussion and Figures 12-24 through 12-27, it is obvious that an open transmission line can behave as.a resistor, an inductor, or a capacitor, depending on its electrical length. Because standing-wave pattems on an open line repeat every half-wavelength interval, the input im- Pedance also repeats. Figure 12-28 shows the variations in input impedance for an open transmission line of various electrical lengths. It can be seen that an open line is resistive and maximum at the open and at each successive half-wavelength interval and resistive and minimum one-quarter wavelength from the open and at each successive half-wavelength interval. For electrical lengths less than one-quarter wavelength, the input impedance is ca- pacitive and decreases with length. For electrical lengths between one-quarter and one-half wavelength, the input impedance is inductive and increases with length. The capacitance and inductance patterns also repeat every half-wavelength. 12-12-2 Phasor Analysis of Input Impedance: Shorted Line 7 Tre following explanations use phasor diagram: to analyze shorted transmission lines in the same manner as with open lines. The difference is that with shorted transmission lines, the voltage waveform is reflected back with a 180° phase reversal, and the current wave- form is reflected back as if there were no short. 12-12-2-1 Quarter-wavelength transmission line. The voltage and current phasor diagrams for a quarter-wavelength transmission line terminated in a short circuit ae iden- tical to those shown in Figure 12-24 except reversed. The incident and reflected voltages are in phase; therefore, E, = , + E, and maximum. The incident and reflected currents are 180° out of phase; therefore, J, = J; ~ J-and minimum. Z,, = E; /0° /f, 0° and maximum. o 0 relationships for @ transmission ine more than one- OURE 1227, vtoge Poke pigeon cae fal vokage phase reletionehine: (b) current querter ern phase relationships 545 Metallic Cable Transmission Media546 Toward source 53/4 » au wa Ma Lod FIGURE 12-28 Input impedance variations for an oper-circuited transmission line Max Max. Max. Semen he 2 3M an ae Loss FIGURE 12-28. Input impedance variations for a short-circuited transmission line Z has a 0° phase angle, is resistive, and is maximum. Therefore, a quarter-wavelength ‘transmission line terminated in a short circuit is equivalent to a parallel LC circuit. 12-12-2-2 Transmission line less than one-quarter wavelength lug. The volt- age and current phasor diagrams for a transmission line less thn one-quarter wavelength Jong and terminated in a short circuit are identical to those shown in Figure 12-26 except reversed. The voltage is reversed 180° at the short, and the cus.ent is reflected with the same phase as if it had continued. Therefore, the total voltage at the source end of the line leads the current by 90°, and the line looks inductive. 12-12-2.3 Transmission line more than one-quarter wavelength long. ‘The voltage ‘and current phasor diagrams fora transmission ine more than one-quartez wavelength long and terminated in a short circuit are identical to those shown in Figure 12-27 except reversed, The total voltage atthe source end of the line lags the current by 90°, and the line looks capacitive, 12-12-2-4 Shorted transmission line as a circuit element. From the preceding discussion, itis obvious that a shorted transmission line can behave as if it were a resistor, an inductor, or a capacitor, depending on its electrical length. On a shorted transmi: line, standing waves repeat every half-wavelength; therefore, the input in,pedance also re- eats. Figure 12-29 shows the variations in input impedance of a shorted transmission line for various electrical lengths. It can be seen that a shorted line is resistive and minimum at the short and at each successive half-wavelength interval and resistive and maximum one- uarter wavelength from the short and at each successive half-wavelength interval. For electrical lengths less than one-quarter wavelength, the input impedance is inductive and increases with length, For electrical lengths between one-quarter and one-half wavelength, the input impedance is capacitive and decreases with length. The inductance and capaci- {ance patterns also repeat every half-wavelength interval. 12-12-2-5 Transmissioy . n-line input impedance summary. Fi . a rizes the transmission-line ¢ eee pg eee ‘nfigurations described in the preceding sections, their input Chapter 12Metallic Cable Transmission Media Input impedence ! ! 1 ' Parallel LC circuit 1. 1 (rasiatve and maximum) i ——— Gos i ees: 1 (resistive and minimum) ' i 1 Za Inductive 1 ' 1 ———_—______.. Short —— Inductor 12, = Copective 1] shor =§ ———4,+-__ os ! 1 Capscitor ' ' ! ' et V2, = native Open, 7567. —_——_—_— Inductor bey r a 1 input toad ond ona FIGURE 12-30 Transmissionine summary impedance characteristics, and their equivalent LC circuits. It can be seen that both shorted ‘and open sections of transmission lines can behave as resistors, inductors, or capacitors, de- pending on their electrical length. 12-12-3 Transmission-Line Impedance Matching Power is transferred most efficiently to a load when there are no reflected waves, that is, when the load is purely resistive and equal to Z,. Whenever the characteristic impedance of a transmission line and its load are not matched (equal), standing waves are present on the line, and maximum power is not transferred to the load. Standing waves cause power loss, dielectric breakdown, noise, radiation, and ghost signals. Therefore, whenever possible, a transmission line should be matched to its load. Two common transmission-line techniques are used to match a transmission line to a load having an impedance that is not equal to Z, They are quarter-wavelength transformer matching and stub matching. 12-12-31 Quarter-wavelength transformer matching. Quarter-wavelength transformers are used to match transmission lines to purely resisiive loads whose resistance isnot equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Keep in mind that a quarter-wavelength transformer is not actually a transformer but rather a quarter-wavelength section of 547548 Quarter-wavelength S ca epee FIGURE 12-31 Guartenwavelength transformer transmission line that acts as if it were a transformer. The input impedance to a transmis- sion line varies from some maximum value to some minimum value or vice versa every quarter-wavelength. Therefore, a transmission line one-quarter wavelength long acts as a step-up or step-down transformer, depending on whether Z, is greater than or less than Z- ‘A quarter-wavelength transformer is not a broadband impedance-matching device; it is a quarter-wavelength at only a single frequency. The impedance transformations for a quarter- ‘wavelength transmission line are as follows: 1. R, = Z,: The quarter-wavelength line acts as a transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio. 2. Ry >Zy. The quarter-wavelength line acts as a step-down transformer. 3. R, cated represents a discontinuity to the signal. This discontinuity causes a portion of transmitted signal to be reflected rather than continuing down the cable. If no energy is re~ turned (ie., the transmission line and load are perfectly matched), the line is either infinitely long or terminated in a resistive load with an impedance equal to the characteristic imped: ance of the line. TDR operates in a fashion similar to radar. A short duration pulse with a fast rise time is propagated down a cable, then the time for a portion of that signal to return to the source is measured. This return signal is sometimes called an echo. Knowing the ve~ locity of propagation on the cable, the exact distance between the impairment and the source can be determined using the following mathematical relationships: yx 2 d (12-48) where d= distance to the discontinuity (meters) v = actual velocity (meters per second) v = kX c (meters per second) velocity factor (v/c) (unitless) c= velocity in a vacuum (3 X 10° meters per second) 1 = elapsed time (seconds) ‘The elapsed time is measured from the leading edge of the transmitted pulse to the re- ‘ception of the reflected signal as shown in Figure 12-33a. It is important that the transmitted pulse be as narrow as possible. Otherwise, when the impairment is located close to the source, the reflected signal could return while the pulse is stil being transmitted (Figure 12-33b), ‘making it difficult to detect. For signals traveling at the speed of light (c), the velocity of ‘Amplitude Amplitude Transmitted Reflected pulse pulse Oo) to) FIGURE 12:93, Timedomein reectoretry (0) elapsed tm: (b)transmitzed pulse too long 550 Chapter 12propagation is 3 x 10° m/s, or approximately 1 ns/ft. Consequently, a pulse width of sev- eral microseconds would limit the usefulness of TDR only to cable impairments that oc- curred several thousand ,cet or farther away. Producing an extremely narrow pulse was one of the limiting factors in the development of TDR for locating cable faults on short cables. Example 12-7 A pulse is transmitted down a cable that has a velocity of propagation of 0.8 c. The reflected signal is received | ys later. How far down the cable is the impairment? Solution Substituting into Equation 12-48, (0.8) x I ps 2 _ 08 (3.x 10 m/s) x 1x 108s _ 7 120m Example 12-8 ‘Using TDR, a transmission-line impairment is located 3000 m from the source. For a velocity of prop- gation of 0.9c, determine the time elapsed from the beginning of the pulse tothe reception of the echo. Solution Rearranging Equation 12-48 gives 2(3000 m) = 0903 x 10° mjsy ~ 7222HS 12-14 MICROSTRIP AND STRIPLINE TRANSMISSION LINES At frequencies bzlow about 300 MHz, the characteristics of ope.. and shorted transmission lines, such as those described earlier in this chapter, have little relevance. Therefore, at low frequencies, standard transmission lines would Le too long .or practical use as reactive components or tuned circuits. For high-frequenc; (300 MHz to 3000 MHz) applications, however, special transmission lines constructed with copper patterns on a printed circuit (PC) board called microstrip and stripline have been developed to interconnect components ‘on PC boards. Also, when the distance between the source and load ends of a transmission line is a few inches or less, standard coaxial cabic transmission lines are impractical be- ‘cause the connectors, terminations, and cables themselves are simply too large. Both microstrip and stripline use the traces (sometimes called tracks) on the PC board itself. The traces qn be etched using the same processes as the other traces on the board: thus, they do not require any additional manufacturing processes. If the lines are etched ‘onto the surface of the PC board only, they are.called microstrip lines. When the lines are etched inthe middle layer of a multilayer PC board, they are called stiplines. Microstrip and stripline can be used to construct transmission lines, inductors, capacitor., tuned cir, cuits, filters, phase shifters, and impedance matching devices, 12-141 Microstrip Microstrip is simply a flat conductor separated from a ground plane by an insulating di- electric material. A simple single-track microstrip line is shown in Figure 12-34a, The ground plane serves as the circuit common point and must be at least 10 times wider than the top conductor and must be connected to ground, The microstrip is generally either one. quarter or one-half wavelength long at the frequency of operation and equivalent to an un, balanced transmission line. Shorted lines are usually preferred to open lines because open Metallic Cable Transmission Media aeDielectric PC material FIGURE 12-34 Microstrip transmission line: (a) unbalanced; (b) balanced: and (c) dimensions lines have a greater tendency to radiate. Figure 12-34a shows a two-wire balanced mi- crostrip transmission line. As with any transmission line, the characteristic impedance of a microstrip line is de- Pendent on its physical characteristics. Therefore, any characteristic impedance between 50 ohms and 200 ohms can be achieved with microstrip lines by simply changing its dimen- sions. The same is tru for stripline. Unfortunately, every configuration of microstrip has its own unique formula. The formula for calculating the characteristic impedance of an un. balanced microstrip line such as the one shown in Figure 12-34c is Zz 87 _,,(_s.98h Ve + Tal "\08w +7 (12-49) where Z, = characteristic impedance (ohms) dielectric constant (FR-4fiberzlass € = 4.5 and Teflon e = 3) w= width of copper trace’ 1 = thickness of copper trace”FIGURE 12-35 Surpiine transmission line: (a) end and side. views; (b) dimensions 12-142 Stripline Strplineis simply aflatcor 4uctor sandwiched between two ground planes, as shown in Figure 12-35, Although stripline is more difficult to manufacture than microstrip, itis less likely to radiate; thus, losses in spline are lower than with microstrip. Again, the length ofa stripline iscither one-quarter or one-half wavelength, and shorted lines are used more often than open lines, The characteristic impedance ofa stripline configured as shown in Figure 12-35 is 60, 4d = %),|___4a___ em [samen + ih) | (12-50) where 2, = characteristic impedance (ohms) €= dielectric constant (FR-4 fiberglass ¢ = d = dielectric thickness” width of conducting copper trace” thickness of conducting copper trace” listance between copper trace and the ground plane” “The dimensions for dwt and hcan be any linear unit inches, millimeters, and so on) a long as they all use the same unit .5 and Teflon € = 3) QUESTIONS Metallic Cable Transmission Media 12-1. Define transmission line. 12-2. Describe a transverse electromagnetic wave 12-3. Define wave velocity. 12-4, Define frequency and wavelength for a transverse electromagnetic wave. 12-5. Describe balanced and unbalanced transmission lines. 553SE ——w 12-6, Describe an open-wire transmission line. 12-7, Describe a twin-lead transmission line. 12-8, Describe a twisted-pair transmission line, 12.9, Describe a shielded-cable transmission line -7-10, Describe a concentric transmission line, . 12-11, Describe the electrical and physical properties of a transmission line 12-12, List and describe the four primary constants ofa transmission line. 12-13, Define characteristic impedance for a transmission line. 12-14, What properties of a transmission line determine its characteristic impr: 12-15, Define propagation constant for a transmission line, 12-16. Define velocity factor for a transmission line. 12-17. What properties ofa transmission line determine its velocity factor? 12-18. What properties ofa transmission line determine its dielectric constant? 12419, Define elecirical length for a transmission line. 12-20, List and describe five types of transmission-line losses. 12-21, Describe an incident wave; a reflected wave -22. Describe a resonant transmission line: a nonresonant transmission line. 12-23. Define reflection coefficient. 12-24, Describe standing waves; standing-wave ratio. 12.25. Describe the standing wave's present on an open transmission line 12-26, Describe the standing waves present on a shorted transmission line. 12-27. Define input impedance for a transmission line. 12-28, Describe the behavior ofa transmission line that is terminated in a short circujt that is greater than one-quarter Wavelength long: less than one-quarter wavelength. 12-29, Describe the behavior ofa transmission line that is terminated in an open circuit that is greater than one-quarter wavelength long: less than one-quarter wavelength long. 12-30. Describe the behavior of an open transmission line as a circuit element. 12.31, Describe the behavior of a shorted transmission line as a cizcuit element, 12-32, Describe the input impedance characteristic’ of a quarter-wavelength transmission line. 12.33. Describe the input impedance characteristics of a transmission line that is less than one-quarter ‘wavelength long; greater than one-quarter wavelength long, 12.34. Describe quarter-wavelength transformer matching 12-35, Describe how stub matching is accomplished. 12-36, Describe time-domain reflectometry. dance? PROBLEMS 554 12-1. Determine the wavelengths for electromagnetic waves in free space with the fol quencies: 1 kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz, and 1 GHz 12-2. Determine the frequencies for electromagnetic waves in fre space with the following wave- Tengths: J em, 1 m, 10m, 100 m, and 1000 m, ne the characteristic impedgnce for an air-dielectric transt.:.0n line With D/r ratio lowing fre- 124, Determine the characteristic impedance for an ar ratio of 4 led concentric transmission line with D/d 12.8, Determine the characteristic impedance ‘r a coaxial cable with inductance L = 0.2 yH/ft and capacitance C = 16 pFif. 12-6, Fora given length of coaxial cable with distributed capacitance C = 48.3 pF/m and distrib. uted inductance L = 241.56 n/m, determine the velocity factor and velocity of propagation, Chapter 1212-7. Determine the reflection coefficient for a transmission line with incident voltage E, = 0.2 V and reflected voltage E, = 0.01 V. 12-8. Determine the standing-wave ratio for the transmission line described in problein 12-7. ns. Detemine the SWR for a transmission line with maximum voltage standing-wave amplitude = 6 V and minimum voltage standing-wave amplitude Vay = 0.5. 12-10, Sat the SWR for a 50- transmission dine that is terminated in a load:resistance 2, = 759. 12-11. Determine the SWR for a 75-Q transmission line that is terminated in a load resistance 2, = 500. 12-12. Determine the characteristic impedance for a quarter-wavelength transformer that is used to match a section of 75-Q transmission line to a 100-Q resistive load. 12-13, Using TDR, a pulse is transmitted down a cable with a velocity of propagation of 0.7c. The reflected signal is received 1.2 us later. How far down the cable is the impairment? 12-14, Using TDR, a transmission-line impairment is located 2500 m from the source. For a veloc- ity of propagation of 0.95c, determine the elapsed time from the beginning of the pulse to the reception of the echo. 12-15. Using TDR, a transmission-line impairment is located 100 m from the source. If the elapsed time from the beginning of the pulse to the reception of the echo is 833 ns, determine the ve~ locity factor, 12-16. Determine the wavelengths for electromagnetic waves with the following frequencies: 5 kHz, ‘50 kHz, 500 kHz, and S$ MHz. Determine the frequencies for electromagnetic waves with the following wavelengths: 5 cm, 50 cm, 5 m, and 50 m. 12-18. Determine the characteristic impedance for an air-dielectric transmission line with a D/r ratio of 6.8. 12-19. Determine the characteristic impedance for an air-filled concentric transmission line with a, Did ratio of 6. 12-20. Determine the characteristic impedance for a coaxial cable with inductance L and capacitance C = 20 pFift. 12-21. For a given length of coaxial cable with distributed capacitance C = 24.15 pF/m and distrib- uted inductance L = 483.12 n/m, determine the velocity factor and velocity of propagation. 12-22, Determine the reflection coefficient for a transmission line with incident voltage E, = 0.4.V. and reflected voltage E, = 0.002 V. 12-23. Determine the standing-wave ratio for the transmission line described in problem 12-22. 12-24. Determine the SWR for a transmission line with a maximum voltage standing-wave ampli- tude Vag = 8 V and a minimum yoltage standing-wave amplitude Viyiq = 0.8 V. 12-25. Determine the SWR for a 50-Q transmission line that is terminated in a load resistance 0.15 WHA = 602. 12-26. Determine the SWR for a 60-Q transmission line that is terminated in a load resistance Z, = 502. 12-27. Determine the characteristic impedance for a quarter-wave transformer that is used to match a section of 50- transmission line to a 60-2 resistive load.